CONTENTS

Acknowledgments xxix Foreword xxxiii

Introduction: The Emergence of Ecocentric Law and Ideas for the Future of Environmental Law 1

Earth Law Will be Developed in Practice 2 Earth Law Takes an Ecocentric Approach to Environmental Law 4 Overview of this Coursebook 6 Section I: The Emergence of Earth Law 6 Section II: Addressing Threshold Challenges 6 Section III: Litigation Strategies 7 Section IV: Transforming the Law 7 Section V: A Global Survey of Earth Law Developments 7 Afterword: The Future of Earth Law 8

SECTION ONE THE EMERGENCE OF EARTH LAW

Chapter 1: Modern Environmental Law 11

I. Introduction 11 II. History of Modern Environmental Law 11 III. A Brief Review of Contemporary Environmental Law in Practice 14 A. National Environmental Policy Act (1970) 15 Calvert Cliffs Coordinating Committee v. United States Atomic Energy Commission 16 B. Clean Air Act (1970) 21 Michigan v. Environmental Protection Agency 22 C. Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act) (1972) 23

xi Contents

Rapanos v. United States 24 D. Endangered Species Act of 1973 28 Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hiram G. Hill, Jr. 29 Weyerhaeuser Co. v. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 31 E. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA) 36 F. Conclusion 39 Study Questions 40

Chapter 2: The Origins of Earth Law 43

I. Introduction 43 II. The New Context: From an Orientation of Separation to an Orientation of Connection 44 A. Why Environmental Law Falls Short 44 B. The Orientation of Separation 45 C. The Orientation of Separation’s Effect on Environmental Law 47 1. Separating what we know through science from what we do 48 2. Separating our communal and ecological selves from what we do 49 D. Environmental Law Based on the Orientation of Separation Has Not Succeeded 51 E. The New Context: The Orientation of Connection 52 III. Emerging Approaches to Earth Law 52 A. Public Trust Doctrine 53 B. Rights-Based Approaches 54 1. Inspiration from previous rights-based movements 55 2. Rights of nature 56 3. The rights of future generations and human environmental rights (co-violations) 57 4. Nonhuman rights approach 58 C. Ecocide 59 D. Indigenous Legalities 59 E. International Earth Law Developments 60 F. Other Approaches Global and Local 62 IV. Conclusion 62 Study Questions 62

xii Contents

Chapter 3: Conceptual Frameworks of Earth Law 65

I. Introduction 65 II. Understanding the Anthropocene Epoch 66 III. Earth Law, Philosophy, and Jurisprudence 68 IV. What Is Nature? The Nature-Culture Divide 73 V. What Is Good Nature? Preservationist and Conservationist Views; Earth Systems Science and the Gaia Theory 74 VI. Anthropocentrism, Biocentrism, Ecocentrism, or Cosmocentrism? 78 VII. Rights, Responsibilities, and Reciprocity 80 VIII. Property Rights, Individual Rights, Communal Rights, and the Commons 84 IX. Representing Nature: Dyadic Thinking, Systems Thinking, Customary Law, and Culture 86 X. The Role of Law and Legal Ethics 88 XI. The New Social Contract: Culture, Democracy, Justice, Equity, and Peace 91 Study Questions 92

SECTION TWO ADDRESSING THRESHOLD CHALLENGES

Chapter 4: Property Law in the United States 97

I. Introduction 97 II. Philosophical Background 97 Study Questions 100 III. Rights in Conflict with Environmental Regulation 100 Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Co. 101 Study Questions 104 Lucas v. S.C. Coastal Council 106 Study Questions 114 IV. State Regulation of Land Use 115 Forest Guardians v. Wells 115 Study Questions 120 V. Conclusion 121

xiii Contents

Chapter 5: Standing 123

I. What Is Standing and Why Is It Important? 123 Study Questions 126 II. History of Standing in the U.S. Federal Court System 127 A. United States v. 422 Casks of Wine, 26 U.S. 547 (1828) 127 Study Question 127 B. Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 17 U.S. 518 (1819) 128 Study Question 128 C. Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1856) 128 Study Questions 129 D. The Fourteenth Amendment 130 1. Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886) 130 2. Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad, 118 U.S. 394 (1886) 131 Study Question 132 3. In re Gault, 387 U.S. 1 (1967) 132 Study Questions 133 4. Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973) 133 Study Questions 135 E. Administrative Procedure Act (1946) 135 1. Citizens Committee for the Hudson Valley v. Volpe, 425 F.2d 97 (2d Cir. 1970) 136 Study Question 138 III. Nature’s Standing 138 A. Sierra Club v. Morton, 405 U.S. 727 (1972) 138 B. Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects 141 Study Questions 145 C. Citizen-Suit Provisions as a Proxy for Nature’s Standing 147 1. Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555 (1992) 147 2. Bennett v. Spear, 520 U.S. 154 (1997) 150 3. Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, 528 U.S. 167 (2000) 151 4. Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency, 549 U.S. 497 (2007) 152 Study Questions 155 5. Juliana v. U.S., No. 18-36082 D.C. No. 6:15-cv-01517-AA 156 xiv Contents

Study Questions 159 IV. Conclusion 160

Chapter 6: Guardianship Arrangements in Rights of Nature Legal Provisions 161

I. Introduction 161 II. Guardianship Model 1A: Ecuador 163 A. Ecuador’s Guardianship in Ecuador’s 2008 Constitution 164 B. Ecuador’s 2015 General Organic Code of Processes 164 C. Ecuadorian Guardianship in Action 165 III. Guardianship Model 1B: U.S. Municipalities 165 IV. Guardianship Model 2A: New Zealand’s Te Awa Tupua Act 167 V. Guardianship Model 2B: Colombia’s Atrato River 169 VI. Guardianship Model 2C: India’s Ganga and Yamuna Rivers 172 Salim v. State of Uttarakhand 174 State of Uttarakhand & Ors v. Mohd Salim & Ors. 175 VII. Guardianship Model 2D: India’s Rights of the Animal Kingdom 177 Narayan Dutt Bhatt v. Union of India & Others 177 VIII. Conclusion 178 Study Questions 179

SECTION THREE LITIGATION STRATEGIES

Chapter 7: Public Trust Doctrine 185

I. Introduction 185 II. The Historic Public Trust Doctrine and Limitations of Private Property 185 Illinois Central Railroad Co. v. Illinois 186 Study Questions 189 III. The Public Trust Doctrine and the Protection of Water and Nature 191 National Audubon Society et al. v. The Superior Court of Alpine County 191 Study Questions 198

xv Contents

Chapter 8: Rights of Future Generations 201

I. Introduction 201 II. Definition of “Generation” and Identification of the “Future Generations” Claimant 202 Study Questions 203 III. The Concept of a Duty to Protect the Earth for Future Generations 203 A. Indigenous Customary Law 203 B. The U.S. Environmental Movement of the 1960s and 1970s 204 C. Juliana v. United States 206 Study Questions 207 D. International Soft Law 208 Study Questions 210 IV. The Public Trust Doctrine: From Concept to a Legally Enforceable Duty to Protect the Environment for Future Generations 211 A. Trustees: All Levels of Government 211 1. Domestic state governments as trustee of the environment for future generations 212 2. The federal government as trustee of the environment for future generations 212 3. Indigenous tribes as trustees of the environment for future generations 213 B. Beneficiaries: Current and Future Generations 213 C. The Subject of the Trust—the “Res” or “Corpus” 214 D. The Fiduciary Duty: To Sustain the Welfare of Current and Future Generations 215 Study Questions 217 V. Constitutional Rights for Future Generations 217 A. U.S. State-Level Constitutional Rights for Future Generations 217 B. U.S. Federal-Level Constitutional Rights for Future Generations 218 C. Minors Oposa: A Landmark Decision in the Philippines 219 Juan Antonio, Anna Rosario and Jose Alfonso Oposa & Others v. The Honorable Fulgencio S. Factoran, Jr. 219 Study Question 224 VI. Standing for Future Generations Claims in the United States 224 A. Injury in Fact 225

xvi Contents

Study Questions 227 B. Causation: Injury Fairly Traceable to Challenged Conduct 227 C. Redressability—Will Judicial Relief Requested Relieve the Harm 228 Study Questions 229 VII. Conclusion 230

Chapter 9: The Rights of Nature Movement in the United States 231

I. Introduction 231 II. How Did We Get Here? 231 A. The Colonial Legacy 232 B. The Indigenous and Ecological Heritage 232 III. Movement Lawyering 233 A. Background on Movement Lawyering 233 B. Rights of Nature Movement Lawyering 235 C. Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 11 235 IV. Case Studies in Local Lawmaking 236 A. Introduction to Local Rights-Based Lawmaking 237 B. Grant Township, Pennsylvania 238 1. Representing the little mahoning watershed as an ecosystem 238 Study Questions 241 C. Lake Erie Bill of Rights, Toledo, Ohio 242 D. Santa Monica, California 245 Study Questions 247 V. Developing Ecocentric Law in State Constitutions 248 A. Vermont 249 B. Colorado 249 C. New Hampshire 250 D. Oregon 250 Study Questions 251 VI. Federal Lawsuit for the Rights of the Colorado River Ecosystem 251 Study Questions 253 VII. Tribal Governments and Native Hawaiians—The Spiritual Dimension of Sacred Places 254 A. Native American Nations’ Recognition of Nature’s Rights 254 B. Native Hawaiians Petition on behalf of Mo‘oinanea 255

xvii Contents

Study Questions 257 VIII. Nature’s Rights and Population Ecology 258 Study Questions 259 IX. Conclusion 259 Study Questions 260

Chapter 10: Human Rights and Rights of Nature: A Symbiotic Relationship 263

I. Land and Environmental Defenders 263 II. Co-Violations of Rights 265 III. International Rights of Nature Tribunals 273 IV. Human Rights Protection System of the Organization of American States 275 A. Yanomami Community—Brazil 275 B. Mayagna Awas (Sumo) Tingni Community—Nicaragua 276 C. Saramaka People—Suriname 277 D. Lhaka Honhat Communities—Argentina 278 E. Kaliña and Lokono Peoples—Suriname 279 F. Advisory Opinion on Human Rights and the Environment— Colombian Petition Concerning the Application of the American Convention on Human Rights 280 Inter-American Court of Human Rights Advisory Opinion Oc-23/17 of November 15, 2017 Requested by the Republic of Colombia 281 VI. Conclusion 289 Study Questions 290

Chapter 11: Nonhuman Rights 293

I. Introduction 293 II. Rights Versus Welfare 299 III. The Legal Concept of a Person 301 IV. The Value of Habeas Corpus 305 V. Nonhuman Rights Project Litigation 306 The Nonhuman Rights Project, Inc., on Behalf of Tommy v. Lavery et al. 307

xviii Contents

Study Questions 310 Nonhuman Rights Project, Inc., on Behalf of Kiko v. Presti et al. 311 Study Questions 312 The Nonhuman Rights Project, Inc., on behalf of Hercules and Leo v. Samuel L. Stanley Jr., M.D. 313 Study Questions 321 Nonhuman Rights Project, Inc. ex rel. Tommy v. Lavery (Lavery II) 323 Study Questions 327 Nonhuman Rights Project, Inc., on Behalf of Tommy v. Lavery et al. (Lavery II) 328 Study Questions 331 VI. Conclusion 332

Chapter 12: Ecocide 333

I. Introduction 333 II. A Case Study: 2019 Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon Rainforest 334 III. History of Ecocide 336 A. First Use of the Term Ecocide 336 B. The Rome Statute and Wartime Ecocide 336 C. Ongoing Effort to Define Peacetime Ecocide 338 D. Ecologically Induced Genocide 339 E. Proposed Ecocide Amendment to the Rome Statute 340 F. National Codes Criminalizing Ecocide 342 IV. Key Issues in Ecocide 343 A. Who Is the Victim of Ecocide? 343 1. Existing Law 343 2. Nature as victim under the proposed ecocide amendment to the rome statute in the united kingdom 2011 mock trial 344 B. Who Is the Responsible Party? 345 1. Individuals as responsible parties 346 2. Corporations as responsible parties 346 3. Methods for holding legal entities responsible for committed crimes 348 4. Liability of entities under existing environmental laws 349 5. States as responsible parties 350

xix Contents

C. What Is the Penalty? 350 1. Treatment under the rome statute 351 2. National codes 351 3. Penalization of corporations 352 V. Ecocide’s Importance for Earth Law 352 Study Questions 354

Chapter 13: Climate Change Civil Disobedience and the Necessity Defense 357

I. Introduction 357 II. New York City 359 People v. Gray 360 Study Questions 363 III. Utah 363 United States v. DeChristopher 363 Study Questions 367 IV. Washington 368 Washington v. Ward 369 Study Questions 373 V. Conclusion 374

SECTION FOUR TRANSFORMING THE LAW

Chapter 14: Bears Among Us: Earth Law and Animal-Human Co-existence 377

I. A Particular Bear: Why an Earth Law Case Study? 378 II. Humans and Wild Bears Generally 379 III. The Story of One Bear and Her Progeny 379 IV. The Importance of the Animal’s Perspective 383 A. American Black Bear Biology and Life Cycle 383 B. Bear Social and Emotional Lives: Ethology 386 C. Ethical Implications of Animals’ Perspectives 388 xx Contents

D. Cultural Influences on Understanding Animals’ Perspectives 390 V. Ethical Decision-Making About Co-Existence with Bears 391 A. Relevant Ethical-Legal Factors in Mink’s Case: Illustrative Questions 392 B. Individuals or Wholes: A Contextual Approach 392 C. Relative Interests, Harms, and Benefits 393 1. Trivial human interests in convenience and aesthetics 393 2. Vital bear interests in life, reproduction, and mental well-being 393 D. Assessing Alternatives: Less Harmful Effective Options 394 E. Bear Dignity: The Right to Be 395 F. Ethics and Character of Place 397 VI. Long Range Duties of Affirmative Assistance to Bears 399 A. Duties of Habitat: Restoring Corridors 400 B. Duties of Habitat: Land Use Planning 400 VII. Conclusion 401 Study Questions 402

Chapter 15: United Nations Sustainable Development Initiatives 403

I. Introduction 403 II. Overview of the United Nations 404 III. United Nations Sustainability Efforts 404 A. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm 1972 405 B. World Charter for Nature, 1982 406 C. Brundtland Report, 1987 409 D. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 410 E. Millennium Summit and the Millennium Development Goals 2000 411 F. The Earth Charter (2000) 413 G. World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002 415 H. The UN Harmony with Nature Initiative 416 Universal Declaration of the Rights of Mother Earth 417 I. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)—Rio de Janeiro, 2012 420 1. Peoples’ sustainability treaties 421 J. UN SDG Summit of 2015 423 K. High-level Political Forum 2019 425

xxi Contents

IV. Deep Sustainability—An Alternative Approach 426 V. Emerging Paradigms: A Global Pact for the Environment 429 A. Introduction: What Is the Global Pact initiative? 429 B. Why Is a Global Pact for the Environment Necessary? 429 1. Global environmental constitutionalism 430 2. Turning soft law into hard law 430 C. History of the Initiative for a Global Pact for the Environment 431 D. Principles Recognized in the Draft Global Pact for the Environment 433 VI. Conclusion 436 Study Questions 436

Chapter 16: Ecocentric Governance: The New Ecological Social Contract 439

I. Introduction 439 II. The Ecological Social Contract 440 A. Bruno Latour: The Social Contract with Nature 440 B. Bruce Jennings on Ecological Governance 441 1. Governance is more than government, and the meaning of the social contract 441 2. Social contract theories: Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau 442 3. Jennings’s new ecological social contract 444 Study Questions 449 III. The Role of Lawyers in Ecological Governance 449 A. The Place of Lawyers in Society 449 B. Taking on Earth as a Client: A Reality Check 450 C. Earth Lawyers and the Ecological Social Contract 451 D. Earth Lawyers and the Reform of Law: Normative Jurisprudence 453 E. The Rights of Nature in Bolivia 455 1. The historical experience 455 2. A model to be developed 460 3. A critical appraisal 461 4. Lessons for Earth lawyers from Bolivia 462 IV. Conclusion: Depending on the Interconnected Web of Life 464 Study Questions 466

xxii Contents

SECTION FIVE A GLOBAL SURVEY OF EARTH LAW

Chapter 17: Ecuador 473

I. Introduction 473 II. A Clash Between Indigenous Belief Systems and Western Norms 474 III. Ecuador’s 2008 Constitution 475 A. Sumak Kawsay 475 B. Rights of Nature and Related Environmental Protections 477 C. Ecuadorian Environmental Constitutionalism 479 IV. Rights of Nature Court Cases 480 A. Biodigesters Case, Ruling No. 0567-08-RA (2009) 481 B. Galápagos Islands Case, Ruling No. 017-12-SIN-CC (2012) 482 C. Mangroves Case, Ruling No. 166-15-SEP-CC (2015) 483 V. Shortcomings of Rights of Nature in the Courts: The Mirador Mine Case 485 VI. The Future of Rights of Nature in Ecuador 487 A. Rights of Nature in the Constitutional Court Agenda 487 B. Legislative Reform 490 VII. Conclusion 490 Study Questions 490

Chapter 18: Nature’s Rights in Colombia: An Emerging Jurisprudence 493

I. An Introduction to Colombia 493 A. Colombia’s Environment 493 B. The Colombian Legal System 494 C. The 1991 Constitution 494 D. The Role of Socioeconomic Rights Jurisprudence 496 II. An Overview of Recent Jurisprudence 497 III. The Atrato River Basin 499 Center for Social Justice Studies et al. v. Presidency of the Republic et al. 501 IV. The Amazon 511 Future Generations v. Ministry of Environment et al. 513 V. The Cauca River 522

xxiii Contents

Castro Córdoba and David Ochoa v. Ministry of Environment et al. 523 VI. The Coello, Combeima, and Cocora Rivers 526 Vargas Morales v. Ministry of Environment et al. 526 VII. Páramo De Pisba 527 VIII. Conclusion 528 Study Questions 531

Chapter 19: Earth Law in Latin America: A Glimpse of Brazil and Mexico 535

I. Introduction 535 PART I: BRAZIL 536 II. The Environment in Brazil’s Constitution 536 A. Ecologically Balanced Environment 537 Study Question 537 B. Indigenous Rights 538 III. Developments in Brazil Under Bolsonaro 539 IV. Ecocentrism in Brazilian Courts 541 In re IBAMA (2019) 542 V. Local Rights of Nature Initiatives in Brazil 543 VI. Brazil’s Indigenous People Join to Show A Path Forward 545 PART II: MEXICO 547 VII. Introduction to Mexico 547 VIII. Environmental Protections in Mexico 547 IX. Deriving Rights of Nature From Human Environmental Rights? 549 X. Indigenous Rights and the Environment 549 XI. Environmental Norms in State Constitutions 552 A. Introduction to State Constitutional Provisions on the Environment 552 B. Rights of Nature in Colima, Guerrero, and Mexico City 553 1. Guerrero 553 2. Mexico City 554 3. Colima 554 4. State of Mexico 554 XII. Civil Society Forges A Path Forward in Mexico 555 XIII. Challenges in Mexico 557 Study Questions 558 xxiv Contents

Chapter 20: India 559

I. Introduction 559 II. The Legal Landscape In India 559 III. Landmark Decision for the Rights of Rivers: The Mohammed Salim Case 560 Mohd. Salim v. State of Uttarakhand and Others 561 Study Questions 565 IV. Extending the Rights of Natural Entities: The Miglani Case 566 Miglani v. State of Uttarakhand and Others 567 Study Questions 569 V. The Rights of the Animal Kingdom: The Narayan Dutt Bhatt Case 570 Narayan Dutt Bhatt v. Union of India and Others 570 Study Questions 574

Chapter 21: Israel 577

I. Introduction 577 II. Nature’s Right to Water Under Israeli Law 577 III. The Gazelle Petition 581 IV. Conclusion 585 Study Questions 585

Chapter 22: New Zealand 589

I. Introduction 589 II. Legislative Recognition of the Intrinsic Value of Nature 590 III. Legislative Recognition that Animals are Sentient Beings 597 IV. Legal Personality for Nature 600 A. Māori Environmental Philosophies 600 B. Te Urewera 602 C. The Management Plan: Te Kawa o Te Urewera 609 V. From the Whanganui River to Te Awa Tupua 617 VI. Conclusion 619 Study Questions 620

xxv Contents

Chapter 23: The Netherlands and the Future of Atmospheric Trust Litigation 623

I. Introduction 623 II. The European Convention on Human Rights 623 III. The Urgenda Case 626 A. Background on Dutch Legal System 626 B. Urgenda: Procedural History and Ruling 627 C. Background and Overview of the Holding 628 1. District Court of the Hague (2015) 628 2. Hague Court of Appeal (2018) 629 3. Procurator General advisory opinion (2019) 630 4. Dutch Supreme Court (2019) 631 IV. Comparing Urgenda to Juliana 632 V. Impact of the Urgenda Holding for Climate Litigation 633 VI. Atmospheric Trust Litigation 634 VII. Conclusion 635 Study Questions 636

Chapter 24: Africa 637

I. Introduction 637 II. Africa’s Pre-Colonial Heritage: Cultural Diversity, Customary Governance, and Sacred Natural Sites 639 III. The Scramble for Africa and Beyond 641 IV. African Governance, Plurilegal Systems, and an Earth Jurisprudence Movement 642 V. Building a Body of African Jurisprudence on Earth Law: A Multifaceted Legal Strategy From Grassroots to the African Commission 644 A. Regional Developments 644 1. Statement and call to action by African Custodian Communities, 2015 644 2. Resolution on the Protection of Sacred Natural Sites and Territories 645 3. Guiding principles and a draft African Model Law, 2018 646 4. Jurisprudence of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights 647

xxvi Contents

B. National Case Law—Examples from South Africa 649 1. Richtersveld Case (Rights to Land—South Africa) 649 2. Gongqose Case (Fishing Rights—South Africa) 649 3. Xolobeni Case (Mining—South Africa) 650 C. National Legislation 650 1. Sacred Forests Act, Benin 651 2. National Environment Act 2019, Uganda 651 3. River Ethiope Rights Bill and Nigeria Rights of Rivers Bill, Nigeria 652 D. Local Developments 652 VI. Conclusion 653 Study Questions 653

Chapter 25: Indigenous Legalities 655

I. Introduction 655 II. Coloniality and The Law 657 III. Recognizing Indigenous Legalities: From Sacred to Customary Law 659 A. Sacred Law: The Creator 659 Study Questions 660 B. Natural Laws: Nature as Kinship 661 Study Questions 663 C. Deliberative Law: The Community 663 Study Question 664 D. Customary Law: Back to the Community 665 Study Question 665 E. Positivistic Law: The Legislator 666 IV. Colombian and Inter-American Case Law and Indigenous Legalities 666 A. The Colombian Constitutional Court 667 1. On cultural identity as a fundamental right of Indigenous groups 667 Study Question 668 2. on Indigenous cultural identity and traditional knowledge 668 Study Question 669 3. on traditional knowledge and traditional Indigenous law 670

xxvii Contents

Study Questions 671 4. On informed consent by Indigenous communities and territorial and communal governance 671 Study Question 672 B. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 673 1. On ancestral land, communal tenure, and Indigenous property rights 673 2. On the obligation to consult 674 V. Wuasikamas, the Law of the Indigenous Inga of Aponte in Colombia 676 A. Introduction to the Inga of Aponte 676 B. Wuasikamas: Guardianship of the Territory 677 C. Relationship with the State 679 D. Intentions and Results of Wuasikamas 680 Study Questions 682 VI. Conclusion 682

Afterword 685 Table of Cases 693 Index 699

xxviii