Hist of Israel2-Notes 7

HISTORY OF ISRAEL, PART 2 Session 7: The Hellenistic Challenge, I (400-167 BC)

About 400 years separated the close of the Old Testament canon with Malachi and the opening of the New Testament canon with Matthew. Although there were no inspired texts written during this period, Judea played an increasingly important role in the geopolitical forces shaping the eastern Mediterranean. It was caught in a confrontation between the emerging power of the West - Greece-and the last major force of the East - Persia. As Alexander the Great and his successors won that struggle, the clash between the Greek and Hebrew worldviews shaped the Jewish community as they found it more and more difficult to endure as an isolated and pure community. Greek presence in the eastern Mediterranean produced a further fragmentation of Judaism and heightened the expectation, and hope, of a new deliverer, a Messiah, who would deliver Israel from a new western power, the mighty Roman Empire. VanGemeren summarizes the change:

Judaism at the end of the Old Testament writings was confined and comfortable, but Judaism some four hundred years later was cosmopolitan and constantly adjusting to change. The Jewish world in the time of Jesus and the apostles was in flux and hence shows little in common with the era of Ezra and Nehemiah.

THE LATE PERSIAN EMPIRE, 400-331 B.C.

After the death of Artaxerxes in 424 BC, Persia consolidated its control of the Greek city states on the western coast of Asia Minor (Turkey), largely due to the two Peloponnesian Wars (460-404 BC), which utterly decimated the Greek city-states. But from 404 to 338 BC, Persia began to decline. The western satraps were in rebellion and Persia’s control over Egypt was weakening. The rise of Macedonia (north of Greece) under Philip II would challenge Persian rule everywhere.

During these latter years of Persian rule, several important developments occurred in Judea. The tightness of Judaism accomplished by the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah widened the spilt between the Jews and the Samaritans. The political separation occurred when Nehemiah was made governor of Yehud. There was no hope for Samaria under, Sanballat, to absorb ancient Judea into its province. Further, the spiritual renewal under Ezra and Nehemiah made the religious division inevitable. The Samaritans could no longer worship in the Temple at Jerusalem. Thus the Samaritans built their own temple on Mount Gerizim during the reign of Darius III of Persia (336-330 BC). Since the Samaritans only accepted the Pentateuch as sacred, this exacerbated the growing split.

The province of Yehud during this time was somewhat of an autonomous province, for there is evidence that it could strike its own coins and levy its own taxes. During this period, there are also fragmentary pieces of evidence indicating that the high priest in Jerusalem was becoming both a political as well as a religious leader. Further, although Hebrew remained the language of religious and theological discourse, Aramaic, the lingua franca of the western satraps of Persia, was becoming the preferred spoken language of Yehud.

EXCURSUS ON DANIEL

The Old Testament book of Daniel is quite central to understanding this period. Daniel was exiled to Babylon during the first wave taken by Nebuchadnezzar in 605 BC. Daniel served in the courts of both Babylonia and early Persia. The first 8 chapters of Daniel’s book (written in Aramaic) outline the contours of Gentile world history, positing four great empires, followed by a final form of the fourth empire, and culminating in the Kingdom of God ruled by one “like a son of man” (7:13). Chapters 9 to 12 (written in Hebrew) itemize the prophecies that focus on the people of Israel and detail their future from the end of the Exile through the culmination of history in God’s Kingdom. The vision Daniel received in 11:2-12:13 is astonishing, for it provides a detailed overview of history. For the faithful followers

Dr. Jim Eckman Page 2 of God, this vision affirmed His sovereignty and providence over history. This is a summary of the historic details prophesied in Daniel’s vision:

• 11:2 - Three more Persian kings (Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius I Hystaspes) would follow Cyrus the Great of Persia, followed by a fourth (Xerxes), who would attack Greece

• 11:3 - Alexander the Great would destroy Persia

• 11:4 - Upon his death, his generals would divide his kingdom into four parts

• 11:5-20 - Two of the four generals and their descendants, “the kings of the north” and “the kings of the south” (the Ptolemies and the Seleucids) would fight one another for the control of the Land

• 11:21-38 - The appalling reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, whose brutality and self-elevation produced the Maccabean Revolt

• 11:39-12:13 - Israel’s suffering and persecution associated with “the time of the end” under Antichrist would be followed by the triumph of God’s Kingdom.

The material in Daniel was important information for the Jewish community as they returned from the Exile. Even though they could return to their land, they were still a vassal state of Persia - and would remain subjects of Greece, then Rome and all future conquerors through 1948 AD, when the modern nation-state of Israel was created. Daniel gives comfort, hope and an assurance that indeed God would fulfill His covenant promises to Abraham and David.

Dr. Jim Eckman Page 3 THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD 331-63 BC

Since Darius I and Xerxes I had invaded Greece in the 5th century BC, hostilities between Persia and Greece were ongoing. With Philip II of Macedon, those tensions took a different turn. Philip trained a formidable army, united the Greek city-states, still reeling from the disruptive Peloponnesian Wars, and launched a sacred war of revenge against Persia. When Philip was assassinated in 336 BC, his son, Alexander, seized the throne and invaded the East. In 333 BC, Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia at Issus. He then moved along the coast, and, according to the ancient Jewish historian, Josephus, went up to Jerusalem and offered sacrifices to Yahweh. This is probably apocryphal, but he did evidence a degree of favoritism toward the Jews. He then conquered Egypt, declaring himself Pharaoh in 332 BC and founded the important city of Alexandria on the Nile Delta. In 331 BC, Alexander decisively defeated the armies of Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela, thereby bringing the Persian Empire to an end. He continued his conquest east, going as far as the Hindu Kush Mountains. When his armies would go no farther, he returned to Babylon, where he died unexpectedly in 323 BC. He was 33. His conquest broke down most of the political and cultural boundaries that had existed for centuries in the eastern Mediterranean world and throughout much of southwest Asia.

Alexander’s vision was to unite the world around Greek culture - its architecture, language, philosophy, thought and ethics. Tutored by the philosopher, Aristotle, Alexander believed in the superiority of the Greek way of life, and that Greek culture (Hellenism, from Hellas, the Greek word for “Greece”) would be the unifying center of his empire. He settled veterans of his wars all over his empire and encouraged the overpopulated Greek city-states to migrate to these colonies; a virtual mass migration followed. Even though he died, the process of Hellenization continued. Greek colonies were established everywhere, each “an island of Hellenism.” Alexandria, Egypt became the intellectual and cultural center of Hellenism. It boasted a great library and its intellectual climate fostered impressive works by scientists, philosophers and historians, all promoting the Hellenistic worldview.

Dr. Jim Eckman Page 4 The Jewish communities all over the eastern Mediterranean were affected by Alexander’s Hellenistic vision. The Greek language, plus the building of Greek temples, gymnasiums, and theaters characterized the cities and colonies Alexander and his successors founded. Increased trade and prosperity accompanied Hellenism. Could Jewish monotheism and the deep-seated spiritual forces re-awakened by Ezra and Nehemiah survive Hellenism’s onslaught? Or would Hellenism change Judaism?

When Alexander died in 323 BC, his kingdom was torn by civil war as his generals fought for predominance. Eventually, Alexander’s empire was divided into four parts, with only two of real concern for this study: General Ptolemy controlled Egypt, while general Seleucus controlled the entire eastern part stretching to the Hindu Kush Mountains. Ptolemy and Seleucus formed a coalition to defeat Antigonus, who had been awarded Asia Minor. Judah and Samaria were caught in the middle of this civil war. Eventually, Ptolemy and Seleucus defeated Antigonus in 301 BC, and these two powerful generals divided the spoils. Ptolemy reasserted control of Egypt with Alexandria as his capital, and took control of Phoenicia and Palestine. The Ptolemaic dynasty would rule Judah for the next one- hundred years. Seleucus claimed everything to the East. The Ptolemy Dynasty and the Seleucid Dynasty would fight five major wars over the land of Israel.

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Dr. Jim Eckman Page 6 The Ptolemy’s Rule over Israel 301-200 BC

Under the Ptolemies, the Jews enjoyed a status similar to that under the Persians. But taxes were high, and the high priest in Jerusalem had the responsibility for tax collection and paying the annual tribute to Alexandria. Since Judea was a “temple state” under the Ptolemies, the high priest in Jerusalem was both the spiritual and political leader. This comparative religious autonomy under the Ptolemies was contrasted with a significant degree of economic control, which included trade, finance and agriculture. Dates, olive oil, grain, fish, cheese and fruit were regularly exported to Egypt. The most important dimension of economic control was the Ptolemaic innovation called “tax farming.” The Ptolemies franchised tax collection to the highest bidder, who then was free to collect taxes as high as possible. This system produced significant oppression and exploitation, for the goal was always “to maximize profit for the court in Alexandria.”

The Jewish population in Egypt swelled during this period. Indeed, Ptolemy I, in 312 BC, during the war against Antigonus, resettled a large number of Jews from Jerusalem to Alexandria. Other Jews settled in Alexandria as mercenaries and immigrants. Alexandria became the center of world Jewry, with a population of over 1 million by the first century AD. Understandably, Greek was their first language. Because this Jewish population did not have access to the Scriptures, during the third century BC (Ptolemy II’s reign, 285-247 BC), translations of the Torah into Greek were done, and this translation, known as the Septuagint (named after

Dr. Jim Eckman Page 7 the seventy scholars who did the translation) eventually grew to include the entire Old Testament. The Jews in Alexandria were now Hellenized Jews.

The Hellenization of Judea under the Ptolemies continued. Brisco writes that “economic and security factors promoted Hellenization in many cities, especially along the coasts and in the Transjordan. Ptolemais (Acco), Gadara, Philadelphia (Rabbah), Philoteria (Beth-yerah), and other cities surrounded Jerusalem as something of a Hellenistic border.” In addition, when Onias II, the high priest under Ptolemy III refused to collect the taxes, he was replaced by the Tobiads, a wealthy Jewish family traced back to Nehemiah’s time (2:10; 6:1-19). The Tobiad family became the chief driver of Hellenized Judaism; they sought to minimize Jewish law and maximize the Greek way of life. Jewish leadership was thus inextricably linked to Alexandria. But that was about to change, for the Seleucids would challenge Ptolemaic rule of Judea.

The Seleucid’s Rule over Israel 200-162 BC

Because of its sheer size, the Seleucid Empire was much more difficult to rule. Its boundaries were not as easily defined as the Ptolemies. Further, there were rebel- lions in the eastern provinces and, by the mid-third century, the Seleucids had lost control of parts of Asia Minor. The Seleucids established Antioch in Syria as their key administrative center in the western part of their empire, and Seleucia on the Tigris River as their key administrative center in the east. As with the Ptolemies, the Seleucids envisioned Hellenization as the unifying force for their vast empire.

The reign of Antiochus III (223-187 BC) was a watershed for Seleucid rule, for he regained control of much of the previously lost territories from Asia Minor to India. His two wars with the Ptolemies of Egypt (the Fourth [219-217 BC] and Fifth Syrian [202-195 BC] wars) drove the Egyptians out of Asia, thereby gaining control of all of Palestine (see Daniel 11:10-16). The Jews welcomed their new rulers and had indeed fought on their side against the Ptolemies. As a result, Antiochus III released all Jewish prisoners and issued a decree permitting the return of Jewish refugees to their homes. He allowed the Jews to affirm the supremacy of their Law in Judea, financially supported Jewish religious leaders with tax revenue and exempted most religious personnel from Seleucid taxation. He also decreed that Temple repairs were to be done at Seleucid expense.

Dr. Jim Eckman Page 8 However, Seleucid fortunes were changing, for a new power was rising in the West - Rome - and the Parthian menace to the east was also a new rival. The Seleucids lost significant parts of its empire to both powers. For example, in his last years, Antiochus III suffered a humiliating series of defeats at the hands of Rome, which now established itself as the formidable power of Asia Minor (see Daniel 11:17-19). Financially weak and threatened on all sides, the Seleucid Empire had begun its decline.

The Seleucid loss of much of Palestine centered on the reign of Antiochus IV (later called Antiochus Epiphanes, “god manifest”; see Daniel 11:21-23). That loss began with rivalry over the high priesthood in Jerusalem. Onias III was the high priest in Jerusalem and in 174 BC Antiochus IV deposed him, replacing him with his brother, Jason (Joshua). (The hereditary nature of the priesthood was now over; future high priests would be appointed by whoever was ruling Judea at that time, often going to the one who paid the highest bribe). The Hellenization of Jerusalem acceler- ated under the high priest, Jason. He facilitated the incorporation of Jerusalem as a Greek city (a polis) and established a Greek gymnasium (a Greek educational institution) in Jerusalem. The Jerusalem gymnasium championed a classical educational curriculum, including nude athletics. Because one competed in the games naked and circumcision was embarrassing, circumcision of the young men was no longer regularly practiced in Jerusalem. Some men even had surgery to conceal their circumcision. As Bright shows, “Since Greek sports were inseparable from the cult of Heracles, or of Hermes, or of the royal house, membership in the gymnasium inevitably involved some degree of recognition of the gods who were its protectors.” The decree of Antiochus III granting Jews the right to live according

Dr. Jim Eckman Page 9 to their Law had been abrogated - and with Jewish help! For that reason, more orthodox Jews and most of the people began to charge the leadership with apostasy. Even the sacrifices were “blemished and unacceptable.” Although Jason’s sympathies were clearly Hellenistic, after three years, Antiochus IV appointed Menelaus high priest because he offered a larger bribe. To pay the bribe, he looted the Temple. Jerusalem was now a Hellenistic temple state and the high priest was its chief, albeit corrupt, political figure.

Antiochus IV twice invaded Egypt. In 170 BC, he successfully defeated Ptolemy VI, plundering Egypt as a result (see Daniel 11:24-27). After this victory, on his return home in 169 BC, he stopped in Jerusalem, and with the total support of Menelaus, put down an insurrection led by the former high priest, Jason, killing 80,000 Jews. He then looted the Temple (see Daniel 11:28). In 170 BC, Antiochus again invaded Egypt, conquering Memphis and then attacking Alexandria. Rome, allied with the Ptolemies, ordered him to leave Egypt, which he did in humiliation and defeat (see Daniel 11:29-30). In early 167 BC, he directed his rage on Jerusalem.

Because he felt threatened by Rome to the south in Egypt and because Jerusalem was seething with rebellion, Antiochus began a policy of forced Hellenization in Jerusalem. To that end, later in 167, he dispatched Apollonius, a commander of his mercenaries, to Jerusalem. Apollonius was ruthless. He tore down some of the walls of the city, savagely butchered many of its citizens, and set up a military fortress in Jerusalem called the Acra. The Temple was no longer the property of the Jewish people; it now belonged to the Seleucids. As Bright argues, Apollonius, working with the apostate Menelaus and his colleagues, removed “all barriers to the thoroughgoing Hellenization of the Jewish religion . . . It was apparently the aim of these renegade priests to reorganize Judaism as a Syro-Hellenic cult in which Yahweh would be worshiped in identification with Zeus, and (Jerusalem) a place provided for the royal cult in which the king was Zeus Epiphanes.” He banned orthodox Jewish practices: the sacrifices, observation of the Sabbath and the traditional feasts. Circumcision was outlawed. Altars to Greek gods were built and sacrifices were offered. On the Temple Mount altar to Yahweh, an idol of Zeus was erected and pigs were sacrificed on that altar. To show their loyalty, Jews were required to participate in these sacrifices. In addition, Antiochus IV was to be worshiped as a god - Antiochus Epiphanes - “god manifest” (see Daniel 11:36-38). From 167-164 BC, these edicts were enforced by troops from the Acra. Jews who circumcised their children were murdered. Those who observed the Sabbath were slaughtered.

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