The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by: Jason Paul Wickham May 2014 To L.W. Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ i List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... v Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ vi Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 1 Capture, Captives and Commanders ...................................................................... 11 Terminology for Captives and Capture................................................................................ 11 Capture and Enslavement – Legality and Morality ............................................................. 14 Ownership of Captives ......................................................................................................... 19 Laws Governing the Taking of Captives ............................................................................. 22 The Commander’s Decision ................................................................................................ 28 Chapter 2 Release and Execution ............................................................................................ 31 Hostages ............................................................................................................................... 32 Release ................................................................................................................................. 34 Execution ............................................................................................................................. 39 Chapter 3 Ransom .................................................................................................................... 44 Terms for Ransom................................................................................................................ 45 Ransom in the Greek World and the Roman Attitude Towards Ransom ............................ 49 Ransom by Private Persons .................................................................................................. 53 Ransom of non-Roman Captives ......................................................................................... 54 Ransom Prices ...................................................................................................................... 58 The Process of Ransom ........................................................................................................ 65 Chapter 4 Enslavements before the Punic Wars ...................................................................... 74 Terms for Enslavement ........................................................................................................ 74 Enslavements in Early Rome up to the Sack of Veii ........................................................... 79 Nexum .................................................................................................................................. 85 The Fourth Century .............................................................................................................. 88 The Third Samnite War and the Misinterpretation of Livy ................................................. 91 i Table of Contents Enslavements up to the First Punic War ............................................................................ 110 Chapter 5 Enslavements during the Punic Wars .................................................................... 115 First Punic War .................................................................................................................. 115 Between the First and Second Punic Wars ........................................................................ 128 Second Punic War .............................................................................................................. 130 Chapter 6 Enslavements after the Punic Wars ....................................................................... 148 The Macedonian Wars ....................................................................................................... 149 From the War with Antiochus to the Destruction of Corinth ............................................ 160 Wars in Northern Italy and Spain ...................................................................................... 167 Sardinia and the Destruction of Carthage .......................................................................... 174 Chapter 7 Markets, Merchants and Transports ..................................................................... 178 Markets .............................................................................................................................. 179 Slave Traders ..................................................................................................................... 183 Trade and Transport ........................................................................................................... 187 Conclusion The War Captive Contribution to the Slave Supply ............................................ 196 Appendix References to Captives .......................................................................................... 210 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 218 ii List of Figures I. GREEK RANSOM PRICES ................................................................................................ 60 II. ROMAN RANSOM PRICES ............................................................................................. 63 III. SHIP AND GUARD REQUIREMENTS FOR SEA TRANSPORT .............................. 193 IV. CAPTIVE CONTRIBUTION TO THE SLAVE SUPPLY ............................................ 202 iii Abstract War captives are generally thought to have comprised the main portion of the Roman slave supply during the Republic. Likewise, the result of mass enslavement through continuous war has been interpreted as a principle factor in the agricultural evolution in Italy from the second century BC which saw a significant increase in large plantation style farming (latifundia). The misconception of a male bias in agricultural labour has put a heavy influence on the need for an external supply of slaves rather than through reproduction. However, an analysis of documentary evidence suggests that wartime enslavement was more limited. Problems in supervising, transporting, and trading large numbers of slaves, as well as competing markets elsewhere in the Mediterranean, made immediate absorption of captives as slaves into the central Italian economy problematic. Furthermore, the vast majority of wartime enslavements occurred following the capture of cities, where larger numbers of civilian prisoners were taken, mostly comprising women, children and slaves. Ancient sources frequently exaggerated the number of war captives and often neglected to elaborate on the fate of those taken in war. Many modern historians have been far too quick to assume that prisoners were enslaved, which has given a disproportionate view of the importance of the contribution of war captives to the slave supply and their effect upon the growing slave population at Rome during the Republic. Such assumptions have left critical analysis wanting and, as a result, war captives have been largely neglected by Roman historians. This study attempts to address the gap in our analysis of these crucial practices in antiquity and to offer an explanation of how the taking of war captives was impacted by Rome’s changing socio-political and economic structures during the Republic. iv Acknowledgements The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the guidance of my supervisors. I wish to thank Dr. Colin Adams who oversaw my research from its genesis to its current state, our discussions, not always relating to Roman history, have been immeasurably helpful in getting me this far. I also wish to thank Dr. Graham Oliver, whose pastoral guidance and reassurance was helpful in the frightful beginning of this study. I extend my heartfelt gratitude also to Dr. Jan Haywood and Dr. David Griffiths whose camaraderie helped me in so many ways, along with their gracious time in editing - I am forever grateful. Dr. Phil Freeman was also kind enough to read over a chapter and provided valuable feedback. Of course, the remaining errors and deficiencies are my own. I have been incredibly lucky to have shared an office with Anne Landborg, whose company for the best part of four years has been much appreciated. A special thanks must go out to all of my PhD colleagues, whose friendship