DOCSLIB.ORG

Egypt After the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

EGYPT after the Pharaohs Alan K Bowman EGYPT after the Pharaohs 332 BC-AD 642 from Alexander to the Arab Conquest UNIVERSITY OE CALllORNIA PRESS BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES r i</86 Alan k. Bownun Published by the I'nivcrsitv of < !a|ift irnta Press in ilie I'niied Siato 1986 First [xiperlrjck printing 1989 Second paperback printing 1996 Library ot'Oingrcsii (Jtalo^uing-in-Pulilicniion Data Bowman. Alan K. I'gypi after rhepharaohs. tw u.r. \.i>. (142. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. l\u\pt (.'ivili/aiinn it: iu:. fi;H A.D. I. "I'itle mVii.lttii 1986 y\x'.oi 86 inn ISBN o 52020s 11-G Printed in I long Kong 12 m ft i x 9 Contents Acknowledgements 6 Preface 2 Note on Conventions 8 List of lllusrriitions 8 i The (iift of the Nile u 2 The Ruling Power 21 3 State and Subject s 5 4 Poverty and Prosperity 89 5 Greeks and Egyptians 121 6 Gods, Temples and Churches i6j 7 Alexandria, Queen of the Mediterranean 203 8 Epilogue 2$4 Appendix I The Reigns of the Ptolemies 2 s S Appendix II Metrology and Currency 236 Appendix III The Archaeological Evidence M9 Appendix IV Additional Notes 242 Footnotes 345 Bibliography ip Index 26s Ackno w 1 edgemcnts National Trust (The Calkc Gardner Wilkinson Papers. Bodleian Library, Oxford): 10, 34, 52, Acknowledgement is made to the following for J J. 82 permission to reproduce illustrations: Pctrie Museum, University College. London: 6 Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh: 63 Antikenmuscum, Staatlichc Musecn, Prcuss- Scala, Florence: t, 45, 71, 112 ischer Kulturbcsitz, Berlin: i \ Dr H. Whiiehouse: 14, tci, 10$, 117. 136 Ashmolcan Museum. Oxford: 4. <>7. 79, * J9 Austrian National Library, Vienna: 3 The maps (Figs 1 and 2) were prepared by Paul Bodleian Library. Oxford: 48 Simmons of Oxford University Press. British Museum: 2, 7, 11, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, $-», 46,38,80,84, 116, 119, 124. 126. U7, 158, 140, Acknowledgement is made to the author and to M? Cambridge University Pros for permission 10 British Library: 10,94, 142 quote extracts from M.M. Austin, The Htiltmstit Dr R.A. Coles: 85,91, MO Wot Id jrtm Altxandtr to the Roman Conquest Coptic Museum, Cairo: 32, 121, 12) (19B1). Deutschcs archaologisches Institut, Cairo: 22, 31,66,72,77 Deutschcs archaologischcs Institut, Rome: 4c Egypt Exploration Society: 8, 2c, 27, 36,41,44, 63, 64, 68, 69, 70, 73, 76, 78.9c, 9J, 96. 104 French Archaeological Delegation, Kahul: 128 Gracco-Roman Museum. Alexandria: 93, 106, •44 Kclscy Museum of Archaeology, University of .Michigan: $5,60,61,62, 75.86, 87, 89,92, 102, 103, 107, ic.9, 115 Metropolitan .\lu%cum of An, New York: 114, "5 6 Preface book on the history of Egypt during a decisive period in its development stands in need of no elaborate justification. Viewed from the standpoint of Athe Egyptologist, the Graeco-roman period may seem to lack the grandeur and the romance which the relics of the Pharaohs possess, but it was during the millennium between the conquest by Alexander and the Arab invasion that Egypt made its most significant contribution to the classical world and itself absorbed its important influences. It is a period which is, by the standards of the ancient world, exceptionally well-documented. The historian can take advantage of a wide range of source material: the writings of historians, geographers and literary figures of classical antiquity, the archaeological remains and artefacts and, above all, the thousands of texts on papyrus which the climate and the environment of the Nile valley have preserved for posterity. The attempt to write a general account based on a synthesis of an intimidating range and quantity of material might well appear foolhardy for a variety of reasons. Evidence may emerge tomorrow which will turn today's truth on its head - aware­ ness of which tends to make documentary historians chary of committing them­ selves to sweeping generalities. I can claim only a layman's familiarity with the archaeological relics and the expertise necessary for critical analysis of those docu­ ments which are written in languages other than Latin and Greek is absent; hence I have had to rely on published editions and translations of demotic and Coptic material. But the attempt at synthesis is nonetheless worth making, it is hoped, because there is no recent account in English which tries to exploit both the written and the archaeological evidence in order to see the impact of the presence of the Greeks and Romans in Egypt against the backdrop of the Egyptian tradition. This is intended to be the essence of the book and the narrative is deliberately offered with only the bald citation of some exemplary items of evidence, avoiding the proliferation of footnotes replete with documentation, bibliography and argument. My immense debts to friends and colleagues are impossible to enumerate, the more especially because many of them have been incurred in discussion or corres­ pondence over a long period of time. Some of my creditors will recognise their contributions and will, 1 hope, take their appearance as a compliment. If I avoid the invidiousness of naming some and excluding others that is not intended to under­ state or obscure my acute consciousness either of my debt to them, or of my fundamental reliance on a sustained tradition of accurate and magnanimous scholar­ ship in the field of papyrology and the history of Graeco-roman Egypt. But for these the book, such as it is, would not exist at all. It is, however, a pleasure to make one exception in thanking Jane Rowlandson who painstakingly read the whole text and rescued me from many errors and obscurities. For those which remain I alone am responsible. For this revised paperback edition, I have taken the opportunity to add a list of the locations of museum objects illustrated in the plates, to correct some errors (for assistance with which I am particularly grateful to Professor John Baincs, Dr Willy Claryssc and Dr Susan Walker), to update the bibliography and to include an appendix with some additional notes. Oxford July 1991 Notes on conventions used in the text NAMFN The transliteration oi names is alua\s problematic and complete consistcncx is impossible to achieve. I have jjcncraJly contented tmsclf *ith using the moM familiar and recognisable forms of" common personal and place- names; but some inconsistencies ot' practice remain. It should he noted that documents of the Roman period frequently use the name Caesar alone in referring to the current emperor. I hn\ e not attempted to expand these. DA11-.S All dates aic AU unless other* IM. indicated. I have used the lorm 'i\ i,» M ' to indicate that an event or document is to be placed at some point within the period and the form *IJ i-o IM * to indicate that evrnis or items referred to cover the period hriween the dates. I have nor attempted to provide Julian equivalents for month dates which occur in the quotations. The calculation of equivalent* tor date* in the Ptolemaic period is a complex matter bccauhc of the lack of correspondence between calcndaric >ears of different lengths iscc reference* in Appendix i;. After ihe Roman takeover, a* a consequence of the |ulun reform, the correspondences were stabilised as follows: Egypt bn month Julian equivalent Egyptian Julian equivalent Thoth Aug. 19 - Sep. 2? Pharmouthi Mar. 27- Apr. at Phanphi Sep. 2» - Oct. i-< Pachon Apr. 20- Ma> i\ Haihjr Oct. aB- Nov. 16 Paym May 26- Jun. 24 Choiak Nov. 47 - Dec i(> F.pciph Jun. ai - Jul. 24 T\bi Dec. 17- Jan. 11 Me soie Jul. 21 Aug. IK Met heir Jan. ib- Feb. 24 F.pagomcnal days Aug. 24 - Aug. 2* Phamcnoth Feb. 21 - Mar. it* List of illustrations ( oin nit leopatra X II (British Museum. London) Sula <»f \upusius (f:kjyptian Museum. Cairo) //'{fine Mtimim pimr.iir ^Thc Naimnal (idlcrr. x\. The Temple • *' Khnuni, Latopohs .■a 26. The Tempi*- i»f Isis. Philac . TIK. Pak-sinna niosasi (Museo \tchrologico, 27. P:ipxrus k-rterfF.uvpi F.sploration S4icictx. PaJestrina. I.oiultxi) . Akiaiidrijn coin'British Museum. l>Hidon> 28. The Colossi in the 'llieban Plain . The Peutingcr map (Austrian Naiional Lihrarx. 29. Ti.nan's Ki«*k. Philac iDaxid Ri»l»cn\ Vmina' 30. Tlie Colossus of Mcintyut . Statuette of an oxvrhxnchus ( \shmolcan Muicuni, 31. Portrait of a laic Roman emperor iTJjvptian Oxford.; Museum. Oiroj . Amin, the gratiiie qiurrics 32. Mela ofihe lixyuiirine period ('Coptic Museum, . Skull iPeirie Museum, London) C.ro) . Relief of it negro treading an Archimedean screw 33. Trj|an*» fortress, Babxkm (British Museum, London) 34. Fresco in the temple of Amon, The he* (Luxor) . Crocodile mummi^ (Fgvpt F.xplorarion Si»cieix, (Naiimul Tru«t Bodleian Library. Oxford) London) 3f. The KUrul of Phi lac ; David Robert*) . Mummv portrait (Itrookhn Museum. New York) 36. Order of Pcukesias (F.j«xpi Lxploration Society, . V\ jtrrrolcdirsketch, >tr |.(i.Wilkinson {National I <>ndon) I rust Bodleian Library, f Hrord; 37. 1 oin fmm HermopoJn (British Museum, London) . 'I he Temple of lhah. k.unak 38. Plan of irnganon works ;l niversitc de l.ilk-. Has relief In mi Tanis '.British Museum. I notionj Institul de Pap\roloj;R-: . The Temple ot Horns, Apollinopolis Magna 39. l.li-phannnc Island <l'.dfu); relief 40. 1 he TJANI Fames* ■'Museo Ni/ionalc. Napoli) . Coin H'Ptolemy II Philadelphia <Bm Mi Museum, 41. Poems of liallus<Fg\pt l\*ploration Socieix. I.on< Ion) l.onslon) . Bust off leopaira VII (Stiuilirhc Muscvn. Berlin) 42. Anlmoopnlis, colonnaded sireel . < oin of Piolemx IN Philopator (British Museum, 43.
Recommended publications
  • VU Research Portal

    VU Research Portal

    VU Research Portal The impact of empire on market prices in Babylon Pirngruber, R. 2012 document version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication in VU Research Portal citation for published version (APA) Pirngruber, R. (2012). The impact of empire on market prices in Babylon: in the Late Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, ca. 400 - 140 B.C. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. E-mail address: [email protected] Download date: 25. Sep. 2021 THE IMPACT OF EMPIRE ON MARKET PRICES IN BABYLON in the Late Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, ca. 400 – 140 B.C. R. Pirngruber VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT THE IMPACT OF EMPIRE ON MARKET PRICES IN BABYLON in the Late Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, ca. 400 – 140 B.C. ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad Doctor aan de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, op gezag van de rector magnificus prof.dr.
  • Introduction

    Introduction

    Cambridge University Press 0521003938 - The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus Edited by Karl Galinsky Excerpt More information Introduction Karl Galinsky S he age of Augustus continues to fascinate. For good reason: T it was unquestionably one of the pivotal periods of western history, if not world history. Its monuments and art still vividly speak to us today as do its writers: Vergil, Horace, and Ovid in particular. At center stage, of course, is the young heir of Caesar, only eighteen years old at the time his adoptive father was cut down. A charismatic personality, maybe; a flamboyant one, no; but surely one as multifaceted as the arts, politics, and social developments of the time and, certainly, the Roman empire that he accumulated, tirelessly expanded (we should not be fooled by his parting admonition to Tiberius), helped shape, and unified – which does not mean homogenized – to an unprecedented degree. In structural and material terms, a basis was laid for the system called the principate that lasted for more than 200 years; the birth of Christ during his era may convince even agnostics of divine foresight. Great periods in world history and their leading figures are des- tined to keep attracting attention and undergo changing evaluations. There is more to that than the perpetually grinding mills of the scholarly (re)interpretation industry, spurred on by the usual academic rewards. Even outside this sphere, the process of reception is ever changing and shaped by multifarious factors, consumers, and producers. Every age brings its own perspectives to those before it. Such perspectives tend to be far from monolithic because they often reflect contemporary ten- sions.
  • A Glimpse Into the Roman Finances of the Second Punic War Through

    A Glimpse Into the Roman Finances of the Second Punic War Through

    Letter Geochemical Perspectives Letters the history of the western world. Carthage was a colony founded next to modern Tunis in the 8th century BC by Phoenician merchants. During the 3rd century BC its empire expanded westward into southern Spain and Sardinia, two major silver producers of the West Mediterranean. Meanwhile, Rome’s grip had tight- © 2016 European Association of Geochemistry ened over the central and southern Italian peninsula. The Punic Wars marked the beginning of Rome’s imperial expansion and ended the time of Carthage. A glimpse into the Roman finances The First Punic War (264 BC–241 BC), conducted by a network of alliances in Sicily, ended up with Rome prevailing over Carthage. A consequence of this of the Second Punic War conflict was the Mercenary War (240 BC–237 BC) between Carthage and its through silver isotopes unpaid mercenaries, which Rome helped to quell, again at great cost to Carthage. Hostilities between the two cities resumed in 219 BC when Hannibal seized the F. Albarède1,2*, J. Blichert-Toft1,2, M. Rivoal1, P. Telouk1 Spanish city of Saguntum, a Roman ally. At the outbreak of the Second Punic War, Hannibal crossed the Alps into the Po plain and inflicted devastating mili- tary defeats on the Roman legions in a quick sequence of major battles, the Trebia (December 218 BC), Lake Trasimene (June 217 BC), and Cannae (August 216 BC). As a measure of the extent of the disaster, it was claimed that more than 100,000 Abstract doi: 10.7185/geochemlet.1613 Roman soldiers and Italian allies lost their lives in these three battles, including The defeat of Hannibal’s armies at the culmination of the Second Punic War (218 BC–201 three consuls.
  • Public Construction, Labor, and Society at Middle Republican Rome, 390-168 B.C

    Public Construction, Labor, and Society at Middle Republican Rome, 390-168 B.C

    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2012 Men at Work: Public Construction, Labor, and Society at Middle Republican Rome, 390-168 B.C. Seth G. Bernard University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, and the History of Art, Architecture, and Archaeology Commons Recommended Citation Bernard, Seth G., "Men at Work: Public Construction, Labor, and Society at Middle Republican Rome, 390-168 B.C." (2012). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 492. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/492 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/492 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Men at Work: Public Construction, Labor, and Society at Middle Republican Rome, 390-168 B.C. Abstract MEN AT WORK: PUBLIC CONSTRUCTION, LABOR, AND SOCIETY AT MID-REPUBLICAN ROME, 390-168 B.C. Seth G. Bernard C. Brian Rose, Supervisor of Dissertation This dissertation investigates how Rome organized and paid for the considerable amount of labor that went into the physical transformation of the Middle Republican city. In particular, it considers the role played by the cost of public construction in the socioeconomic history of the period, here defined as 390 to 168 B.C. During the Middle Republic period, Rome expanded its dominion first over Italy and then over the Mediterranean. As it developed into the political and economic capital of its world, the city itself went through transformative change, recognizable in a great deal of new public infrastructure.
  • Philip V and Perseus: the Twilight of Antigonid Macedonia Philip V of Macedonia Was a Shrewd and Effective Leader. He Proved Ev

    Philip V and Perseus: the Twilight of Antigonid Macedonia Philip V of Macedonia Was a Shrewd and Effective Leader. He Proved Ev

    Philip V and Perseus: The Twilight of Antigonid Macedonia Philip V of Macedonia was a shrewd and effective leader. He proved even more adept than his predecessors at dealing with the Greek city-states, Illyrian invasions, and the other traditional concerns of his kingdom. Unfortunately for him, he was forced to deal with a completely new threat, for which he was unprepared—the rising power of Rome. Philip V and his son and successor Perseus failed in their conflicts with Rome, and ultimately allowed Macedonia to be conquered by the Romans. Since the wars they fought against Rome were recorded by Roman historians, they are known as the Macedonian Wars. Early Life and Reign of Philip V Philip V was the son of Demetrius II, who died in battle when Philip was nine years old. Since the army and nobility were hesitant to trust the kingdom to a child, they made Antigonas Doson regent, and then king. Antigonas honored Philip’s position, and when Antigonas died in 221 BC, Philip ascended smoothly to the throne at the age of seventeen. As the young king of Macedonia, Philip V was eager to prove his abilities. He defeated the Dardians in battle. When hostilities broke out between the two major leagues of Greek cities—the Achaean League and Aetolian League—he sided with Aratus and the Achaean League. Thanks to Philip’s intervention, the Achaeans achieved major victories against the Aetolians, and Aratus became one of Philip’s advisors. First Macedonian War (214–205 BC) In 219 BC, Demetrius of Pharos, the king of Illyria, fled to Philip’s court after being expelled by the Romans.
  • Jobs in Roman Spain

    Jobs in Roman Spain

    JOBS IN ROMAN SPAIN Leonard A. Curchin A l'économie? L'épitaphe peut-être révélera un métier ignoré. (Marc Bloch, Apologie pour l'histoire [Paris 1952] 73) While the range of occupations attested for residents of the city of Rome has been the subject of several studies,1 considerably less attention has been focused upon jobs in the provinces. This disparity may be due partly to an understandably greater interest in the imperial capital than in peripheral regions, but also and perhaps chiefly to the fact that the columbaria of Rome provide convenient, "closed" samples of inscriptions from a single city within limited chronological bounds, whereas the epigraphic evidence (which is by far the largest segment of testimony)2 for provincial jobs, being scattered over vast geographical tracts and extensive periods of time, is far less diagnostic. An analysis of the epitaphs from a single provincial city would in most cases yield only a handful of jobs, while an attempted study of a chronologically restricted sample would be considerably impeded by our inability to date closely the majority of the inscriptions. For better or worse, then, all the inscriptions of a province or region should be studied as a whole, preferably in constant comparison with avail- able literary and iconographie evidence, and the provincial historian may thereby hope to reap a large selection of job titles from his chosen bailiwick.3 32 33 The present paper examines the types of jobs attested for the residents of Spain from the advent of the Romans in the late third century B.C.
  • Politics and Policy: Rome and Liguria, 200-172 B.C

    Politics and Policy: Rome and Liguria, 200-172 B.C

    Politics and policy: Rome and Liguria, 200-172 B.C. Eric Brousseau, Department of History McGill University, Montreal June, 2010 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts. ©Eric Brousseau 2010 i Abstract Stephen Dyson’s The Creation of the Roman Frontier employs various anthropological models to explain the development of Rome’s republican frontiers. His treatment of the Ligurian frontier in the second century BC posits a Ligurian ‘policy’ crafted largely by the Senate and Roman ‘frontier tacticians’ (i.e. consuls). Dyson consciously avoids incorporating the pressures of domestic politics and the dynamics of aristocratic competition. But his insistence that these factors obscure policy continuities is incorrect. Politics determined policy. This thesis deals with the Ligurian frontier from 200 to 172 BC, years in which Roman involvement in the region was most intense. It shows that individual magistrates controlled policy to a much greater extent than Dyson and other scholars have allowed. The interplay between the competing forces of aristocratic competition and Senatorial consensus best explains the continuities and shifts in regional policy. Abstrait The Creation of the Roman Frontier, l’œuvre de Stephen Dyson, utilise plusieurs modèles anthropologiques pour illuminer le développement de la frontière républicaine. Son traitement de la frontière Ligurienne durant la deuxième siècle avant J.-C. postule une ‘politique’ envers les Liguriennes déterminer par le Sénat et les ‘tacticiens de la frontière romain’ (les consuls). Dyson fais exprès de ne pas tenir compte des forces de la politique domestique et la compétition aristocratique. Mais son insistance que ces forces cachent les continuités de la politique Ligurienne est incorrecte.
  • Ch. Börker/J. Burow, Amphorenstempel Aus Pergamon 573

    Ch. Börker/J. Burow, Amphorenstempel Aus Pergamon 573

    Mark L. Lawall: Ch. Börker/J. Burow, Amphorenstempel aus Pergamon 573 Christoph Börker und Johannes Burow , Die hellenistischen Amphorenstempel aus Pergamon. Pergamenische Forschungen 11. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1998. XII, 160 Seiten, 6 Abbildun ­ gen, 40 Tafeln. This volume has two parts. Börker presents a revised publication of the ‘Pergamon-Komplex ’ (PK), originally published by Carl Schuchhardt in 1895 (Altertümer von Pergamon VIII2 [1895]); and Burow publishes other stamps found at Pergamon from both recent and past excavations. The many catalogue entries are grouped by city of origin or by name on the stamp. Brief introductions to each section summarize the current state of knowledge of each dass of stamps. Stamps are well illustrated by photographs, and some handles appear as profile drawings. Despite lacking Standard conventions for profiles, the drawings are useful. The indices include not only the expectable concordances and the names and devices on stamps but also lists of Rhodian potters and eponyms alphabetized from the front of the name and from the back of the name (helpful for reconstructing poorly preserved stamps). Presentation of the stamps is clearly the goal, and in this effort the authors certainly succeed. Readers may expect much more. The PK plays a central role in amphora chronologies and, in turn, Hellenistic pottery generally. Börker, however, does not provide a critical view of the role of the PK in these chronological debates. He loosely agrees with V. Grace that “around three decades ” (p. 6) is an appropriate length for Rhodian Period III (205-175 B. C.; cf. V. Grace -Petropoulakou / M.
  • Title Page Echoes of the Salpinx: the Trumpet in Ancient Greek Culture

    Title Page Echoes of the Salpinx: the Trumpet in Ancient Greek Culture

    Title Page Echoes of the salpinx: the trumpet in ancient Greek culture. Carolyn Susan Bowyer. Royal Holloway, University of London. MPhil. 1 Declaration of Authorship I Carolyn Susan Bowyer hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: ______________________ Date: ________________________ 2 Echoes of the salpinx : the trumpet in ancient Greek culture. Abstract The trumpet from the 5th century BC in ancient Greece, the salpinx, has been largely ignored in modern scholarship. My thesis begins with the origins and physical characteristics of the Greek trumpet, comparing trumpets from other ancient cultures. I then analyse the sounds made by the trumpet, and the emotions caused by these sounds, noting the growing sophistication of the language used by Greek authors. In particular, I highlight its distinctively Greek association with the human voice. I discuss the range of signals and instructions given by the trumpet on the battlefield, demonstrating a developing technical vocabulary in Greek historiography. In my final chapter, I examine the role of the trumpet in peacetime, playing its part in athletic competitions, sacrifice, ceremonies, entertainment and ritual. The thesis re-assesses and illustrates the significant and varied roles played by the trumpet in Greek culture. 3 Echoes of the salpinx : the trumpet in ancient Greek culture Title page page 1 Declaration of Authorship page 2 Abstract page 3 Table of Contents pages
  • Calendar of Roman Events

    Calendar of Roman Events

    Introduction Steve Worboys and I began this calendar in 1980 or 1981 when we discovered that the exact dates of many events survive from Roman antiquity, the most famous being the ides of March murder of Caesar. Flipping through a few books on Roman history revealed a handful of dates, and we believed that to fill every day of the year would certainly be impossible. From 1981 until 1989 I kept the calendar, adding dates as I ran across them. In 1989 I typed the list into the computer and we began again to plunder books and journals for dates, this time recording sources. Since then I have worked and reworked the Calendar, revising old entries and adding many, many more. The Roman Calendar The calendar was reformed twice, once by Caesar in 46 BC and later by Augustus in 8 BC. Each of these reforms is described in A. K. Michels’ book The Calendar of the Roman Republic. In an ordinary pre-Julian year, the number of days in each month was as follows: 29 January 31 May 29 September 28 February 29 June 31 October 31 March 31 Quintilis (July) 29 November 29 April 29 Sextilis (August) 29 December. The Romans did not number the days of the months consecutively. They reckoned backwards from three fixed points: The kalends, the nones, and the ides. The kalends is the first day of the month. For months with 31 days the nones fall on the 7th and the ides the 15th. For other months the nones fall on the 5th and the ides on the 13th.
  • Central Balkans Cradle of Aegean Culture

    Central Balkans Cradle of Aegean Culture

    ANTONIJE SHKOKLJEV SLAVE NIKOLOVSKI - KATIN PREHISTORY CENTRAL BALKANS CRADLE OF AEGEAN CULTURE Prehistory - Central Balkans Cradle of Aegean culture By Antonije Shkokljev Slave Nikolovski – Katin Translated from Macedonian to English and edited By Risto Stefov Prehistory - Central Balkans Cradle of Aegean culture Published by: Risto Stefov Publications [email protected] Toronto, Canada All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system without written consent from the author, except for the inclusion of brief and documented quotations in a review. Copyright 2013 by Antonije Shkokljev, Slave Nikolovski – Katin & Risto Stefov e-book edition 2 Index Index........................................................................................................3 COMMON HISTORY AND FUTURE ..................................................5 I - GEOGRAPHICAL CONFIGURATION OF THE BALKANS.........8 II - ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES .........................................10 III - EPISTEMOLOGY OF THE PANNONIAN ONOMASTICS.......11 IV - DEVELOPMENT OF PALEOGRAPHY IN THE BALKANS....33 V – THRACE ........................................................................................37 VI – PREHISTORIC MACEDONIA....................................................41 VII - THESSALY - PREHISTORIC AEOLIA.....................................62 VIII – EPIRUS – PELASGIAN TESPROTIA......................................69
  • The Roman Empire: the Defender of Early First Century Christianity

    The Roman Empire: the Defender of Early First Century Christianity

    Running head: THE ROMAN EMPIRE 1 The Roman Empire: the Defender of Early First Century Christianity John Toone A Senior Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation in the Honors Program Liberty University Spring 2011 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 2 Acceptance of Senior Honors Thesis This Senior Honors Thesis is accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation from the Honors Program of Liberty University. ______________________________ David A. Croteau, Ph.D. Thesis Chair ______________________________ Michael J. Smith, Ph.D. Committee Member ______________________________ Willie E. Honeycutt, D.Min. Committee Member ______________________________ James H. Nutter, D.A. Honors Director ______________________________ Date THE ROMAN EMPIRE 3 Abstract All of the events, authors, and purposes of the books in the New Testament occurred under the reign of the Roman Empire (27 B.C.—A.D. 476). Therefore, an understanding of the Roman Empire is necessary for comprehending the historical context of the New Testament. In order to fully understand the impact of the Roman Empire on the New Testament, particularly before the destruction of the Jewish Temple in A.D. 70, Rome’s effect on religion (and the religious laws that governed its practice) must be examined. Contrary to expectations, the Roman Empire emerges from this examination as the protector (not persecutor) of early Christianity. Scripture from this time period reveals a peaceful relationship between the new faith and Roman authorities. THE ROMAN EMPIRE 4 The Roman Empire: The Defender of Early First Century Christianity Any attempt to describe the life of first century Christians before A.D. 70 is ultimately tenuous without understanding the cultural background of the society in which they lived.