Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 (21–44) 21
Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India: XI. The Upper Gangetic Plains Region
Anurudh K Singh
Department of Genetics, MD University, Rohtak 124001, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])
Abstract The Upper Gangetic Plain, the western part of the larger Gangetic Plains, has been one of the epicenters of origin and evolution of agriculture in India from the Neolithic period. The favorable climate and the landscape of the region have attracted the local people towards domestication of plants and animals. It led to evolution of settled agriculture from a nomadic pastoral life. The archaeological and literary (Vedic) evidences suggest it to be one of the regions where rice was first brought into cultivation from the wild, and where wheat was introduced through interactions with the Harappan civilization, followed with the domestication and introduction of a number of cereals, grain legumes, oilseed and other crops from other parts of the world involving most people from the early days. These crops were better exploited with improved cultivation practices, including the introduction of the plow. For these reasons, this region made faster economic progress compared with other regions, and evolved valuable genetic diversity in a wide range of crops. With increasing population, it expanded to other parts with new settlements and/or by sharing the knowledge gained and the products with other parts of the region, making India principally an agriculture-based economy. The economic prosperity of the region led to urbanization and establishment of the initially Hindu doctrine and way of life. Thus, the region can be considered the mother of much of agriculture in India and is being proposed as another National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site, based on established indices.
The Gangetic Plain, watered by perennial hospitable climate of river valleys and rivers such as Ganga (Ganges), Yamuna, plains attracted most human settlers to the Ghagra, Gomati, Gandak, Son, and several region, as these factors are fundamental to tributaries with a long stretch of sedimental agricultural productivity and essential for land, including the Upper Gangetic Plain the growth and development of agriculture (UGP), laid the foundations of agriculture and civilization. There is much evidence in India by the early farming communities to suggest that agriculture in the Gangetic and can be considered the mother of plains began with Neolithic settlements, much of agriculture practiced in other evolved over times, and that it has been parts of the country. Over the ages, the the main occupation of human populations Gangetic landscape with fertile soil and in the region since then. The beginning of 22 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites agriculture in the region can be traced with for greater yield and for a richer variety evidence from Mahagara and Koldihwa of agricultural products. Consequently, (District Allahabad) in the Belan Valley the UGP attained a superior economic (Tripathi, 2008). growth in course of three to four centuries of PGW culture. Therefore, the region The prevalent ecosystems, the land can be credited for evolving agriculture forms and the differential development, from the early stages of human settlement, conditioned by limits of human intellect domestication of rice, introduction of over time, divided the Gangetic plain into wheat from Harappan civilization, further three regions – the upper, the middle, and domestication of plant and animal species, the lower Gangetic plains. The UGP is improved cultivation involving initial comparatively drier and more arid, with plowing technology, making agriculture climate being little more prone to extremes. the main economic activity, and dispersal of It has by and large homogenous soil, with technologies and varieties of crops to other evidences of very early beginning of parts of the Gangetic plains, and the country agriculture traced to the Neolithic period, at large with or without new settlements. engaging most people. It can share the During these developments, it evolved a credit for the earliest domestication of rice large amount of genetic diversity in major at Koldihwa and Mahagara, with Chopani cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and vegetable Mando (District Allahabad, Belan river) of crops and practices like double cropping, the Middle Gangetic Plain (MGP) in the etc. Culturally, it can be credited with the same area, except China from where new evolution of urbanization with emergence/ evidences have risen in recent years (Tripathi, establishment of cities, and evolving and 2008). The region also had significant establishing the initial doctrines of the archaeological and other evidences for Hindu way of life. For these significant early cultivation of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, contributions to agriculture and culture, fruits, and vegetables. Further, there are the region is being proposed to be another evidences to suggest interaction with other National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage early civilizations, for example, wheat Site based on the indices illustrated by Singh cultivation was introduced into the region and Varaprasad (2008). by the Painted Gray Ware (PGW) culture. It is quite likely that it entered into the region through Harappan interactions, as proven by Location and extent the sites such as Bhagwanpura in Haryana The UGP region falls between the western or because of the movement of people from Himalayas in the north and the hills and Harappan civilization towards the more plateau in the south, and comprises the fertile Ganga-Yamuna river valley, due to major portion of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh climatic changes in the Indus Valley. It is (UP). The Allahabad-Faizabad tract can also suggested that due to favorable ecology be the dividing line between the Upper and generation of superior technology, the and Middle Gangetic plains (Tripathi, PGW folk favorably exploited the land 2008). Ecologically, the northern plains Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 23 of Punjab, Haryana, and the western parts Qila, Atranjikhera, Springpur, Hulas, Noh, of eastern UP can be included into this Hastinapur, Radhan, etc. region (Fig. 1). The region is bounded by the Himalayan subtropical pine forests, Landscape Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands and Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests in The dominant landscape of the Gangetic the Himalayan foothills on the north, by the Plains is a gentle slope. More than 95% drier northwestern thorn scrub forests and of the ecoregion has been degraded or Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forests in the converted into agriculture with settlements west, by the Narmada Valley dry deciduous of dense human population from thousands forests of the Malwa and Bundelkhand of years. Only the block running along the uplands on the south, and by the more humid Himalayan foothills in UP remains protected. MGP with grasslands and moist deciduous The landscape of the Gangetic Plains is forests on the east (Fig. 1). sometimes classified into four divisions:
Administratively, it may include districts • The Bhabar: the areas adjacent to the of northern Punjab, most of Haryana and foothills of the Himalayas, consisting western UP, and the districts such as Bareilly, of boulders and pebbles that have been Pilibhit, Lakhimpur Kheri, Sitapur, Hardoi, carried down by the river streams. As Sitapur, Barabanki, Lucknow, Unnao, Rae the porosity of this belt is very high, the Bareilly, Kanpur, Kannuj of Central UP, streams flow underground. Thebhabar and Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Sultanpur, is generally narrow with its width Faizabad, Gonda, and Balrampur of eastern varying between 7 and 15 km. UP (Fig. 1). The important sites of the region • The Terai: the area lying next to the with remains of ancient agriculture, which bhabar region, composed of newer might have been the epicenters of origin and evolution of agriculture, include Lal
The Gangetic Plain, watered by perennial rivers such as Ganga (Ganges), Yamuna, Ghagra, Gomati, Gandak, Son, and several tributaries with a long stretch of sedimental land, including the Upper Gangetic Plain (UPG), laid the foundations of agriculture in India by the early farming communities and can be considered the mother of much of agriculture practiced in other parts of Figure 1. Location and extent of the Upper the country. Gangetic Plain (area marked by dotted line). 24 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
alluvium. The underground streams two major rivers with tributaries such as reappear in this region. The region is the Gomati. A host of streams rising out of excessively moist and thickly forested. the Shiwalik Range irrigate the western part It also receives heavy rainfall throughout of the plains. On the eastern side, there are the year and is populated with a variety Kalindi, Sukantha, Hindon, etc. Most of the of wildlife. rivers are perennial, providing hospitable • The Bhangar: the area consisting land for human settlement. Because of these of older alluvium and forming the reasons the region is the most cultivable alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In part of India. the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits. Agroclimate • The Khadar: the area covering the The region is characterized as a hot subhumid lowland areas after the bhangar. It is ecoregion with alluvium-derived soil. The made up of fresh newer alluvium which climate of the region is characterized by hot is deposited by the rivers flowing down to warm summers and cool winters. It is the plain. relatively more prone to extremes. Winters The Terai zone is dominated by moderate could be frosty, especially in January, with to gentle slopes. In the ancient times, hailstorms up to February, which often thick vegetal cover, especially with moist damages the crops. During these months, deciduous forests covered the land. The the temperatures at times drop down to plains are man-made, developed through 5–7°C. In summers, the temperatures go deforestation. The region is predominantly up to 45°C during May and June, when the watered and irrigated by the Ganga river rains start cooling the scorching heat of the system (Fig. 2), which consists of the network of the Ganga and Yamuna, the Therefore, the region can be credited for evolving agriculture from the early stages of human settlement, domestication of rice, introduction of wheat from Harappan civilization, further domestication of plant and animal species, improved cultivation involving initial plowing technology, making agriculture the main economic activity, and dispersal of technologies and varieties of crops to other parts of the Gangetic plains, and the country at Figure 2. The revered Ganga flowing through large with or without new settlements. the Upper Gangetic Plain. Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 25
The dominant landscape of the The climate of the region is Gangetic Plains is a gentle slope. characterized by hot to warm summers and cool winters. It is relatively more prone to extremes. summer. The region receives a mean annual rainfall of around 1,000 mm, of which 70% falls during the summer monsoon period soils are khadar and bhangar. Khadar soils, extending from July to September. The rich in nutrients are found in the flood plains monsoons are southwest originating in of river, generally with pH ranging between the Bay of Bengal. Therefore, the eastern 6 and 8. Bhangar soil is more extensive in reaches of the Middle and Lower Gangetic inter pluvial zones. The soluble salts are plains receive more moisture, with a gradual present in a smaller percentage. It is neutral trend towards drier conditions in the west, to slightly acidic in reaction. The soils closer the UGP. The rainfall during this period to Ganga are loamy to sandy-loamy in averages around 500 mm. The rainfall texture, while the Yamuna region has more covers 70% of the evapotranspiration, silt composition. The bhangar soil is poor in extending the availability of moisture from phosphoric acid, nitrogen and other organic 150 to 180 days (Sehgal et al., 1992), which matters (Tripathi, 2008). is the growing period for crops. The dry period is from February to June. Floristic diversity The soils of the region are generally deep The region is rich in floristic diversity. In the loamy and have developed on alluvium. ancient times, the land was covered with a The dominant soil-scapes that represent the thick vegetal of moist deciduous forests. region constitutes gentle to very gentle sloping According to ancient literary sources, the Ustochrepts, Haplustalfs, and Ustifluvents as area between Saraswati and Sadanira was per the soil classification. The Terai zone is covered with thick forests such as Basundha, dominated by the soil-scapes with moderate Naimisaranya, and Utpalaranya. Sal, babool, to gentle sloping Hapludolls and Hapludalfs. khair, shisham, semal, etc. were the common The moisture availability in these soils ranges trees growing. Most of these plants have been from medium to high. The Basiaram (silt testified from the excavations at Lal Qila, loam soils) and Haldi (sandy loam) series Atranjikhera, Hastinapur, etc. represents the soils of the plains and of the piedmont plains, respectively; the latter are The major natural vegetation in the region is rich in organic matter (Sehgal et al., 1992). tropical dry deciduous forests. The dominant tree species in the region are khair (Acacia The soils of the region are by and large catechu Brandis), bael [Aegle marmelos homogenous with usar and bhabar, being (L.) Correa ex Roxb.], siris [Albizia lebbeck the two dominant types, depending on the (L.) Benth.], bakli [Anogeissus latifolia drainage pattern of the particular area. Other (Roxb.) Bedd], palas [Butea monosperma 26 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
(Lam.) Taub.], amaltas (Cassia fistula L.), Ehretia laevis Roxb., Ougeinia oojeinensis shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.), bargad Hochr., and Semecarpus anacardium L.f., (Ficus benghalensis L.), peepal (Ficus while typical third-story species include religiosa L.), haldu [Haldina cordifolia Berberis asiatica Griff., Clerodendron (Roxb.) Ridsdale; syn. Adina cordifolia viscosus Vent., Colebrookea oppositifolia (Roxb.) Bra], jamun [Syzygium cuminii Lodd., Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng., (L.) Skeels], sal (Shorea robusta C.F. Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf., and Gaertn.), and bahaera [Terminalia bellirica Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz. Common (Gaertn.) Roxb.]. The important grass shrub-layer species are Chrysopogon species are kilikanal (Arundo donax L.), fulvus, Heteropogon contortus L., and senr [Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov.], Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) Kuntze, jarakush [Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) while herbs include Bauhinia vahlii Wight Wats.], kush (Desmostachya bipinnata & Arn., and Milletia extensa (Benth.) Baker Stapf.), bhalai [Imperata cylindrica (L.) (syn. M. auriculata Baker ex Brandis). P.Beauv.], narkul [Phragmites karka (Retz.) However, the physiognomy of these forests Steud.], kans (Saccharum spontaneum L.), depends on various factors particularly and khuskhus (Vetiveria zizanioides L.). relating to variations in local climate, Based on the phytogeographical association, topography, geology, and soil. Rhind (2010) classified the forest vegetation into four categories. II. Tropical Moist Deciduous Riverine Forests I. Moist Deciduous Forests These forests occur on recent alluvium These are the original forests dominated by plains throughout the moist part of the sal (Shorea robusta), which form an upper Plains, particularly the sub-Himalayan canopy of trees reaching heights of up to 35 zones of UP. These riverine areas are usually m. Other commonly associated trees include well drained but liable to erosion and Adina cordifolia, Dillenia pentagyna flooding. So much of the well-established Roxb., Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb., forest occurs on the higher and more stable Stereospermum suaveolens DC., Terminalia alluvial terraces. The upper story typically bellirica, and T. tomentosa Wight & Arn. includes Adina cordifolia, Bombax ceiba L. However, today they remain only in the (syn. B. malabaricum DC), Garuga pinnata, area extending along the Himalayan Gmelina arborea Roxb., Hymenodictyon foothills of UP. In the Siwali Hills, canopy excelsum Wall., Lagerstroemia parviflora, trees other than the ones mentioned above Lannea coromandelica, and Terminalia include Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros bellirica. A few climbers and bamboos are tomentosa Roxb., Garuga pinnata Roxb., also found. Common second-story species Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr., and are Cassia fistula, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Common second- Ehretia acuminata R.Br., Emblica officinalis story species are Buchanania lanzan Gaertn., Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. Spreng., Dendrocalamus strictus Nees., ex A.DC., Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 27
Müll.Arg., Randia longispina DC., and ex C.B.Clarke, Oldenlandia diffusa Roxb., Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba Portulaca oleracea L., P. tuberosa Roxb., Mill.; Z. vulgaris Lam.). However, the and the grasses such as Aristida hystrix trees in these forests rarely form extensive Linn.f., Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) stands, and usually a shrub layer is well- Stapf., and Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. developed. Typical shrubs include Adhatoda Camus. In hollows and shallow depressions vasica Nees, Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl, where rainwater can accumulate “wild Glycosmis cochinchinensis Pierre ex Engl., paddies” often develop, characterized by Helicteres isora L., Murraya koenigii, and species such as Echinochloa colonum L., Podostemon plectranthoides. In places, the Ischaemum rugosum Salisb., and Paspalum shrub layer is so dense that few ground- scrobiculatum L. layer species can exist and even grasses are often sparse or absent. Ground-layer species IV. Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata include Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Grassland Schult. and Vallaris heynei Sprengel. These grasslands are found throughout the Gangetic Plain, from Punjab to III. Sporobolus-Chloris Saline Scrub the Brahmaputra Valley. They are In these areas, there is restricted drainage characteristic of low-lying, poorly drained combined with high summer temperatures land with higher water tables. The typical and low monsoonal rainfall, and soils perennial grasses are Imperata cylindrica have high concentration of salts. The (L.) P.Beauv., Phragmites karka (Retz.) vegetation has an irregular, semi-savannah Steud., and Saccharum L. species, such as appearance, with Acacia arabica Willd. S. arundinaceum Retz. (syn. S. procerum [syn. A. nilotica (L.) Delile] dominating Roxb.), S. bengalense Retz., and S. the loamy soils, and Butea frondosa Roxb. spontaneum. Other perennial grasses ex Willd., the clayed waterlogged areas. represented throughout this formation Azadirachta indica A. Juss. is frequent and include Bothriochloa intermedia (R.Br.) the palm Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. has A.Camus, B. odorata (Lisboa) A.Camus, a scattered distribution. At the ground level, Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin., the gregarious, perennial grass Sporobolus Cynodon dactylon Pers., Desmostachya pallidus Benth. often dominates together with bipinnata, Hymenachne pseudointerrupta the annual grass Chloris montana Roxb., and Müll.Hal., Ischaemum timorense Kunth, the annual forb (non-grass herb) Cyanotis Narenga porphyrocoma Bor., Neyraudia axillaris (L.) D.Don. However, many of reynaudiana (Kunth) Keng ex Hitchc., the characteristic species have sporadic Panicum notatum Retz., Sclerostachya distributions, which include Aeschynomene fusca A.Camus, Sporobolus indicus (L.) indica L., Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) R.Br., and Vetiveria zizanioides. Typical A.DC., Aneilema nudiflorum Miq. ex annual species are Apluda mutica L., C.B.Clarke, Corchorus acutagulus Lam., Chionachne koenigii (Spreng.) Thwaites Cyperus aristatus Hook.f. & Thoms. Partim & Hook.f., Dactyloctenium aegyptium 28 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
(L.) K.Richt., Echinochloa colonum, nomadic and subsisted on large herds of Eragrostis viscosa Scribn., Ischaemum domesticated cattle and farm animals. They rugosum Salisb., Microstegium ciliatum moved their settlements from one pastoral A.Camus, Paspalum scrobiculatum, area to another and lived on agrarian and and Schizachyrium brevifolium (Sw.) dairy products obtained from cattle. As Nees ex Büse. In addition to grasses, their requirements grew, they brought over 50 species of herbaceous forbs large tracts of fertile land under the plow, have also been recorded. These include driven by oxen. Therefore, agriculture or Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) DC., Blumea farming has been the mainstay of the people membranacea DC., Euphorbia hirta of this region from time immemorial; in L., Hyptis brevipes Benth., Kyllinga fact, the region has been the epicenter of brevifolia Rottb., Leucas aspera Link, origin and evolution of agriculture due to Lindernia crustacea (L.) F.Muell., the availability of water for the most part Lochnera rosea Rchb., and Mikania of the year from rains, and the network of scandens Willd. However, in very tributaries of major rivers (that later evolved swampy areas, the reed Phragmites karka into the canal system). For this reason, can become mono-dominant covering traditional farming practices relate to both 90% of the areas. rainfed and irrigated agriculture. The region is often referred as a granary or the bread- basket of India. Agriculture and agrobiodiversity The agriculture in the region is very old, Rice was domesticated in the region, and wheat domesticated early suited well to the dating back to the Vedic Age [1,500–600 dry winter climate. Therefore, most of the BCE; 8000–1000 BCE (editors)] and farming and cropping systems that evolved before, which saw the development of revolve around these two crops. During the agricultural activities on a large scale. rainy (kharif) season, the common crops The people of the early phase were semi- grown in the area are rice, maize, and pigeonpea, and during the postrainy cold (rabi) season, wheat, chickpea, rapeseed The region is rich in floristic diversity. mustard, and vegetables are grown. In the ancient times, the land was Sugarcane is cultivated as a post-rabi crop covered with a thick vegetal of moist during November–December and February– deciduous forests. According to ancient March. The post-rabi, summer crops include literary sources, the area between short-duration pulses such as Vigna spp. and Saraswati and Sadanira was covered vegetables such as cucurbits, which are also with thick forests such as Basundha, cultivated in river beds. Naimisaranya, and Utpalaranya. Sal, babool, khair, shisham, semal, etc. Rice is the main kharif crop, traditionally were the common trees growing. cultivated in the eastern districts of the UGP (Fig. 3). The alternate crops are Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 29 maize, sorghum, pulses, sugarcane, and groundnut. Traditionally, wheat–chickpea based cropping patterns were main rabi crops in the areas of northwestern districts of UP and Haryana. The network of canals in Punjab, Haryana, and northwestern districts of UP support irrigated wheat crops (Fig. 4). The alternative important rabi crops are maize, sugarcane, and groundnut. The kharif maize has the largest Figure 4. Wheat crop in the Upper Gangetic area in UP, with alternate crops as rice Plain. (Source: green.blogs.nytime.com) in kharif and wheat in rabi. However, in some areas, groundnut, sugarcane, finger millet, and pulses are the alternate crops. chickpea, rice–lentil, rice–mustard, rice– Hence, the major crops of the region are fallow–fallow, rice–fallow–rice, potato– rice, maize, pearl millet, wheat, barley, black gram/green gram, etc. Presently, of sorghum, chickpea, pigeonpea, lentil, black the 77 cropping systems practiced, 38 are gram, green gram, pea, rapeseed mustard, rice-based. About 7% of the area is covered sunflower, groundnut, linseed, cotton, by 5 single-crop systems; 72% of the area by sugarcane, potato, vegetables, etc. 56 double-crop systems; and the remainder 21% by 16 triple-crop systems. The major cropping systems are rice–wheat, which brought about the Green Revolution In addition, to ensure the availability of in the region. Other cropping systems are diverse food, mixed cropping is also a sorghum–wheat, sugarcane–wheat, cotton– part of traditional agricultural cropping wheat, pearl millet–rapeseed mustard, systems, which include vegetable crops. For maize–wheat, maize–wheat–green gram, example, the planting of Cucumis melo var. pigeonpea–wheat, groundnut–wheat, rice– momordica or C. sativus mixed with maize and pearl millet is a common constituent of subsistence agriculture.
Crop–livestock interaction has been a unique feature of the region, and there has been a tradition of using crop residue as the main fodder for livestock. For example, wheat straw is the most preferred feed for animals, which may be supplemented with pulse peels and oilcake. Livestock has a major input in crop production by providing Figure 3. Irrigated agriculture of the Upper all the energy required to perform most Gangetic Plain. operations/activities. 30 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Representative species in various crop aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal], pigeonpea groups [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp], rapeseed
Cereals, pseudocereals, and millets. mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) Hook.f. Amaranth (Amaranthus hypocondriacus L.), & Thomson; B. napus L.; B. rapa L. var. barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), buckwheat brown sarson; B. rapa L. var. yellow sarson; (Fagopyrum emarginatum Moench), foxtail B. campestris L.; B. tournefortii Gouan], millet [Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.], kodo safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), sweet millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), maize pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.), and taramira (Zea mays L.), oat (Avena sativa L.), pearl (Eruca sativa Mill.). millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.], Fodder and fiber crops. Cluster bean proso millet (Panicum miliaeceum L.), (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus), cowpea ragi or finger millet (Eleusine coracana [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], deenanath Gaertn.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), sorghum grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin.), [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], and wheat Ficus auriculata Lour., F. semicordata (Triticum aestivum L.). Buch.-Ham. ex Sm., Grewia optiva J.R. Drumm. ex Burret., guinea grass (Panicum Grain legumes and oilseeds. Black gram maximum Jacq.), gular (Ficus racemosa L.; [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper], chickpea (Cicer syn. F. glomerata Roxb.), Lathyrus aphaca arietinum L.), cluster bean [Cyamopsis L., Leucaena leucocephala Lamk., levant tetragonolobus (L.) Taub.], garden pea cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.), napier (Pisum sativum L.), green gram [Vigna grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.), radiata (L.) Wilczek var. radiata], lablab oat (Avena sativa), rhodes grass (Chloris bean [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet ssp. dolichostachya Lag.), Sesbania sesban (L.) benghalensis (Jacq.) Cufod.], lentil (Lens Merr., Trifolium resupinatum L., tula cotton culinaris Medic), moth bean [Vigna (Gossypium arboreum L.), and velvet bean [Mucuna deeringiana (Bort.) Merr.]. In addition, crop residues of major and minor Rice was domesticated in the region, cereals and their forage types are used as and wheat is introduced early, fodder. suited well to the dry winter climate. Therefore, most of the farming and Vegetables. Ash gourd [Benincasa cropping systems that evolved revolve hispida (Thunb.) Cong.], bhindi or okra around these two crops. During the [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench], rainy (kharif) season, the common bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.; M. crops grown in the area are rice, balsamina L.), bottle gourd [Lagenaria maize, and pigeonpea, and during the siceraria (Molina) Standley], brinjal postrainy cold (rabi) season, wheat, (Solanum melongena L.), brussels sprouts chickpea, rapeseed mustard, and (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera Zenker), vegetables are grown. cabbage [Brassica oleracea var. capitata (L.) DC.], cauliflower (Brassica oleracea Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 31 var. botrytis L.), cucumber (Cucumis (Dioscorea trifida L.f.; D. bulbifera L.), sativus L.), kachari (Cucumis melo var. kand (D. kalkapershadii Prain & Burkill.), agrestis Naud.), kakri (Cucumis melo var. kanda or shallot (Allium ascalonicum utilissimus Duthie and Fuller), kohlrabi L.; syn. A. cepa L. var. aggregatum), (Brassica oleracea L. var. gongylodes L.), onion (Allium cepa L.), potato (Solanum mitha kumra (Cucurbita maxima Lam.), tuberosum L.), radish (Raphanus sativus muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.), phut or L.), and shakarkand or sweet potato snap melon (Cucumis melo var. momordica [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.]. Duthie and Fuller), pumpkin [Cucurbita pepo L.; Cucurbita maxima Duchesne], Fruits. Anjir (Ficus carica L.; F. palmata rape (Brassica napus L.), ras dhana Forsk.), aonla (Emblica officinalisGaertn.), (Amaranthus caudatus L.), ridge gourd bael (Agle marmelos), ber (Ziziphus [Luffa acutangula (L.) (Roxb.], round oenoplia Mill.), ber or European nettle gourd or tinda [Praecitrullus fistulosus tree (Celtis australis L.), guava (Psidium (Stocks) Pangalo; syn. Citrullus fistulosus guajava L. Links), jackfruit (Artocarpus Stocks; C. lanatus var. fistulosus (Stocks) heterophyllus Lam.), jamun [Syzygium Duthie & J.B.Fuller], satawar (Asparagus cuminii (L.) Skeels], kaiphal (Myrica racemosus L.), sponge gourd (Luffa esculenta Buchanan-Hamilton ex D. Don), cylindrica Roxb.; syn. L. aegyptiaca Mill.), karaunda (Carissa carandas Lour.), karna and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.; syn. orange (Citrus karna Raf.), khejri (Prosopis Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.). cineraria Druce.), kinnow (Citrus deliciosa Ten.; syn. C. reticulata Blanco.), kondai Leafy vegetables. Bathua (Chenopodium or parker [Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) album L.), chaulai (Amaranthus paniculatus Merr.; syn. F. sepiaria Roxb.], krape L.), garden lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), (Citrus paradisi Macfad.), litchi (Litchi green vegetable [Beta vulgaris L. var. chinensis Sonn. Mill.), mango (Mangifera orientalis (Roth) Moq.], lal sag (Amaranthus indica L.), shahtoot or mulberry (Morus gangeticus L.), faridbutti used as pot herb alba L.; M. nigra L.), orange (Citrus (Farsetia hamiltonii Royle, F. jacquemontii sinensis L. Osbeck), papeeta or papaya Royle), latmhuria or leafy pot herb [Digera (Carica papaya L.), Perilla ocymoides L., muricata (L.) Mart.], methi or fenugreek phalwara [Aesandra butyracea (Roxb.) (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.), mustard Baehni], pomegranate (Punica granatum green [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. var. L.), pureni [Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) integrifolia (H. West) Sinskaya], spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), and water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.). Crop–livestock interaction has been Rhizome, tubers, and bulbs. Arbi or arvi a unique feature of the region, and [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott], carrot there has been a tradition of using crop (Daucus carota L.), lahsan or garlic residue as the main fodder for livestock. (Allium sativum L.), jimikand or Indian yam 32 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Planch.; syn. Vitis latifolia Roxb.], galphuli piperita L.), mustu (Lactuca remotiflora or salpan (Flemingia chappar Benth.), DC.), opium (Papaver somniferum L.), sansaru [Debregeasia hypoleuca (Hochst.) rasana (Pluchea lanceolata), rose (Rosa Wedd.], tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), damascena L.) cultivated extensively in watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Aligarh, Sikanderabad, and Kannooj, Matsum. & Nakai], and wood apple satawar (Asparagus curillus Buch.-Ham. (Feronia elephantum Correa; syn. Limonia ex Roxb.; A. sarmentosus L.), shalaparni acidissima L.). [Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC], vach (Acorus calamus L.), and velvet bean Spices. Benarasi rai or black mustard [Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.]. [Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.], coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), curry patta Timber. Babool [Acacia arabica Willd.; syn. (Murraya koenigii Spreng.), fennel A. nilotica (L.) Delile], dhau (Anogeissus (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), lal mirchi latifolia), khair (Acacia catechu), red (Capsicum annuum L.), pudina (Mentha cedar (Toona ciliata M.Roem.), neem arvensis L.), and turmeric (Curcuma (Azadirachta indica), sal (Shorea robusta), domestica Valet.; syn. C. longa L.). semal (Bombax ceiba L.), and shisham (Dalbergia sissoo). Other crop species. Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria L.), rasna (Pluchea lanceolata Multipurpose species. Buel (Grewia Oliv. & Hiern), and sugarcane (Saccharum optiva), chironji (Buchanania lanzan), date officinarum L.). palm [Phoenix robusta (Becc.) Hook.f.], Indopiptadenia oudhensis (Brandis) Brenan, Medicinal plants. Adusa (Adhatoda zeylanica khair (Acacia catechu), mahua (Madhuca Medik.), aloe (Aloe barbadensis Mill.), indica J. F. Gmel.; syn. M. longifolia arandi or castor (Ricinus communis L.), Macbride), palas (Butea monosperma), ashwagandha [Withania somnifera (L.) pongam [Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre], Dunal.], babchi [Psoralea corylifolia L.; siris (Albizia lebbeck), and Thysanolaena syn. Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik.], basil maxima (Roxb.) Kuntze (brooms). (Ocimum sanctum L.), behada (Terminalia Gum- and resin-yielding plants and forest bellirica), bael (Aegle marmelos), chitraka products. Because of high crop productivity, (Plumbago zeylanica L.), datura (Datura there is less dependence on forest products. stramonium L.), false amaranth (Digera However, in areas around the forests, muricata Mart.), giloe [Tinospora cordifolia the local people do harvest food, folk (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson], Indian medicines, fodder, fuel, and variety of other madder [Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Flem.; plant species, yielding products such as syn. R. cordifolia L., Sesbania cannabina dyes, tannins, gum, fibers, resin, etc. (Retz.) Pers.], kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata Nees), karihari (Gloriosa Wild relatives of crop species. Arora and superba L.), lemongrass [Cymbopogon Nayar (1984) recorded the following martinii (Roxb.) Wats.], mentha (Mentha wild relatives of crop plants from the Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 33 region: Abelmoschus tuberculata Pal & Roxb., C. leucorhiza Roxb., Dioscorea Singh, Amaranthus spinosus L., Brassica deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb., Echinochloa quadrivalis Hook.f. & Thorn., Chenopodium colonum, Indigofera caerulea Roxb. var. album L., Cichorium intybus L., Coccinia caerulea, Indigofera gangetica Sanjappa, I. indica Wight & Arn., Cochorus trilocularis thothathri Sanjappa, Momordica balsamina L., Cucumis satosus Cogn., Grewia asiatica L., Oryza rufipogon Griff., Panicum Mast., Hibiscus surathensis L., Lathyrus notatum, Phoenix paludosa Roxb., P. aphacea L., Lepidium draba, Luffa echinata sylvestris, Saccharum arundinaceum, S. Roxb. var. longistylis (Edur.) Clarke, bengalense, S. spontaneum, Trigonella Paspalum scrobiculatum L., Saccharum corniculata L. (syn. T. balansae Boiss. & longisetosum (And.) Narayanaswami ex Reut., T. obcordata Benth., T. occulta Ser.), Br., Sclerostachya fusca Roxb., Setaria Vigna prainiana Babu & S.K.Sharma, and V. sphacelata (Sch.), Trigonella polycerata radiata var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verdc. L., and Urena repanda Roxb. ex Sm. In addition, the following other wild relatives Endemic species. Being open and spread have been recorded in the region: jangli over, the Gangetic plains are poor in bhindi [Abelmoschus cancellatus (L.f.) J.O. endemism. Only a few species can be Voigt; syn. A. crinitus Wall.; A. manihot considered endemic, such as Carex (L.) Medik.], Allium stracheyi Baker, myosurus Nees var. oraestans (C.B. Amaranthus polygamus L., Asparagus Clarke) Kuek, Derris scandens Benth. var. curillus, A. sarmentosus, Atylosia saharunpurensis, Indigofera gangetica, I. scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (used as pot thothathri, Indopiptadenia oudhensis, and herb), Carissa spinerum L., Carthamus Praecitrullus fistulosus. Table 1 summarizes oxycantha Bieb., Chenopodium murale L., the representative endemic species of the Corchorus acutagulus, Curcuma ferrugenea region.
Table 1. Representative species endemic to the Upper Gangetic Plain: parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Plant species Family Habit Distribution Remarks Derris scandens var. Fabaceae Woody vine Terai region Medicinal saharunpurensis Indigofera gangetica Fabaceae Herb Upper Gangetic Plain Genetic resource Indigofera thothathri Fabaceae Shrubs Uttar Pradesh Genetic resource Indopiptadenia Mimosaceae Small tree Eastern Uttar Pradesh Fuel wood and oudhensis fodder Praecitrullus fistulosus Cucurbitaceae Trailing vine Western Uttar Pradesh, Vegetable Haryana 34 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Threatened species. Nayar (1996) reported Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus Müller plant species such as Albizia thompsonii & Henle), swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii Brandis, Carex myosurus Nees var. oraestans Cuvier), etc. (C.B. Clarke) Kuek., Carum villosum Haines, Ligusticum albo-alatum Haines to Associated culture and tribes be under various levels of threat. But now, because of various anthropological pressures, According to the German indologist a number of species are under threat. As per a Max Müller, Aryan tribes migrated to the recent study in the Gangetic Khadar region, Indian subcontinent and spread into the identified as one of the most vulnerable UGP. He believed that they soon mingled areas, a large number of species have been with the local people and adapted to an found missing. They included Bacopa agrarian way of life after settling down in monnieri (L.) Pennell, Hygrorhiza aquatica, small, organized communities. However, Coix lacryma-jobi, Sisymbrium irio L., archaeological evidence and scientifically Capparis zeylanica Roxb., Hypericum authenticated Vedic literature suggest japonicum Thunb., Crotalaria orixensis continuity from the Saraswati Valley and Willd., Alternanthera philoxeroides Griseb., Harappan (Indus Valley) or Indus Sarasvata Polygonum plebejum var. sindica, Rumex civilization to the Ganga Valley (Vedic or crispus L., and Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Indo-Gangetic) civilization. These sources Müll.Arg. (Khan et al., 2008). Recently, also suggest that Aryans were local people, Prakash et al. (2010) reported Indopiptadenia as no archaeological evidences related oudhensis to be under threat, and the Ministry with Aryan culture are found anywhere of Environment and Forests (Government of else, except India (Swami, 2008). In the India), reported several more species, such as Vedic Age [(1,500–600 BCE; 8000–1000 Arenaria curvifolia Majumdar, Brachystelma BCE (editors)], Aryans established four laevigatum Hook.f., B. pauciflorum Duthie, scriptures of knowledge called the Vedas: Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb., Cymbopogon the Rig Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda, flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Watson, Diospyros and the Atharva Veda. These collections of holeana Gupta & Kanjilal, Hemarthria hymns, with their social, religious, and hamiltoniana Steud., Indigofera thothathri philosophical doctrines, laid the foundation Sanjappa, and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) of the Hindu way of thought, life, and the Benth. ex Kurz to be under threat, in their religion. Aryans settled down as full-time recent press release (PIB Press Release, farmers and brought large tracts of fertile 2010). Some representative species under land of the region under the plow. Based on threat are listed in Table 2. profession, they classified the society into four main castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, In addition, to the above plant species, Vaishyas, and Shudras. several animal species of economic and environmental value are under threat of The tribal communities in the region are extinction, such as the Ganges river dolphin not large. There are other communities, (Platanista gangetica Lebeck; Roxb.), comprising the backward classes, scheduled Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 35
Table 2. Representative species under threat in the Upper Gangetic Plain: parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Threat Plant species Family Habit level1 Use
Albizia thompsonii Fabaceae Tree R Wood Bacopa monnieri Scrophulariaceae Herb R Ayurvedic medicine Brachystelma laevigatum2 Asclepiadaceae Herb VU Attractive foliage Brachystelma pauciflorum2 Asclepiadaceae Herb EN Food Carex myosurus var. Cyperaceae Herb EN Fodder oraestans Capparis zeylanica Capparaceae Shrub R Medicinal Ceropegia bulbosa2 Asclepiadaceae Tuberous herb VU Food Coix lacryma-jobi Poaceae Grass R Food grain Crotalaria orixensis Fabaceae Perennial herb R Crotaorixin, genetic resource Cymbopogon flexuosus2 Poaceae Grass EN Lemongrass Diospyros holeana2 Ebenaceae Tree VU Timber Hemarthria hamiltoniana2 Poaceae Grass EN Grass Indigofera thothathri2 Leguminosae Shrub VU Genetic resource Indopiptadenia oudhensis Mimosaceae Tree EN Fodder, fuel wood Mallotus philippensis Euphorbiaceae Tree R Dye, medicinal Polygonum plebejum var. Polygonaceae Herb R Medicinal sindica Rauvolfia serpentina2 Apocynaceae Shrub VU Medicinal Rumex crispus Polygonaceae Perennial herb R Medicinal Sisymbrium irio Brassicaceae Herb R Mustard genetic resource
1. EN = Endangered; R = Rare; VU = Vulnerable. 2. Notified by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India.
castes and scheduled tribes. The scheduled and Rajis. Being both Rajputs and Brahmins, castes and tribes live in rural areas and are the Jaunsari tribe occupies the major portion, mostly dependent on agriculture, forming and mostly work as laborers in fields, farms, the landless labor class. The Government and forests. Other tribes such as the Kolis, of India has recognized five of the tribal Koisor Koltas, Aujis, and Doms are known communities as disadvantaged scheduled by the name Harijans. The Terai-Bhabar castes: Tharus, Bhoksas, Bhotas, Jaunsaries, area is concentrated with the Bhoksas and 36 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites the Tharus, while the southern areas are of that time were mainly food gatherers populated by tribes such as the Agaria, and growing of agricultural crops was an Bhumiyar, Bhil, Chero, Gond, Kol, etc. experiment, it reflected their ingenuity and Along with the Tharus and the Bhoksas, desire to progress into settled agriculture there are some other tribes who trace (Chowdhary, 1983). their origin from the Mongoloids and the Khasas of the Himalayan region belonging During the Iron Age, wheat cultivation was to the Indo-Aryan stock. The Bhils and the introduced into the region by the PGW Saharujas belong to the Indo-Dravidian culture. Wheat grains of Triticum compactum lineage, and the Gonds and Kols belong to Host. without husk were collected from Munda-Dravidian stock. Koltas till the land Atranjikhera. Wheat was also found at for the Khasa tribe. The Haryana region Hulas in UP and Mohrana in Punjab. This mostly belongs to the Indo-Aryan and suggests that wheat entered in the region Indo-Dravidian tribes and includes several through interactions with Harappans. This allied agricultural communities, the major is also well proven by the findings at sites ones being the Jats, Rajputs, Ahirs, Rors, such as Bhagwanpura in Haryana, which Gujjars, etc. reveal the ingenuity and desire of the local people even in early times, for improving their agriculture with the introduction of Technology and products potentially valuable food crops from other Being one of the centers of origin and regions. It is worth mentioning that wheat evolution of agriculture, the UPG region discovered at these sites was Triticum has made immense contributions to global compactum, and not the T. aestivum L. that agriculture both in terms of products and is generally found in the MGP (Saraswat, technology. The region can be credited 1994). In these excavations, it was further with the earliest domestication of both plant revealed that significant improvement was and animal species and farming, beginning made in farming of the wheat crop to obtain with Neolithic settlements around 2,000 high yields, a proof of the contributions of BCE. The beginning of agriculture in the the local people in improving production region can be traced with evidence from technologies. Mahagara and Koldihwa in Allahabad at the Belan Valley, where cultivated rice grains In subsequent periods, even legumes were belonging to the Neolithic period were cultivated. The literary evidences from identified (Sharma, 1980). Subsequently, in the Vedic period that was contemporary the early Iron Age, the region was colonized with PGW, mention several cereals, such by the Ochre-Colored Pottery culture. as yava (barley) and dhanya (paddy) with During this phase, it has been found to breeds like plasuka (fast growing), sali, be associated with rice, barley, chickpea, vrihi swastika (sathi), etc. Upvaka (barley), and khesari dal, which were identified godhum (wheat), syamaka (millet), and by Chowdhary (1983) in excavations at other crops such as masa (lentil), khalakula Atranjikhera (UP). Although, the people (kulthi), khalva, mudga (munrga), kulmasa Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 37
(urad), sesame (til), and bajra (millet) appeared in the region. At Radhan in also find mention. Incidentally, these Kanpur (Lal, 1984), wheat, barley, pea and crops are also identified in archaeological an unidentified cotyledon of legumes were remains. Some other edible species found. During the Northern Black Polished mentioned in these texts are urvaru and Ware period, newer settlements came up in urvauka (cucumbers), garmut (wild beans), the entire Gangetic Plains, extending the karakandhu, kavala, and badara (jujube). culture and agriculture to other parts of the In addition, there appear several other plant subcontinent, leading to its expansion into names, such as am, amla, gavindhuta, nimbi, the Nepalese Terai region in the northeast, priyangu, masusya, and saya (Sharma, to Taxila and Udegram in the west, to 1983), reflecting the contributions of local Brahmagiri-Amaravati-Ter in the south, people in discovering plants with food and and across the peninsula from Gujarat, nutritional value. Further, this also means Saurashtra (Prabhas Patan) in the west to that even in those early days the people Chandraketugarh in Bengal in the east. were consuming a variety of grains and food The period of 600–300/200 BCE was the items. Archaeological and literary evidences age of consolidation of power in the entire also indicate the circulation of many wild Gangetic Plains. This gradually brought a varieties of beans and millets, suggesting the large number and rich variety of agricultural contribution of local people in introduction implements into practice. of plant species. The variety of crops also Thus, the fertile Gangetic Plains with plenty suggests the practice of double-cropping of water resources became the center of right from 1,000 BCE. cultivation of a number of plant species, and As the region was more suitable, ecologically, the recipient of introduced crop diversity for wheat cultivation, it developed from Central Asia and Africa, especially of technological skills needed for the cultivation cereals, legumes, vegetables, and oilseeds of this crop. The relatively dry and sandy from the early times. These crop species, soil of the region could be plowed even through adaptations and selections in time with wooden plowshares; however, there and space over the millennia, evolved into are evidences to prove the use of the iron large genetic diversity as new varieties and plowshare, suggesting the existence of plow cultivars adapted to different agroecological cultivation in the region during 1,000–800 zones of the Gangetic Plains, converting the BCE. Thus, due to the favorable ecology region into an important center of diversity. and knowledge of superior technology, the In rice, the region is known for variability PGW folk of the region were able to exploit for drought tolerance, deep-water floating the land for greater yield, and richer varietal types, scented rice, etc. For example, the products of wheat, and attained superior winter variety Agahani and the group of economic gains. varieties called Usar are well known for salt tolerance and have been used in breeding During the early urban culture, a new programs. In non-aromatic rice, cultivars crop of pulses (Phaseolus mungo L.) such as Adamchini, Anjee, Bambasa, 38 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Bansi, Dehula, Jaisuria, Jalamonga, Another variety T7 was developed from a N22, NP130, Tapachini, T100, T136, and sample collected from Lucknow (Singh et Jhona (Haryana) are commonly known. In al., 2006a). In lentil and pea, a wide range aromatic rice, Basmati, Duniapet, Hansraj, of diversity has been observed in seed Kala Namak, Kalasukhdas, Lalmati, size, shape, color, and time to maturity in Sakkarchini, Tilakchandan, and Vishnuparag material collected from Haryana and UP are commonly known. Some of the valuable regions along the Yamuna river (Singh et traditional varieties with aroma, such as al., 2006b), leading to the development of Kala Namak, evolved with resistance to varieties such as Pant L234 from P230. In soil salinity (Siddiq et al., 2006). Drought cluster bean, the region offers variability tolerance landraces are known from Nagina. for early maturity, determinate habit, Similarly, in wheat, traditional cultivars disease resistance, and fodder yield. In such as Muzaffarnagar white and Etawah moth bean, Type 1 has been developed white are known. Consequently, a number of from a landrace collected from Meerut with landraces from the region, with resistance to spreading habit, medium bold seed, and Karnal bunt, leaf blight, heat tolerance, and late maturity (Dabas et al., 2006). There is several other desirable features, particularly variability in cowpea regarding its habit, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses have flower color, coloration of plants including been identified at the Directorate of Wheat pod and seed, and their size. Research, Karnal (Singh et al., 2006c). In barley, genetic variability for saline and Among oilseeds, the region has recorded alkaline conditions prevailing in UP has significant variability in Brassica rapa, been collected (Verma et al., 2006), and with early and dwarf types, particularly varieties such as C84 (K84), a selection in cultivars of varieties Toria and Yellow from Aligarh local, C50 (K50) from Sithapur sarson. Consequent of this, several varieties local, and Type 4 from Rewari local have have been developed from local landraces, been developed. In maize, Teenpakhya is for example in B. rapa var. toria, T-9, a known from UP, and landraces such as Sathi selection from 5509 of UP, T-36 from a local (that matures in 65–70 days in summer) landrace of Etawah, TL-15 from Karnal have been identified with high tolerance to local, and Bhiwani, a selection from a local heat (Saxena et al., 1994). In pearl millet, landrace collected from the Terai region of wide variation has been observed in plant UP. In B. rapa var. yellow sarson, T-10 a height, flowering time, shape and size of selection from Kanpur local, T-151 from spike and grain (Rao et al., 1983). Aligarh local, K-88 from Etawah local, Ragini (MYSL 203) from Allahabad local, Among grain legumes, in pigeonpea, and YST151 from Barabanki local have significant variability has been observed, been produced (Kumar et al., 2004). In B. and landraces such as ICP 7626 with juncea, T-11 from a landrace of Kanpur, resistance to wilt have been collected and Shekhar (KR5610) from Etawah local, used in the development of the variety Narendra Rai from Atwa local, Kanti Maruti (Remanandan and Singh, 1997). (RK9807) from Kanpur local, and Laha Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 39
101 (T101) from landraces of Etawah, Pusa In cucurbits, the region is an important center Kisan (T6342) from a landrace of Agra have of diversity for Cucumis melo and Citrullus been developed. In Eruca sativa, T-17 has lanatus. The round gourd Praecitrullus been developed from Gurgaon local (Kumar fistulosus,a monotypic genus that is nearly et al., 2004). In safflower, the variability has endemic to the region, was domesticated been recorded in the form of a wild relative, here and so did the ash gourd Benincasa Carthamus oxycantha, growing as a weed hispida, adding important sources of food. in the region. The region has downy mildew and root rot wilt complex resistant types in Praecitrullus The Indo-Gangetic Plains appear to be fistulosus. The andromonoecious type the center of origin and diversity for in Lageneria siceraria from Faizabad Gossypium arboreum. All races of G. and Shahjahanpur are important from arboreum are derived from the northern the breeding point of view. In several of perennial arboreum cotton (Singh et al., these crops, varieties have been developed 2004). The region is also known for the through selection from local landraces: for significant genetic variability inSaccharum example, in muskmelon, Lucknow safeda spontaneum, a wild relative of sugarcane, from Lucknow local; in Cucumis sativus, distributed in the sub-Himalayan region Kalyanpur green from a local cultivar; in from Dehradun to the Sunderbans, offering smooth gourd (Luffa cylindrica), Kalyanpur variability in desirable features such as Hari Chikni; in ridge gourd (L. acutangula), resistance to diseases, insect pests, drought, Punjab sadabahar; in Momordica charantia, salinity, and waterlogging. Kalyanpur Barahmasi and Pusa Videsh from Hapur local; and in C. melo var. utilissimus, The region is an important center of genetic Arka Sheetal from Lucknow local (Sirohi et diversity for vegetable crops, because it al., 2005). In addition, several wild species offers diverse agroecological niches for of these crops, such as Luffa echinata, adaptation. In brinjal (Solanum melongena), Cucumis satosus, Momoridica balsamina, landraces such as Ramnagar Baingan (long etc. offer further variability for use in the fruit type is suitable for the Ganga River breeding programs. belt), Dudhiya Baingan (cluster bearing fruit type), Jethuwa Baingan (suited for In potato, the Farakhabad region offers great summer plantation), Haryana Brinjal variability; Agra-red has been derived from 14, Kuchabuchia Baingan (small cluster a local type (Shekhawat et al., 2005). In bearing type), Jafrabadi (deep purple, round okra, Mishra et al.(2000) have reported wild oval type with less seeds), and Balfahwa species of Abelmoschus from the Terai belt. Jathuwa Bhanta (tall, perfuse branching, Other species reported from the region are cluster bearing, better shelf life type, Abelmoschus cancellatus (Saharanpur), A. suited to summer cropping) offer desirable manihot (Behata and Mahoba), A. manihot variability. Similarly, in chili, there is ssp. tetraphyllus (Rampur, Nagina, and significant variability in fruit shape, size, Dhampur), and A. tuberculatus (Sharanpur). and color (Kalloo et al., 2005). In onion, Pusa Madhawi was developed 40 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites from Muzaffarnagar local and Kalyanpur size, shape, pulp color, acidity, and earliness, red round from Kanpur local (Pandey et though no pure line has been established yet. al., 2005). Variability has been recorded in Similarly, variability has been recorded in some important spices, such as coriander Grewia subinaequalis (phalsa) (Vashishtha and fennel, and varieties such as Pant et al., 2005). In lemon (Citrus lemon), Haritima and Azad Dhania, and Azad Saunf variability has resulted in the selection of 1, have been developed through selection varieties such as Baramasia, Pant lemon, and and mass selection from local landraces Gandhraj (Karihaloo et al., 2005). respectively. A number of traditional mixed cropping, The region represents rich genetic diversity intercropping, and crop rotation systems in the case of tropical and arid fruits. have evolved to suit different agroclimate The region has a number of traditional requirements. The region is also known varieties in mango, such as Bombay green, for several cultural practices for pests and Dashehari, Fazli, Langra, Safeda Lucknow, disease control using natural products such Smarbehisht, Chausa, etc. In guava, a wide as neem cake/leaves/powder and spread of range of variability occurs in Allahabad, cow-dung ash to control powdery mildew Mirzapur, Kanpur, Unnao, and Fatehpur, disease, etc. Additionally, the people and several traditional varieties, such as of the region can be credited with the Lucknow 49, Allahabad Safed, Red flashed development of a unique by-product from and Chitidar, Banarasi, Harijha, etc., are the local vegetable species: the city of Agra commonly known for their distinct features is geographically associated with the sweet (Mitra and Bose, 1999). In arid fruits such called Petha made from the ash gourd. as Aegle marmelos, local cultivars Darogaji, Ojha, Rampuri, Azamal, Khamaria, Kagzi Future perspectives Gonda, and Kagzi Etawah offer a great deal of variability. In aonla or Indian The region has deep loamy soil having gooseberry (Emblica officinalis), grown optimum soil–air–water relationship. extensively in the region, wide variability However, it is the most populous region for fruit characteristics has been recorded in the world, putting a great pressure on in local landraces such as Hathijhool, the natural resources that have been on the Basanti red, Deshi, Chakaiya, resulting in decline. The biodiversity of the region is the selection and release of many varieties under threat, as reflected by the number of from the Acharya Narendra Dev University of Agriculture and Technology. In Zizyphus mauritiana, several forms are available in The Indo-Gangetic Plains appear to Western UP and Haryana, and varieties such be the center of origin and diversity as Gola Gurgaon, Sanaur 1, Safed Rohtak for Gossypium arboreum. All races have been developed. In jamun or Java of G. arboreum are derived from the plum (Syzygium cumini), the region has a northern perennial arboreum cotton. major concentration of variability for fruit Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 41 species under threat and needs efforts for conservation of species diversity. Similarly, A number of traditional mixed the genetic diversity has been threatened cropping, intercropping, and crop in important crops with the popularization rotation systems have evolved to suit of high-yielding varieties (90% and 60% different agroclimate requirements. respectively, in wheat and rice) and with the The region is also known for several replacement of traditional cropping systems cultural practices for pests and disease (millets, pulses, such as chickpea). Can a control using natural products such as strategy like the preservation of heritage neem cake/leaves/powder and spread sites and/or peasant farming systems be an of cow-dung ash to control powdery answer to genetic erosion? mildew disease, etc.
Rapid expansion in agriculture and scarcity of water has made access to water as the lines of high-value agriculture, such as central issue for the livelihoods of the horticulture, livestock rearing, fisheries, rural poor and the principal driver for the etc. If the above steps are integrated with development of the region. Therefore, appropriate warehousing, communications, effective management of water resources in transportation, and cold storage facilities, the region needs immediate attention with and are further augmented with modern steps towards integrated water management technological interventions such as adoption and land use, in order to ensure the future of greenhouse farming in horticultural sustainability of all production and crops, and extension to dairy (Punjab, ecosystems. Haryana), meat, eggs, and fish, the region Soil fertility decline in the region (Punjab, would become one of the world’s highest Haryana) is well recorded and there is a need producer not only in field crops, but also of to study the soil-related problems in the quality vegetables, fruits, and flowers. region to a greater depth. It would require greater research on cropping systems and References integration of traditional systems (which were more amenable to sustainable or Arora RK and Nayar ER. 1984. Wild Relatives of Crop Plants of India. National Bureau of Plant conservation agriculture) with modern Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Kapoor Art Press, farming systems, to evolve new systems, A 38/3, Mayapuri, New Delhi, India. 88 pp. facilitating both conservation and functions of crop growth and production. In this Chowdhary KA. 1983. The plant remains. In: regard, diversification from the rice–wheat Excavations at Atranjikhera: Early Civilization system towards high-value agriculture, of the Upper Ganga Basin (Gaur RC, ed.). involving pulses and oilseeds on one side, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, India. pp. 457–460. and horticulture crops such as fruits and vegetables on the other, offers immense Dabas BS, Nayar ER, and Dwivedi NK. 2006. opportunities. It may be extended to other Arid legumes. In: Plant Genetic Resources: Food 42 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Grain Crops (Dhillon BS, Saxena S, Agrawal A, Prokash, Kolkata, West Bengal, India. pp. and Tyagi RK, eds.). Narosa Publishing House, 297–318. New Delhi, India. pp. 255–274. Nayar MP. 1996. Hot Spots of Endemic Kalloo G, Srivastava U, Singh M, and Kumar Plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan. Tropical Sanjeet. 2005. Solanaceous vegtables. In: Plant Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Genetic Resources: Horticultural Crops (Dhillon Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. 252 pp. BS, Tyagi RK, Saxena S, and Randhawa GJ, eds.). Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, Pandey UB, Kumar Ashok, Pandey Ruchira, India. pp. 19–33. and Venkateshwaran K. 2005. Bulbous crops – cultivated alliums. In: Plant Genetic Karihaloo JL, Malik SK, Rajan S, Pathak Resources: Horticultural Crops (Dhillon BS, RK, and Gangopadhyay KK. 2005. Tropical Tyagi RK, Saxena S, and Randhawa GJ, eds.). fruits. In: Plant Genetic Resources: Horticultural Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India. Crops (Dhillon BS, Tyagi RK, Saxena S, and pp. 108–120. Randhawa GJ, eds.). Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India. pp. 121–145. PIB Press Release. 2010. Threatened plants of India – Uttar Pradesh. Ministry of Environment Khan AA, Khan A, and Agrawal S. 2008. and Forests, Government of India (GoI). Gangetic Khadar: One of the most threatened (Accessed at: www.pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_ biomes in India. Relict Habitats and Endemic page1.asp?relid=63257) Plants. Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India 11(1):117–122 (Wildlife Institute of Prakash Anand, Rawat KK, and Varma PC. India). 2010. Indopiptadenia oudhensis (Brandis) Brenan: monotypic, endemic and highly Kumar PR, Singh Ranbir, and Mishra AK. endangered taxa needs conservation in Uttar 2004. Rapeseed mustard. In: Plant Genetic Pradesh. Biodiversity News 1:2–5. Resources: Oilseeds and Cash Crops (Dhillon BS, Tyagi RK, Saxena S, and Agrawal A, eds.). Rao SA, Mangesha MH, Reddy CR, Rao SA, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India. and Reddy RC. 1983. Collection and preliminary pp. 20–45. evaluation of pearl millet germplasm from Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Lal M. 1984. Settlement History and Rise Breeding 43:261–271. of Civilization in Ganga Yamuna Doab. BR Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, India. Remanandan P and Singh L. 1997. Pigeonpea. In: Biodiversity in Trust: Conservation and Use Mishra JP, Negi KS, Singh B, Sharma AK, and of Plant Genetic Resources in CGIAR Centers Kumar N. 2000. Conservation of biodiversity (Fuccillo D, Sears L, and Stapleton P, eds.). in wild germplasm of okra. In: Proceedings Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. of the International Conference on Managing pp. 156–167. Natural Resources for Sustainable Agricultural Productions in the 21st Century. Vol. 4. New Rhind PM. 2010. Terrestrial biozones – a Delhi, India. rough guide to the world’s major terrestrial ecosystems: plant formations in the Upper Mitra SK and Bose TK. 1999. Guava. In: Gangetic Plain bio-province. Upper Gangetic Tropical Horticulture. Vol. I (Bose TK, Mitra Plain Moist Deciduous Forest. (Accessed SK, Farooqi AA, and Sadhu MK, eds.). Naya at: http://www.terrestrial-biozones.net/ Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 1, 2012 43
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Potential of Some Methods Described in Vrikshayurvedas in Crop Yield Increase and Disease Management
YL Nene
Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad 500009, AP, India (email: [email protected])
Abstract Knowledge of plant protection generated by our ancient and medieval scholars has become available during the last two decades. A good deal of that knowledge, the author believes, is applicable to the crop production in modern India, especially at the small farmers level. It is necessary, however, to validate effectivity of several ancient practices. This paper attempts to suggest the potential of some of those old practices in managing plant diseases. It is hoped that plant pathology researchers will take interest and conduct experiments to check validity of the suggested practices.
In the recent past, whereas the Sanskrit known amongst agriculturists not only in term “Vrikshayurveda” (the science of plant India but also in other countries. life) was known to a few scholars, most agricultural graduates, including me, had In fact the term “Vrikshayurveda” has been in use since ancient times. By the never heard the name during our college time Kautilya (296–321 BC) compiled his education. This situation continued until the “Arthasastra”, the term “Vrikshayurveda” Asian Agri-History Foundation (AAHF), was well-established and well-known. The Secunderabad, India began its activities next document on Vrikshayurveda, a very in 1994. brief one, was compiled as “Brhat Samhita” There is only one ancient copy on palm by Varahamihira (505–581 AD). leaves of Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda (c.1000 We then find two texts compiled in the 11th AD) in the world preserved at the Bodleian century AD; Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda Library, Oxford University, UK. The (c. 1000) and Vrikshayurveda chapter in author obtained a microfiche in 1994 from Lokopakara composed by Chavundaraya the Bodleian Library. A printout was then (1025). In the 12th century AD, Chalukya obtained using the microfiche. A Bulletin King, Someshvardeva compiled an with Sanskrit text, its English translation, and encyclopedia “Abhilashitarthachitamani” commentaries by scientists was published or “Manasollasa” in which a full chapter in 1996 by AAHF. In the last 15 years, the on Vrikshayurveda was included. We term “Vrikshayurveda” has become widely then find a 13th-century AD text titled