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Home , Capitalist roader, Cultural Revolution, People power

CHINESE CULTURAL : FAILURE AND

THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY

HAN DEQIANG1

INDEX

I. LIMITATION OF ...... 6 II. AWAITING INNOVATION AND INTEGRATION OF THEORY OF REVOLUTION ...... 10

1 Institute of Economics and Management. University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Beijing, 100083 P.R.C.

CHINESE : FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 1 1. The years of seventies in the last century 3. Unfortunately, it was too late. At the time, witnessed a period of transition of these old cadres were unable to understand: in the world going downward from their full How could these capitalist-roaders get into the swing. In the capitalist west, new party in the first place? Why couldn’t they began to resurge in the defeat of social simply be captured? How came that they democratic parties and trade unions. Capitalists themselves were criticized and attacked as in the world united through economic capitalist⎯roaders? Now they realized that globalization. In the east, the Great Cultural those capitalist⎯roaders were in fact Revolution in declared its failure with in wartime, and were in the passing of , and China began to symbolic terms the other part in them that stride toward . Communist parties in should be removed—the selfish desire. Those the and east European countries revolutionaries chose in their earlier lost their enthusiastic idealism, becoming more age because they wanted to save the country and more of bureaucratic , thus from foreign invasion and people from foreshadowing their total collapse in the end of exploitation. Though having received much eighties. Up till now, the banner of education in terms of idealism is still on display only in Cuba, yet this country and party discipline, most of them were not seems not fully confident about its future. really elevated into unselfish fighters entirely How all these situations happened? In devoted to the ideal of communism, hoping particular, how did the Chinese Cultural they could somehow benefit personally from a Revolution originate and fail? And what can we victorious revolution. learn from these events? 4. After the establishment of the People’s What caused the Chinese Cultural Revolution Republic of China, many cadres gradually to fail? became bureaucrats fighting for higher ranks 2. In today’s China, the Cultural Revolution is a and better rewards. They turned their working term synonymous to disaster, fallacy and units into their “turfs” while lack of education craziness. However, with the emergence of new in general and technical knowledge in particular led them commit incredible mistakes. The exploiting class and the return in reality of rectification movement launched in 1957 in capitalism, a great number of old cadres who were criticized and attacked during the Cultural China was aimed at consolidating and Revolution began to recognize the necessity of educating party cadres, and eliminating the Cultural Revolution. Evidently, Mao’s bureaucrats with the help of common people apprehension turned to be very reasonable: “the and the force of . Since the capitalist representatives who sneaked into the beginning of this movement, people responded enthusiastically to Mao’s call, and spoke up party, the government, the army and cultural against party leaders at all levels. An old friend institutions are revisionists, and when time comes they take over the power of mine, who was in his twenties and worked in and turn the into province at the time, told me that only capitalist dictatorship.” then did he feel that the sun came out of clouds and shone brightly. This was definitely the truth

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 2 feeling of an ordinary people. Selfish cadres process of socialist education,” Mao launched were under fierce attack by the mass, feeling during 1963-1966 a nationwide campaign very much nervous. Unfortunately, some called “socialist education movement,” also went too far as to deny the known as “four clean-ups movement” to purify leadership of the communist party, demanding politics, economy, organization and ideology. that they take the office. Mao had to 6. It was during this movement that Mao finally counterattack them and labeled them as identified the existence of a group of powers “rightists” (a term equal to who that be within the communist party who should be prosecuted at the time). However, intended to take a capitalist-bound road. This , who was the then secretary- group of people in power manifested general of the party, maximized the movement themselves in the form of “factionalism.” in an effort to encourage officials at all levels to Originally consisted of many small factions, attack those leftists who sincerely criticized they gradually merged into an institutional party bureaucrats. And his effort in fact establishment ⎯officialdom⎯ centered on strengthened the power of bureaucracy. their self-interests. This establishment under the 5. Mao was not well informed of the scale-up of name of was anti-rightist campaign. Not until the Great Leap certainly not committed to the ideals of Forward Movement failed did Mao realize that communism but to the manipulation of power bureaucratic officials became more rampant. and resources. They betrayed the public interest They made false reports, issued blind orders, and transformed themselves into a , flattered their leaderships, and deceived bureaucratic class. If a capitalist personifies followers. They turned a mass movement of , a bureaucrat personifies power. building socialism in a fast, effective and Bureaucrats exploit workers by means of power efficient way into an astonishing display of while capitalists do the same by means of sluggish and wasteful bureaucracy. Facing this capital. Therefore, bureaucratic class can be situation, Mao had to make concession to defined as bureaucratic capitalist class. bureaucrats and make do with limited Obviously, it was impossible to trust such preparedness of the mass. The result was the people in power to carry out the “four emergence of the “people’s communes” which clean⎯ups movement” targeted at just consisted of three levels of ownerships with themselves. So Mao realized that such a production unit as the basic level of ownership. movement headed by , criticized as In the field of industry the policy guideline was the biggest capitalist⎯roader in China during to readjust, consolidate and upgrade industrial the Cultural Revolution could by no means production. However, bureaucratic officials succeed. Liu targeted the movement at were not satisfied with these concessive moves grass⎯root cadres and common people instead and appealed for regression into private of big bureaucrats, making it look like a leftist ownership, claiming that selfishness is the true move but in fact a rightist one. and legitimate motivation in production. Mao 7. Learning from the lessons that even was quick to sense the reactionary nature of this campaigns like purification and “four appeal. Pointing out that “governance is also a clean⎯ups” movements could not shake

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 3 officialdom at all, and that the establishment offerings and worshipping fortune and fame. It had betrayed the ideals of communism and the has been turned into a source of collecting people, Mao thought that the only way to turn wealth and exercising power. is no the country on the right track was to call for a longer a critical resource. in ancient class struggle, to mobilize people and let them China was a leader of the toilsome. He organize themselves in fighting against the established an association of whose establishment. So there came the Cultural members led a simple life and practiced Revolution. asceticism and self⎯education. They promoted 8. Inner⎯party struggles were indeed not a philanthropism and peace, helped the poor and phenomenon exclusive to China. In the the needy. In many ways Mozi was very much communist parties of former Soviet Union, like Jesus Christ. However, fighting for Yugoslavia, Vietnam, and North Korea, and I influence and personal interest emerged within think to some extent Cuba would not be an the association as early as when Mozi was still exception, the same problem also exited or alive. exits. Only very few cadres stick to communist 10. Historical evidences indicate that fighting ideals and are loyal to the people while the between idealism/altruism and majority have gradually lost their original secularism/ is an issue that every aspiration, and became obsessed in material organization devoted to reforming the society web⎯being. They use their power to gain has to face. In human history, it seems, personal benefit against the public interest. In secularism/individualism gains an upper hand the west, social democratic parties and trade when the society adopts the principle of unions are also corrupted by power when they following the tides with and come into office. They come to terms with discards ideals. Such is the rule of historical shortsightedness of ordinary people and lose cycle: when individuals pursue self⎯interest in international vision. They are content with luxury and extravagance in a polarized society welfare society. They lose touch with the and history witnesses wars and disorder, people. Even some progressive intellectuals are idealists committed to reforming the society no exception. They win respect from the people emerge to establish new organizations and when they speak for them. Yet when they are present appealing programs to reestablish social high-fed, they speak above the people. order, and the society goes from decline to 9. Reviewing history, we learn that Christianity, prosperity; when orders are established and originally a weapon used by the exploited idealism loses its momentum and gives way to against the , has been turned into a secularism and materialism, the society goes vehicle through which the ruling class downward. anesthetize and exploit people. Buddhism 11. As the founder of the Communist Party of established itself as an influential religion in the China, Mao faced just this long⎯lasting east by condemning human beings’ material paradox. Different to all historical idealists, desire and by persuading people to detach Mao was determined not to give in when facing themselves from terrestrial world. Yet it has the challenge from within the party to abandon gradually become a place for accepting idealism. Challenging this historical cycle, he

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 4 decided to stage a campaign of “criticizing Cultural Revolution thus lost both its political selfishness and attacking revisionism” in an and moral basis, and ended in total failure. effort to shake the party together and revert it 14. Such an outcome was anticipated by Mao. back to the track of serving the people. When he saw the strong resistance by 12. The way Mao chose to achieve this goal bureaucratic clique in the “four clean⎯ups was, on the one hand, to initiate the so⎯called movement” and therefore seriously considered “great democracy,” a bottom⎯up movement initiating this bottom⎯up democratic which allowed the establishment of various movement, Mao was well aware of the spontaneous organizations engaging in “voicing possibility of encountering fierce resistance. free speeches through big⎯character posters. The target of this movement ⎯ the bureaucratic On the other hand, he called for a top⎯down clique ⎯ consisted of the elites of the party and mass education of the people to “criticize the army who fought along with him and selfishness and attacking revisionism.” contributed illustriously for the party to win the Theoretically speaking, as the means and the revolution. They expected to “host the country” end respectively, these two measures are after they fought for it. They could and had actually the only method to persuade and force been courageous in fighting against external bureaucrats back to alliance with the people. enemies under the leadership of Mao, but when 13. However, bureaucratic clique had their way it came to responding to his call for inner of counterattacks. They fought back on their struggle against egoism, they stepped back and own turfs. They organized their beneficiaries, resisted. At the highest level of leadership, Mao party members and officials royal to them to almost could not find one that he could rely on. confront revolutionists. Though the rebels was talented and capable, but could against the establishment had Mao as their not be trusted entirely. Although trustworthy, spiritual leader and few true revolutionist as ⎯his wife⎯ was not a capable their backbones, they were in a disadvantageous leader. and could obey his position since they did not enjoy necessary orders, but they could not understand the resources, means to organize themselves and Cultural Revolution. As for Liu Shaoqi and the backing of the army. In contrast, royalists Deng Xiaoping, they were actually leaders of were in general better educated, and enjoyed bureaucratic clique, the target of the Cultural higher political and economical status as well as Revolution. Another senior leader, , technological resources that enabled them to was also one that could not be trusted because beat their opponents. Consequently, the “great he was a worldly⎯wise and made himself safe democracy movement” ended in the defeat of in the struggle between the two forces. idealism presented by Mao Zedong. What was Nevertheless, Mao was determined to test the worse, in the fighting both the two forces will and the power of the bureaucratic clique upheld the banner of Mao, took to their against his popular mana at the summit of his advantage the existing political means and power. Therefore he alone staged the Cultural fought for their personal revenge and own Revolution. interests, turning an ideological revolution into 15. In painful retrospect, we might assume that one that touched not the soul but the flesh. The the political fighting during the Cultural

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 5 Revolution could be within control and the revolutionary organization may decompose, and possibility of idealistic education being a successful revolution may still fail. Of course, successful could be greater if all the members without preconditions such as deep social of the standing committee of the political exploitation and crisis there would be no bureau had an attitude toward the Cultural revolutions. However, in the past we focused Revolution similar to Mao, and the very much on external conditions for representatives of the bureaucratic clique revolution, but neglected or ignored necessary occupied leading positions only as high as in subjective conditions for revolution. The the political bureau ⎯ short of the standing success of in China was committee. If such educational movement had turned into a new ruling system and class in been successful in cultivating generation after place of the old ones, and the reality of class generation new followers, could their exploitation and oppression still prevails. democratic power of deterring local 18. In exploring the reasons for ignoring bureaucratic forces be much stronger? And if subjective conditions for revolution, we have to so, can the tendency toward revisionism be turn to the problem of limitation of Marxism. checked and finally eliminated, and idealistic organizations maintain their vitality forever? I. LIMITATION OF MARXISM 16. Following this line of thought, we realize the ultimate cause of the failure of the Cultural 19. According to Marxism, matter is primary Revolution can be traced back to the year 1921 and consciousness is secondary. To quote a when the Communist Party of China was statement in chapter two of Communist founded. At the time China was under great , “The history of ideologies proves turmoil and foreign threats. The October nothing but the fact that production Revolution of 1917 in Russia brought Marxism has always been transformed in accordance to China, pointing out a right direction for those with the transformation of material production.” bewildered intellectuals who later found the Therefore, it is concluded that once the society Communist Party of China. Among those has realized public ownership of means of founders of the party, some dropped out, some production, people will naturally discard selfish betrayed the party, and some stayed in because values of individualism generated under private they hoped to benefit from it. The better parts ownership. of them were those who were determined to 20. Unfortunately, history of revolutions in all save the country and the people. Yet there were countries proves that the realization of public very few true idealists, and among these few ownership of productive means does not revolutionists, only one ⎯ Mao Zedong ⎯ had automatically result in a revolution of values. great vision and capability with consistent On the contrary, ideologies of private perseverance. Reviewing various types of ownership continue to erode every corner stone idealistic organizations in history, rarely can we of the revolution, turning the revolution and find one leader comparable to Mao. people’s power into stages for the performance 17. Such was the lesson we should learn from of such ideologies, leading to ultimate history: without a number of Mao, a transformation of public ownership into private ownership. The theory proposed by Mao on the

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 6 necessity of a continuous revolution under media in which Mao was demonized. So proletariat dictatorship implies a recognition of capitalism came back to China, turning it into a this possibility: “Class struggles between the new economic colony of the United States. proletariat and the capitalist, between the two 22. In other words, the orientation of an ideologies and between different political forces individual’s values is not determined by the will be long-lasting, tortuous, and sometimes political and economic statues he or she enjoys even very fierce. Proletariat class is bound to in society, but the general attitude he or she transform the world according to its worldview holds toward the society. In the social, while capitalist class also does the same with economic and natural food chain, an individual theirs. In this respect, victory of socialism over is both exploiting and being exploited, capitalism is not truly guaranteed.” dominating and being dominated. Therefore, 21. In fact, the essence of struggles between the he/she can choose to identify with either role: two classes and worldviews is the confrontation rising against the exploitation or fighting for of two systems ⎯ that of altruism and such a system. Although those who enjoy selfish individualism. A class is an higher social status are more likely to be interest⎯oriented social group consisting of guardians of a system of exploitation, those people with similar political and economic who are at the bottom of the society are not by positions. As long as every individual bases his nature terminators of a system of exploitation. or her action on self-interest, the society is If a member of the proletariat class enjoyed divided into two classes: the exploiting and the revolution for the purpose of gaining higher exploited, or capitalists and . social statues, he is likely to become a rebuilder Everyone can use productive means, power, of the social system of exploitation once the technology or knowledge to serve self-interest, revolution succeeds and his statues becomes therefore becomes a member of capitalist class higher. A true revolutionist comes more often and a supporter of class society. And everyone from middle classes where he is able to grasp a can do the same to serve public interest, comprehensive view on the society, seeing therefore becomes a member of proletariat class through the nature of exploitation and and a vanguard against class society. If at the promoting altruistic and idealistic values. Marx, time the main body of Chinese Communist Engels, Lenin and Mao are such examples. Party had degenerated into a bureaucratic 23. If the above analysis is valid, then a further clique, as the chairman of the party Mao could conclusion would be: communism will never be seen as the number one leader of this clique. become a reality if as a rule “the superstructure Yet in reality Mao was absolutely altruistic, of a society is determined by its economic loyal to the people and the ideal of basis.” And a parallel conclusion would be: communism. He betrayed bureaucratic clique communism will eventually become a reality if and single⎯handedly staged that dynamic it has been led by an ideological revolution and Cultural Revolution. That is why this followed by an institutional revolution. In fact, bureaucratic clique restored its power as soon the in 1917 and Chinese as Mao died in 1976, and staged both at home Revolution in 1949 succeeded because they and abroad a persistent campaign through the were initiated, spread out and carried on by

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 7 ideological revolution, by forming an idealistic private business’s benefits, disposing of organization, and by taking advantage of property and manpower, and decision-making, objective conditions. When ideological the nature of economic foundation of society revolution stagnates and old ideologies revive, will change. However, the reality is that encounters setbacks and old systems democratic parties and trade unions are are reestablished. So, this Marxist statement becoming more and more bureaucratic, thus the should be rewritten as: “the superstructure of a fighting spirit of the workers is lowered. As a society dominates its economic basis while the result, new liberal policies dominate capitalist latter restrains the former.” countries, where trade unions are weakened and 24. This description is applicable to both the social democratic parties have to follow the history of revolution and history of current in promoting privatization. counter⎯revolution. In 1978, when China’s 26. This description is also true of the history of economic system was still under public feudal societies. In middle ages, although big ownership, a counter⎯revolution occurred in and small lords controlled their land, the king its superstructure. The so⎯called “reform and enjoyed more power with which he could opening⎯up policy” was actually a policy of weaken or strengthen the power of the lords restoring capitalism in China. So public through staging wars on them. In the closing ownership was gradually eroded and finally era of feudal society in Europe, the power of disintegrated. During this process, because of the crown merged with that of the capitalists, the existence of an economic foundation of gradually weakened the power of feudal lords public ownership, this counter-revolution had to by means of trade and inflation, and finally rid be carried out under the name of the people, the ownership of the lords over slaves, annulled and the of “sticking to four basic tariff between manors, and built a capitalist principles” had to be shouted time and again. society. Before the disintegration of the Soviet Union, 27. In terms of business, workers are the the country’s economic system was basically economic foundation, and capitalists are the run by the state. When the bureaucratic clique superstructure of enterprises. The former limit in the communist party was determined to the extent of action of the latter. When forsake socialism, the economic foundation of exploitation of capitalists exceeds certain limit, public ownership crumbled. workers will sabotage, quit the job or stage 25. In reality, this description is also applicable strikes to force them reduce the extent of to the history of capitalism. In capitalist society, exploitation. Yet capitalists are in a dominant when the power of social democratic parties position and enjoy profits brought by that and trade unions is strong, the level of position. exploitation declines since ideological trends 28. Correspondingly, the relationship between are more in favor of workers. Theoretically, matter and consciousness can also be stated: there is a possibility that if socialist parties and “consciousness derives from matter that trade unions become more powerful, if state-run constrains it, yet the former dominates the economy further expands, and if capitalists are latter.” It is true that individuals’ ideas come further confined in terms of their power over from experience, from observation and

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 8 understanding of self and external world, but the change of private ownership into public once ideas are established, they will dominate ownership, every individual will retain his or all human behaviors and acts of transforming her character and consistently display it while the world. Without the active role of adjusting his or her behavior to meet the consciousness, by now human being will still demand of a new society. be living as gregarious animals with no such 30. That is the best advantage a society matters as languages, agricultural technology, dominated by private ownership enjoys. It buildings and utensils. Because of different plants individualism and selfishness deep into ideas, an individual can be a hero or a criminal, adults’ mind to the extent that they become the can learn to change or adapt to the world, and basis for their acts, and enables them to resist, can be different to other human beings. In terms even rebel against the new social system. of materials, will not be Compared with such forces, idealism that very different to other forms of society in that promotes public ownership and altruism can people also have to have shelters, food, utensils exert almost no significant influence. When the and means of transportation, and there will be proletariat class launches a revolution, they are peoples of different colors experiencing the motivated by resistance of oppression rather same life cycles. But what are different are the than idealism. They want to “overthrow differences in ideologies that dominate people’s landlords and have land of their own.” Such a action, in the way they organize and motivation is also self⎯driven. Only very few communicate with each other, in the way leading intellectuals are able to go beyond their wealth is produced and distributed, and in own material benefit, betray their own class in feelings toward life. That is why communism is search of an ideal society. Thus degeneration of a society people are longing for. pioneering leaders as a group is only inevitable. 29. Since individuals’ ideas come from all of 31. If the key to the formation, maintenance, their experiences, understanding and and destruction of a class society is the consideration, they are to a considerable extent elimination of the heritage and safeguarding of stable, making up characters that are not easy to selfish values, the only conclusion we can draw change. Such characters are formed through is that the process of a new classless society individual history and manifested in different coming into being, its consolidation and acts during different situations and events. So, development must be a process of an individual cannot be judged by his or her establishment, promotion, enrichment and single act as a good individual may commit a consolidation of altruistic values. When bad act and a bad individual may commit a confronting real social contradictions, new good act. If we want to judge an individual generations with such values will be able to accurately, we have to examine all of his or her form enormous and lasting material forces that behaviors, find logical links between them, and will not only destroy the old society but also analyze them in a way that identifies essence transform old generations into new ones, and from appearance and truth from falsehood. together they can build and safeguard a new From the above analysis we can see that when society. great change occurs in a society, for example

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 9 32. We are sure that some Marxists will they cannot be linked to history and reality. If disapprove the line of the above analysis. Some Marx were alive, he would be ashamed of being of them probably believe that failures of recent such a Marxist. Suppose that a communist revolutions are due to the fact that capitalist revolution did happen in Germany in 1918, or are, at present, still suppose it happens in today’s United States, the suitable to the level of productivity, so it is the communist party is also likely to degenerate revolutionists’ subjective dynamics that enable into a bureaucratic clique. Here the question is them to jump over the capitalist valley to bring not really related to the level of productivity, Russian and China ⎯ who were still at the last but very closely to the continuation of a stable stage of ⎯ to an undue socialist set of values. society. Therefore, these failures should not be 35. As a true revolutionist, Marx would seen as the failure of Marxism. These definitely oppose the idea of passively waiting revolutionists failed because they did not follow for further development of productivity. Marxist theories. In this sense, both the Russian Instead, he would advocate full exertion of the revolution and Chinese revolution were dynamics of revolutionary parties. Yet we have prematures of history. We should wait for the to admit that the writings of Marx and Engels progress of globalization and global leave too much room for revisionists. What is polarization until time is mature for global more, Marxism is likely to become detached proletariat revolution. from revolutionary practice since it does not 33. Such opinions are quite typical in China as fully recognize the importance and complexity well as around the world. In fact they had of ideological revolution. This is a limitation of occurred many times in the history of Chinese Marxism. revolution. The theory of two⎯stage revolution proposed by one of the founders of Chinese II. AWAITING INNOVATION AND Communist Party Chen Duxiu, the new INTEGRATION OF THEORY OF democracy theory appeared in early days of the REVOLUTION People’s Republic of China, and productivity theory adopted by the Eighth National Congress 36. On the occasion of 120th anniversary of the of Chinese Communist Party are all such death of , how should we look at the examples. Since the beginning of “reform and limitation of Marxism? I think there will be two opening⎯up policy” in China, royal knights of alternatives. One is to deny the limitation of pen has been defending the revival by Marxism, putting full blame on later bureaucratic clique of capitalism in the name of practitioners for the failure of revolution. The undergoing a necessary make⎯up lesson on other is to admit the limitation of Marxism, capitalism. innovate and integrate Marxist theory through a 34. However, such arguments totally erased the summary of international communist roles of class and class struggles, debased the revolutionary practice under the guidance of rebellious spirit and force of the class of the Marxism in the last 150 years, and oppressed, and ridiculously exaggerated the consequently establish new theories that are role of productivity. They are bookish because more fitting to revolutionary practices and

CHINESE CULTURAL REVOLUTION: FAILURE AND THEORETICAL ORIGINALITY 10 historical rules, thus laying a solid theoretical social revolution led by an ideological foundation for the final elimination of revolution has to interact with these theories, capitalism and for true liberation of humanity. drawing upon their nutrition while discarding 37. I think if he were alive, Marx would choose their stigma of individualism. the second alternative. The best way for us to 39. In light of methodology, commemorate him is to choose the second by Mao Zedong is a most worthy book to read. alternative. Somewhat different to Marx’s historical 38. In order to establish more convincing and materialism, Mao believed that history is not visionary theories of revolution, we have to driven by any single pair of opposites that make widen our perspectives in examining other up a contradiction, e.g., contradiction between theories, doctrines and religions and their Absolute Spirit and real world, or productivity practices in historical process, so as to identify and productive relations. History consists of on a broader and more solid ground numerous processes in which countless interrelations between politics, economies and contradictions interact with each other. Each . Marx points out that religion is opium contradiction has within itself dominating and for people. In China, the doctrine of the unique subordinating parts, and different pairs of importance of under the name contradictions situate in dominating and of Marxism has in fact also become opium for subordinating relations to each other. So history people. Same reasoning applies to these two is a combination of contradictions with conclusions. When Christianity was used by the abundant and complex layers and structures that oppressed as a weapon to rebel, it was a are in constant transition. Learning history is to spiritual force of mobilization. Yet when its learn the rules of relations among enormous influence gradually grew, and even became the complex contradictions. Only in this way can , its leading priests formed a we build up new theories that can truly explain bureaucratic clique and the religion was turned history and reality, predict and guide the future, into opium. From this analysis we can see that and serve the aim of eliminating exploitation various theories, doctrines and religions should and oppression and realization of the ideals of not be simply accused as ideologies of the communism. ruling class. In fact, traditional schools of 40. I think that the task of innovating such new thoughts, such as , , and theories is incumbent on progressive Mohism in China, Platonism in Greece, intellectuals. Buddhism in India, or Christianity in the Europe of middle ages, all had their own social ideals. They contain profound analysis on relationship between subjectivity and objectivity, which is of great use to us. Moreover, these thoughts are not really cultural relics waiting to be labeled, they are very much active in people’s mind, and they are part of the sources of their daily thinking. Therefore, a new

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