THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISLAMIC VALUES AND MALAYS TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR
NOOR AZAM BIN AZMI
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 2018
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISLAMIC VALUES AND MALAYS TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR
by
NOOR AZAM BIN AZMI
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
July 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thank God for giving me the physical and mental strength to complete this study. Without the permission of God, there is no power for me to carry out this responsibility. Thank you very much to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Badaruddin
Mohamed, who always gives me the knowledge and gives me the opportunity to develop myself.
Appreciation is also extended to the Ministry of Higher Education for the financial support through research grant under the Long Term Research Grant Scheme,
Local Knowledge [LRGS grant no: 203 / PTS / 6727002].
Not forgetting Dr.Diana Mohamad and Dr.Shida Irwana Omar who spared their time to give me advices and guidance on thesis writing. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my good friends Amirul Nizam Paijo, Tay Kai Xin and Safura Ismail who provide me with ample assistance all this while.
Thank you to my dear parents, Wan Noor Yahaya and Allahyarham Azmi
Ahmad, who taught me to always be an honest and responsible person. Thanks to the family members who always support and encourage me.
Special dedication to my dearly wife, Nasrina Nasir who gives me strength and always believes in my abilities. Your sacrifices meant the world to me. Finally for my son Muhammad Imran Miqdad, thank you for being my reason to be a more successful person.
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement……………………………………………...……… ii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………. iii
List of Tables…………………………………………………………… ix
List of Figures………………………………………………………….. x
List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………… xi
Abstrak…………………………………………………………………. xii
Abstract………………………………………………………………....
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………... 1
1.2 Research Background…………………………………………... 2
1.3 Problem Statement………………………………………………. 5
1.4 Research Objective……………………………………………… 7
1.5 Research Question………………………………………………. 7
1.6 Significance of the Study……………………………………….. 8
1.7 Scope and Research Limitation…………………………………. 8
1.8 Brief Research Methodology……………………………………. 9
1.9 Definition of Key Terms………………………………………… 9
1.10 Structure of the Thesis…………………………………………... 10
1.11 Conclusion………………………………………………………. 11
iii CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………... 12
2.2 Defining Values………………………………………………… 13
2.3 Fundamental Values on Islmic Religious on Travel……………. 16
2.3.1 Islamic Thought on Travel……………………………… 16
2.3.2 Islamic Travel Behaviour in Tourism Studies………….. 19
2.3.3 Islamic Values in Travel………………………………... 24
2.4 Defining Malay…………………………………………………. 36
2.4.1 Origin of Malay Word…………………………………... 36
2.4.2 The Identification of Malay…………………………….. 36
2.4.3 Religious and Belief in Malays Community……………. 37
2.4.3 Early Belief in Malays Community…………………….. 38
2.4.5 Influence of Islam in Malays Travelogue………………. 43
2.5 Background Theories of Travel Behaviour…………………….. 49
2.5.1 Economics Theories…………………………………….. 50
2.5.2 Geography Theories…………………………………….. 52
2.5.3 Sociological Theories…………………………………… 54
2.6 Theoretical Framework…………………………………………. 70
2.7 Conclusion……………………………………………………… 72
CHAPTER 3- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….. 73
3.2 Research Design………………………………………………... 73
3.3 Research Variables……………………………………………... 77
3.3.1 Dependent Variable…………………………………….. 77
3.3.2 Independent Variable…………………………………… 79
3.3.3 External Variable……………………………………….. 80
iv 3.3.4 Antecedent Variable……………………………………. 81
3.4 Instrument Design……………………………………………… 82
3.5 Population and Sampling Frame……………………………….. 90
3.6 Pilot Study……………………………………………………… 92
3.7 Data Collection…………………………………………………. 93
3.8 Data Analysis…………………………………………………… 94
3.9 Conclusion……………………………………………………… 96
CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….. 97
4.2 Descriptive Analysis……………………………………………. 97
4.2.1 Demographic Characteristic……………………………. 98
4.2.2 Travel Characteristic……………………………………. 99
4.2.3 Descriptive Analysis of Awareness, Practice and Travel Behaviour……………………...... 101
4.2.4 Malays awareness on Islamic values during travel stages. 103
4.2.5 Malays practices on Islamic values during travel stages.. 105
4.2.6 Malays Travel Behaviour………………………………. 106
4.3 Reliability Test of the Construct……………………………….. 108
4.4 Results of Demographic Influences Malays Travel Behaviours.. 108
4.5 Results of Travel Characteristic Influences Malays Travel Behaviours……………………………………………………… 115
4.6 Result Correlation between awareness and level of Islamic practices………………………………………………………… 125
4.7 Result of Regression on Malays Islamic belief practices with Malays Travel Behaviour………………………………………. 129
4.8 Conclusion……………………………………………………… 132
v CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….. 133
5.2 An Overview of the Research………………………………….. 133
5.3 Addressing Research Questions………………………………... 134
5.3.1 Research Question 1……………………………………. 134
5.3.2 Research Question 2……………………………………. 138
5.3.3 Research Question 3……………………………………. 139
5.3.4 Research Question 4……………………………………. 140
5.3.5 Research Question 5…………………………………….. 141
5.4 Theoretical Implications………………………………………... 143
5.5 Practical Implications…………………………………………... 144
5.6 Limitations and Recommendations of the Study………………. 145
5.7 Conclusion……………………………………………………… 147
REFERENCES……………………………………………………….. 149
APPENDICES
vi LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 Islamic travel behaviour from previous authors 20
Table 2.2 Summary of Islamic values while travelling 34
Table 2.3 Islamic Belief on Travel Stages 35
Table 2.4 The Malays cultural values in relation to travel 48
Table 2.5 Summary variables from Behaviour Theories 65
Table 3.1 Dependent variables 78
Table 3.2 Independent variables 79
Table 3.3 External variables 81
Table 3.4 Antecedent variables 82
Table 3.5 Questionnaire design 84
Table 3.6 Reliability test 93
Table 3.7 Relation between research objective, research question and 95 type analysis
Table 4.1 Respondent’s Demographic characterisatic 98
Table 4.2 Descriptive statistic for travel characteristic 99
Table 4.3 Frequencies analysis of awareness on Islamic belief 102
Table 4.4 Characterisation of Malays awareness on Islamic values 104
Table 4.5 Characterisation of Malays Islamic practices 105
Table 4.6 Analysis of Malays Travel Behaviour 107
Table 4.7 Cronbach Alpha for the dimension of travel stages and travel 108 behaviours
Table 4.8 Pearson Chi-Square of Demographic with Travel 110 Behaviours
Table 4.9 Crosstab of Demographic with Travel Behaviour 113
Table 4.10 Chi- Square Travel Characteristic 118
vii Table 4.11 Crosstab of Travel Characteristic with Travel Behaviour 121
Table 4.12 Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic 126 practices during preparation before travel
Table 4.13 Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic 127 practices during departure
Table 4.14 Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic 127 practices along the way
Table 4.15 Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic 128 practices during destination
Table 4.16 Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic 129 practices during the return
Table 4.17 Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice 130 with travel behaviour of destination meeting the religious needs of patrons
Table 4.18 Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice 131 with travel behaviour of Places of worship
Table 4.19 Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice 131 with travel behaviour of Availability of Halal Food
Table 4.20 Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice 132 with travel behaviour of Banning of certain act
Table 5.1 Summarize of Findings 142
viii LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 Activity Pattern Model 54
Figure 2.2 Hierarchy of Needs for Human Motivation 56
Figure 2.3 Theory of Reasoned Behaviour and Theory of Planned 58 Behaviour
Figure 2.4 Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour 59
Figure 2.5 Theory of Repeated Behaviour 60
Figure 2.6 Reciprocal Determinism in Social Cognitive Theory 61
Figure 2.7 Integrated Behavioural Model 62
Figure 2.8 Normative Decision-Making Model 64
Figure 2.9 Comprehensive Action Determination Model 65
Figure 2.10 The Proposed Theoretical Framework 70
Figure 3.1 Research Flow Chart 74
Figure 3.2 Theoretical Framework 77
Figure 3.3 Determination of sample size 91
ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CADM Comprehensive Action Determination Model
IMB Integrated Behavioural Model
ITB Ipsative Theory of Behaviour
NDM Normative Decision-Making Model
RUM Theory Random Utility Maximization
SCT Social Cognitive Theory
TBP Theory of Planned Behaviour
THM Theory of Human Motivation
TIB Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour
TRA Theory of Reasoned Action
TRB Theory of Repeated Behaviour
TTM Transtheoretical Model
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
x PERHUBUNGAN DI ANTARA NILAI ISLAM DENGAN TINGKAH LAKU
PERJALANAN ORANG MELAYU
ABSTRAK
Orang Melayu merupakan salah satu bangsa yang tinggal di Malaysia dan mempunyai sejarah yang panjang berkaitan dengan melakukan perjalanan. Secara tradisinya, budaya melakukan perjalanan di kalangan orang Melayu dikenali sebagai merantau dan sehingga kini orang Melayu masih aktif terlibat di dalam aktiviti melakukan perjalanan. Kisah pelayaran Panglima Awang dan pengembaraan Munshi
Abdullah adalah bukti kehebatan para pengembara (dipanggil sebagai “Musafir” di dalam Bahasa Arab) Melayu. Sebelum kedatangan Islam, tingkah laku orang Melayu itu dibentuk oleh tradisi dan kepercayaan budaya serta beberapa falsafah daripada agama yang lain. Selepas Islam tiba, tingkah laku orang Melayu dibentuk oleh kehendak Allah yang Maha Besar dan ini termasuklah tingkah laku ketika melakukan perjalanan.Senario mutakhir menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakan destinasi pelancongan gagal memberi keselesaan terhadap pengunjung Melayu. Sebagai contohnya adalah seperti tempat solat yang tidak praktikal, ketidakfahaman berkenaan halal terutamanya melibatkan makanan serta sikap acuh tidak acuh dengan aktiviti yang tidak bermoral.
Secara amnya, kajian ini melihat pengaruh demografi dan karakteristik perjalanan terhadap tingkah laku perjalanan orang Melayu, sejauh mana orang Melayu sedar akan kepercayaan Islam berhubung dengan perjalanan, sejauh mana orang Melayu mempraktikkan kepercayaan Islam berhubung perjalanan, bagaimana kepercayaan
Islam berkenaan perjalanan mempengaruhi tingkah laku perjalanan orang Melayu dan mengenalpasti tingkah laku perjalanan orang Melayu. Menurut Teori Tindakan
Berdasarkan Logik (TRA), tiga aspek ( Kepercayaan, Sikap dan Niat) akan
xi mempengaruhi tingkah laku dan oleh itu kajian ini menggunakan teori ini untuk melihat bagaimana kepercayaan, sikap dan niat yang terkandung di dalam ajaran
Islam mempengaruhi tingkah laku perjalanan orang Melayu. Data diperolehi melalui
398 orang pengembara Melayu yang tinggal di Pulau Pinang dan dianalisa menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif yang merangkumi analisis deskriptif, Khi- kuasa dua. korelasi dan regresi. Keputusan menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang signifikan di antara pemboleh ubah luaran ( demografi dan karakteristik perjalanan) terhadap tingkah laku perjalanan orang Melayu. Keputusan juga menunjukkan bahawa orang
Melayu bukan sahaja sedar akan kepercayaan di dalam Islam berkenaan perjalanan malah mereka juga mempraktikkan perkara tersebut. Tingkah laku yang paling menonjol adalah berkenaan isu halal. Keputusan kajian ini boleh digunakan untuk memahami kehendak orang Melayu ketika melakukan perjalanan. Destinasi yang dapat menawan kehendak dan kemahuan orang Melayu tentunya menikmati potensi pertumbuhan pelancongan yang lebih tinggi memandangkan pasaran pelancongan bagi pelancong Melayu semakin meningkat dan popular.
xii THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISLAMIC VALUES AND MALAYS
TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR
ABSTRACT
Malay is one of the many races living in Malaysia, and the Malays enjoy a long history of travelling. The traditional travel culture of the Malays is known by the term
“merantau”, and to date, the Malays are actively engaged in travelling activities. The story of Panglima Awang's voyage and Munshi Abdullah's adventure are evidences of the greatness of the Malays travelers (known as “Musafir” in Arabic Language).
Before Islam, the Malays behavior was much shaped by the traditional and cultural beliefs in addition to flavoured by other religions philosophy. After Islam, the Malays behavior is shaped in accordance to the wishes of ALLAH the Al-Mighty, and their travel behavior is no exception. The current scenario shows that a number of tourist destinations failed to provide comfort to the Malay travellers. The concerns, for example, involve the impractical prayer space facilities, irrespective of “halal” issues especially food-related and indifferent attitude towards immoral activities. In general, this study seeks to see the influence of demographics and travel characteristics on
Malays travel behaviour, to which extent do the Malays aware of Islamic belief in relation to travel, to what level do the Malays practice the Islamic belief related to travel, how the Islamic belief related to travel affects the Malays travel behavior, and to identify the Malays travel behaviour. According to the Theory of Reasoned Action
(TRA), three aspects (namely 'Belief', 'Attitude' and 'Intention') will influence the behaviour and therefore, this study employed this theory to examine how belief, attitude and intention in Islam religion influence the Malays travel behaviour. Data collected from 398 Malay travelers residing in Penang was analyzed using quantitative
xiii methods including descriptive analysis, chi-square, correlation and regression. Results indicated a significant relationship between external variables (demographic and travel characteristics) and the Malays travel behaviour. The results also show that the Malays are not only aware of Islamic belief related to travel, but they also practice the manners.
The most prominent behaviour of the Malays is about the halal food issue. The results of this study can be used to understand the will of the Malays when travelling. The destination that captivates the Malays demands and needs will certainly enjoys a high potential tourism growth as the tourism market for Malays travelers are increasing in size and popularity.
xiv CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The Malays, who are closely associated with Islam, enjoy a long history of travelling both domestically and internationally. In Malay language, the term ‘travelling’ is known as ‘merantau’. In history, the Malays travelled for several reasons. For instance,
Parameswara travelled to explore new land (Loo, 2009), Panglima Awang sailed with
Portuguese sailors to gain new knowledge (Hooker, 1999), Javanese travelled for the purpose of escaping from the colonization of the Dutch (Tirtosudarmo, 2005) and the
Malays travelled across places to pursue religious knowledge as well as to perform pilgrimage (Kim, 1974). The history demonstrated that the Malays, have documented various travels which provide significant values to the country. Particularly, Munshi
Abdullah and Panglima Awang are the two prominent figures in this event. Munshi
Abdullah was the first travelogue writer among the Malays in 1854 and his journey to
Makkah to perform Hajj was still a relevant reading source for today. According to
Aminurrashid (2011), the first man to circumnavigate the globe is Panglima Awang in the 15th century. Panglima Awang was an interpreter and assistant on the Portuguese ship at first and was later entrusted to be the captain of the ship.
This study focused on the relationship between Malays travel behaviour and
Islamic values. Chapter 1 clarified the research background, problem statement, research objectives, research questions, research hypothesis, significance of the study, scope and limitation of the research, the definition of key terms, structure of the thesis, and the conclusion for the Chapter 1.
1 1.2 Research Background
According to the Department Statistic of Malaysia (2015), Malaysia's population has a total of approximately 28.3 million, in which, 8.2 % are non-residents and 91.8 percent are Malaysian residents. Malaysian comprise of Bumiputera (67.4 %), Chinese
(24.6 %), Indians (7.3 %) and others (0.7% percent). The Malays are the largest ethnic group in Peninsular Malaysia (63.1 %), the Ibans cover 30.3 % of the entire
Sarawakians while Kadazan/Dusun contributes to 24.5 % of the total Sabahans. This study has chosen Penang as the study area, therefore, the respondents of this study consisted of 693,100 of Malay population, as recorded in 2015 (Department of
Information, Ministry of Communications & Multimedia, Malaysia. 2015).
20 years ago, most of the Malays population (approximately 65%) lived in the countryside, or in the villages (Phillips, 2002). Wilder (1970) considered each Malay village, which existed before the 1970s, as a political unit, a single economic unit, a unit of genealogy and a religious unit. In contrast to the previous form, the Malay villages today are not structured in accordance with the four criteria above. Today, the
Malay villagers are more actively interacting with the outside world and this has led to the change of social values besides bringing development to the rural areas (Wilson,
2014). Previously, majority of the Malay villagers depended on agriculture and fishery as their source of income. Economic crops include paddy, rubber, oil palm, coconut, and plant mixtures (mixed farming) (Burkill, 1966). Malays who are living in the cities are mostly employed in the industry, trade and transportation sectors (Chin, 2015). In term of the dominance of economics, the urban Malays is still relatively low compared to the non-indigenous population, particularly the Chinese (White, 2015).
The Malays are also defined as the indigenous people who speak the Malay language, embrace Islam as their religion as well as practice the Malay traditions and
2 customs (Department of Information, Ministry of Communications & Multimedia,
Malaysia. 2015). The cultural definition covers the entire native Malays in the Malay
World (archipelago), which is an allied population despite religion, language, and customs. In Malaysia, the indigenous population of Minang descent, Java, Aceh,
Bugis, Minangkabau, and others who utilise the Malay language, of being the Muslim and follow the Malays customs, are considered as Malays. Even people who are non- indigenous but married to Malays and embraced Islam are accepted as Malays.
In Malaysia, the Malays are a nation that is closely associated with Islam.
Although the early history of the Malays showed that they were Hindus and Buddhists, however the introduction of Islam has changed the daily life and the way of travelling in Malays. The Islamic cultural values are also exhibited in the journey made by the
Malays. In Islam, if a cultural value is not in contradiction to the teachings, then practicing it should not be a problem. Islam teachings have changed the mindset of the
Malays away from the superstitious values which has no logical reasoning. According to the Malays proverb “Biar mati anak, jangan mati adat”, which could be considered similar to the saying of Mahatma Gandhi “A nation’s culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people” and the saying of Thomas Wolfe (American famous novelist)
“Culture is the arts elevated to a set of values”, the Malays place a great emphasis on cultural values and its practice. The Malays adhere to the teachings of Islam while any values, customs, taboos or behaviours which are contradicting to the teachings of Islam will be gradually disposed (Noh & Marziana, 2013; Syarfina, 2015).
There are various theories associated with the human behaviour. According to
Laland and Brown (2011), behaviour is manners to a series of actions carried out by individuals, organisations and systems on the environment. Researchers in the field of tourism have been associating behaviour with travel behaviour. This study discussed
3 fourteen theories of behaviour in Literature review in Chapter 2 and chose one theory as the basis for the theoretical framework.
As all 14 theories were originated and applied in the Western setting, these theories did not include religion as one of the studied variables. Hanegraaff (1999) stated that this happened as the Westerners were living in a secular system after the
Renaissance period, thus, they did not deem religion as an important variable that could influence behaviour. When an individual chooses a religion as the way of living, he/she is now a follower and must abide as well as practice the religion rules. Hence, the implementation and application of those rules will affect the follower behaviour
(Hewer, 2006). Similarly, when an individual chooses to be a follower of Islam, his/her daily routines and behaviour are shaped by what is being taught and preached by Islam.
Studies on the Malays’ travel behaviour could demonstrate the patterns of the
Asian traveller (Nor, 2011) or Muslim traveller (Din, 2011). Therefore, the selection of Malays as respondents is considered a practical and relevant choice. Initially, the
Malays were formerly Hindus and Buddhists, which is the reason why the Malays’ customs exhibit a mixture of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islamism and the West influence
(Wheeler, 1928). According to Samian (2015), traces of Hinduism and Buddhism's doctrines could still be found in Malays culture apart from those of Islamism.
Syncretism process occurs when the elements or values before the introduction
Islamism are customised or fused with the Islamic elements (Hamid & Fauzi, 2015).
This process is clearly found in the shamanism of Malay (traditional medicine), and in some ceremonies such as ‘tepung tawar’, ‘melenggang perut’, ‘merisik’ and
‘bersanding’. In Malaysia, customs that do not conflict with the teachings of Islam are allowed to be practised through the "principle of co-existence". The Malays adjust the
4 customs and values, although there are certain conflicts between the religion and customs.
1.3 Problem Statement
Ismail and Battor (2011) claimed that ‘Islamic tourism' and ‘Halal hospitality' concepts are new to certain countries, especially the non-muslim countries. In Malay tourists’ context, their interests toward certain tourism destination may be compromised in terms of lack of prayer facility, insensitivity to ‘halal’ food provision and disrespect towards the Malays values (Henderson, 2003; Mohsin and Ryan,1997; Din, 1989). To some extent, this will affect the growth of tourism.
Stakeholders or travel agency will invest money to retain loyal tourists (Qin,
Wall & Liu, 2011), as the survival of a tourism destination is highly depending on the number of visitors and tourism receipts (Machado, 2010). In some of the investments made, there are still no return or expectations which are commensurate with the money that has been invested. One of the examples is Hanoi, Vietnam. Various attempts have been made by the Vietnamese government to maintain Hanoi as a tourist destination but it fails to attract Muslims visitors. This is because of their failure in understanding the travel behaviour of Muslims who need halal food and hospitality (Warjio &
Kusmanto, 2015). Vogt (2010) stated that the behaviour of travellers affects the choice of the destination they want to visit.
A survey involving 130 countries to examine how far a country could operate halal-friendly tourism by using the Global Muslim Travel Index. Malaysia obtained
82.5 points, landed the top of the Global Muslim Travel Index issued by the Mastercard and Crescent Rating (Chowdhury, Raj, Griffin, & Clarke, 2017). The second place was followed by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) with 76.9 points and Indonesia (72.6
5 points), all of which are Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Whereas,
Singapore emerged as top-ranked Muslim countries for non-OIC countries. The country earned 67.3 points, followed by Thailand (61.8 points) and United Kingdom
(60.0 points). Non-Muslim countries have also shown great improvement in this issue as proven by the outstanding result of Singapore. Therefore, more efforts should be done by Malaysia to understand the need of Muslims in order to serve the Muslims better and becomes the priority choice for Muslim tourists. Considerable studies have been done on motivations of visitation, and most of the studies are based on the theory of pull and push motivations (Battour et al. (2011) cited in Yoon & Uysal, (2005);
Kim, Giri & Jeonghee (2006); Jang & Wu, (2006); Correia, Oom & Moço, (2007);
Jamrozy & Uysal, (1994); Jang & Cai, (2002); Hanqin & Lam, (1999); Bogari,
Crowther & Marr, (2004). The pull and push motivations theory suggests that traveller is pushed by inner needs or emotional influences to travel as well as a pull by the exterior influences in the form of the attributes of various destinations. In summary, it is not just about how a tourist destination affects the traveller, but also the influence of traveller on the choice of tourist destinations.
Limited studies have been done on religion and its impact on traveller’s behaviour, particular the Islam and Malay values attributes. Most of the studies are based on Christianity and more precisely the Protestant Christian behaviour. There is also several researches made on Buddhist and Hindu’s travel behaviour . In Buddhism, there is a term "silla", a moral conduct or principle which connects the ethics of travel and for Hinduism there is the concept of "Baudhayana Sutra" which tells about the things to do along the journey. There is also some problem arises in an attempt to associate this study with the Theory of Reasoned Action. Most of the settings for this
6 theoretical testing are done abroad and not necessarily comprised of Muslim respondents.
1.4 Research Objectives
The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between Islam values and
Malays’ travel behaviour. The following objectives are outlined to achieve this purpose.
I. To study the demographic and travel characteristics which influence the
Malays’ travel behaviours.
II. To determine the Malays’ awareness regarding Islamic values during travel
stages.
III. To study the relationship between Malays’ awareness and level of Islamic
values practiced among the Malays.
IV. To examine the relationship of Islamic values practiced among the Malays
during travel with travel behaviour.
V. To identify the Malays’ travel behaviour at the destination travel stages.
1.5 Research Questions
This study is to address the following research questions:
I. Which factors of demographic and travel characteristics have significantly
influenced Malays travel behaviour?
II. Are the Malays aware of the Islamic values in their travel stages?
III. Does awareness about Islamic values influence the Malay’s level of Islamic
values practiced during travel stages?
IV. Which Islamic practices influence the Malays travel behaviour?
7 V. What are the Malay's travel behaviours at their destination travel stages?
1.6 Significance of The Study
Undeniably, there is a lack of reference to the Malays’ travel behaviour. Most studies that have been carried out in the Malay community are focusing more on the tourism impacts on the Malays and they do not geared toward what are the characteristics of a
Malay behaviour which would affect tourism. This study provides an understanding of the Malays’ travel behaviour. Findings of this study can be used as a guideline by various stakeholders in Malaysia and abroad in their services and products, from the aspects of culture and religion. Marketers may also incorporate Islam religion and
Malay cultural believes in their promotional programs. In addition, this study also contributes to offer deep understanding into the expectation of the Malay travellers.
This study is served to fill the void in the conventional studies. Although there is no extensive research conducted on Islam, at least this study can be a catalyst for further research. The Malay was chosen as respondent because Malay has the highest population in Malaysia. Therefore, their travel behaviours are crucial in understanding other Muslim travellers.
1.7 Scope and Research Limitation
This study focuses on the travel behaviour of the Malays travelled to Penang. This study will also be focusing on the values in Islam which are related to travel. These values in Islam are taken from the literature review, Al-Quran and Hadith. Factors which affect travel behaviour are adopted and adapted from the literature. Literature related to the impact of Islam teachings on travel behaviour is limited. Another limitation is that the Malays are also incorporated the Malay cultural values in their
8 daily routines, but this study will only look at the influence of Islam in determining the Malays’ travel behaviour.
1.8 Brief Research Methodology
This study employed self-administered questionnaires to obtain data from the Malays travellers of Penang, which were selected using non-purposive sampling technique.
The questionnaire forms are divided into 4 sections namely (1) Demographic
Information, (2) Travel Characteristics, (3) Awareness and Practices on travel stages and (4) Travel Behaviour. Before the actual data collection, a pilot study was conducted to test the effectiveness and reliability of the questionnaire and this questionnaire was reviewed by the experts. Data analysis was done by using SPSS 20 software and the analysis techniques include the Descriptive analysis, Pearson Chi-
Square, Spearman Correlation and Regression, in order to meet the study objectives.
There are no hypotheses in this study because it is designed using the exploratory research method (details see inductive research).
1.9 Definition of Key Terms
This study will use the following terms:
I. Islam religion
Akbar and Yoonus (1992) defined Islam in Arabic language as submission or
obedience. As for the Shariah’s (terminology), the definition of Islam is the
submission of a servant to the divine and its revelation is via the prophets and
apostles. Specifically, via prophet Muhammad to be a way of life and also as a
law and rule of Allah S.W.T to guide mankind to the right path, leading to good
fortune.
9 II. Values
Principles or standards of behaviour; one's judgement of what is important in
life (Harris & Mills, 1985).
III. Malay
The term "Malay" is defined by UNESCO (2001) as ethnic Malays in
Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Madagascar.
However, according to the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the term "Malay"
refers to a person of Malay descent and who also embraces Islam as religion.
IV. Travel Behaviour
The way travellers act or conduct activities at those locations to satisfy their
personal needs or desires (Paulssen, Time, Vij & Walker, 2014).
1.10 Structure of the Thesis
This thesis is structured into five main chapters, as follows:
I. Chapter 1: Introduction
The overall process of the research is addressed in Chapter 1. This chapter also
briefly explains the background of the study as well as the key terms used.
II. Chapter 2: Literature review
This chapter provides insights on travel behaviour, Islamic religion, values in
Malays. This chapter also describes the theories employed by researchers to
examine behaviour. The information is then used to determine the suitable
theory that will be used for this study.
10 III. Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This chapter provides the details of research design and data management.
IV. Chapter 4: Result
This chapter presents the analysis and findings obtained from the self-
administered survey. The results are presented according to the research
objective.
V. Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion
The final chapter presents the discussion and conclusion addressing the
research questions and the objective of this study. Recommendations for the
for future research and research limitation are also addressed in this chapter.
1.11 Conclusion
Chapter 1 includes the direction of the research. The research background and problem statement in this chapter are stated according to the research objective and research question. The following chapter reviews the definitions of Malay, travel behaviour,
Islamic religion and values. Additionally, the next chapter also describes travel behaviour theories and models as well as the preceding studies of correlated variables, which are then used in proposing a framework for this study.
11 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The current scenario shows that the Malays are frequent travellers, either travel in local or abroad. Since Malaysia is a nation that embraces Islam, there are several values in the religion that the Malays need to obey. Understanding the Malays' travel behaviour in destinations is very important as this group of travellers contribute significantly to tourism. To understand the behaviours better, Theory Reasoned Action was used as an underlying theory in this study. Although this theory has been widely used in prior studies but most of them only involved the Westerners. To understand the Muslim traveller better, this theory was adapted.
This chapter discusses the theory and concept of travel behaviour, as well as it describes the Islamic values while travelling. The rationale of this chapter is to correlate Islamic values with the Malay community and their travel behaviour.
Religion significantly affects the behaviour of most people (Esssoo & Dibb, 2004).
Weindefeld and Ron (2008) reported the significant travel behaviour-religion relationship from the tourism perspective. Poria, Butler and Airey (2003) documented two types of religion influences on behaviour where the first type is related to total obedience (Muslims are forbidden from consuming non-halal edible material) and the second type is related to the formation of culture, attitudes and values of a nation. In relation to the later influence type, Grigg (1995) has revealed the influence of religion on dietary habits. Meanwhile, Essoo and Dibb (2004) examined the influence of religion on consumer behaviour by comparing the Muslims and Hindus.
12 There is only a handful of literature regarding the religion and tourism relationship especially, the Muslim travel behaviour. Din (1989), Rinschede (1992),
Fleischer (2000), Howe (2001), Poria et al. (2003), Weidenfeld (2006) and Weidenfeld and Ron (2008) showed that religion and religiosity are acknowledged as factors which influence behaviour in accordance with various social settings. Meng (2010) concluded that when the internal requirements (religion observance) are fulfilled, then the tourists will be satisfied. Nevertheless, it is learned that most researchers paid little attention to the importance of religion in tourism studies (Din, 1989; Weidenfeld &
Ron, 2008).
Fleischer and Nitzav (1995) and Weidenfeld (2006) studied the religion needs of Christian pilgrims in the tourism industry. Their findings found that Christian pilgrims need religion signage in their accommodation. Dugan (1994) focused on the religious influence on the food services for Muslims, Christians, Jews, Hindus and
Buddhists tourists. The relationship between tourism and the religion of Islam is less studied. Most of the previous studies were associated with the Muslim pilgrimage
(Ahmed et al., 2006, Memish, 2007, Shafi et al., 2008).
2.2 Defining Values
The position of religion plays a very important role in maintaining the balance of life and human’s character. The value of Islam becomes the basis and benchmark for the formation of the standard human’s character (Hakim, 2012). The values of Islamic religion need to be understood to make the character in line with the teachings of Islam.
Prior to the instillation of the Islamic values, the teachings of Islam include:
1. Faith, the belief that seeps into the heart with conviction, which does not mingle with even the slightest doubt, and it influence the views of the character in everyday
13 life and actions; which also includes the pillars of faith: faith to Allah SWT, faith to
His angels, faith to His Book, faith to His Messenger, the Last Day and Qadha
(Esposito, 2016).
2. Islam is the Religion given by Allah to guide man to follow all the teachings that have been set in worship, which includes the pillars of Islam: pronounce creeds, establish prayer, pay zakat, fast in the month of Ramadhan and perform the pilgrimage when capable (Aisyah, 2016) .
3. Ihsan is to worship Allah as if the servant saw God, and if not see Him then he believed that God saw it (Darmawati, 2014).
Reviewing the Values contained in Islam is vast because Islamic values relate to various aspects and require extensive research. The points to be considered in teaching the values of Islam include the following: a) Value of the Faith
Values of faith is a very important role in the teachings of Islam, so their placement is in primal position (Mamat, Ahmad & Yabi, 2017). The etymologically meaning includes the bound or firm and strong agreement, embedded in the deepest heart.
Etymologically they mean the belief in life in a special sense, i.e. denial that departs from the heart. Thus, the Aqeedah is a matter which must be assured by the heart, confirmed the soul, and become an unbelievable belief.
The aspect of the values of the Faith was given since the birth Muslim, contained in
Surah Al-A’raf "verse 172:
And [mention] when your Lord took from the children of Adam - from their loins - their descendants and made them testify of themselves, [saying to them], "Am I, not your Lord?" They said, "Yes, we have testified." [This] - lest you should say on the day of Resurrection, "Indeed, we were of this unaware." (The Quran: Al-A’raf 7.172)
14 b) Syariah Value
Syariah means the place of water, or a way of life determined by Allah as a guide in running the life of the world and the Hereafter. Syariah is a guide given by Allah SWT based on the main sources of the Qur'an and As-Sunnah and sources derived from human reason in the ijtihad of scholars or Islamic scholars (Hashas, Corrao & Eyadat,
2018).
The word syariah according to Islamic law is the laws or rules that Allah created for all of his servants to practise for the happiness of the world and the hereafter. Syariah can also be interpreted as a divine system governing the relationship between man and
Allah, human relations with the surrounding nature. According to Anisah, Ahmad,
Arif, Omar and Rakiman (2017), the syariah is a rule or principles which are outlined by Allah so that mankind will hold on to Him.; in regulating human relations with
God, human beings, nature and human relationships with life.If the syariah is examined in detail, then there are values and norms in the teachings of Islam set by
Allah for all men who will be able to deliver the essential meaning of life. The life that always adheres to syariah will always behave in accordance with the provisions of
Allah and His Messenger. In line with that, the quality of one's faith can be proven by the improvisation of worship and the realization of the values contained in the shariah in the course of daily life. c) Moral Value
In Islam, the morals or behaviour of a Muslim give a picture of his or her understanding of Islam. Moral values are very important to be known and actualized by a Muslim or someone in the process of coaching and forming a character that is reflected as a true
Muslim (March, 2015). Etymologically, the sense of morality comes from the Arabic language which means moral, physical, behavioural, artificial behavior and creation.
15 The terminology of ‘Akhlak’ which cites the opinion of the Ibrahim (2017) which defines that morality (Akhlak) is the state of the soul of a person who encourages him to do deeds without going through thought and consideration first. Furthermore, from
Imam Al-Ghazali his book Ihya’ulumuddin states that morality is an illustration of behaviour in the soul from which it is born of deeds without the need of thought and consideration (Ghozali & Hamid, 1954).
2.3 Fundamental values of Islamic Religious on Travel
Prophet Muhammad was the last prophet of Islam and Islam was arised between 610 and 622 A.D. The term “Islam” means surrender or submission in Arabic. The term was originated from the root word “Salam”. Some scholars viewed “Islam” as enslavement to Allah, but others defined “Islam” as surrender (A'la Mawdudi, 2013).
As of 2014, Islam is the second leading exercised religion.
2.3.1 Islamic Thought on Travel
There is several ayat in the Quran that refers to travel. For example:
“It is He who made the earth tame for you - so walk among its slopes and consume of
His provision - and to Him is the resurrection.” (The Quran: Al-Mulk 67.15)
This verse shows Allah’s most gracious gift to humankind, which is the creation of the earth.
“And when the prayer has been concluded, disperse within the land and seek from the bounty of Allah, and remember Allah often that you may succeed.” (The Quran: Al-
Jumu’ah 62.10).
This verse shows the importance of obedience to Allah’s orders, as this gives a hand in living a good life.
16 “So have they not travelled through the Earth and have a heart by which to reason and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts which are within the breasts.” (The Quran: Surah Al-Hajj 22.46).
“Say, [O Muhammad], "Travel through the land and observe how He began creation.
Then Allah will produce the final creation. Indeed, Allah, over all things, is competent.” (The Quran: Al Ankabut 29.20).
These two verses recommend the engagement in travelling as this offers the opportunity to contemplate the greatness of the Al-Mighty Allah in creating objects
(such as creatures, the earth, the galaxy) (Shihab, 2002) and to learn from the experiences received during travel, and to see the consequences of going against His will. Engagement in travelling was emphasized seven times in the Al-Quran, and the term is called “Wisata Ziarah”.
Some ‘hadith’ related to travel are documented below:
It is ‘mustahabb’ for him to bid farewell to his family, neighbours, friends and all his loved ones. He should bid them farewell and he should say to each of them:
‘I place your religion, your faithfulness and the ends of your deeds in the trust of
Allah.’ (The Hadith: Ahmad, Ibn Majah)
The one who is staying behind should reply this to the traveller:
‘May Allah bless you with ‘taqwa’ and forgive your sins and make goodness easy for you wherever you are.’ (The Hadith: Ahmad, Ibn Majah)
Prayer is recited during travel for Muslims are as follows;
“O Allah, we ask You for righteousness and piety in this journey of ours, and we ask
You for deeds which please You. O Allah, facilitate our journey and let us cover its distance quickly. O Allah, You are the Companion on the journey and the Successor
(the One Who guards them in a person’s absence) over the family. O Allah, I
17 seek refuge with You from the difficulties of travel, from having a change of heart and from being in a bad predicament, and I seek refuge with You from an ill-fated outcome
(with regard to wealth and family).” (The Hadith: Muslim)
When entering a village or town, it is mustahabb (sunnah) to say:
“O Allah, I ask You for its goodness, the goodness of its people and the goodness of what is in it, and I seek refuge with You from its evil, the evil of its people and the evil of what is in it.” (The Hadith: Al-Hakim)
It is ‘mustahabb’ to make a wish (or else known as ‘doa’ in the Arabic Language) most of the time when travelling because a ‘doa’ made while travelling will be answered as asserted by the Prophet:
“There are three prayers that are not rejected: the prayer of a parent for his child, the prayer of fasting person and the prayer of a traveller.” (The Hadith: Al-Bayhaqi)
The following are the Muslim scholars’ views regarding travel:
Ibn Al-Jawzi said: “If travelling through the land is not for the purpose of seeking knowledge or propagating Islam, then it is prohibited”. Ibn Al-Jawzi is a well-known
Islamic figure from Baghdad and is an expert in the field of history, hadith knowledge and Fiqh (Williams, 2002).
According to Melchert (2012), Imam Ahmad (the founder of the ‘Mazhab Hambali’) was quoted saying: "Traveling (for entertainment) is not recommended in Islam nor was it the practice of the Prophets and the righteous, because it distracts the heart".
According to Ibn Taymiyyah, travel is not merely a distance but also a peace of mind.
During travel, a Muslim can use travel time to remember Allah. According to Bori
(2004), someone who makes a day-trip is not considered as a traveller.
18 2.3.2 Islamic Travel Behaviour in Tourism Studies
Various studies such as Domencich and McFadden (1975) and Manski (1977) strived to find out why does someone travel, his/her travel behaviour while travelling and the reasons for choosing a destination. While considerable studies have listed variables associated with travel behaviour (see Subsection 2.2, pages 15 to 36), little is known about the influence of religion on travel behaviour. In Islam context, Muslims are obligated to apply the teachings of Islam while travelling and the teachings are viewed from the Syariah perspective (the Muslims’ code of life) (Zamani, Farhani &
Henderson, 2010).
Many destination marketers began to consider the Islam and Muslims tourism segment as it significantly influences the tourism market (Javed, 2007) and the potential Muslims visitors accounted for 1.82 billion people (Muslim Population
Worldwide, 2009). Hence, Islamic Tourism marketing strategy and the provision of
Islamic-related attributes are essential in attracting attention and ensuring the satisfaction here this in return, thus retaining loyal visitors (Henderson, 2008).
Nevertheless, according to Bogari, Crowther & Marr (2004), destination attributes and issues pertaining to Islamic culture have yet to be studied thoroughly by researchers.
Concepts such as “Halal hospitality” and “Halal food” are widely associated with
Islamic Tourism especially in the Middle East (Nor & Daud, 2012; World Travel
Market WTM 2007), in addition to “Syariah Compliant” which concentrates on
Muslim traveller activities along the travel stages (Heyers, 2008). Table 2.1 listed the
Islamic attributes studied by a number of scholars.
19 Table 2.1: Islamic travel behaviour from previous authors
Previous Authors Islamic Attributes Weidenfeld (2006), Mansfeld et al., (2000), Destination Din (1989), Zamani- Farahani & Henderson (2010), Al- meeting the Hamarneh & Steiner (2004), Timothy & Iverson (2006) religion needs of Hashim et al., (2007) patrons
Syed (2001), Al-Hamamah & Steiner, (2004), Weidenfeld Places of (2006), Mohsin (2005), Worship Mohsin & Ryan (1997)
Dugan (1994), Mohsin & Ryan (1997) Khan (2001) Mohsin Availability of (2005), Weidenfeld (2006), Weidenfeld & Ron (2008), Halal Food Henderson (2003), Dugan (1994), Mansfeld et al., (2000)
Din (1989),Henderson (2003; 2008 a); Al-Hamarneh & Banning of Steiner (2004) Wei et al., (2007) Zamani-Farahani & certain acts Henderson, (2010)Aljazeera (2009), Rasma (2008), Din (1989),Henderson (2003, 2008a), Zamani-Farahani & Henderson (2010), Saed et al., (2001), Henderson (2003), Mohsin (2005)
The categories of travel behaviours found in the previous study are discussed in following section. These categories were used as independent variables of this study.
The list of behaviours is easier to be explained if compared one by one. Behaviour in each of these categories is actually established in the Islamic rules. a. Destination meeting the religion needs of patrons
Improvisation of religion-based services provided at accommodations will stimulate new markets and in addition will improve the accommodation image and occupancy rate (Weidenfeld, 2006). This include the provision of separate facilities for men and women (Henderson, 2003; Al-Hamarneh & Steiner, 2004; Timothy & Iverson, 2006), the "Mecca Stickers" or "Qibla Stickers" and the Al-Quran (Mansfeld et al., 2000),
Surah Yassin, prayer mats and “Qibla stickers” (Din, 1989), in addition to the information on nearby places that serve halal food (Hashim et al., 2007). Some of the studies reported the forbidden entry for unmarried couples to the hotel room (Din,
1989; Henderson, 2003; Zamani- Farahani & Henderson, 2010). These studies, in
20 addition, claimed the Muslim travellers need information about nearby mosque and prayer times at the accommodation places.
To Weidenfeld (2006), an accommodation could show religion’s friendliness by putting scriptures and religious symbols besides providing information on religious activities and institutions as this approach could create a religion environment. Collins,
Kreiner and Pilot (2000) revealed that a Protestant requires Bible in bed as its presence portrayed the closeness to God. Fleischer (2000) claimed that the Protestants were more sensitive toward the travel package offered and they would expect more religious symbols, as compared to the Catholic followers.
Timothy and Iverson (2006) suggested to organise staff training programs on cross-cultural communication to enable them to understand and treat the Muslim travellers with the utmost respect, and the management should consider recruiting
Muslims as their staffs (Henderson, 2003). b. Places of Worship
Muslims are obliged to practise the 5-times daily prayer routine, thus, mosque or place to pray is important to the Muslims (Syed, 2001; Al-Hamamah & Steiner, 2004). Syed
(2001), Mohsin (2005) and Weidenfeld (2006) found that distance to a mosque would affect the Muslim travellers’ accommodation preference, especially mosque with a unique design (Henderson, 2003). Mohsin and Ryan (1997) revealed that the
Malaysians and Indonesians will consider the Islamic-based services when planning for a holiday, while the Middle Eastern countries take drastic steps to develop and promote the Islamic Tourism (WTM 2007).
21 c. Availability of Halal Food
Halal food referred to the process of obtaining the ingredients and the food preparation process in accordance with the Islamic principles. The fact that Muslims prioritize halal food could not be ignored (Mohsin & Ryan, 1997; Khan, 2001; Henderson, 2003;
Mohsin, 2005; Weidenfeld, 2006; Weidenfeld & Ron, 2008) and the concerns are voiced out since certain ingredients are alcohol- and pork-based (Dugan, 1994). Dugan
(1994) listed the following non-edible materials for the Muslims: pork, pork-derived foods (including lard, bacon and meat), products from carnivorous animals or from animals that feed on carrion, intoxicated food and alcohol. The provision of halal food is considered as a good marketing strategy to attract Muslim visitors (Dugan, 1994;
Mansfeld et al., 2000). d. Banning of certain acts
“O ye who believe! Intoxicants and gambling, (dedication of) stones, and (divination by) arrows, are an abomination, - of Satan's handiwork; eschew such (abomination), that ye may prosper” (The Quran: Al Mai’dah 5: 90).
“Alcohol is the mother of evils” (The Hadith: Ibn Majah, 2004).
According to the aforementioned Al-Quran verse and the Prophet
Muhammad’s saying, Muslims are forbidden to visit and participate in any activities involving alcohol (drinking, selling and serving) and any form of gambling activities.
Both the Al-Quran verse and the Prophet Muhammad’s saying were further emphasized by many studies (Din, 1989; Henderson, 2003; 2008 a; Al-Hamarneh &
Steiner, 2004; Wei et al., 2007; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010).
While some of the Islamic countries (such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran and
Saudi Arabia) are firmly exercising the prohibition on alcohol and gambling, some
Islamic countries (such as Egypt and Turkey) are more lenient because although these
22 countries have a Muslim majority, its constitution enshrines secular values. Malaysia takes the stand of allowing the sale of liquor and approving the gambling licenses, however, the Muslims are forbidden to take part in it (Aljazeera, 2009).
Islam bans their followers from visiting places where sexual permissiveness is rampant (Rasma, 2008). The religion prohibits unmarried men and women to engage in a relationship, forbids adultery, and disallows unlimited interaction between men and women. This can be found in the passages written in the Al-Quran: ‘Nor come nigh to adultery; for it is a shameful (deed) and an evil, opening the road (to other evils)’ (The Quran: Al-Isra 17: 32).
Malaysia and other Muslim countries take the issues of fornication, adultery and indecent public displays of affection seriously (Din, 1989; Henderson, 2003,
2008a; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). Many Muslims authorities voiced out their concerns over the sex tourism concept and the general perception of tourism associated with sexual permissiveness (Din, 1989). Saed et al., (2001), Henderson
(2003) and Mohsin (2005) concluded that sex-based marketing approach and the use of sexually provocative images of bikini-clad girls to promote destination will not attract Muslim traveller.
In Islam, those who travel is referred to as ‘Musafir’. It means a journey ism fa'il (perpetrators) of 'safar' or travel. Etymologically, the word Safar in Arabic means taking a travel with distance. The opposite of ‘safar’ is ‘hadhar’, which ‘hadhar’ means located at a place, and does not intend to travel a certain distance. In terms of fuqaha,
Safar does not only mean someone is going from one point to another point (Abd
Rahman, 2007), but it also consideres a certain distance covered by a trip (fuqaha).
In Fiqh, a traveller is defined as an individual who covers a travel distance of at least 80 kilometres and does not stay in a particular area for more than 3 days (see
23 Wahbah, 1997). A traveller has the privilege to practice ‘Jama'’ prayer (2 prayers at a time), Qasar prayer (4-rakaat prayer is halved into 2-rakaat prayer), is also allowed to break the fast, and is exempted from performing the Friday prayers (and replacing it with Zohor prayer). Most importantly, these privileges are only applicable for good- natured travel.
2.3.3 Islamic Values in Travel
Basically, there are 5 laws of Islam (Ghouri, Atcha, & Sheikh, 2006):
1. Fard (Mandatory) is sometimes interchangeably called fardhu: some acts must
be performed (Thalab Jazmin) and avoiding them will make an individual a
sinner. The acts include, for example, 5-times daily prayer routine and fasting
during the month of Ramadhan.
2. Sunnah also called ‘Mandub’, ‘Mustahabb’, ‘Tathawwu’, ‘Al-Nafl’, ‘Hasan
and Muragghab fih’: an individual will be rewarded when performing some
acts, and will not be considered as a sinner when those acts are avoided. The
acts include, for example, fasting on Monday and Thursday.
3. Mubah (Permissible): refers to some acts which will not be rewarded when
performed and will not be considered as a sinner when avoided. The acts
include, for example, sitting, eating, drinking and sleeping.
4. Makruh (Jazm): refers to the situation where an individual will be rewarded
when avoiding performing an act. Such act includes the use of a great amount
of water for the pre-prayer ablutions (ritual washings) known as the wudu and
ghusl, the consumption of garlic before attending the mosque or divorce.
5. Haram (Illegal) and sometimes interchangeably called Mahdzur (forbidden),
Maksiat and Al-Danb (sin): refers to the performing of an act which will leave
24 an individual as a sinner, and the avoidance of the act will guarantee a reward.
The acts include, for example, drinking wine and engaging in a gambling
activity.
The following paragraphs provide insights on the Islamic values related to travel: a. Istikharah prayers before travelling
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. From the hadith narrated by Jabir bin 'anhu
Abdillah: "The Prophet sallallaahu' alaihi wa sallam (SAW) taught us to pray
Istikharah to decide on everything, as he SAW taught by Al-Qur-an. He SAW said:' If one of you has a plan to do something, do two rak'ahs (Istikharah) prayer voluntarily and then read the prayer.
"O Allah, I ask the right choice to you with the knowledge you and I pray for strength to you (to solve my problem) with Thy omnipotence. I ask You something of grace
Almighty, Thou art the Almighty and I did not authorize, you know, I do not know and you know is full of things unseen. O Allah, if You know that this matter (who has himself to his mention of the question) better in my religion, my life, and consequently facing to-me-or the Prophet SAW said:' ... in the world or the Hereafter ' - success for me, ease his path, then give me your blessing. But when you know that this problem is more dangerous for me in my religion, my life, and consequently against myself, or the Prophet SAW said:' ... in the world or the hereafter, '- then set them aside these issues, and keep me from it, destined good for me wherever it is good, then give me thy good pleasure. "(The Hadith: Al-Bukhari) b. Intention to travel
Islam strongly encourages an individual to start or plan a journey with good intention.
This Islamic value falls into Fard (Mandatory). Abu Hurairah R.A narrated:
25 One man said (to the Prophet), O Messenger of Allah, I will embark on a journey
(journey), so give me advice. The Prophet said: You shall fear God and glorify every time pass (through) high. After the man left, the Prophet SAW prayed, "O God, draw near the distance travelled and simplify the journey." (The Hadith: Tirmidhi). c. Prepare the travel-related supplies
According to any religion, it is logical for an individual to be well-prepared for a travel and this refers to the act of bringing the basic necessities for personal usage. Prophet
SAW prepared for his travel by bringing “siwak (is teeth cleaning twig made from the
Salvadora persica tree)”, a comb, mirror, eyeliner and fragrant wood (else known as
Al-Midra) (Nordin, 2012). This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. d. Choose to travel on Thursday and starts the journey early in the morning
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. This Islamic belief inn travelling on Thursday and early morning are based on the following three Hadith:
"The Prophet SAW went to the battle of Tabuk on Thursday and he has made travelling on Thursday as a habit” (The Hadith: Bukhari and Abu Dawud).
"The Prophet SAW always travels on Thursday." (The Hadith: Al-Bukhari)
"O Allah, bless my Ummah in the morning." (The Hadith: Abu Dawud & Tirmidhi) e. Take a trip together with two or more companions
In Islam, a travel is encouraged to be carried out with at least two companions. This
Islamic value falls into Sunnah. This is based on the following hadith:
"A rider (traveller) is the devil, two riders (travellers) are two demons, and three riders
(travellers) is a travelling troupe" (The Hadith: Abu Dawud & Tirmidzi)
"Prophet SAW said: If people know, as I know, what will happen while he was travelling alone. Certainly, no one will do safar at night alone" (The Hadith: Bukhari).
26 f. Read prayers for travel
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. The beauty of Islamic teachings could be validated where Islam teaches the followers to start a travel with prayers, as follows:
"God is great, God is great, God is great, blessed is He Who has subjected this to us, and we were not able to do. And surely to our Lord, we will return. O Allah, we ask
You for righteousness and piety on our trip and the practices that will please thee, O
God, lighten our trip and shorten the distance, O God Thou Friends on the way, and the chief of a family member, I seek refuge from the difficulties of travel, the views were vague, and from the evil that can override the property and our family members upon returning. (The Hadith: Muslim). g. Do not bring any bells
This Islamic value falls into Haram Haram (Illegal). Prophet SAW prohibited from bringing dogs and bells on a journey given that Islam associated bells with the devil’s horn. The following narrations indicated the Islamic beliefs on the prohibition:
"From Abu Hurairah: Prophet SAW said: Angels do not accompany someone’s safar when he/she is accompanied by a dog and brings bells/instrument." (The Hadith:
Muslim).
"The bell is the Satan’s flute." (The Hadith: Muslim). h. Increase Prayer (Doa)
"Three very efficacious prayers: prayer from a fasting person, prayers of mistreated people and prayer from a traveller” (The Hadis: Bukhari, Ahmad and Tirmidhi). Umar
Bin Khattab r.a said: I asked the permission of the Prophet SAW to perform Umrah and he let me and said: "Do not forget us in your prayers, my dear brother" (The
Hadith: Tirmidhi). This showed that even Prophet SAW asked his companions who travel to pray for him. This Islamic value falls into Sunnah.
27 i. Choose a leader when travelling with companion(s)
Islam encourages the act of appointing a responsible head or delegation with good manners as this will help to manage and ensure that the travel will go smoothly. This
Islamic value falls into Sunnah. This is mentioned in the following hadith:
"If three people are to go (out), let them appoint one of them as a leader." (The Hadith:
Abu Dawud). j. Takbir Allahu Akbar when going up the hill and Subhanallaah (tasbih)
when getting down the hill
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. As stated by Jabir bin 'anhu Abdillah:
"We once walked up the hill, said Takbir (Allahu Akbar), and recited the tasbih when the getting down the hill (Subhanallaah)." (The Hadith: Al-Bukhari). k. Sya'ir chanting or poetry
Salamah ibn al-Akwa 'anhu, said: "We travelled with Prophet SAW to Khaibar, then we continue to move during the night, and said one to Amir bin Akwa ',' Do you not recite to us sya 'ir-sya'ir joy?' this is because Amir was a poet, then he (Amir) gave encouragement to the people by saying: 'O God, if not because we are sure you will never get instructions, nor do we give in charity and nor are we pray (to the end of prayers)'. Then the Prophet SAW asked: 'who is singing it?' They said: 'Amir bin al-
Akwa''. The Messenger SAW said: 'May Allah has mercy upon him ..." (The Hadith:
Al-Bukhari). This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. l. Say "Bismillaah" if you face trouble along the way
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. From Abul Malih (not the original saying): "I've been riding with Prophet SAW, then rides were slipping. Then I say, "Woe unto
Satan". However, Prophet SAW refuted what I said,
28 "Do not say 'woe Satan', because if you say so, the devil will be big as a house. Then the devil arrogantly said, 'It all happened because of my strength'. However, the right thing to do is to say "Bismillah". When you do, the devil will be smaller to the extent that he would be like flies. "(The Hadith: Abu Daud) m. Praying solah two rakaat once arrived at the destination and coming back
home
This Islamic belief of performing a sunnah prayer is presented in the following two hadith:
"From Jabir bin 'anhu Abdillah: I've been travelling with the Prophet SAW. When we arrived in the city of Medina, he said to me: Enter the mosque and pray two rakaat."
(The Hadith: Al-Bukhari).
"Indeed when the Prophet SAW arrived from travelling at the time of Dhuha, he entered the mosque and prayed two rak'ahs before sitting down." (The Hadith: Al-
Bukhari & Muslim). n. Zikir when entering the village/town
Shahiih mentioned in Ibn Khuzaimah stated that Rasuulullaah SAW reads the following upon entering an area:
"Ya Allah, the Lord of the seven heavens and the ruled. Lord of the seven rulers of the earth and what is on it. God controls Satan and what they mislead. God controls the wind and what flew”.
“And we asked of You good village, good people, and all that is in it. We seek refuge in Thee and ugliness of this village, evil people, and all that is in it.” (The Hadith: An
Nasaai). This Islamic value falls into Sunnah.
29 o. Avoid settling for more than 3 days at a friend’s / relatives’ premise
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. Islam, like any other religions, pays utmost attention to hospitality and kindness when it comes to a host-guest relationship. When receiving a guest(s), a Muslim is obliged to serve the guest appropriately and with respect. Islam, in addition, outlines the ethics of visitation where the guest(s) is encouraged to bring souvenirs and is obligated to the following: treat the host with respect and avoid staying at the hosts for more than 3 days. Other than following the teachings of Islam in relation to getting well-prepared for a travel, this, in addition, is a gentle reminder for the guest to respect the host’s time and his privacy. Abu Shuraih
Al-Ka’bi narrated the following:
‘Anybody who believes in Allah and the Last Day should serve his neighbour generously, and anybody who believes in Allah and the Last Day should serve his guest generously by giving him his reward." It was asked, "What is his reward, O
Allah’s Apostle?" He said, "(To be entertained) generously for a day and a night with high quality of food and the guest has the right to be entertained for three days (with ordinary food), and if he stays longer, what he will be provided with will be regarded as Sadaqa (a charitable gift)’ (The Hadith: Al- Bukhari & Muslim).
Ibn Hajar, a prominent Muslim figure who was a scholar of the Syafie School, declared the meaning of this hadith as follows (Hasan, 1994): i) Great hospitality refers to providing the guest with the best food and the food usually is more special than what the host normally have, on the first day. Regular hospitality refers to providing the guest with the food normally consumed by the host, on the 2nd and the 3rd day. On the 4th day, the host is to prepare edible materials for the guest approximately 24 hours’ worth of provisions, which will be used to continue with the
30 journey. Any hospitality, kind treatment and services provided by the host after the 4th day are considered as charity. ii) In cases where the guest is only stopping for a while, the host has to prepare edible materials for the guest approximately 24 hours’ worth of provisions, which will be used to continue with the journey. Anything beyond this would also be considered as charity. p. Eat together in one place
The conventional view that the act of eating together helps in strengthening the bonding and this in return, is viewed as a blessing of socialization. From Husyai bin
Harb (not the original source of this saying): The companions of Prophet SAW said:
"O Messenger of Allah, we eat but we cannot feel full". Prophet SAW said: "Maybe because you eat by yourself?” They replied: "Yes". Prophet SAW said: "Eat together in one place and celebrate in the name of God, God will give blessings on the food for you" (The Hadith: Abu Daud). This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. q. Practice Qhasar and Jama’
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. The Islamic belief in the rightness of shortening a 4-rakaat prayer into 2-rakaat prayer was narrated by Anas bin Malik:
"We set out with the Prophet from Medina to Mecca, and we pray two rak'ahs, 2 rak'ahs, until we return to Medina" (The Hadith: Bukhari and Muslim).
"Indeed when the Prophet travelling before the sun slips, he will end or delay Zuhr until the time of Asr, he will stop somewhere and exercise Jama' (combining two prayers into one). When he left before the sun slips, the Prophet would pray Zuhr and then leave." (The Hadith: Bukhari & Muslim).
31 r. Return to his family soon after completing the business
According to Islam belief, it is Sunnah for a traveller to engage in the return trip once he/she has achieved the purpose of the travel. In the hadeeth of Abu Hurayrah that the
Prophet SAW said: "Travel is part of the doom. He cannot eat well and drink as much as he can and sleeps well. So once the needs are completed, he must immediately return to his family" (The Hadith: Bukhari).
According to Ibn Hajar rahimahullah: "This hadith considers the act of separating yourself from your families longer than what is needed as makhruh. It is sunnah to immediately return to the family, especially for a man who has a wife waiting for him. Family gatherings will provide comfortableness in addition to stimulate the sense of togetherness and to build strength in the exercise of worship
"(Al Asqalani, 2004). s. Bring gifts for family
Habit or culture of bringing souvenirs for friends and family members when visiting family members/ friends/neighbours or carrying back souvenirs when travelling are the teachings of Islam, which carry the purpose of bringing happiness to someone.
Prophet SAW said: "The act which is most beloved by the God is to make a Muslim happy, or keep troubles away from him, or pay his debts, or get rid of hunger from him. Indeed, fulfil the needs of Muslim brother is better than i'tikaf in the mosque
(Nabawi Mosque) for a month" (The Hadith: Tabarani)
Imam Al Ghazali stated the following in his book: "It is advisable to bring souvenirs either food or visit other family and house as well as adapt to their abilities. This is
Sunnah. The family will always look forward to what is brought from travelling. They are happy when they are visited and will be happier upon receiving souvenirs"
(Ghozali & Hamid, 1954). This Islamic value falls into Sunnah.
32 t. Telling family about homecoming
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. Prophet SAW explained the wisdom behind of this matter, where he SAW said: "Some families will have time to freshen up, wearing jewellery, combing their hair and making themselves beautiful; after being left behind"
(The Hadith: Muslim). u. Choosing to get home during the day than at night
Prophet SAW strongly discourages someone to knock on the door of his family home in the evening. In other words, Prophet SAW discourages the act of disturbing someone during evening and night time as this is normally the time allocated for resting and relaxing. It is based on the following hadith:
"Prophet SAW forbade a person to knock (the door) family in the evening" (The
Hadith: Al-Bukhari & Muslim).
"Prophet SAW never knocked on the door (the family home), nor in (to the house, after returning from travel) except on the morning or afternoon" (The Hadith: Al-
Bukhari & Muslim). This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. v. Entertains friends, neighbours and family with food
This Islamic value falls into Sunnah. According to a hadith, it is said that the Prophet
SAW slaughtered a camel or a cow once he returned to Medina (The Hadith: Al-
Bukhari). Other than expressing his appreciation to the Al-Mighty God for blessing his journey, Prophet SAW did this for the purpose of celebrating his happiness (of a blessed journey) with family, neighbours and friends. Furthermore, this Islamic value is considered as sunnah.
There are a number of readily available studies discussing the travel ethics
(known as Adab Musafir in the Malay Language) which can be practised by the
Muslims as written in Suhid (2007), Che Omar and Ali (2011), and Al-Bakri, Zulkifli,
33 Hanafi, Hakim, Hassan and Najihuddin (2010). Among the travel ethics are listed below:
Leave the family members in the good hands
Be responsible for the rental goods
Musyawarah (confer)
Choosing a good friend for the travel
Do not leave the house in anger
Based on the literature review above, it can be concluded that the teachings of Islam in relation to travel can be divided as follows (see Table 2.2):
Table 2.2: Summary of Islamic values while travelling
Beliefs Attributes Pray Perform Istikharah Prayer Read prayers for travel Increase prayer Perform 2-rakaah Sunnah Prayer Perform Qhasar and Jama ' Emotion The journey is planned with good intentions Do not leave the house in anger Family Leave the family members in the good hands Do not delay the return trip Bring gifts for family Tell the family about homecoming Entertain friends, neighbours and family with food Reference Get advice about the travel Goods Be well-prepared for the journey Do not bring any bells Timeframe Choose to travel on Thursday Depart early in the morning for the trip Choose to go home during the daytime, rather than night time Companion Choose a good friend to be a companion Take a trip together with two or more people Choose a leader when travelling with companion(s) Sya'ir chanting or poetry Say "Bismillaah" when experiencing trouble along the way
34 Table 2.2: (Continued)
Ethics Avoid staying at friend’s/relatives for more than 3 days Eat together in one place Responsible for rental goods Recitation Takbir Allahu Akbar when going uphill Subhanallaah zikir when getting down the hill Say Chant (Zikir) when entering village/town
Table 2.3 summarized the above description on the Malays’ belief for each travel stage, in accordance with Islamic beliefs.
Table 2.3: Islamic Belief on Travel Stages
Home Perform Istikharah Prayer The journey is planned with good intentions Leave the family members in the good hands Get advice about the travel Choose a good friend to be a companion Be well-prepared for the journey Departure Choose to travel on Thursday Depart early in the morning for the trip Do not leave the house in anger Take a trip together with two or more people Read prayers for travel Do not bring any bells Along The Way Increase prayer (doa) Choose a leader when travelling with companion(s) Takbir Allahu Akbar when going uphill Subhanallaah zikir when getting down the hill Sya'ir chanting or poetry Say "Bismillaah" when experiencing trouble along the way
35 Table 2.3 (Continued)
Destination Perform 2-rakaah Sunnah prayer Say Chant (Zikir) when entering village/town Avoid staying at friend’s/relatives for more than 3 days Eat together in one place Perform Qhasar and Jama ' Be responsible for the rental goods Leave and Return Do not delay the return trip Perform 2-rakaah Sunnah Prayer Bring gifts for family Tell the family about homecoming Choose to go home during the daytime, rather than night time Entertain friends, neighbours and family with food
2.4 Defining Malay
Malay refers to those who speak the Malay language and practice the Malay customs.
The word ‘Malay’ is derived from Sungai Melayu, which located in the headwaters of
Batang Hari, Sumatra (Andaya, 2001). According to the legend, a Malay kingdom was existed here some 1500 years ago.
2.4.1 Origin of the Malay Word
According to etymology, the word 'Malay' was said to be also taken from the Sanskrit language 'Malaya', which means hill or high ground. Another source claimed that the word 'Malay' is derived from 'Sungai Melayu' in Jambi (Din, 2011).
2.4.2 The Identification of the Malay
The term 'Malay' was defined by UNESCO in 1972 as the Malays ethnics residing in
Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Madagascar. However, according to the Malaysian constitution, the term "Malay" refers only to a person of a
Malay descent who embraces Islam. In other words, not all people with the Malay
36 origin are defined as the Malays. The term 'Malay' refers to the name of the nation that came into existence after the ruling of Malacca Sultanate in 14th-centuries. Since the
17th century, the word 'Melayu' has been widely used. Before that, the term 'Melayu' is often referred to the hereditary Malay rulers from the Sumatra. The term 'Melayu' was also found in the works of Ptolemy, Geoprahike Sintaxis (100-150 BC), which was translated from the original term 'bleu-colon' (Gerini, 1974). Gerini (1974) also considered the term ‘Melayu’ comes from the Sanskrit word, where 'Maleu-colon' is
'malayakom' or 'malaikuram', which refers to Tanjung Kuantan in Malaysia. Apart from that, Braddell (1936) also suggested the term 'malayakom' or 'malaikuram' refers to Tanjung Penyabung.
The term 'Malaya Dvipa' which was an ancient Hindu scripture, appeared in the Puranas and was written before the time of Gautama Buddha in 500 AD. 'Dvipa' carried the meaning of 'land surrounded by water' and based on the information stated in the book, the researchers assumed that the 'Malaya Dvipa' was the island of Sumatra.
The term 'Mo-lo-yu' was also recorded in the Chinese traveller logbook around 644-
645 AD, during the Tang Dynasty. It is agreed that the word 'Mo-lo-yu' in question was the government situated in Jambi on the Sumatra Island, and also the Srivijaya kingdom located in Palembang (I-Tsing, 2005).
2.4.3 Religious and belief in Malays Community
From the perspective of social sciences, religion is a system of belief which is said to be composed of the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, besides considering it as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies which usually involve devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs (Rex, 2017).
37 The Malay community distinguishes religion and belief. While they view religion like major religions such as Islam, Christianity, Catholicism, Hinduism and
Buddhism, they define beliefs such as the worship of the 'gods' and belief in the power of spirits (spirits, ghost, goblin, sikodi and others) as merely a belief (Ismail,1996). In addition, the Malay community sees belief as ceremonies and old customs of the
Malays, such as “tepung tawar”, “mati tanah” and others.
In fact, the alleged belief in the Malay society is consisted of the old beliefs
(for example animism where natural objects, phenomenon and the universe possess souls) and religious beliefs (for example performing prayers five times a day.
Nevertheless, the Malays are practising the old beliefs or the cultural beliefs which do not contradict the Islamic beliefs.
2.4.4 Early Belief in the Malays Community
Prior to the arrival of religion, the early beliefs of the Malay community were
'animism', where according to this belief, everything in this world has a soul or spirit that will positively or negatively affect human life (Bin Kasimin, 1983). Spirits must be worshipped in order to bring benefit and additional sustenance. This could be observed in the ritual of worshipping the beach spirit for safety purposes and rice spirits for guaranteeing a substantial harvest.
The practice of this belief has resulted in the creation of taboos, customs, laws and culture. The ritual was done by performing specific art performances (dance, drama and music), or by chanting particular mantra as well as by doing indigenous planting and death custom (Wright, 1981). These ceremonies, which were once associated with supernatural, have been adopted and adapted into the Malays’ daily life as entertainment elements such as "Main Puteri"(refers to is an indigenous
38 Kelantanese healing ceremony in which the bomoh), 'Main Dewa'(refer to healing ritual), and 'Putus Ubat' (refer to the belief that the disease will return if not perform
‘Putus Ubat’ requirements). Given that each ritual and dance ceremony was linked with particular rule and taboo, specific incantation was designed for each ceremony as it would protect the ceremonies from the evil spirits and demons. According to this belief, only certain individuals were given the right to conduct the ritual and dance ceremonies; and these individuals include 'dukun', 'tabib', 'pawang', and 'nenek kebayan'. These individuals held the responsibility of fixing the negative occurrences such as disturbed people and spirit lost.
Other than believing that all the entities in this world is possessed by spirits and souls, the Malays community was also associating themselves with the belief of the spirits of dead. According to Winzeler (1983), the Malays believed that an individual who possessed great power during his lifetime would be able to provide protection after his/her death. The following entities were deemed by the Malays as sacred:
1. The nature-based objects such as rocks, mountains, islands and headlands.
2. Animals such as tigers and white crocodiles.
3. The grave of a witch or a charmer.
4. The grave of the person who opened a new settlement.
5. The tomb of Muslim scholars.
6. Scholars who are still alive.
The following are the religions that have influenced the Malays previously:
1. Hinduism
The influence of Hinduism was brought by the Indian traders since the 6th century.
Langkasuka and Kedah Tua are the two kingdoms located in Malaya which embrace
Hinduism (Hasni, Ali & Ramli, 2017). The rapid growth of this religion was observed
39 after the arrival of the Brahmins and the acceptance of the government (Aljunied,
2005). The acceptance was based on the fact that Hinduism adheres to the concept of
Sinjai where the king is deemed as a god on Earth. Hence, the king’s presence serves the purpose of strengthening and empowering the government. Besides the king,
Hinduism followers are found to worship Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu, and this can be detected from the construction of the Candi Bukit Batu Pahat and Candi Bukit
Pendiat in Lembah Bujang, Kedah (Winstedt, 1968).
As the rites and doctrines of Hinduism magnify the gods’ majestic powers and virtues, human tends to believe that Hinduism is associated with nobility and only the nobles embrace this religion earnestly despite their limited understanding in the
Hinduism’s philosophy and teachings. The nobles see Hinduism as a platform to accomplish their own interests and to strengthen their position within the social structure. The Malays community, on the other hand, are more likely to understand the arts than the subtlety of the Hinduism’s metaphysical philosophy characters (Sanusi &
Legino, 2015).
2. Buddhism
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, it was learned that Buddhism has an affinity with
Hinduism as it included some adjustments of the elements on Hinduism (Ismail, 1990).
The religion forbids people to commit atrocities because they are not beneficial.
Buddhism was easily accepted by the Malays community because they assumed that the founder of Buddhism was one of the Hindu Gods’ reincarnation.
3. Islam
Islam was spread by the Muslims’ merchants and preachers from the Middle East.
Islam emphasises Faith (belief in God’s mercy, blessings and power) and Sharia (the laws regulated based on Al-Quran and Hadith). The arrival of Islam in the 7th century
40 has eroded some Hindu-Buddhist practices that have long been practised in Malaya.
Wheeler (1928) stated the penetration of Islam in Malaya happened in three ways:
1. Trade routes: it was believed that there were Sufis among the merchants who
travelled to Indonesia, and these Sufis were the individuals who were
responsible for the spreading of Islam in the Malay Archipelago.
2. Marriage: it was believed that there were settlers who tied the knot with the
indigenous people, and through marriages, Islam was introduced to the others.
3. The nobles: it was believed that the people of a kingdom will follow their
king’s footstep in everything, and religion is no exception. Hence, when the
king embraced Islam as his way of life, his people would do the same.
The arrival of Islam has brought some great changes in the politics, laws, economics and culture (Rauf, 1964). The political aspect could be clearly seen by the replacement of the king’s title from ‘Raja’ to ‘Sultan’. The official ceremony was preceded by prayer (doa). The ‘Sultan’ will receive help from the religious leaders in order to manage matters concerning the Islam. In the business aspect, Islam forbids usury and encourages its followers to seek the lawful source of income. In addition, the practices of ‘zakat’ and ‘fitrah’ serve the purpose of helping the less fortunate to live a more comfortable life. In social aspect, the spirit of jihad preserves the sanctity of Islam from the Western colonialism. In terms of customs, changes from Hindu-
Buddhist elements to Islamic elements are observed in ceremonies like weddings, 'adat turun tanah' (refers to traditional rituals trample on the ground for a seven-month-old baby, 'melenggang perut' (refers to a massage routine to make sure the unborn baby sits in the appropriate position to smooth the delivery process), and circumcision.
There are four sects in the Islam, namely: Hambali, Maliki, Shafi’i and Hanafi.
In general, the Shafi'i sect adheres to the Malay community. They are obliged to
41 perform the 5-times daily prayer routine just like the remaining 3 sects; however, the
Shafi’i sect encourages the followers to perform the prayers at the mosque in the congregation. According to Shamsudin, Maslan and Akhir (2014), the Malays are very respectful toward Friday. Islam upholds Friday as an important day because it is the day which is granted full blessings by Allah SWT.
According to Osman (1989), the belief in ghosts and spirits is the foundation of religious beliefs which was originally existed in the primitive nature of human thought. Animism formed “Cultural universals” among the primitive tribes (Atran,
1998). According to Mugiyono (2016), Nusantara people believe that the spirits of dead can get into the body of an animal, and this belief is similar to the Hinduism’s belief of the incarnation of gods. The Nias tribe, which resides on an island located at the west of Sumatra, believes that the rat out of the house is considered as the soul of the dead mother. It is believed that an individual who wishes to take revenge on the enemies will have his/her soul enters a body of a pig or a tiger, and this animal will then interfere the enemies’ life. The good spirit is believed to be transformed into a docile animal and the bad spirit will enter the body of a wild animal.
Islam changed the religion of the Malays from polytheism (as portrayed by the
Hinduism) to believe in only one god (Rahim, Nor, Dahlal, & Hamid, 2015). Al-Quran becomes the way of life as it guides the Muslims throughout their life and leads to the good hereafter. Through Islam and Al-Quran, the Muslims learn how and why they must ignore superstition and have faith in the Al-Mighty God (Herlina, 2014; Hasan,
2012; Fatih, 2015). They are taught to fear nothing but the Al-Mighty God and there is no other power which is stronger than Allah the Almighty God.
42 2.4.5 Influence of Islam on the Malays’ Travelogue
Travel behaviour among the Malays is known through works written by the Malays themselves. In the beginning, the Malays community did not possess any gadgets or tools to record their travel experiences. Hence, a travelogue (a written document which is also known as ‘perawi’) becomes the evidence of the travellers’ thoughts, feelings and experiences about the things they encountered in the journey (such as environment, people, events, and landscapes) (Kaufman, 2011). Travelogue, in addition, portrays the ideology of a society and the culture (Natarella, 1976). The form of travelogue changes in parallel with the technological advancement where previously travelogue only existed in the form of written documentation (books, letters and diaries) (Dann, 1992). Today, travelogue can be seen in the form of online documentation (websites, blogs, mobile application) and creative documentation
(novels, dramas and printed brochures). Examples of Islamic travelogues include the documentation of Mecca-Medina journey and Isra’-Mi’raj journey, both were undertaken by Prophet SAW. Examples of the Malays’ travelogues include:
“Maka adalah pada 2 April 1871, hari Ahad pukul sepuluh setengah,
berbetulan dengan 11 haribulan Muharram, Hijrah 1288 pagi, bahawa
dewasa itulah aku mengiringi Yang Mulia Ungku Abdul Rahman bersama-
sama Ungku Mat dan Tuan Imam Teluk Belanga bernama Haji Abdul
Rahman serta lain-lain adalah kira-kira dua puluh orang tua muda, bertolak
dari hadapan rumahku di Teluk Belanga dengan katar Ungku Abdul
Rahman itu. Angin yahum belayar tetapi arus surut dari muka. Ada kirakira
pukul enam lalu lepaslah Pulau Merambung....” (Munsyi & Othman,
1980)
“Kalakian pada esoknya, iaitu 20 Muharam 1288, berbetulan dengan bulan
Inggeris pada 10 April 1871, pagi Isnin pukul tujuh, lepas makan biskut, roti
43 dan kahwa, berangkatlah Yang Mulia Ungku dan aku serta lain-lain dan
orang-orang Padang mengiring- semuanya adalah kira-kira lebih seratus
orang- berjalanlah kami semuanya ke darat itu melalui Jalan Othman yang
baharu dibuat, menyusur tepi Parit Jawa itu.” (Munsyi & Othman, 1980)
The following travelogues shows that the Malay travellers prefer to travel early in the morning:
“Pada tengah hari Jumaat 14 September saya sampai di Stesyen Kereta Api
Alor Setar. Kereta api yang membawa saya dari Tanjung Malim, pada
malam itu bersalin di Bukit Mertajam kira-kira pukul 6 pagi.”- (Za'ba and
Asmah, 2008)
“Aku bangun awal-awal lagi pagi itu. Jam 5.30 pagi aku sudah bangkit dari
tidur. Aku bersiap sedia untuk meneruskan penegembaraanku yang belum
selesai…..Aku menyusuri jalan di sekitar Bandar Sandakan. Kedai-kedai
ada yang masih belum dibuka lagi ketika itu. Jam 6.30 pagi di Sandakan,
hari sudah agak terang. Pagi itu langit cerah…’ (Talib, 2007).
The following travelogues shares the reason why Islam emphasizes on good manners (refers to the travelogue entitled “Meniti Hari Esok” written by Muhd Kamil
Ibrahim) and the preaching elements in relation to pray (refers to the pilgrimage travelogue entitled "Jom Hidupkan Roh Haji: Tranformasi Ke Arah Manusia
Sempurna"):
“Pengabdian yang paling asas yang perlu dilakukan oleh manusia adalah
melalui sembahyang. Menjaga sembahyang bererti membina tiang
agama…Satu dakwah bagi diri sendiri dan anak buah supaya mengingati
sembahyang. Lebih penting apabila ia membabitkan sembahyang
berjemaah.” (Muhd. Kamil Ibrahim, 2009).
44 “Lumrahnya manusia berdoa atas dua sebab. Pertama kerana inginkan
sesuatu dan kedua untuk menyelesaikan masalah…Melalui doalah kita
merasakan bahawa Allah itu Maha Kaya dan Maha Agung. Allah
memperlihatkan keagunganNya melalui nikmat yang diberi…Selain solat,
Allah adakan doa untuk hambaNya agar kita sentiasa berhubung
denganNya. Soal cepat atau lambat doa disempurnakan, hanya Allah yang
tentukan…Yakinlah, apabila kita telah berusaha dengan kuat, Allah tidak
akan abaikan...” (Aki, 1962)
Munshi Abdullah’s pilgrimage travelogue shared the difficulties and experiences faced by the pilgrims (which duly accepted as the tests from the Almighty
God) during the approximately 3-month voyage to Mecca. The difficulties onboard
(named Anshun) were recorded by Harun in the travelogue entitled “Chatetan ka-
Tanah Suchi” (Aminurrashid, 1961):
“Sebermula, maka kemudian daripada itu, maka angin ada kencang, lalu
belayarlah hendak menyeberang Kep Gamri. Allah, Allah, Allah! Tiadalah
dapat hendak khabarkan bagaimana kesusahannya dan bagaimana besar
gelombangnya, melainkan Allah yang amat mengetahuinya. Rasanya
hendak masuk ke dalam perut ibu kembali…Maka masing-masing dengan
halnya, tiadalah lain lagi dalam fikiran melainkan mati.” (Munshi, 1955).
“Susah menjadi penumpang di dalam bahagian tengah kapal…orang yang
ingin menunaikan haji mestilah sabar… di sini tiada keseronokan atau
kebebasan seperti kebiasaannya ketika di darat…kamu terpaksa
menanggung kesusahan ini di sepanjang pelayaran pergi dan balik
daripada menunaikan haji, sabar ialah satu-satunya jalan penyelesaian
terbaik.” (Aminurrashid, 1961).
45 The Malays have been frequently involved with the activities of travel, and travel is undertaken for the purpose of:
1. To explore new lands
The good example of travel on exploring new lands is based on the Parameswara’s journey. Portuguese historians agree that Parameswara was a Malay ruler who originally came from Palembang, who had spent five years in Singapore, and then was driven away and founded Malacca at around 1400s. Parameswara had made an effort to travel to the North and found a new settlement. Chronologically, Before reaching
Muar, Parameswara had contemplated to establish his new kingdom at either Biawak
Busuk or at Kota Buruk. After he found that the location of Muar was not suitable, he continued to travel to the North. Along the way, he reportedly visited Sening Ujong or formerly known as Sungai Ujong, before he reached a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Malacca River). This place had evolved over time to become the location of modern-day Malacca Town (Loo, 2009).
2. To learn
Hooker (1999) found that Panglima Awang (also known as Enrique of Malacca) was the first man to circumnavigate the globe with the ship Magelan’s Armada. The story began in 1511 after Malacca fell to the hand of Portuguese. After the Portuguese conolized Malacca, Awang and another hundreds of men had been taken to a prison and thrown into a large vessel belong to a Western nation. The intelligence and prowess of Awang had resulted that the Portuguese Viceroy Alfonso de Albuquerque to made Awang his personal prisoner and slave. After some time, they lifted up the anchor and began sailing away from Malacca to a foreign continent with prisoners and booty. The ship stopped at Goa and some prisoners were sold as slaves. The voyage
46 continued towards Lisbon, capital of Portugal. From this travel, Awang learned a lot about travelling from the experts.
3. To escape
The plantation system forced by the Dutch in the 1820s, which had caused the Java people to grow only coffee, tea and spices. This had triggered the anger among the
Javanese when facing food shortages. To avoid and escape starvation, many Java people travelled and migrated to the Malaya Peninsular and stayed in the Malaya states under the influence of British administration. Most Javanese had strong religious beliefs and refused to bow under the influence of pagan administrator (Netherlands), so they had chosen to settle in Johor. They came in stages with the aid of the royal family who owned the ship known as Dagar king and had gotten special permission to sail and trade in the archipelago by the Dutch.
According to the historical records, the band or the Java migration wave to the Malay
Peninsular was mostly active in 1835 until 1900. This was due to the Rodi System or forced plantation imposed by the Dutch and severe punishment was applied to anyone who disobeyed the order, to the level of death (Tirtosudarmo, 2005). The Cerebon
Royal family relative, for example, was a group of the most active traders because they were familiar with sailing and trading in the region including the bays and harbours in the archipelago. Trade, travel and preach were the culture of life. They came from the origin of the Sheikh and Arab traders who inherited seamanship, besides actively involved in trading for generations. We are clear that the Java people travelled because they wanted to escape their bad situation in their motherland.
4. To cross places and events
Pires, a Portuguese writer, reported in ‘Suma Oriental’ about Sultan Mansur Shah’s intention to go to Mecca (Wake, 1964). Yusoff & Mazwati (2010) reported about Tok
47 Kenali or Muhammad Yusof Ahmad, a famous Malay figure/scholar originated from
Kelantan, who travelled to Mecca at a young age.
Table 2.4 listed the Malays practices/beliefs in relation to travel behaviour that may or may not be practised by the Malays, depending on their own awareness and willingness to do so. The listed practices/beliefs were obtained by interviewing the
Malay elders. This is deliberately studied in order to find out the backgrounds of Malay when they travel which involves the influence of cultural relations. This study examines the influence of Islam rather than culture, but also acknowledge that cultural aspect should not be ignored.
Table 2.4: The Malays cultural values in relation to travel
Home Avoid leaving home in the evening and afternoon. Wear cloth from the bottom (to increase the face radiance). When bringing a baby at dusk time, carry the baby with the charcoal pan. Smear "Minyak Celak" at certain parts of the child who is brought to travel. Place a "kukur" in front of the doorsteps to avoid a hurricane. Apologize to the nearby neighbours. Get out of the house with the right foot. Do not leave the house at the time of the eclipse, and if possible avoid using umbrellas. Do not leave the rice pot empty. Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are the good days to start a journey. Avoid carrying eggs and meat because these are the favourite food of "bunian". Tuesday of the last week of a month is a bad day for travelling activity.
Departure Do not return to the starting point of a journey. When a snake passes in front of a traveller before the journey starts, it is considered as not a good sign Do not give cloth to a lover.
48 Table 2.4 (Continued)
Along the Way Avoid walking on the edge of the water. Do not criticize if noticed something strange. Do not discharge urine at the termites' nest. Avoid sleeping by the river. Do not touch red leaves on a tree (for fear of itching). Do not whistle. Do not show off Do not respond to voices coming from an unknown direction. Do not point at the rainbow. Do not discharge urine in the river. Avoid walking under a clothesline. Do not mention the names of wild animals. Do not pick the tree leaves at night. Do not wear perfume. Do not point the light aimlessly. Ask permission from “Datuk" and "Nenek" before discharging urine feces. Destination When in the forest, take a leaf in that area and put at the side of the ear (as a sign of respect). If the body is weak, do not collect any goods from the visited sites. Do not sleep on the field. Do not eat in the dark. When eating, do not put a plate on the lap. Do not sleep at a stranger house. Eat what is being served, as a sign of respect Pour some water on the plate when done eating. Do not take a sparkling stone or anything that is weird. Do not mess with clean places. Leave and Return Spit 3 times before enters the house. Wash your feet before entering the house. Avoid entering the house during sunset Sources: From informal interview with Malay elderly people
2.5 Background Theories of Travel Behaviour
The definition of behaviour is a range of manners to a series of actions carried out by individuals, organisations and systems in the environment (Laland & Brown, 2011, page 77). Simon (1990) viewed behaviour as the response of individuals or groups against the action, environment, person or stimulus. According to Eagle and Chaiken
49 (1993), attitudes are more concerned with what is in the mind when thinking, feelings, belief or opinion of approval or disapproval towards something. Behaviour, on the other hand, is basically known as an action and reaction which exists in response to the event (John, 2015, Maio & Olson, 1994, Cristea & Gheorghiu, 2016).
Theory is known as a significant instrument in the scientific study of phenomena, especially when associated with human behaviour. Even though certain scientific fields may have a different approach on how theories are used in data analysis and research development, theory always plays a crucial role in both theory- driven fields and empirically-focused work. Theories often describe a conceptual model of behaviour, which prescribes the behaviour of interest; conceptual factors that may influence or explain the behaviour, and hypothetical relationships between them
(Handy, 2005). Theories of travel behaviour are mostly shaped by economics, geography, and sociological disciplines; because all these disciplines are all the original theories which concern with behaviour. The key contributions from each theory, their significance to the development of the Malays’ travel behaviour theory, and their possible influence by religion and belief are described and noted.
2.5.1 Economics Theories
The economic point of view generates ideas for analysis, methodologies and tools to examine travel behaviour. Among the economic-related theories that examine travel behaviour are:
Theory Random Utility Maximization (RUM)
Theory Random Utility Maximization (RUM), which is principally derived from the sociological field, was first introduced in the form of mathematics. Thus, it is more suitable to the economics point of view (McFadden, 2007). In RUM theory, behaviour
50 which is affected by certain factors will result in the execution of rational actions. For examples, the decision-making process always undergoes several times of screening and the results of it tell the reasons why the action was taken. According to RUM theory, a person will choose the best option if some alternatives or options are provided. For example, an individual will choose a job with higher pay when financial stability is evaluated, while another individual will choose a job with the flexible schedule when work-life balance is considered important.
RUM theory also stated that a person's belief will shape the decision made for a certain situation (Luce, 1959; 1977), and this view coincides with the Muslim or the
Malays behaviour. For example, despite the fact that there is a range of options for delicious non-halal food sell at an affordable price, the Malays would rather buy the halal food regardless the taste and the price. In this study, RUM theory is relevant to be applied in assessing the Malays’ travel behaviour which is shaped and influenced by the Islamic beliefs and the teachings of Islam.
Thurstone (1927) and McFadden (2001) suggested that, in the case where a group of individuals share the same principles, their choice for certain subjects may be similar.
For example, similarity can be found in the Malay tourists’ behaviour when the decision of a certain action was made based on the Islamic beliefs. Block and
Marschak (1960) argued that the theory of The Law of Comparative Judgment is more focused on utility economic framework as the alternative options but are more likely to be viewed from the economic standpoint. Examples of economic point of views associated with travel behaviour include frequency, destination choice, travel schedule and transport mode (Domencich and McFadden 1975; Manski, 1977).
51 2.5.2 Geography Theories
Since 1970, the perspective of geography began to be considered in the travel field as it affects the conceptualization of travel behaviour, particularly in relation to the understanding of travel demand (Van Acker, Van Wee & Witlox, 2010). The geography theories take into account the activity pattern before, and it measures the travel pattern as the activity pattern helps in determining the travel demand. The theories are used to assess the travel behaviour are as follows:
Time Space Prism
Hagerstrand (1970) who coined the Time Space Prism theory stated that the pattern of behaviours can be understood by studying the behaviour individually. Hagerstrand
(1970) suggested that actual behaviour is associated with time and space, and it has three main constraints: capability, coupling and authority. Capability constraints touches on the concept of ‘spatial-temporal area’ which describes positive engagement in travel when it is not challenged by space and time, especially in daily activities. This concept takes the followings into consideration: time allocated for sleep and rest activities, and transportation technologies available for physical mobility.
Coupling constraints addressed when, how and where the activities will be carried out by an individual who considers the factors of time and space. A coupling constraint also signifies the need to be in one specific place for a given length of time, often demonstrated in the interaction with other people. Authority constraints involved legislation, organisation, location and matters in which the activities carried out will be limited. This is regulated by certain people or institutions that set the limits on its approach to particular individuals or groups. For instance, a person's space-time path is generally not allowed in a sensitive military base or private club. Ortuzar and
52 Willumsen (2011) agreed that Hagerstrand’s study (1970) has a great contribution to the development of activity based on travel behaviour model, in terms of:
A group’s travel behaviour can be understood when each individual’s
travel behaviour is understood.
The ability to implement activities during travel is depending on
capability, coupling and authority constraints.
Activity Pattern Model
Similar to the Theory of Time Space Prism, the theory of Activity Pattern Model accentuates the importance of understanding an individual’s behaviour in order to understand a group’s behaviour (by assessing the capability, coupling and authority constraints), and it focuses on the analysis of activities and activity patterns (Chapin,
1974). According to Chapin (1974), activity is influenced by motivation (fulfilling a want or need), choice (selecting between perceived and feasible alternatives) and outcome (action) (see Figure 2.1). Activity pattern in the model is determined by demand (propensity), supply (opportunity) and socioeconomic characteristics. In the example of propensity, the theory stated that someone who is motivated to travel does not take into account the time constraints. The opportunity factor looks at the availability and the quality of facilities and services. Hence, the possibility of choosing land-based transport mode is higher compared to air-based transport mode for travelling purpose during typhoon season.
53
Figure 2.1: Activity Pattern Model (Chapin, 1974)
2.5.3 Sociological Theories
The sociological theories examine more factors which influence behaviour. For example:
The Theory of Human Motivation clarified that human behaviour depends on
a few basic requirements.
The Reasoned Action Theory, Theory of Planned Behaviour, Theory of
Interpersonal Behaviour, Theory of Repeated Behaviour and Theory of
Integrated Behavioural Model explained in detail the factors that influence
behaviour.
Social Cognitive Theory described the expected behaviour of a relationship
with several factors.
Transtheoretical Model argued that individual perception, attitudes, belief and
preferences play an important role in travel behaviour.
Theory of Human Motivation (THM)
Theory of Human Motivation (THM) (Maslow, 1943, Maslow, 1954) introduces the requirements in the form of hierarchy pyramid, and it is the most influential theory in psychology (Kenrick, Griskericius, Neuberg & Schaller, 2010) (see Figure 2.2). To
54 Maslow, motivation together with biological, cultural and situational factors play an important role in influencing the behaviour of a human being.
THM illustrates the 5-level hierarchy where the requirements categorized in the lowest level need to be first met. The lowest level is related to the demand of human psychology, especially in protecting and maintaining the body. This level is followed by the levels addressing the requirements for safety, love, esteem and self- actualization, respectively. The safety requirements is related to disease prevention and insecurity avoidance while affection involves a sense of responsibility towards other human beings. The need for esteem refers to the requirements of self-confidence and appreciation. The self-actualization level can be treated as a fulfilment of one's talents and potentialities, it is particularly considered as a drive or need present in everyone.
Scholars have tried to re-evaluate and expand the Maslow’s hierarchy to diversifying its perspective or view in existing situations. Most recent studies supported the idea of human motivation through psychological, self-protection and safety, affiliation and belongingness, status and esteem, and mate and parental needs, but they ignore the idea of self-actualization because each individual is unique and the motivation for self-actualization leads people to different directions (Kenrick et al.,
2010).
55
Figure 2.2: Hierarchy of Needs for Human Motivation (Kenrick et al., 2010; Maslow, 1943, 1954)
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975;
Montario & Kaprizyk, 2008) was developed to explain how an individual’s attitude can be linked to behaviours (Figure 2.3). Similar to THM, TRA also considers motivation or intention as a major driving factor in influencing behaviour, and it is directly driven by attitudes toward the behaviour. For example, an individual’s act of participating in a voluntary program is a result of his/her intention of doing so. This theory defines and elaborates subjective norms as social pressure on behaviour. In another words, someone who behaves against religion and local beliefs will be criticized by the community.
Researchers have been employing TRA to study a number of fields including transportation and travel behaviour. In TRA, there is a direct relationship between attitudes and social norms which affect the intention and ultimately affects the travel behaviour. Other than that, behaviour is also influenced by demographic, social, economic and environmental aspects. However, Gordon, Kumar and Richardson
56 (1989) reported a negative association between marital status and travel behaviour.
Garling, Gillholm and Garling, (1988) analysed the role of attitudes toward travel behaviour and found that a person acted with reason and the decision is made by the belief control
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TBP)
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) was developed by Ajzen (1991) as an extension of the TRA. According to TBP, factors outside the control can affect a person's behaviour, although the behaviour is being influenced by attitudes and intentions. A factor outside the control is, however, subject to the extent of one's belief. For example, rainstorm prevents a person from travelling safely even if he believes that he will be safe after getting the permission to perform the travel. In TBP, perceived control affects the intention to act in which it shows the relationship between intention and behaviour. Perceived control is characterised by the belief that one can verify one's own internal states and behaviour, affect one's environment, and/or bring about preferred outcomes (Norman & Hoyle, 2004).
Based on the studies which employed TBP, researchers agreed on the significant influence of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behaviour control on intentions and behaviour intention; on travel behaviour (Bamberg, Ajzen and Schmidt,
2003; Bamberg and Schmidt, 1998, 2003). TBP outlined the following hypotheses:
57
Figure 2.3: Theory of Reasoned Behaviour and Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein, 1980; Montano & Kasprzyk, 2015) (Additions for TBP shown in dashed lines)
Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour (TIB)
Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour (TIB) by Triandis (1977, 1980) is similar to TRA.
TIB states that intention is the immediate antecedent to behaviour. In TIB, travel behaviour is influenced by feasibility, environment, attitudes, social factors like status and affective behaviour (figure 2.4). Attitudes described in TIB carries the same meaning as in TRA and TPB. Factors including subjective norms (similar in TRA and
TPB) are instrumental in shaping the social self-concept or trust. Affective factors are emotional responses to travel behaviour. For example, according to travel behaviour perspective traveller will behave influenced by the subjective norm of the community because of the reliable social self-concept. TIB suggestes that habits affect the relationship between intentions and behaviour (Damarchi, Tudela & Gonzales, 2008).
For example, a person may believe that a traveller should be continued once started, regardless the situation. In contrast, habits such as forgetting something or leaving something behind unintentionally may influence someone to make a return trip to retrieve that object.
TIB, in addition, states the context or facilitating conditions which affect habits. For example, a person may know that a travel undertaken early in the morning
58 may help in avoiding traffic congestion. However, he/she may choose not to do so if he/she is not a morning person. Triandis (1980) formulated the following equation to predict behaviour.
Prob (Act) = (weight Habit× Habit + weight Intention × Intention)
× (Physiological Arousal) × (Facilitating Conditions)
Figure 2.4: Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour (Domarchi et al., 2008; Galdames et al., 2011; Triandis, 1977, 1980)
Theory of Repeated Behaviour
The theory of repeated (TRB) (Ronis, Yates & Kirscht, 1989) tries to clarify the role of attitudes and habits on behaviour where such behaviour will be conducted regularly and repeatedly (see figure 2.5). According to TRB, behaviour can be influenced by a causeless effect (habits and reflexes) and causal effect (decisions/intention, attitudes, perceived benefits, perceived costs and perceived self-efficiency). Behaviour, in addition, can be affected by a decision-making process that is consciously and logically conducted. Repeated behaviour is a behaviour repeatedly performed in accordance with belief and attitudes. For example, someone may choose to travel to a
59 short-distance place by cars; however, the travel is undertaken by foot because he/she believes that exercise is good for health.
Another factor highlighted by TRB is the stimuli. Stimuli refer to the changes which will affect the decision-making process. Studies of Aarts, Van Verplanken and
Knippenberg (1997) and Aarts and Dijksterhuis (2000) support that stimuli can influence travel behaviour.
Figure 2.5: Theory of Repeated Behaviour (Ronis et al., 1989)
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1986) differs from other Theory Behaviour in the sociological field (Figure 2.6), as it is associated with human behaviour.
According to SCT, the act of performing a new behaviour results from interaction with other people and the environment. The human-environment interaction is due to personal factors such as cognitive, affective and biological factors (McAlister, Perry,
& Parcel, 2008). This theory asserts that behaviour performed rather than the influence individual itself but also another factor like religion. For example, someone who
60 follows the religion requirement while travelling will feel secure. This feeling is influenced by his/her beliefs that a pious follower will be blessed and protected by
God.
In relation to the environment, SCT claims that the motivation and facilitation will influence behaviour. Incentive motivation is like a reward for the desired behaviour. For example, a clean and less pollution atmosphere when there is a decrease in traffic congestion. Facilitation is an environmental factor that allows a person to behave. For example, one may travel by foot to take advantage of the pedestrian-based facilities provided.
Figure 2.6: Reciprocal Determinism in Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)
Integrated Behavioural Model (IMB)
Integrated Behavioural Model (IMB) (Montano & Kaprzyk, 2015) is an extension of
TRA and TRB, and it is influenced by TIB and SCT to some extent (see figure 2.7).
Similarly, IMB also declares that intention is the driving factor to any behaviour, and the behaviour is influenced by the following: knowledge and the ability to perform the behaviour, the salience of behaviour, environmental constraints that prevent the behaviour, and the past experience. The slight difference between the IMB and TIB is
61 the theoretical discussion of emotional response. For example, low level of self- confidence will prevent an individual to do something even if safety is not an issue and the activity is accepted by beliefs and culture.
Figure 2.7: Integrated Behavioural Model (Montaño & Kasprzyk, 2008)
Transtheoretical Model (TTM)
The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) (Prochaska & Velicer 1997; Prochaska, Redding
& Evers, 2008) explains the several stages and processes that can influence behaviour over time, and it is somewhat alike to SCT. There are several interventions that will affect behaviour in general.
The stages are as follows: pre-contemplation, contemplation and preparation.
Different stage will lead to different behaviour. The process discussed in this theory involves consciousness raising (awareness), dramatic relief (emotions), self-re- evaluation (self-image), environmental-re-evaluation (role model), self-liberation
(willpower), social liberation (opportunities), counter conditioning management
(reinforcement) and helping relationships (social support).
62 Ipsative Theory of Behaviour (ITB)
The Ipsative Theory of Behaviour (Frey, 1988; Tanner, 1999) (ITB) is a theory developed by economic interests but it is adapted to the environmental psychology framework. The variables in this theory are an objective choice, travel option, and environmental factors. Basically, to ITB, some behaviours may not benefit from the economic standpoint but still used for psychology. For example, a non-Muslim traveller is more likely to find a place to relax once arrived at a destination. A Muslim traveller, on the other hand, will find an appropriate place to perform prayer and only then will try to fulfil other needs. Behaviour can be changed by the influence of subjective individuals, which in return, triggers an alternative set of behaviours. As a result, a behaviour performed by an individual or a group can be generalized.
Normative Decision-Making Model (NDM)
The normative decision-making model (NDM) (Schwartz and Howard, 1981) is formulated to address how altruism and non-altruistic influence the decisions made
(Figure 2.8). NDM theory categorizes the factors into stages, namely Attention,
Motivation and the Evaluation stage.
In Attention stage, individuals shall have clear justification on and shall be conscious and responsive towards the behaviour performed. For example, visiting friends and relatives (VFR) activity help in bonding and socialization purposes. This activity may not be done due to time and financial constraints, and if it is done under those circumstances, it will compromise the activity. For motivation stage, NDM's claims that internalised values (personal norms), external values (social norms), and non-physical, moral and material factors will influence the outcome of a behaviour.
For example, one may use a bicycle as the travelling mode in respect toward environmental sustainability.
63 Evaluation stage is influenced by situational and personal factors. Klockner,
Matthies and Hunecke (2003) in their study also supported that evaluation stage as a factor affecting the behaviour habits. Studies which employed NDM to assess travel behaviour have documented the following significant relationships: ‘personal influence - travel behaviour’ and ‘social norms influence - travel behaviour’ (Klockner
& Matthies 2004; Klockner et al., 2003; Wall, Devine-Wright, and Mill, 2007).
Figure 2.8: Normative Decision-Making Model (Klöckner & Matthies, 2004; Klöckner et al., 2003; Schwartz & Howard, 1981)
Comprehensive Action Determination Model (CADM)
The comprehensive action determination model (CADM) (Klockner & Blobaum,
2010) describes the combined behaviours factors. The coalition in CADM theory are against from TPB, NDM, TIP and ITB (Figure 2.9), CADM demonstrates that there are three factors influencing the behaviour. The factors include habitual process, intentional process and the situational factors. The concept contained in CADM is to help the development of travel decision-making theory.
64
Figure 2.9: Comprehensive Action Determination Model (Klöckner & Blöbaum, 2010)
Summaries of Theories behaviour are as in Table below:
Table 2.5: Summary variables from Behaviour Theories
Theories Variables Previous Studies Economic Theories Theory Random Utility Individual Belief Domencich & McFadden Maximization (RUM) Economic (1975), Manski (1977) Geography Theories Time Space Prism Capability Ortuzar & Willumsen Coupling (2011) Authority Activity Pattern Model Constraint Chapin (1974) Facilitating Availability Quality
65 Table 2.5 (Continued)
Psychological Behaviour Theories Theory of Human Physiological Needs Kennick et al., (2010) Motivation (THM) Safety Love Esteem Self-actualization Theory of Reasoned External Fishbein (1980), Action (TRA) Demographic Fishbein & Ajzen, Attitudes (1975), Montario & Personality Kaprizyk (2008), Individual Difference Garling, Gillholm & Garling (1988) Internal Belief Evaluation Normative Beliefs Motivation
Theory of Planned External Bamberg, Ajzen & Behaviour (TBP) Demographic Schmidt (2003), Attitudes Bamberg & Schmidt Personality (1998) (2003) Individual Difference Internal Belief Evaluation Normative Beliefs Motivation Control Belief Perceived Power Theory of Interpersonal Expectations Damarchi, Tudela & Behaviour (TIB) Values Gonzales (2008) Social Norm Social Role Self-Concept Emotions Past Frequency
66 Table 2.5 (Continued)
Theory of Repeated Unreasoned Influence Aarts, Van Verplanken & Behaviour Habits Knippenberg (1997) Reflexes Aarts & Dijksterhuis (2000), Bamberg (2006) Stimuli Cues to Habit Problems in Environment Opportunities Life Change
Enabling Factors Skills Knowledge Memory Money
Reasoned Influences Decisions/ Intentions Attitudes Perceived Benefits Perceived Costs Perceived Self- Efficiency
Social Cognitive Personal Factors McAlister, Perry, & Theory (SCT) Environmental Parcel (2008) Factors
67 Table 2.5 (Continued)
Integrated Behavioural Feelings Montano & Kaprzyk Model (IMB) Belief (2015), Klockner & Normative Matthies (2004), (Others behaviour & Klockner et al., (2003) Expectation) Wall, Devine-Wright, & Control Beliefs Mill (2007) Efficacy Beliefs Experiential Attitude Instrumental Attitude Injunctive Norm Descriptive Norm Perceived Control Self-efficacy Attitude Toward Behaviour Perceived Norm Personal Agency Knowledge & Skills Salience of The Behaviour Intention Environmental Constraints Habit Transtheoretical Model Consciousness Prochaska & Velicer (TTM) Raising (Awareness), (1997), Prochaska, Dramatic Relief Redding & Evers (2008) (Emotions), Self-Re-Evaluation (Self-Image), Environmental-Re- Evaluation (Role Model) Self-Liberation (Willpower) Social Liberation (Opportunities), Counter Conditioning Management (Reinforcement) Helping Relationships (Social Support).
68 Table 2.5 (Continued)
Ipsative Theory of Objective Choice Frey (1988), Tanner Behaviour (ITB) Travel Option (1999) Environmental Factors Normative Decision- Attention Stage Klockner, Matthies & Making Model (NDM) Awareness of Needs Hunecke (2003) Awareness of Consequences Personal Behaviour Control Motivation Stage Personal Norms Social Norms Non-moral Aspects Evaluation Stage Feelings of Guilt Satisfaction Shame or Pride Further Negative or Positive Consequence of Behaviour Denial or Defence Denial of Need Denial of Ability Denial of Control Comprehensive Action Normative Processes Klockner & Blobaum Determination Model Social Norms (2010) (CADM) Personal Norms Awareness of Needs Awareness of Consequences Habitual Processes Schematics Heuristics Associations Intentional Processes Intentions Attitudes Situational Influences Objective Constraints Subjective Constraints
69 2.6 Theoretical Framework
McFadden (2001) stated that the theory of economic and travel psychology influenced the decision-making which ultimately affects travel behaviour. The fundamental theory employed in this study is the Theory of Reasoned Action. This study only adapts some variables of the Theory of Reasoned Action. Figure 2.10 shows the proposed theoritical framework based on Theory of Reasoned Action.
Figure 2.10: The proposed theoretical framework
Demographic variables placed in this theoretical framework are similar to what are included in the Theory of Reasoned Action. Travel Characteristics are the personality traits in the form of individuals’ habitual patterns of behaviour. Islamic beliefs have similar interpretation in behavioural beliefs. Behavioural belief refers to the trust affected by the mentors, experience, education, faith and culture. This research associated religion with the proposed theoretical framework because religion is a belief that composed or organised.
From the Theory of Reasoned Action, evaluation of outcomes refers to the awareness. Awareness defines as when situation a matter is noticed, one has the sensitivity to things and knowledge about it (Endsley, 1995). In detail, it refers to the
70 situation when a person understands about an act and the positive consequences resulted from the implementation of the act. Low awareness level may because of limited knowledge of and limited exposure to the subject (Edwards & Polman, 2013).
Awareness can be developed when stimulated by a belief or the tendency for confirmation bias. In the context of confirmation bias, it is learned that human is always searching for information which conform to their preconceptions and belief
(Fagin & Halpern, 1987). However, Blakemore and Frith (2003) suggested that many aspects of action occur without awareness. Practices are about performing an activity and practices are associated with the attitude (positive or negative). This study aims to examine awareness and practices of the Islamic beliefs of the Malay travellers.
Sociological research recommends that intentions identification may be a prerequisite to better understand the human mind (Perner, 1999; Goldman, 2012).
Studies related to the theory of mind research concentrated on the development of beliefs, desires, and intentions (Frye, Zelazo, & Palfai, 1995). Travel stages are a temporary condition that occurs during travel, thus, travel stages are considered as the antecedent variables in this study. Jun, Vogt, and MacKay (2007) categorized the travel stages as pre-trip, during the trip and post trip. Chen, (2016) grouped the travel stages as a departure, the destination onsite activities and return stages. Smith, Li, Pan,
Witte and Doherty, (2015) elaborated the travel stages as a pre-trip, arrival, half-way, departure, and post-trip. Travel stages replace Intention in the Theory of Reasoned
Action as Intention could also mean a plan and opportunity to engage in an activity.
The intention of this study refers to the decision to perform Islamic practices in all travel stages, and it is measured using questionnaire (Francis, Eccles, Johnston,
Walker, Grimshaw, Foy & Bonetti, (2004).
71 This study selects Theory of Reasoned Action as the underlying theory because this theory is most appropriate to study the relationship between travel behaviours and religion. There are many past studies examined religious relationships with one's behaviour which can be used as the foundation of this study. In fact, the Prophet
Muhammad has taught this theoretical basis to Muslims where every act practised by
Muslims should be initiated with the intention of God. The study also relevant to the philosophy that exists in Islam, the concept of "Iman, Ilmu dan Amal". In general, this concept implies that a Muslim is not enough to have only knowledge but not adopting it. Failure to practice the existing knowledge indicates the level of one's faith.
This study seeks to examine the Malays travel behaviours which address the following religion beliefs:
1. Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons
2. Places of worship
3. The availability of Halal food
4. The banning of alcohol and gambling
2.7 Conclusion
This chapter discussed the subjects to be studied, which are derived from the extensive literature review. Based on the literature review, this study has chosen the Theory of
Reasoned Action out of 14 theories presented, as the foundation for the proposed theoretical framework to examine the Malays’ travel behaviour. This chapter has also provided some insights on the meaning of religion and belief as well as the definition of Malay, Malay community and the Malays’ travel behaviour.
72 CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Chapter 3 describes the methods employed in completing this study. This chapter begins with Research design in Section 3.2. While Section 3.3 elaborates the assessed variables, Section 3.4 details out the development of the data collection instrument.
Section 3.5 provides insights into the population and sampling technique utilized, whereas Section 3.6 reports on the pilot study results. In addition, section 3.7 addresses the data collection technique and Section 3.8 explains the data analysis procedures.
The conclusion of this chapter is made in Section 3.9.
3.2 Research Design
This study employed descriptive cross-sectional research design, which involved questionnaire survey technique. This research design was chosen because of its easy- of-conduct nature, its ability to address the ‘what’ question (Hickman & Rog, 1998), as well as its ability to accommodate an indirect theory/model test and descriptive analyses. More importantly, it allowed the descriptive analyses to be done even though data was collected once. The cross-sectional study utilised the Malays community in
Penang as the study population, where the population was then used to select the representative sample. This study was based on quantitative methods which were more reliable because their statistical decision was clearer to generalise the finding in the study. Figure 3.1 summarises the four-stage research procedures.
73
Figure 3.1: Research Flow Chart
Quantitative research was used as systematic scientific research on the parts and phenomena and its relationships. The purpose of the quantitative research is to develop and apply mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses related to natural phenomena. The measurement process is the central part of quantitative research because it provides a fundamental relationship between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. According to positivism, a valid science is a science built from empirical. With the approach of positivism in quantitative research methodology, it required a research design that specifies its object explicitly, which was separated from other unexplored objects. A quantitative
74 research method is a research approach that represents positivistic understanding.
Quantitative research using the positivism study to examine the things encountered in the field, of course before conducting the research then the case or problem that would be examined is first classed into quantitative or qualitative, so in the process, further researcher undertakes research by putting forward the flow of thought that right. In this research Quantitative methods were used to test the Theory of Reasoned Action based on the proposed conceptual framework. The four stages are as follow:
Stage 1: Identification of problem
This stage involved reviewing the readily available data to understand the issues (Neuman, 2000) related to the Malays’ travel behaviour, from the perspective of Islamic values. This stage, in addition, highlighted the gap in the body of knowledge besides addressing the issues in relation to awareness and practice levels. Using this as the guideline, research framework (consists of research objectives, research questions, variables to be tested and theoretical framework) was developed to examine the connectivity between the Malays’ travel behaviour, the teachings of Islam with regards to travelling and the Malays’ sensitivity towards the certain teachings of Islam.
Stage 2: Instruments development and data collection
This stage touched upon the questionnaire survey development. The reliability and validity of the data collection instrument were confirmed by referring to appropriate personnel, other than improvising the instrument based on the pilot study results. In terms of data collection, the data collected values were validated by several means. This included giving a brief explanation (booklet and letter of permission to conduct a survey) to the respondents on what the study was all about, giving assistance to the respondents during the instrument completion and re-checking the instrument for any mistakes upon completion. Questionnaire surveys were handed out to the
75 Malays living in Penang. 450, 415 were successfully retrieved (which amount to 92.22
% response rate) and 398 were usable for data analysis (which amount to 95.90% validity rate).
Stage 3: Data Analysis
The data obtained was analysed using analysis Descriptive, Pearson Chi-
Square, Correlation and Regression analyses to achieve the research objectives outlined. The descriptive analysis in this study was chosen because it could provide simple summaries of the studies, while Pearson Chi-Square measured how well the observed distribution of data fits with the distribution which was predictable if the variables were independent. In this study, Pearson Chi-Square analysis was applied to learn about the result of demographic and travel characteristic that influence travel behaviour. Correlation analysis in this study was selected because it signified the level of two or more variables acted together as in this study to know the awareness and level of Islamic practices. Lastly, for regression analysis was chosen to understand the independent variables (Islamic values) and the dependent variable (Malays travel behaviour).
Stage 4: Findings and implication
The last stage detailed out the findings, discussion, and conclusion which were related to each research question.
76 3.3 Research Variables
Quantitative method was based on the theory composed of variables which use numbers and analysed using statistical procedures (Creswell, 1994). This study was designed as follows: travel behaviour as the dependent variable, Islamic values as the independent variable, travel stages as the antecedent variable, and demographic and travel characteristics as the external variables. All variables included in the proposed theoretical framework (figure 3.2) were aligned with the Theory of Reasoned Action.
Figure 3.2: Theoretical Framework
3.3.1 Dependent Variable
This study has selected 12 variables of the Malays’ travel behaviour based on the literature review, and these 12 variables were further categorized into 4 groups (see
Table 3.1). According to Creswell (1994), the dependent variable was defined as outcomes of the influence of the independent variable. All dependent variables were retrieved from the previous study as stated in Chapter 2 (see explanation on page 21).
77 Table 3.1: Dependent variables
Dependent Variables Sources Travel Behaviours 1. Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons
• Qibla direction indicator Mansfeld et al., (2000), Din (1989) • Separate facilities Henderson, 2003; Al-Hamarneh & Steiner, 2004; Timothy and Iverson, 2006 • Quranic verses Weidenfeld (2006), Fleischer (2000)
2. Places of Worship • Close to the mosque Weidenfeld (2006), Mohsin (2005)
• Space for pray Syed, 2001; Al-Hamamah and Steiner, 2004
• Attractive mosque architecture Henderson, 2003
3. Availability of Halal Food • Halal certificate Mohsin and Ryan, 1997; Khan, 2001; Mohsin, 2005; Weidenfeld, 2006; Weidenfeld and Ron, 2008 • Cooked by Muslims Henderson, 2003, Mohsin, 2005
• Halal ingredients Dugan (1994) 4. Banning of certain acts • Avoid immoral place. Din, 1989; Henderson, 2003, 2008a; Zamani-Farahani and Henderson, 2010
• Avoid gambling activities Ibn Majah, 2004
• Uncomfortable with Premises Din, 1989; Henderson, 2003; 2008 a; that served alcohol. Al-Hamarneh and Steiner, 2004; Wei et al., 2007; Zamani-Farahani and Henderson, 2010
78 3.3.2 Independent Variable
This study had chosen 30 independent variables of the Islamic Values, which were further grouped into 9 groups (see Table 3.2). Creswell (1994) defined the independent variables as cause, influence or affect outcomes. In this study, the Islamic values would give an impact on the Malays’ travel behaviour. In detail, the independent variables chosen were measured in terms of the Malays’ awareness and practice levels.
Table 3.2: Independent Variables
Independent Variable Sources Pray • Perform Istikharah Prayer • Read Musafir prayer The Hadith: Al-Bukhari • Increase prayer (Doa) & Muslim • Perform 2-rakaah Sunnah Prayer • Performs Qhasar and Jama Emotion • The journey is planned with good intentions • Do not leave the house in anger Ghozali, & Hamid, 1954 • Entertain self Family The Hadith: Al-Bukhari, • Leave the family members in the good hands Muslim & Tabarani • Do not delay the return trip • Bring souvenirs for family/friends Ghozali, & Hamid (1954) • Tell family about homecoming • Entertain friends, neighbours and family with food Reference Ghozali, & Hamid (1954) • Get advice about the travel Goods Nordin,(2012) • Be well-prepared for the journey • Do not bring any bells The Hadith: Muslim
Timeframe • Choose to travel on Thursday The Hadith: Al-Bukhari, • Depart early in the morning for the trip Tirmidhi, Muslim & Abu • Choose to go home during the daytime, rather than Dawud night time
79 Table 3.2 (Continued)
Companion • Choose a friend with good morale as a travelling companion • Take a trip together with two or more people The Hadith: Abu Dawud • Choose a leader when travelling with companion(s) • Sya'ir chanting or poetry Ghozali, & Hamid (1954) • Say "Bismillaah" when experiencing trouble along the way Ethics • Avoid staying at friend’s/relatives for more than 3 The Hadith: Al-Bukhari, days Abu Dawud & Muslim • Eat together with a companion • Be responsible for the rented goods Ghozali, & Hamid (1954) Recitation • Takbir Allahu Akbar when going uphill • Subhanallaah hymn when getting down the hill The Hadith: Abu Dawud • Say Chant (Zikir) when entering village/town & An Nasaai
3.3.3 External Variable
According to Creswell and Miller (1997), external variables were factors that are not manipulated in the study but external variables indirectly influence on the dependent variable. Theory of Reasoned Action regarded demographic and travel characteristics as external variables in the model because these two factors claim to indirectly influence behaviour. Other behaviour theories suggested the influence of demographic and travel characteristics on behaviour include Theory of Activity
Pattern Model, Theory of Planned Behaviour and Social Cognitive Theory. Theory of
Reasoned Action (TRA) associated the travels characteristics with 'Personal Traits'.
80 Table 3.3: External Variable
External Variable Sources Demographic Profile Gender Sheth (1977), Tlou (2009), Salami (2008), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Age Sheth (1977), Tlou (2009), Salami (2008), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Status Sheth (1977), Tlou (2009) Highest Education Level Sheth (1977), Salami (2008), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Occupation Sheth (1977), Abrahamse & Steg (2009) Monthly Income Sheth (1977), Abrahamse & Steg (2009), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Travel Characteristic Last travel destination visited Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Main objective of the travel Perdue (1985), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Major transport when travelling Perdue (1985) Second transport when travelling Perdue (1985) State the source of information Perdue (1985) for your travel? Who is your travel companion? Falkmer, & Gregersen (2001) The number of travel Penang Global Tourism Survey companion(s) The place to stay at the Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) destination? Total expenses for this trip? Perdue (1985) On average I travel _____ times a Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) year.
3.3.4 Antecedent Variable
According to Creswell (1994), the Antecedent variable was also known as an explanatory variable. An antecedent variable was accounted an independent variable that precedes other independent variables in time. In this study, an explanatory variable was the travel stages which were referred to the time point. The time points included pre-travel preparation, departure, along with the way, at the destination and return.
Travel stages were claimed as intention in this study because the intention was defined as propensity and opportunity to engage in the activity.
81 Table 3.4: Antecedent variable
Antecedent Variable Sources Travel stages Preparation before travel Departure Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007), Chen, Along the way (2016), Smith, Li, Pan, Witte & At Destination Doherty (2015) Return
3.4 Instrument Design
This study employed self-administered questionnaire, which was divided into 4 sections (see Table 3.5):
1. Section A collected the demographic profile to identify the respondents’
background: gender, age, status, the highest level of education, occupation and
monthly income.
2. Section B gathered the travel information to assess the travel pattern: last
destination visited which is 81 kilometres away from home, main travel
destination, transportation mode, information sources, travel companion, place
of stay, average total expenditure
3. Section C provided the insights on Islamic values as well as awareness and
practices of Islamic values in each travel stage. In order to assess the awareness
and practice levels, a similar set of questions was applied (see Siniscalco &
Auriat, 2005). This study utilized the 5-point Likert Scale as suggested by
Vagias (2006):
Awareness (1 = Not at all aware, 5 = Very aware)
Practice (1 = Not at all practice, 5 = Very practice)
4. Section D addressed the travel behaviours: destination meeting the religious
needs of patrons, places of worship, availability of halal foods and banning of
82 certain acts. Similar to Section C, Likert Scale was utilized to collect the data
for this section.
The questionnaire was developed based on the literature review, as presented in Chapter 2 (see Subsection 2.4.3, page 45 to 52, Subsection 2.4.4, pages 53 to 67).
In relation to the last destination visited, the 81 kilometres figure was referred to Imam
Shafie teaching, which according to him, 81 kilometres considered as two ‘marhalah’.
The questionnaire was developed in the Malay language to provide better understanding and avoid misinterpretation.
83 Table 3.5: Questionnaire Design
Variables Attributes Question Sources Number Section A: Gender A1 Sheth (1977), Demographic Tlou (2009), Profile Salami (2008), (External Jun, Vogt, & Variable) MacKay (2007) Age A2 Sheth (1977), Tlou (2009), Salami (2008), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Status A3 Sheth (1977), Tlou (2009) Highest A4 Sheth (1977), Education Level Salami (2008), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Occupation A5 Sheth (1977), Abrahamse & Steg (2009) Monthly Income A6 Sheth (1977), Abrahamse & Steg (2009), Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007) Section B: Last travel B7 Jun, Vogt, & Travel destination MacKay (2007) Characteristics visited
Main objective B8 Perdue (1985), of the travel Jun, Vogt, & MacKay (2007)
Major transport B9 Perdue (1985) when travelling Second transport B10 Perdue (1985) when travelling The information B11 Perdue (1985) source of your travel?
84 Table 3.5 (Continued)
Who was your B12 Falkmer, & travel Gregersen (2001) companion?
The number of B13 Penang Global travel Tourism Survey companion(s)
The place to stay B14 Jun, Vogt, & at the MacKay (2007) destination?
Total expenses B15 Perdue (1985) for this trip?
On average I B16 Jun, Vogt, & travel _____ MacKay (2007) times a year.
Section C Preparation before travel (Antecedent Variable) Values Perform C1-1 The Hadith: Al- (Independent) Istikharah Prayer Bukhari The journey is C1-2 The Hadith: planned with Tirmidhi good intentions Leave the family C1-3 Suhid (2007); Che members in the Omar & Ali good hands (2011); Al-Bakri, Zulkifli, Hanafi, Hakim, Hassan & Najihuddin (2010) Get advice about C1-4 Suhid (2007); Che the travel Omar & Ali (2011); Al-Bakri, Zulkifli, Hanafi, Hakim, Hassan & Najihuddin (2010)
85 Table 3.5 (Continued)
Choose a friend C1-5 Suhid (2007); Che with good morale Omar & Ali as a travelling (2011); Al-Bakri, companion Zulkifli, Hanafi, Hakim, Hassan & Najihuddin (2010) Be well-prepared C1-6 Nordin (2012) for the journey
Departure (Antecedent Variable) Choose to travel C2-1 The Hadith: on Thursday Bukhari and Abu Dawud Depart early in the C2-2 The Hadith: morning for the Bukhari and Abu trip Dawud
Do not leave the C2-3 Suhid (2007); Che house in anger Omar & Ali (2011); Al-Bakri, Zulkifli, Hanafi, Hakim, Hassan & Najihuddin (2010) The need to have a C2-4 Suhid (2007); Che travel companion Omar & Ali (2011); Al-Bakri, Zulkifli, Hanafi, Hakim, Hassan & Najihuddin (2010) Read Musafir C2-5 The Hadith: prayers Muslim Do not bring any C2-6 The Hadith: bell-related items Muslim Along the way (Antecedent Variable)
Increase prayer C3-1 The Hadis: Al- (doa) Bukhari, Ahmad and Tirmidhi Choose a leader C3-2 The Hadith: Abu when travelling Dawud with companion(s)
86 Table 3.5 (Continued)
Takbir "Allahu C3-3 The Hadith: Al- Akbar" when Bukhari going uphill
"Subhanallaah" C3-4 The Hadith: Al- hymn when Bukhari getting down the hill
Entertain oneself C3-5 The Hadith: Al- Bukhari Say "Bismillaah" C3-6 The Hadith: Abu when Daud experiencing trouble along the way At Destination (Antecedent Variable)
Perform 2-rakaah C4-1 The Hadith: Al- Sunnah Prayer Bukhari & Muslim
Say Chant (Zikir) C4-2 The Hadith: An when entering Nasaai village/town Avoid staying at C4-3 The Hadith: Al- friend’s/relatives Bukhari & Muslim for more than 3 days
Eat together with C4-4 The Hadith: Abu companion Daud
87 Table 3.5 (Continued)
Perform Jama' and C4-5 The Hadith: Qhasar Bukhari and Muslim C4-6 Suhid (2007); Che Be responsible for Omar & Ali the rented goods (2011); Al-Bakri, Zulkifli, Hanafi, Hakim, Hassan & Najihuddin (2010) Return (Antecedent Variable)
Do not delay the C5-1 The Hadith: return trip Bukhari
C5-2 The Hadith: Al- Perform 2-rakaah Bukhari & Muslim Sunnah Prayer Bring souvenirs C5-3 The Hadith; for family/friends Tabarani
C5-4 The Hadith: Tell family about Muslim homecoming
C5-5 The Hadith: Al- Choose to go Bukhari & Muslim home during the daytime, rather than night time Entertain friends, C5-6 The Hadith: Al- neighbours and Bukhari family with food
88 Table 3.5 (Continued)
Section D Need room with D1 Mansfeld et al., Travel Behaviours Qibla direction (2000), Din (1989) indicator. Require separate D2 Henderson (2003); facility for men Al-Hamarneh & and women (such Steiner (2004); as a gymnasium, Timothy and swimming pool). Iverson (2006) Feel comfortable D3 Weidenfeld (2006), to stay at an Fleischer (2000) accommodation that hangs Quranic verses on the walls. Choose to stay at D4 Weidenfeld (2006), a place that is Mohsin (2005) close to the mosque. Require spaces to D5 Syed (2001); Al- pray at the places Hamamah and of attraction (such Steiner (2004) as theme parks, etc.). Visit a place D6 Henderson (2003) because of a mosque attractive architecture. Dine at a place D7 Mohsin and Ryan, with a valid halal (1997); Khan certificate. (2001); Mohsin, (2005); Weidenfeld, (2006); Weidenfeld and Ron (2008) Consume food D8 Henderson (2003), that is only Mohsin (2005) cooked by Muslims. Ensure that the D9 Dugan (1994) food ingredients are Halal.
89 Table 3.5 (Continued)
Avoid visiting D10 Din (1989); immoral places. Henderson (2003), (2008a); Zamani- Farahani and Henderson (2010) Avoid engaging in D11 Ibn Majah (2004) gambling activities
Feel D12 Din (1989); uncomfortable at Henderson (2003); premises that (2008 a); Al- serve alcohol. Hamarneh and Steiner (2004); Wei et al., (2007); Zamani-Farahani and Henderson (2010)
3.5 Population and Sampling Frame
The respondents of this study were the Malays who live in Penang, and the respondents were of 18 years old and above. According to Salleh (2012), before the arrival of
Francis Light, the Malays settlements occupied the Penang Island and it was then known as Batu Uban and Dato 'Keramat. In general, the Malays of Penang were composed of several groups. Malays from the Acheh royal families together with their followers emigrated from Indonesia in the late 19th century in the fear of the government who ordered their termination. Indian Muslims or occasionally name as
Jawi Peranakan, were the Malays that were born from a mixed marriage between an
Indian settler and indigenous Malay. Hence, they spoke both Tamil and Malay. There were also Malays from Penang who were the descendants of the Middle East settlers.
To date, they have lived in Penang for seven generations.
The margin of error of 5% was selected because a sample size of 300 to 400, with percentage of 5% was acceptable according to Hunter (2014). The confidence
90 level for the determination of sample size was 95%. This was the amount of uncertainty that was accepted by this study because if the survey were repeated over and over again, the results would match with the results from the actual population 95 %. With 50% of response distribution, the sample size taken was 384 (figure 3.3) while the population size was 693100 (Department of Information, Ministry of
Communications & Multimedia, Malaysia. 2015). The determination of sample size was referred to the Raosoft websites.
Figure 3.3: Determination of sample size (retrieved from http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html)
This study utilized the non-probability purposive sampling. The sampling technique employed as this study only paid specific attention to the Malays who live in Penang, and this study sought to learn about the travel behaviour of the Malays who undertaken a travel. Purposive sampling was also called as judgmental sampling. The criteria laid out were suitable for the study, in order to obtain more accurate data.
In terms of the numbers selected above, the sample size n and margin of error E is given by x = Z(c/100) 2r (100-r) n = N x/ ((N-1) E2 + x)
91 E = Sqrt [(N - n) x/n (N-1)]
Where N is the population size, r is the fraction of responses that you are interested in, and Z(c/100) is the critical value for the confidence level c.
3.6 Pilot Study
Before conducting the pilot study, there was a validation process in this research. The purpose was to validate the contents of the questionnaire by the experts, which was done within the two-month time frame (November to December 2016). This study has consulted with 4 researchers of the Sustainable Tourism Research Cluster (STRC) of
Universiti Sains Malaysia. The researchers were chosen based on their wide knowledge in tourism, social planning as well as transportation fields. The questionnaire was improvised in accordance to their comments which included the questionnaire arrangement, choices of words, and Likert Scale measurement scale employed for particular sections.
The second pilot study was conducted to improve the reliability and to ensure the appropriateness of data collection instruments, as mentioned by Wong and Ko
(2009). This study asked the opinions of 20 randomly selected among the students of
Universiti Sains Malaysia because according to Lau (2011), the number was acceptable as it within 10 to 30 participants. From the pilot test results, a questionnaire was improvised in terms of sentences restructuring to provide a better understanding to the layman. In addition, awareness and practices questions were combined as this would help in offering better comprehension. Based on the pilot study, the questionnaire could be completed within 10 to 15 minutes. This suggested that the questionnaire was not time-consuming, which in return, may indirectly influenced the low participation rate.
92 The data from the pilot study were included in the SPSS Data Editor. Then it was double-checked for accuracy. The reliability test of Cronbach's alpha was run to determine the reliability of the data collected (Table 3.6).
Table 3.6: Reliability Test
Construct Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha N of Items Based on Standardized Items 1. Preparation 0.906 0.921 12 2. Departure 0.865 0.879 12 3. Along the way 0.875 0.884 12 4. Destination 0.883 0.888 12 5.Return 0.888 0.890 12 6. Travel 0.882 0.888 12 Behaviours
3.7 Data Collection
This study used the quantitative approach in evaluating travel behaviour as quantitative methodology emphasized the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables (Creswell, 2003). In this research, the quantitative method comprised both secondary and primary data collection.
I. Secondary Data
Jenning (2001) added that the secondary data might be used as a basis for understanding the whole research. Secondary data is information obtained from the readily available studies such as journals, monographs, statistics and books. Literature review in Chapter 2 was done to provide a better understanding of Theories of behaviour, Islamic values and Malays, in addition, to give a hand in choosing the appropriate method to be applied. Information of statistical was collected from various government agencies.
93 II. Primary Data
In this research, primary data related to the influence of religious values on the Malays’ travel behaviour was obtained through the self-administered questionnaire. This technique allowed the researcher to collect the data from a number of respondents at once, and the findings could be expressed in numerical terms (Veal, 1997). The survey was completed in 51 days. From 415 distributed questionnaires, 398 were successfully retrieved.
3.8 Data Analysis
For data analysis purpose, this study employed Statistical Product and Services
Solution (SPSS version 20. The statistical analyses used included 1) Descriptive
Analysis 2) Pearson Chi-Square 3) Correlation and 4) Regression. Table 3.7 showed the relationship between research objectives, research questions and type of analysis.
94 Table 3.7: Relationship between research objectives, research questions and type of analysis Research Objective Research Elicitation Type of statistical Questions method analysis I. To study Which factors Questionnaire Descriptive demographic and of demographic Survey Chi-Square travel and travel characteristics characteristics that influence the that Malays travel significantly behaviours. influence Malays travel behaviour? II. To determine the Are the Malays Questionnaire Descriptive Malays awareness aware of the Survey regarding Islamic Islamic values values during in their travel travel stages. stages? III. To study the Does Questionnaire Correlation relationship awareness Survey between Malays about Islamic awareness and values level of Islamic influences the values practices Malay’s level among the of Islamic Malays. values practices during travel stages? IV. To examine the Which Islamic Questionnaire relationship of practices Survey Regression Islamic values influence the practices among Malays travel the Malays during behaviour? travel with travel behaviour.
V. To identify the What are Questionnaire Descriptive Malays travel Malay's travel Survey behaviour at the behaviours at destination travel their stages. destination travel stages?
95 3.9 Conclusion
This chapter elaborated the research methods employed by this study and the methodology of developing this study. In other words, this chapter described the procedural steps taken by the researcher in completing this study. The self- administered questionnaire survey was a proper approach to investigate Islamic values that influence the Malays travel behaviour. By implementing a quantitative approach for data collection and analyses, the research objectives and questions could be accomplished. Chapter 4 mentioned further detail the findings of data collected using the self-administered questionnaire survey.
96 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter reported the significant results related to the objective of this study. SPSS
20 has been applied for analysis purpose. Results presented in this chapter included respondents’ profile, demographic and travel characteristics impacts on travel behaviours, respondent’s awareness regarding Islamic practices, the relationship between awareness and level of Islamic practices, Islamic practices, and respondents’ travel behaviour.
4.2 Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive analysis has been conducted for demographic and travel characteristics.
Demographic characteristics in this study consisted of gender, age, status, education, occupation and monthly income. Travel characteristics included last destination, main purposes of travelling, main transport mode, second transportation mode, and information sources about the destination, travel companion, and a number of companions, accommodation chosen at the destination, expenses and travel frequency of trip performed. Additionally, descriptive analysis has been conducted to report the mean value for each dimension: Malay's awareness on Islamic values, the Malays practice of Islamic values and travel behaviour. Results of the descriptive analysis were presented from sections 4.2.1 to 4.2.3.
97 4.2.1 Demographic Characteristic
Table 4.1 presented the following: higher number of female respondents (56.78%), the dominant age was 18-25 years old (51.26%), 68.59% of respondents are single and
73.87% of respondents hold an undergraduate certificate. Among the respondents,
63.33% of were categorized as workforce while 77.14% of respondents earned less than RM 2499.00 monthly.
Table 4.1: Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics
Description Categories Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 172 43.22 Female 226 56.78 Age 18-25 204 51.26 26-35 128 32.16 36-49 48 12.06 > 50 18 4.52 Status Single 273 68.59 Married 117 29.40 Widow/Widower 8 2.01 Education Higher Degree 27 6.78 Bachelor Degree 153 38.44 Certificate/Diploma 141 35.43 Secondary School 77 19.35 Occupation Government 81 20.35 Private 138 34.67 Self-Employed 33 8.29 Student 121 30.40 Unemployed 18 4.52 Pension/Retirement 4 1.00 Others 3 0.75 Monthly Income < RM 2499 307 77.14 RM 2500-RM 4999 80 20.10 RM 5000-RM 7499 5 1.26 RM 7500-RM 9999 3 0.75 > RM 10000 3 0.75 (N=398)
98 4.2.2 Travel Characteristic
From Table 4.2, this study has found that 85.42% respondents were domestic bound.
Most travels performed were related to holiday/recreation purpose (45.00%) while most respondents used land transportation as their main and second travelling mode
(75.90% and 44.20%). Based on the results, 64.80% of respondents extracted information from friends and relatives and 59.8% of them used the internet and social media to obtain information. Respondents has the tendency to travel in a big group
(69.10%) and they preferred non-relative accommodation as a place to stay (65.30%).
Apart from that, 73.36% of respondents spent ≤RM 999 for each trip, and 66.08% of them travelled ≤ 4 times annually. As for choosing a travel companion, majority of respondents travel with their friend (50.80%) and family (44.50%).
Table 4.2: Descriptive Statistic for Travel Characteristic
Description Categories Frequency Percentage (%) Last International 58 14.58 Destination Domestic 340 85.42 Main Purposes Holiday / recreation 179 45.00 Visiting friends / relatives 96 24.10 Business 13 3.30 Education / training / courses / 65 16.30 workshops Shopping 16 4.00 Health care 2 0.50 Religious 2 0.50 Sports tournaments / events 6 1.50 Others 19 4.80 Major Land Transportation 302 75.90 Transport Air Transportation 66 16.60 Water Transportation 21 5.30 Rail Transportation 9 2.30
99 Table 4.2 (Continued)
Second Land Transportation 176 44.20 Transport Air Transportation 100 25.10 Water Transportation 40 10.10 Rail Transportation 65 16.30 Others 4 1.00 Information Internet/Social Media 238 59.80 Sources Friend/Relatives/Word of Mouth 258 64.80 Own Experience 199 50.00 Magazine/Newspaper/Book/Brochure 64 16.10 TV/Radio 58 14.60 Expo/Exhibition Tour 36 9.00 Agencies Tour Companies 38 9.50 Information System in Flight 27 6.80 Others 2 0.50 Companion Alone 66 16.60 Couple/Husband/Wife 65 16.30 Family 177 44.50 Friend 202 50.80 Lecturer/Teacher 31 7.80 Student 26 6.50 Others 2 0.50 Numbers of 0 41 10.30 Companions 1-2 82 20.60 3-10 242 60.80 11-18 16 4.20 ≥19 17 4.27 Accommodation Hotel/Resort 180 45.20 Bungalow/Villa 8 2.00 Serviced Apartment/Apartment 39 9.80 Home of Friends/Relatives 138 34.70 Homestay 73 18.30 Others 38 9.50 Expenses ≤RM 999 292 73.36 RM 1000-RM 4999 97 24.37 RM 5000-RM 9999 7 1.75 ≥RM 10000 2 0.50 Travel ≤ 4 263 66.08 Frequency 5-9 78 19.59 10-14 46 11.55 ≥15 11 2.76 (N=398)
100 4.2.3 Descriptive Analysis of Awareness, Practice and Travel Behaviour
Table 4.3 exhibited the Malays’ awareness for travel stages, namely: preparation, departure, along with the way, destination and return. During the preparation stage, highest level of awareness was recorded for “individual needs” (70.90%), followed by
“good intention” (62.60%). Meanwhile, 26.40% of respondents were unaware for
“istikharah pray” (26.40%). As for the departure stage, 56.30% of respondents were highly aware of “calm emotion” and it was followed by “companion” (46.50%).
Whilst, 40.50% of respondents did not aware of “not bring bell-related items”. In along the way stage, 62.30% of respondents were highly aware of “read Bismillaah”, followed by “increase doa” (49.00%). On the other hand, 8.00% of respondents claimed that they were not aware of “entertain self” while travelling. Concerning the destination stage, 64.60% of respondents were extremely aware of being “responsible for rented goods” while 54.80% of them stated their high awareness of “eating together”. In contrast, 14.30% of respondents said they were unaware of the need to perform “Sunnah prayer”. For the return stage, highest level of awareness was recorded for “rushing back” (56.80%) and “telling the family about homecoming” when they are heading back home (53.00%).
101 Table 4.3: Frequencies Analysis of Malays awareness regarding Islamic values during travel stages Travel not at all slightly somewhat moderately extremely Stages aware aware aware aware aware Preparation 1.Istikharah Pray Percent 26.40 % 19.10 % 25.10 % 18.10 % 11.30 % 2.Good Intention Percent 0.30 % 3.50 % 14.30 % 19.30 % 62.60 % 3.Addresses Someone Percent 0.80 % 7.30 % 20.40 % 33.70 % 37.90 % 4. Making Reference Percent 0.80 % 11.60 % 18.80 % 28.60 % 40.20 % 5.Choose Friend Percent 7.80 % 4.80 % 15.30 % 27.90 % 44.20 % 6.Individual Needs Percent 0.50 % 3.80 % 9.00 % 15.80 % 70.90 % Departure 1.Travel on Thursday Percent 38.70 % 18.30 % 22.90 % 14.10 % 6.00 % 2. Depart Early Percent 2.00 % 11.60 % 20.10 % 23.40 % 43.00 % 3. Calm Emotion Percent 0.50 % 3.50 % 11.60 % 28.10 % 56.30 % 4. Companion Percent 1.80 % 5.00 % 16.60 % 30.20 % 46.50 % 5. Musafir Prayers Percent 3.80 % 14.80 % 21.90 % 29.40 % 30.20 % 6. Do Not Bring Bell Items Percent 40.50 % 16.30 % 17.60 % 13.80 % 11.80 % Along the way 1. Increase Doa Percent 1.30 % 3.30 % 21.40 % 25.10% 49.00 % 2. Group Leader Percent 5.80 % 7.00 % 27.60 % 27.90 % 31.70 % 3. Takbir Percent 7.30 % 9.30 % 28.40 % 27.60 % 27.40 % 4. Subhanallah Zikir Percent 7.30 % 12.30 % 30.70 % 24.60 % 25.10 % 5. Entertain Self Percent 8.00 % 12.80 % 31.70 % 24.60 % 22.90 % 6. Read Bismillah Percent 0.50 % 3.30 % 13.10 % 20.90 % 62.30 %
102 Table 4.3 (Continued)
Destination 1. Sunnah Prayer Percent 14.30 % 16.30 % 33.70 % 21.90 % 13.80 % 2.Dhikr Percent 7.00 % 13.80 % 29.60 % 30.40 % 19.10 % 3. Avoid Settling Over 3 Days Percent 6.30 % 10.10 % 26.60 % 26.90 % 30.20 % 4. Eating Together Percent 0.30 % 3.50 % 16.10 % 25.40 % 54.80 % 5. Jama' and Qhasar Percent 0.80 % 6.30 % 17.60 % 21.90 % 53.50 % 6. Responsible for Rented Goods Percent 0.8 % 4.0 % 11.6 % 19.1 % 64.6 % Return 1. Rushing Back Percent 0.00 % 2.80 % 16.80 % 23.60 % 56.80 % 2. Praying Sunnah Percent 14.8 % 11.8 % 35.2 % 20.6 % 17.6 % 3. Give Gifts Percent 0.5 % 7.3 % 17.8 % 37.7 % 36.7 % 4. Telling Family About Homecoming Percent 0.3 % 4.0 % 10.6 % 32.2 % 53.0 % 5. Get Home During The Day Percent 3.00 % 6.50 % 22.60 % 23.90 % 44.00 % 6.: Entertaining Food Percent 3.30 % 5.50 % 18.60 % 33.70 % 38.90 % (N=398)
4.2.4 Malays awareness on Islamic values during travel stages:
From Table 4.4, it was learned that from the 30 studied items, the three highest mean values were recorded for “individual needs” (M=4.53), “responsible for rented goods”
(M=4.43), and “read Bismillaah” (M=4.41). The results indicated that respondents were aware of the importance of not causing trouble to others as well as the importance of being responsible, as taught by Islam. On the other hand, the three lowest mean values were observed for “Travel on Thursday” (M=2.30), “not bring bell-related items” (M=2.40), and “Istikharah Pray” (M=2.69). This showed that knowledge on this matter is less popular among the Malays.
103 Table 4.4: Characterisation of Malays Awareness on Islamic Values
Awareness level on: Mean Individual Needs 4.53 Responsible Rented Goods 4.43 Read Bismillah 4.41 Good Intention 4.40 Calm Emotion 4.36 Telling Family About Homecoming 4.34 Rushing Back 4.34 Eating Together 4.31 Jama' and Qhasar 4.21 Increase Doa 4.17 Companion 4.15 Give Gifts 4.03 Addresses Someone 4.01 Get Home During The Day 3.99 Entertaining Food 3.99 Making Reference 3.96 Choose Friend 3.96 Depart Early 3.94 Group Leader 3.73 Musafir Prayers 3.67 Avoid Settling Over 3 Days 3.65 Takbir 3.59 Subhanallah Zikir 3.48 Entertain Self 3.41 Dhikr 3.41 Praying Sunnah (Return) 3.14 Praying Sunnah (Destination) 3.05 Istikharah Pray 2.69 Do Not Bring Bell Items 2.40 Travel on Thursday 2.30
104 4.2.5 Malays practices on Islamic values during travel stages:
As stated in Table 4.5, the three highest mean values were presented by “individual needs” (M=4.52), “responsible for rented goods” (M=4.38) and “read Bismillaah”
(M=4.35). The results indicated that respondents were aware of the importance of not causing troubles to others as well as the importance of being responsible, as taught by
Islam. Meanwhile, the four lowest mean values were displayed by “travel on
Thursday” (M=2.22), “istikharah pray” (M=2.32), “do not bring bell-related items”
(M=2.33), and performing “praying Sunnah” (M=2.76).
Table 4.5: Characterisation of Malays Islamic Practices
Practices level on Mean Individual Needs 4.52 Responsible Rented Goods 4.38 Read Bismillah 4.35 Rushing Back 4.34 Good Intention 4.31 Eating Together 4.28 Telling Family About 4.28 Homecoming Calm Emotion 4.18 Jama' and Qhasar 4.08 Companion 4.00 Increase Doa 3.97 Making Reference 3.93 Addresses Someone 3.92 Entertaining Food 3.88 Give Gifts 3.84 Choose Friend 3.83 Depart Early 3.78 Get Home During The Day 3.77 Group Leader 3.50 Avoid Settling Over 3 Days 3.50 Musafir Prayers 3.39 Entertain Self 3.33
105 Table 4.5 (Continued)
Takbir 3.30 Subhanallah Zikir 3.28 Dhikr 3.18 Praying Sunnah 3.01 Praying Sunnah 2.76 Not Bring Bell Items 2.33 Istikharah Pray 2.32 Travel on Thursday 2.22
4.2.6 Malays Travel Behaviour
Travel behaviour was divided into four sections, namely: (1) Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons (Need Qibla direction Indicator, Separates facilities for men and women, Quranic verses in the room), (2) Places of worship (Close to the mosque,
Spaces to perform prayer, Mosque Architecture), (3) Availability of Halal food (Halal
Certificate, Muslim Cook, Halal Ingredients) and (4) Banning of certain acts (Avoid
Immoral Places, Avoid Gambling Activities, Uncomfortable Premises Served
Alcohol).
From Table 4.6, it appeared that the highest percentage for travel behaviour associated with: 'destination meeting the religious needs of patrons' was recorded by
“Qibla direction” (59.3%), ‘places of worship’ was displayed by “praying spaces”
(56.8%), ‘availability of Halal food’ was described by “Halal certificate” (76.6%) and
‘banning of certain acts’ was demonstrated by “avoid gambling activities” (76.1%).
Results of ‘places of worship’ highlighted the importance of having a space for praying purpose, compared to paying attention to the beauty of the facility. Results of
‘availability of Halal food’ accentuated the significance of the logo in assuring the
Muslims over the Halal matter. Results of ‘avoid gambling activities’ might have arisen from the conventional perspective of the interrelation between gambling and alcohol consumption, drugs abuse and sex businesses. Overall, the respondents paid
106 special attention to a Halal issue where the highest means value was recorded for
‘availability of Halal food’. The second priority could be observed for ‘banning of certain acts’, while the least interests were given to ‘places of worship’.
Table 4.6: Analysis of Malays Travel Behaviour
Travel never rarely sometimes often always Behaviour Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons Qibla Direction (Mean:4.44) Percent 0.5 % 1.0 % 11.8 % 27.4 % 59.3 % Separates Facilities (Mean:3.72) Percent 4.5 % 12.1 % 25.6 % 22.1 % 35.7 % Quranic Verses (Mean:4.18) Percent 1.3 % 6.0 % 15.1 % 28.6 % 49.0 % Places of worship Close to the Mosque (Mean:3.97) Percent 2.5 % 5.3 % 24.6 % 27.6 % 39.9 % Pray Spaces (Mean:4.40) Percent 0 % 1.5 % 13.8 % 27.9 % 56.8 % Mosque Architecture (Mean:3.87) Percent 1.0 % 7.5 % 29.4 % 27.6 % 34.4 % Availability of Halal Food Halal Certificate (Mean:4.74) Percent 0 % 0.5 % 2.0 % 20.9 % 76.6 % Muslims Cooker (Mean:4.61) Percent 0 % 0.8 % 5.5 % 25.4 % 68.3 % Halal Ingredients (Mean:4.71) Percent 0 % 0.3 % 2.8 % 22.6 % 74.4 % Banning of certain acts Avoid Immoral Places (Mean:4.47) Percent 2.5 % 1.8 % 8.5 % 20.6 % 66.6 % Avoid Gambling Activities (Mean:4.63) Percent 2.8 % 0.5 % 3.5 % 17.1 % 76.1 % Uncomfortable with Premises Served Alcohol (Mean:4.61) Percent 3.0 % 0.8 % 14.3 % 16.6 % 75.4 % (N=398)
107 4.3 Reliability Test of the Construct
In order to understand whether the questions were measuring the same latent variable,
Cronbach's alpha was run on a sample size of 398 respondents. Cronbach’s alpha is a degree of internal consistency, that is, how narrowly interrelated a set of items are as a group. It is put into a degree of scale reliability and reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered “acceptable” in most social science research situations Results of
Table 4.7 indicated that the questions measured the same latent variable, thus, the questions were reliable. In other words, the results suggested that all items have relatively high internal consistency because the Cronbach's alpha value was higher than .70. A total of 415 questionnaires were collected in Penang. From 415, 17 were excluded due to the incompleteness of the questionnaires. At 398, the valid and usable questionnaires are 95.5%. Based on this, the response rate is 95.5%.
Table 4.7: Cronbach Alpha for the dimension of travel stages and travel behaviours
Construct Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha N of Items Based on Standardized Items 1. Preparation 0.868 0.875 12 2. Departure 0.806 0.816 12 3. Along the way 0.876 0.878 12 4. Destination 0.855 0.859 12 5.Return 0.871 0.878 12 6. Travel 0.870 0.879 12 Behaviours
4.4 Results of Demographic Influences Malays Travel Behaviours
The section 4.4 and 4.5 determined whether the variables were independent by comparing the p-value (significance level). A significance level of 0.05 (denoted as α or alpha) indicated a 5% risk of concluding that an association between the variables exists. The Chi-square value in table 4.8 and 4.10 was intended to test how likely it was that an observed distribution was due to chance. The number of degrees of
108 freedom (df) was the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that were free to vary.
From Table 4.8, significant associations were observed as below:
1. Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons
Between Qibla Direction and gender [x2(4) = 13.180, p = 0.010]
Between Qibla Direction and occupation [x2(24) = 41.212, p = 0.016]
Between Separates facilities and genders [x2(4) = 9.582, p = 0.048]
Between Quranic verses and genders [x2(4) = 14.462, p = 0.006]
Between Quranic verse and status [x2(8) = 47.630, p = 0.000]
2. Places of worship
Between status and close to the mosque [x2(8) = 82.772, p = 0.000]
Between status and mosque architecture [x2(8) = 23.225, p = 0.003]
Between education and pray spaces [x2(9) = 17.660, p = 0.039]
Between education and mosque architecture [x2(12) = 22.273, p = 0.035]
Between genders and pray spaces [x2(3) = 31.632, p = 0.000]
3. Availability of Halal food
Between Halal certificates and genders [x2(3) = 9.797, p = 0.020]
Between Muslim cook and status [x2(6) = 13.114, p = 0.041]
Between Halal ingredients and education [x2(6) = 17.002, p = 0.049]
4. Banning of certain acts
Between genders and avoid immoral places [x2(4) = 48.686, p = 0.000]
Between genders and avoid gambling activities [x2(4) = 39.531, p = 0.000]
Between genders and uncomfortable with premises served alcohol [x2(4) =
25.443, p = 0.000]
Between education and avoid immoral places [x2(12) = 25.112, p = 0.014]
109 Between education and avoid gambling activities [x2(12) = 23.493, p = 0.024].
Between occupation and avoid gambling activities [x2(24) = 41.518, p = 0.015]
Between occupation and uncomfortable premises served alcohol [x2(24) =
46.800, p = 0.004]
Between status and uncomfortable with premises served alcohol [x2(8) =
21.989, p = 0.005]
Table 4.8: Pearson Chi-Square of Demographic with Travel Behaviours
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2- sided) Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons Qibla Direction Gender 13.180 4 0.010 Occupation 41.212 24 0.016 Separates Facilities Gender 9.582 4 0.048 Quranic Verses Gender 14.462 4 0.006 Status 47.630 8 0.000 Places of Worship Close to the Mosque Status 82.772 8 0.000 Pray Spaces Gender 31.632 3 0.000 Education 17.660 9 0.039 Mosque Architecture Status 23.225 8 0.003 Education 22.273 12 0.035 Availability of Halal Food Halal Certificates Gender 9.797 3 0.020
110 Table 4.8 (Continued)
Muslim Cooker Status 13.114 6 0.041 Halal Ingredients Education 17.002 9 0.049 Banning of certain acts Avoid Immoral Places Gender 0.048686 4 0.000 Education 25.112 12 0.014 Avoid Gambling Activities Gender 39.531 4 0.000 Education 23.493 12 0.024 Occupation 41.518 24 0.015 Uncomfortable Premises Served Alcohol Gender 25.443 4 0.000 Status 21.989 8 0.005 Occupation 46.800 24 0.004
Based on table 4.9, 151 female respondents (38%) were found to have the behaviour of requiring a Qibla direction compared to 85 male respondents (21%).
Occupation which has influenced the behaviour came from the private sector 18.34% while 20% of respondents were student. There were 34% of female wanted to have separate facilities compared to only 24% of men. For the Quranic Verses, more than
56% of female respondents would perform the behaviour while only 38% of men would do so. 34% of respondents were single and they would perform Quranic Verses.
Being single also influenced the behaviour of intending to stay close to mosque (29%).
Gender and education played an important role in the behaviour of seeking prayer spaces. Female always concerned more about player spaces (37%) compared to men
(19%). Respondents with the bachelor degree (25%) required prayer spaces, which was the highest number recorded. There were 24% of respondents who were single, considered mosque architecture was important to them. People with bachelor degree and certificate/diploma (14%) would consider the architecture of mosque. Gender demographics such as gender showed different behaviour toward “Halal Certificates”,
111 such that male (30%) and female (46%) emphasised the need of “Halal Certificates”.
Respondents who were single concerned about Muslim Cooker (173 respondents).
Educational backgrounds such as having bachelor degree demonstrated results such that 117 respondents deemed that it was essential to have halal ingredients while respondents with certificate/diploma recorded a total of 105 respondents who would ask for halal ingredients. Females’ respondents (42%) more often avoided the visiting of immoral places. In addition, 114 respondents who have bachelor degree always behaved to avoid immoral Places. Nearly 49% of female avoided gambling activities at travel destinations. However, 31% of respondent with bachelor degree always avoided engaging in gambling activities. Respondents working in private sector (26%) have decided to avoid engaging in gambling activities. A total of 84% of women respondents said they felt uncomfortable with the premises serving alcohol. As many as 204 respondents who were single, said that they were uncomfortable with the premises that served alcohol. Respondents consisting of 102 respondents always felt uncomfortable with such situation.
112 Table 4.9: Crosstab of Demographic with Travel Behaviour
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Total
Qibla Direction Gender Male 1 2 28 56 85 172 Female 1 2 19 53 151 226 Occupation Government 0 1 4 17 59 81 Private 2 0 22 41 73 138 Self-Employed 0 2 7 13 11 33 Student 0 1 9 31 80 121 Not Working 0 0 4 5 9 18 Pension/Retirement 0 0 1 0 3 4 Others 0 0 0 2 1 3 Separates Facilities Gender Male 13 19 44 43 53 172 Female 5 29 58 45 89 226 Quranic Verses Gender Male 2 15 33 55 67 172 Female 3 9 27 59 128 226 Status Single 3 13 40 80 137 273 Married 0 9 20 34 54 117 Widow/Widower 2 2 0 0 4 8 Close Mosque Status Single 4 15 69 69 116 273 Married 2 6 29 41 39 117 Widow/Widower 4 0 0 0 4 8 Pray Spaces Gender Male 0 2 41 53 76 172 Female 0 4 14 58 150 226 Education Higher Degree 0 0 4 7 16 27 Bachelor Degree 0 3 18 31 101 153 Certificate/Diploma 0 1 19 42 79 141 Secondary School 0 2 14 31 30 77
113 Table 4.9 (Continued)
Mosque Architecture Status Single 3 18 88 67 97 273 Married 1 9 29 43 35 117 Widow/Widower 0 3 0 0 5 8 Education Higher Degree 1 3 9 6 8 27 Bachelor Degree 0 15 44 38 56 153 Certificate/Diploma 3 3 40 39 56 141 Secondary School 0 9 24 27 17 77 Halal Certificates Gender Male 0 2 5 45 120 172 Female 0 0 3 38 185 226 Muslim Cooker Status Single 0 3 18 79 173 273 Married 0 0 3 22 92 117 Widow/Widower 0 0 1 0 7 8 Halal Ingredients Education Higher Degree 0 1 0 5 21 27 Bachelor Degree 0 0 3 33 117 153 Certificate/Diploma 0 0 5 31 105 141 Secondary School 0 0 3 21 53 77 Avoid Immoral Places Gender Male 6 2 21 49 94 172 Female 4 5 13 33 171 226 Education Higher Degree 0 2 3 3 19 27 Bachelor Degree 0 1 15 23 114 153 Certificate/Diploma 6 3 9 38 85 141 Secondary School 4 1 7 18 47 77 Avoid Gambling Activities Gender Male 5 0 7 52 108 172 Female 6 2 7 16 195 226
114 Table 4.9 (Continued)
Education Higher Degree 0 0 0 2 25 27 Bachelor Degree 1 2 8 18 124 153 Certificate/Diploma 5 0 3 30 103 141 Secondary School 5 0 3 18 51 77 Occupation Government 2 0 1 12 66 81 Private 2 2 5 27 102 138 Self-Employed 1 0 2 14 16 33 Student 4 0 5 10 102 121 Not Working 1 0 1 5 11 18 Pension/Retirement 1 0 0 0 3 4 Others 0 0 0 0 3 3 Uncomfortable Premises Served Alcohol Gender Male 5 2 9 46 110 172 Female 7 1 8 20 190 226 Status Single 10 1 13 45 204 273 Married 1 1 4 21 90 117 Widow/Widower 1 1 0 0 6 8 Occupation Government 1 1 2 11 66 81 Private 2 1 7 29 99 138 Self-Employed 1 0 5 11 16 33 Student 6 1 3 9 102 121 Not Working 1 0 0 6 11 18 Pension/Retirement 1 0 0 0 3 4 Others 0 0 0 0 3 3
4.5 Results of Travel Characteristic Influences Malays Travel Behaviours
From Table 4.10, this study observed the following significant associations:
1. Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons
Between Qibla direction and last destination [x2(516) = 575.740, p = 0.035]
Between separates facilities and major transport [x2(12) = 22.772, p = 0.030]
Between separates facilities and information sources (Internet) [x2(4) =
11.893, p = 0.018]
115 Between Quranic verses and main purpose for travelling [x2(32) = 55.874, p =
0.006], information sources (Internet) [x2(4) = 16.341, p = 0.003], information
sources (word of mouth) [x2(4) = 9.725, p = 0.045], accommodation (hotel)
[x2(4) = 13.703, p = 0.008], expenses [x2(236) = 347.598, p = 0.000] and travel
frequency [x2(80) = 139.654, p = 0.000].
2. Places of worship
Between close to the mosque and last destination [x2(516) = 609.521, p =
0.003)] and mosque architecture [x2(516) = 628.022, p = 0.001].
Between close to the mosque and information sources (Internet) [x2(4) = 18.77,
p = 0.001], pray spaces [x2(3) = 15.142, p = 0.002] and mosque architecture
[x2(4) = 14.837, p = 0.005]
Between travel companion (family) and pray spaces [x2(3) = 9.731, p = 0.021],
accommodation (hotel) [x2(3) = 14.672, p = 0.002], and travel frequency
[x2(60) = 123.571, p = 0.000].
Between mosque architecture and Major transport [x2(12) = 23.189, p =
0.026], Second Transport (Land) [x2(4) = 11.209, p = 0.024], Expenses
[x2(236) = 318.687, p = 0.000] and travel frequency [x2(80) = 179.96, p =
0.000]
3. Availability of Halal food
Between Halal certificates and last destination [x2(387) = 522.169, p = 0.000],
Major Transport [x2(9) = 28.934, p = 0.001], Information Sources (Word of
Mouth) [x2(3) = 10.429, p = 0.0015], number of travel companion [x2(72)
=111.360, p = 0.002], Expenses [x2(177) = 295.553, p = 0.000] and travel
frequency [x2(60) = 91.033, p = 0.006].
116 Between muslim cook and last destination [x2(387) = 461.097, p = 0.006],
Major Transport [x2(9) = 19.980, p = 0.018], number of travel companion
[x2(72) = 118.289, p = 0.000] and Accommodation (Friends/Relatives) [x2(3)
= 9.112, p = 0.028].
Between halal Ingredients and main purposes for travelling [x2(24) = 48.772,
p = 0.002], information sources (Internet) [x2(3) = 10.522, p = 0.0015] and
information sources (Word of Mouth) [x2(3) = 9.673, p = 0.022].
4. Banning of certain acts
Between information sources (word of mouth) and avoid immoral places
[x2(4) = 12.020, p = 0.017] and number of travel companion [x2(96) =
143.261, p = 0.001].
Between gambling activities and information sources (word of mouth) [x2(4)
= 16.382, p = 0.003], number of travel companion [x2(96) = 154.892, p =
0.000] and Expenses [x2(236) = 374.364, p = 0.000].
Between uncomfortable with premise served alcohol and last destination
[x2(516) = 581.434, p = 0.024] and numbers of travel companion [x2(96) =
129.435, p = 0.013].
117 Table 4.10: Chi- Square Travel Characteristic
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2- sided) Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons Qibla Direction Last Destination 575.740 516 0.035 Separates Facilities Major Transport 22.772 12 0.030 Information 11.893 4 0.018 Sources- Internet Quranic Verses Main Purposes 55.874 32 0.006 Information 16.341 4 0.003 Sources- Internet Information 9.725 4 0.045 Sources- Word of Mouth Accommodation- 13.703 4 0.008 Hotel Expenses 347.598 236 0.000 Travel Frequency 139.654 80 0.000 Places of Worship Close to the Mosque Last Destination 609.521 516 0.003 Information 18.77 4 0.001 Sources- Internet Pray Spaces Information 15.142 3 0.002 Sources- Internet Companion- Family 9.731 3 0.021 Accommodation- 14.672 3 0.002 Hotel Travel Frequency 123.571 60 0.000 Mosque Architecture Last Destination 628.022 516 0.001 Major Transport 23.189 12 0.026 Second Transport- 11.209 4 0.024 Land Information 14.837 4 0.005 Sources- Internet Expenses 318.687 236 0.000 Travel Frequency 179.96 80 0.000
118 Table 4.10 (Continued)
Availability of Halal Food Halal Certificates Last Destination 522.169 387 0.000 Major Transport 28.934 9 0.001 Information 10.429 3 0.015 Sources- Word of Mouth No. of Companions 111.360 72 0.002 Expenses 295.553 177 0.000 Travel Frequency 91.033 60 0.006 Muslim Cooker Last Destination 461.097 387 0.006 Major Transport 19.980 9 0.018 No. of Companions 118.289 72 0.000 Accommodation- 9.112 3 0.028 Friends/Relatives Halal Ingredients Main Purposes 48.772 24 0.002 Information 10.522 3 0.015 Sources- Internet Information 9.673 3 0.022 Sources- Word of Mouth Banning of certain acts Avoid Immoral Places Information 12.020 4 0.017 Sources- Word of Mouth No. of 143.261 96 0.001 Companions Avoid Gambling Activities Information 16.382 4 0.003 Sources- Word of Mouth No. of 154.892 96 0.000 Companions Expenses 374.364 236 0.000 Uncomfortable with Premises Served Alcohol Last Destination 581.434 516 0.024 No. of 129.435 96 0.013 Companions
119 Table 4.11 showed that Malays who travel in the country were more concerned with the Qibla Direction comprised of 210 respondents (53%) compared to only 6.5% concerned about this during travel abroad. A total of 216 respondents referred the internet and social media to gain information on the separates facilities which would be provided at the destination they visited. Although the main purposes were for holiday, recreation and spends time, nearly 45% of respondents considered the Quranic verses at the accommodation on-destination were important. On the other hand, 85% or 340 respondents booked destinations which placed near the mosque. For those who planned to travel with family also considered the importance of praying spaces at the destination. Among the respondents travelling in the country, 340 of respondents were concerned with Halal certificates and Muslim cooks. It turned out that the number of companions affects the matter of Muslim cook as among 60% of respondents who travel, around three out of 10 persons are concerned about this. Apart from that, 238 respondents (59%) would acquire the information about Halal ingredients while 258 respondents (64%) would acquire the same information via the word of mouth. For medium-sized numbers of companions of three to ten people, 242 respondents (60%) would avoid immoral places at destinations when they travel. Whereas 258 respondents would refer to information sources (word of mouth) to avoid gambling activities. Lastly, 340 respondents (85%) felt uncomfortable with premises that served alcohol.
120 Table 4.11: Crosstab of Travel Characteristic with Travel Behaviour
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Total
Qibla Direction Last Destination International 1 0 8 23 26 58 Domestic 1 4 39 86 210 340 Separates Facilities Major Transport Land Transportation 15 39 81 69 98 302 Air Transportation 1 5 17 13 30 66 Water Transportation 0 1 3 5 12 21 Rail Transportation 2 3 1 1 2 9 Information Sources Internet/Social Media 11 32 69 57 69 238 Quranic Verses Main Purposes Holiday / Recreation / 4 10 27 47 91 179 Spend Time Visiting Friends / 0 3 14 29 50 96 Relatives Business 0 5 4 2 2 13 Education / Training / 1 4 8 20 32 65 Courses / Workshops Shopping 0 1 5 8 2 16 Health Care 0 0 0 2 0 2 Religious 0 0 0 1 1 2 Sports Tournaments / 0 1 0 1 4 6 Events Others 0 0 2 4 13 19 Information Sources Internet/Social Media 2 17 41 80 98 238 Friend/Relatives/Word 4 11 39 66 138 258 of Mouth Accommodation Hotel/Resort 1 16 36 50 77 180 Expenses ≤RM 999 4 19 47 79 143 292 RM 1000-RM 4999 0 5 12 29 51 97 RM 5000-RM 9999 1 0 1 5 0 7 ≥RM 10000 0 0 0 1 1 2
121 Table 4.11 (Continued)
Travel Frequency 7 2 12 40 81 128 263 5-9 0 9 13 20 36 78 10-14 3 3 7 9 24 46 ≥15 0 0 0 4 7 11 Close Mosque Last Destination International 5 3 19 14 17 58 Domestic 5 18 79 96 142 340 Information Sources Internet/Social Media 9 10 71 69 79 238 Pray Spaces Information Sources Internet/Social Media 0 2 45 67 124 238 Companion Family 0 1 28 60 88 177 Accommodation Hotel/Resort 0 3 36 55 86 180 Travel Frequency ≤ 4 0 2 38 81 142 263 5-9 0 3 12 16 47 78 10-14 0 1 3 13 29 46 ≥15 0 0 2 1 8 11 Mosque Architecture Last Destination International 0 10 16 14 18 58 Domestic 4 20 101 96 119 340 Major Transport Land Transportation 3 19 95 90 95 302 Air Transportation 0 6 17 15 28 66 Water Transportation 1 2 3 3 12 21 Rail Transportation 0 3 2 2 2 9 Second Transport Land Transportation 1 16 43 42 74 176 Information Sources Internet/Social Media 2 19 82 70 65 238 Expenses ≤RM 999 4 22 90 80 96 292 RM 1000-RM 4999 0 6 27 24 40 97 RM 5000-RM 9999 0 2 0 4 1 7 ≥RM 10000 0 0 0 2 0 2
122 Table 4.11 (Continued)
Travel Average ≤ 4 3 18 68 83 91 263 5-9 0 7 28 20 23 78 10-14 1 4 18 4 19 46 ≥15 0 1 3 3 4 11 Halal Certificates Last Destination International 0 1 2 15 40 58 Domestic 0 1 6 68 265 340 Major Transport Land Transportation 0 1 5 67 229 302 Air Transportation 0 0 3 12 51 66 Water Transportation 0 0 0 1 20 21 Rail Transportation 0 1 0 3 5 9 Information Sources Friend/Relatives/Word 0 0 2 51 205 258 of Mouth Numbers of Companions 0 0 0 1 11 29 41 1-2 0 0 2 17 63 82 3-10 0 1 3 47 191 242 11-18 0 1 1 3 11 16 ≥19 0 0 1 5 11 17 Expenses ≤RM 999 0 1 6 61 224 292 RM 1000-RM 4999 0 1 1 20 75 97 RM 5000-RM 9999 0 0 1 2 4 7 ≥RM 10000 0 0 0 0 2 2 Travel Frequency ≤ 4 0 1 4 53 205 263 5-9 0 0 2 17 59 78 10-14 0 1 2 11 32 46 ≥15 0 0 0 2 9 11 Muslim Cooker Last Destination International 0 1 5 23 29 58 Domestic 0 2 17 78 243 340 Major Transport Land Transportation 0 2 14 77 209 302 Air Transportation 0 0 7 18 41 66 Water Transportation 0 0 1 3 17 21 Rail Transportation 0 1 0 3 5 9
123 Table 4.11 (Continued)
Numbers of Companions 0 0 0 1 14 26 41 1-2 0 0 5 17 60 82 3-10 0 2 11 61 168 242 11-18 0 1 2 3 10 16 ≥19 0 0 3 6 8 17 Accommodation Home of 0 1 3 45 89 138 Friends/Relatives Halal Ingredients Main Purposes Holiday / Recreation / 0 0 5 37 137 179 Spend Time Visiting Friends / 0 0 0 21 75 96 Relatives Business 0 1 2 3 7 13 Education / Training / 0 0 2 16 47 65 Courses / Workshops Shopping 0 0 1 7 8 16 Health Care 0 0 0 1 1 2 Religious 0 0 0 0 2 2 Sports Tournaments / 0 0 0 1 5 6 Events Others 0 0 1 4 14 19 Information Sources Internet/Social Media 0 0 9 64 165 238 Friend/Relatives/Word 0 1 4 50 203 258 of Mouth Avoid Immoral Places Information Sources Internet/Social Media 6 5 25 52 150 238 Numbers of Companions 0 0 0 1 14 26 41 1-2 3 1 4 14 60 82 3-10 6 6 23 49 158 242 11-18 0 0 4 2 10 16 ≥19 1 0 2 3 12 18 Avoid Gambling Activities Information Sources Friend/Relatives/Word 8 1 3 38 208 258 of Mouth
124 Table 4.11 (Continued)
Number of Companions 0 0 0 2 8 31 41 1-2 3 0 0 12 67 82 3-10 7 2 7 43 183 242 11-18 0 0 4 1 11 16 ≥19 1 0 1 4 11 17 Expenses ≤RM 999 8 1 11 50 222 292 RM 1000-RM 4999 2 1 3 16 75 97 RM 5000-RM 9999 1 0 0 1 5 7 ≥RM 10000 0 0 0 1 1 2 Uncomfortable Premises Served Alcohol Last Destination International 3 0 3 17 35 58 Domestic 9 3 14 49 265 340 Numbers of Companions 0 0 0 1 8 32 41 1-2 3 1 0 17 61 82 3-10 8 2 13 36 183 242 11-18 0 0 2 2 12 16 ≥19 1 0 1 3 12 17
4.6 Result Correlation between awareness and level of Islamic practices
Spearman correlations were conducted in order to determine if there were any relationships between awareness and Islamic practices, for each travel stage. Tables
4.12 to 4.16 showed Sig (2-Tailed) value of .000. From Table 4.11, it appeared that four variables were strongly correlated where the correlation value is higher than 0.700
(p < .000), while two variables were moderately correlated (“istikharah pray” with r =
.682; “good intention” with r = .670) (p < .000). Results could be translated as follows: the respondents are paying attention to the Islamic teachings when it comes to travelling preparation, especially in relation to “addresses someone”. The average correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during preparation before travel r =.727. The statistical significance of the correlation. A statistically significant correlation was indicated by a probability value of less than 0.05. This indicated that
125 the probability of obtaining such a correlation coefficient by chance was less than five times out of 100, so the result indicated the presence of a relationship.
Table 4.12: Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during preparation before travel Preparation Before Travel Awareness Practices (r) Istikharah Pray Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .682** Good Intention Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .670** Addresses Someone Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .762** Making Reference Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .740** Choose Friend Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .754** Individual Needs Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .751**
Table 4.12 exhibited the strong correlation values (p < .000) for all variables with “Travel on Thursday” recorded the highest value (r =.824) and “not bring bell” displayed the lowest value (r =.720). Comparing with values presented in Table 4.11, results demonstrated that there was a stronger level of practices of Islamic values. The average correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during departure was r
=.758.
126 Table 4.13: Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during departure Departure Awareness Practices Travel on Thursday Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .824** Depart Early Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .801** Calm Emotion Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .727** Companion Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .731** Musafir Prayers Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .747** Do Not Bring Bell Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .720**
Table 4.13 illustrated strong correlation values (p < .000) for all variables with “Group
Leader” was verified by the highest value (r =.791) and “increase doa” showed the lowest value (r =.782). Comparing the correlation values in three Tables (4.11, 4.12 and 4.13), it was learned that higher level of practices of Islamic values was observed for along the way stage. The average correlation between awareness and Islamic practices along the way was r = .762.
Table 4.14: Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic practices along the way Along the way Awareness Practices Increase Doa Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .782** Group Leader Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .791** Takbir Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .784** Subhanallah Zikir Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .788** Entertain Self Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .739** Read Bismillah Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .688**
127 It appeared that results of Table 4.14 indicated a strong correlation relationship between awareness and practices (p < .000) for all items, with “Responsible Rented
Goods” documented the highest correlation coefficient (r =.842) and “sunnah prayer” displayed the lowest correlation coefficient (r =.707). Comparing these four Tables
(4.11, 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14), this study found that respondents were highly aware and the higher level of practices was observed for variables studied for destination stage.
The average correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during destination was r = .782.
Table 4.15: Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during destination Destination Awareness Practices Praying Sunnah Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .707** Dhikr Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .743** Avoid Settling Over 3 Days Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .760** Eating Together Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .818** Jama' and Qhasar Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .824** Responsible Rented Goods Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .842**
From Table 4.15, this study found that all items recorded strong correlation coefficient (p < .000) except for “get home during the day” (r =.694). The result might be influenced by the conventional fact that travel is done in accordance with the traveller’s convenience. When comparing all Tables (4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16), it was known that the variables studied for return stage were given a slightly higher attention than the variables studied for the preparation stage. The average correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during return was r =.737.
128 Table 4.16: Spearman correlation between awareness and Islamic practices during the return Return Awareness Practices Rushing Back Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .819** Praying Sunnah Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .718** Give Gifts Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .684** Telling Family About Homecoming Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .802** Get Home During The Day Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .694** Entertaining Food Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .706**
4.7 Result of Regression on Malays Islamic values practices with Malays
travel behaviour
Multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between
Malays’ Islamic practices during travel stages with their travel behaviour. The significance of a regression coefficient in a regression model was determined by dividing the estimated coefficient by the standard deviation of this estimate. For statistically significance, it was expected that the absolute value of the t-ratio to be greater than 2 or the P-value to be less than the significance level (α=0,01 or 0.05 or
0.1). There were four relationships needed to be determined in this study:
1. The relationship between Malays Islamic practice during travel and travel
behaviour of ‘Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons’ (‘Qibla
direction indicator’, ‘Separates facilities’ and ‘Quranic Verses’).
2. The relationship between Malays Islamic practice during travel stages and
travel behaviour regarding ‘Places of Worship’ (‘Close to the mosque’,
‘Spaces for pray’ and ‘Attractive architecture of the mosque’).
129 3. The relationship between Malays Islamic practices and travel behaviour
regarding ‘Availability of Halal food’ (‘Halal certificate’, ‘Cooked by
Muslims’ and ‘Halal ingredients’).
4. The relationship between Malays Islamic practices and travel behaviour
regarding ‘Banning of certain acts” (‘Avoid Immoral Places’, ‘Avoid
gambling activities’ and ‘Uncomfortable with Premises served alcohol’).
Results of the first relationship were displayed in Table 4.17 where
(Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons) gave a 1.1% (based on R2 value) influence on the Malays’ Islamic values practice. The remaining 98.9% (100% - 1.1%) was explained by another factor(s) which was not included in this study.
Table 4.17: Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice with travel behaviour of destination meeting the religious needs of patrons
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 10.770 .751 14.351 .000 1 Practices .014 .007 .106 2.122 .034 R2 .011 Adjusted R2 .009 F 4.501 .034 a. Dependent Variable: Travel Behaviour - Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons
Table 4.18 presented the results of the second relationship where (Places of worship) 5.6% influenced the Malays’ Islamic values practice. The remaining 94.4%
(100% - 5.6%) was explained by another factor which was not included in this study.
130 Table 4.18: Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice with travel behaviour of Places of worship
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 8.488 .785 10.806 .000 1 Practices 0.34 .007 .236 4.835 .000 R2 .056 Adjusted R2 .053 F 23.374 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Travel Behaviour – Places of worship
Similar to Table 4.18, results of Table 4.19 showed that (Availability of Halal
Food) gave a 1.1% influence on the Malays’ Islamic values practice. The remaining
98.9% (100% - 1.1%) was explained by another factor which was not included in this study.
Table 4.19: Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice with travel behaviour of Availability of Halal Food
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 13.092 .464 28.194 .000 1 Practices .009 .004 .105 2.111 .035 R2 .011 Adjusted R2 .009 F 4.455 .035 a. Dependent Variable: Travel Behaviour -Availability of Halal Food
Results of the fourth relationship between (Banning of certain acts) and the
Malays’ Islamic values practice observed a 1.9% relationship (see Table 4.20). The remaining 98.1% (100% - 1.9%) was explained by another factor which was not included in this study.
131
Table 4.20: Regression analysis results of Malay Islamic values practice with travel behaviour of Banning of certain acts
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 11.551 .779 14.831 .000 1 Practices .020 .007 .139 2.802 .005 R2 .019 Adjusted R2 .017 F 7.851 .005 a. Dependent Variable: Travel Behaviour - Banning of certain acts
4.8 Conclusion
This chapter has fulfilled the research objective requirement in this study. Results brought forward four demographic variables that affect the respondents travel behaviour: 'Gender', 'Occupation', 'Marital Status' and 'Education'. For Travel
Characteristics, variables affected the respondents travel behaviour included 'Last
Destination', 'Major Transport', 'Information sources from the internet' and 'numbers of Companions'. Results also highlighted the respondents were aware when it comes to 'Individual Needs', 'Responsible Rented Goods' and 'Read Bismillah'. More importantly, the respondents recorded the highest awareness level in relation to
'Availability of Halal Food', and this was related to 'Halal Certificates', 'Muslim
Cookers' and 'Halal Ingredients'.
132 CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
This chapter discussed the results and findings obtained from the data analysis presented in Chapter Four. The following sections detailed the theoretical and practical implications, limitations of the study and several recommendations to assist the future research. At the end of this chapter, a conclusion was drawn for this study.
5.2 An Overview of the Research
This research investigated the Malays’ travel behaviour at tourism destination. This research outlined the following research objectives:
I. To study demographic and travel characteristics that influence the Malays
travel behaviours.
II. To determine the Malays’ awareness regarding the Islamic values during travel
stages.
III. To study the relationship between Malays’ awareness level and Islamic values
practiced among the Malays.
IV. To examine the relationship of Islamic values practiced among the Malays
during travel with travel behaviour.
V. To identify the Malays’ travel behaviour at the destination travel stages.
133 5.3 Addressing the Research Questions
5.3.1 Research Question 1: Which factors of demographic and travel characteristics have significantly influenced the Malays’ travel behaviour?
Based on Table 4.9 on page 114, demographic factors that have affected the Malays’ travel behaviour of 'Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons' ('Qibla direction indicator', 'Separates facilities' and 'Quranic Verses'), 'Places of Worship'
('Close to the mosque', ‘Spaces for pray' and 'Attractive architecture of the mosque'),
'Availability of Halal food' ('Halal certificate', 'Cooked by Muslims' and 'Halal ingredients' acts') and ‘Banning certain acts’ ('Avoid Immoral Places', 'Avoid gambling activities' and 'Uncomfortable with premises served alcohol') were listed below.
The findings revealed that gender has significantly influenced the travel behaviours. The following paragraph referred to the responses given by the respondents in this study, including 172 male respondents and 226 female respondents
(See Table 4.9, pages 116).Travel behaviour is not only beneficial to the perpetrators but also the stakeholders in the destination in term of increasing the occupancy rate, as stated by Weidenfeld (2006). For ‘Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons’, results related to gender were showed the following:
1. The needs of 'Qibla Direction' - the act of requiring 'Qibla Direction' serves the
purpose of performing the prayers in the direction of the ‘Qibla’
2. Requiring ‘Separates Facilities’ for male and female users - the need for
'Separates Facilities' is to avoid sexual harassment and incest behaviour, in
addition, to provide a comfortable praying atmosphere
3. Asking for 'Quranic Verses' provision by the accommodation service providers
- the provision of 'Quranic Verses' gives a hand in creating a calm atmosphere
as Muslims read ‘Quranic Verses’ for their mental well-being.
134 For travel behaviour 'Places of Worship', gender presented positive significant results for:
1. The need for 'Pray Spaces'. Syed (2001) stated that 'Pray Spaces' becomes so
important to the Muslims as they are obliged to perform the 5-times daily
prayer routine and this is the evidence of their submission to the Creator
(ALLAH the Al-Mighty).
Gender also affected the 'Availability of Halal Food' as follows:
1. The needs of 'Halal Certificates'. This result is influenced by the fact that
Muslims are to consume animals that are properly slaughtered and eating food
that is properly prepared in accordance with the teachings of Islam, and this
result is similar to findings reported by Mohsin & Ryan (1997) and Khan
(2001). To Dugan (1994), if a destination meets the demands of Halal
according to Islam, the destination will be able to attract Muslim visitors.
Furthermore, gender were found to be significantly influencing travel behaviour 'Banning of certain acts':
1. Such as 'Avoid Immoral Places', 'Avoid Gambling Activities' and
'Uncomfortable With Premises Served Alcohol'. Din (1989) and Henderson
(2003) stated that the practice is banned by Islam and the prohibition is to abide
by all Muslims. God has forbidden certain acts because the behaviour harms
the perpetrator and the community. For example, the ban on alcohol is because
scientific studies have shown that alcohol has a bad effect on the brain and a
drunkard has a higher chance of committing a crime because it is intoxicating.
Despite the fact that in Malaysia the number of licences approved for liquor
selling and gambling activities is figuratively and notably lesser than other
tourism destinations in other countries, this situation is still considered as a
135 taboo for the Muslims. This is because according to the shariah laws practice
in Malaysia, a Muslim is prohibited from visiting any kind of places that
provide such activities (see Aljazeera, 2009).
Occupation was observed to have a significant influence on:
1. The 'Qibla Direction' for travel behaviour 'Destination meeting with the
religious needs of patrons'.
2. For travel behaviour 'Banning Certain Acts', occupation demonstrated the
significant influence on 'Avoid Gambling Activities' and 'Uncomfortable with
Premises Served Alcohol'.
Marital Status recorded significant influence on travel behaviours involving :
1. 'Quranic Verses', 'Close to the Mosques', 'Mosque Architecture', 'Muslim
Cooks' and 'Uncomfortable with Premises Served Alcohol'. Triandis (1980)
also noted social factors such as a person's status does affect behaviour. Status
is driven by social role and social norms. For examples, a married person will
be more responsible and more responsive to religious orders. However, this
contradicts with Gordon et al. (1989) which found status does not influence
travel behaviour because this study was conducted in metropolitan city unites
states and the situation was different from Malays in Malaysia.
From the result, it was learned that education presented a positive significant impact:
1. For travel behaviour about 'Place of Worship' involving 'Pray Spaces' and
'Mosque Architecture',. The respondents’ good education level has helped
them to understand Islam (see also Faaland, 2005).
2. On 'Avoid Gambling Activities'. This result is consistent with Al-Hamarneh
and Steiner (2004); Wei et al., (2007); Zamani-Farahani and Henderson (2010)
136 which states that this act is not in line with the demands of Islam, then a good
Muslim will avoid it.
Based on Table 4.10 on page 117, travel characteristic factors which have affected travel behaviour 'Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons' ('Qibla direction indicator', 'Separates facilities' and 'Quranic Verses'), 'Places of Worship'
('Close to the mosque', ‘Pray Spaces’ and 'Attractive architecture of the mosque'),
'Availability of Halal food' ('Halal certificate', 'Muslim Cooks’ and 'Halal ingredients' acts') and ‘Banning certain acts’ ('Avoid Immoral Places', 'Avoid gambling activities' and 'Uncomfortable with Premises served alcohol') were listed below:
1. The results showed that 'Last Destination' has significantly influenced travel
behaviour. In this study, there were two categories of 'Last Destination' namely
local and overseas. Services provided at a local destination are more likely to
fulfil the needs of Malays traveller than services available at the overseas
destination. For example, halal food service is certainly readily available in
Malaysia compared to non-Muslim based countries. However, the marketers
in non-Muslim based countries are taking notable initiatives in catering the
demands of Muslims travellers and actively positioning themselves in Islamic
Tourism market (see Nor & David, 2012).
2. For travel behaviour that gives emphasis on 'Availability of Halal food',
observation showed that 'Last Destination' influenced ‘Halal Certificates’ and
‘Muslim Cooks’.
3. Travel characteristics affected the will of the 'Quranic Verses' are 'Main
Purposes', 'Information sources from the internet' and 'Information sources
from word of mouth'. Every Muslim should have a good intention before
starting a journey and this can be connected with 'Main Purposes'. When a
137 person with good intentions is encouraged by religion, he certainly needs
symbols such as the 'Quranic Verses' to feel always close to God. Aminurrashid
(1961) in his travelogue has stated that having a good intention of doing travel
makes one feel always protected and close to God. Information sources from
the internet and word of mouth as mentioned by Bandura, (1986) who find that
behaviour is performed by interaction with the environment and peoples.
Another variable that affects the 'Quranic Verses' is the selection of
accommodation involving the hotel. Collins, Rainer and Pilot (2000) and
Fleischer (2000) found that hotels with scriptures were only visited by visitors
from certain religions.
4. Numbers of Companion played a role in influencing travel behaviour 'Banning
of certain acts'. In a group, a Muslim usually practices more religious values
because they are influenced by group members, as reported by Rasma (2008).
As in Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) which states subjective norms affect
one's behaviour.
5.3.2 Research Question 2: Are the Malays aware of the Islamic values in their travel stages?
In this study, there were 30 types of awareness related to Islamic values (see Table 3.5 page 86). The highest awareness level among the respondents was observed for the preparation stage where it is related to 'Individual Needs' provision. Individual needs are the basic supplies that are carried on travel. For example, bring toothbrushes and fragrances. The second highest awareness level was recorded at the destination stage and it is in relation to 'responsible for rental goods'. The results indicated that respondents are being aware of the importance of not troubling others and the
138 importance of being responsible, as taught by Islam (Gore, Atcha, & Sheikh, 2006).
For along the way stage, awareness regarding 'read Bismillah' was reported to be the third prioritized awareness. Muslims are advised to read 'Bismillah' in doing anything but it is a practice of Sunnah when reading it along the way. The respondents were observed to have limited awareness about 'Travel on Thursday'. Travelogues written by the Malays (Munsyi & Othman, 1980; Za'ba & Asmah, 2008) also showed that they did not choose Thursday's day as a good day to travel.
5.3.3 Research Question 3: Does awareness about Islamic values influence the
Malay’s level of Islamic values practices during travel stages?
Referring to Table 4.5, the three most practised Islamic values by the respondents were the following: 'Individual Needs' provision by oneself, being 'Responsible for Rented
Goods' and to 'Read Bismillah'. As previously discussed in Research Question 2, these variables reported the highest awareness level.
For preparation stage, awareness of 'Addresses Someone' to keep family is the most influential. Indeed, the common Malay community that is often living in society and having a good family relationship causes this to be the priority of these stages. For departure stage, awareness about 'Travel on Thursday' is less likely to be practised by the respondents; therefore, the frequency of practices 'Travel on Thursday' is found rather low. ‘Travel on Thursday’ is considered as ‘Sunnah’ in Islamic teachings, in other words, it is not considered as a sin if a travel is not undertaken on Thursdays, but the doer will be considered as doing a good deed if she/he does. ‘For along the way stage, awareness appointing Group Leader that most influences the practice of it. At the destination stage, awareness about 'Responsible Rented Goods' is most influence
139 the practice of it. On the return stages, the practice of 'Rushing Back' is most influenced by the awareness.
5.3.4 Research Question 4: Which Islamic practices influence the Malays’ travel behaviour?
In this study, Islamic practices are associated with four travel behaviors involving
'Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons' ('Qibla direction indicator',
'Separates facilities' and 'Quranic Verses'), 'Places of Worship' ('Close to the mosque',
‘Spaces for pray' and 'Attractive architecture of the mosque'), 'Availability of Halal food' ('Halal certificate', 'Cooked by Muslims' and 'Halal ingredients' acts') and
‘Banning certain acts’ ('Avoid Immoral Places', 'Avoid gambling activities' and
'Uncomfortable with Premises served alcohol').
The relationship between Islamic practices practised at all travel stages and the respondents travel behaviour ‘Destination meeting the religious needs of patrons' was recorded to be positively significant (p < 0.34). Hence, it can be concluded that the
Islamic practices practised at all travel stages did impact the respondents travel behaviour. 'Qibla direction indicator', 'Separates facilities' and 'Quranic Verses' have influenced by Islamic practices practised at all travel stages. Travel behaviours 'Places of Worship' such as 'Close to the mosque', 'Pray Spaces' and 'Attractive architecture of the mosque' have also influenced by the Islamic practices of the respondents at all travel stages. For travel behaviour involving 'Availability of Halal Food' also showed positive significance with all travel stages (p <0.35). In other words, 'Halal certificate',
'Cooked by Muslims' and 'Halal ingredients' have influenced by the Islamic practices of the respondents at all travel stages. Finally, travel behaviours related to 'banning certain acts' was found positively affecting the 'Avoid Immoral Places', 'Avoid
140 gambling activities' and 'Uncomfortable with Premises served alcohol'; for all travel stages. The results presented by this study were similar to Din (1989); Rinschede
(1992); Fleischer (2000); Howe, (2001); Podia et al. (2003); Weidenfeld (2006);
Weidenfeld and Ron, (2008), which accentuated the religion influence on one's behaviour.
5.3.5 Research Question 5: What are Malay's travel behaviours at their destination travel stages?
There were 12 travel behaviours studied in this research, which further divided into 4 groups: (1) Destination religion meet the need by patrons, (2) Places of worship, (3)
Availability of Halal foods and (4) Banning of certain acts. The Malays are obliged to obey the teachings of Islam; thus, their behaviours including travel behaviours were shaped by these teachings (see Zamani, Farhani & Henderson, 2010). From Tables 4.6 and 4.7, travel behaviour for the 'Availability of Halal Food' behaviours recorded the highest mean value and frequency. In travelling, the Malays are very concerned about halal matters regarding their food. Results revealed that 'Halal Certificates' was prioritized by the respondents followed by 'Halal Ingredients' and 'Muslim Cooks'. Nor and Daud, (2012) also emphasized on the increased in awareness relating to Halal issues among Muslim and non-Muslim communities, when travelling. At tourism destination, the respondents also showed behaviour requiring 'Qibla Direction' to show the correct direction for prayer. For travel behaviours involving 'Places of Worship',
'Pray Spaces' was what mostly paid attention to by the respondents 'Avoid Gambling
Activities' was most considered behaviour by the respondents for travel behaviours involving 'Banning of certain acts'.
For all the questions in this study, table 5.1 to summarize the findings:
141 Table 5.1: Summarize of Findings
Research Questions Findings 1.Which demographic Most influential demographics are gender, education and travel characteristics and status. that significantly Most influential travel characteristics are: information influence Malays travel sources(internet), information sources (word of mouth) behaviour? and a number of a companion. 2. Are the Malays aware Most aware values in Malays’ travel stages: individual of the Islamic values in needs, responsible rented goods and read Bismillah. their travel stages? 3.Does awareness about Awareness of Islamic values that influences Islamic Islamic values influences practices during travel stages: the Malays’ level of Preparation before travel Islamic practices during Addresses Someone travel stages? Make Reference Choose Friend Departure Travel on Thursday Depart Early Musafir Prayers Along the way Group Leader Takbir Hymn Destination Eating Together Jama' and Qhasar Responsible Rented Goods Return Rushing Back Praying Sunnah Telling Family About Homecoming 4.Which Islamic Islamic practices are influential at all travel stages. practices influence the Malays travel behaviour? 5. What are the Malays Most travel behaviour performed by the Malays: travel behaviour? Availability of Halal food
142 5.4 Theoretical Implications
Previous researchers on the Theory Reasoned Action (TRA) have shown how personality traits could affect someone values and in return and influence their behaviour. Previous research showed that personal traits could be divided into behaviour, temperament and emotion. This study examined the respondent’s personal traits of the behaviours’ habitual patterns through travel characteristics. Travel characteristics would show a person's preference pattern. Through this preference pattern, it would show their travel behaviours during the trip.
Travel characteristics as an external variable in this study (have elements of tourism field). This is because travel characteristics such as Last destination, Major transport, Second Transport, Information sources, main purposes, accommodation, companion and numbers of companion, expenses, average travel frequency are closely related to tourism (See subsection 3.3.3, page 82).
Theory Reasoned Action (TRA) deemed behavioural values as variable and a number of researchers have employed TRA to examined behavioural values from the
Christianity point of view (See subsection 2.4, page 34). Echoing this, this study has put the Islamic values into context. The findings of this study will provide insights on the Malays travel demands and needs, in addition to deepening the understanding of how the travel demands and needs are shaped by the Islamic values. Islamic values have separated those who behave ethically from unethical actions. One of the missions brought by Rasulullah SAW is to rebuild the morality of the human being which has collapsed due to the human misinterpretation of values and deviation from the will of
Allah SWT.
This study sought to explore the intention variables during all travel stages with the travel behaviour. The intention variables were examined in the following five
143 travel stages: preparation, departure, along the way, at the destination and return.
Differing from TRA which considered the intention as variables, this study structured the travel stages as intention because the intention of TRA also referred to plan and opportunity to engage in an activity. In Islam, the intention is to act as a distinguishing practice. The intention of distinguishing between one worship and another worship or distinguishing between worship and customs. Intention also distinguishes one's purpose in worship. The intention is the practice of the heart (amaliyah qolbiyah) so that only Allah SWT knows about the intention or motive of a person’s deeds, or worship. Although TRA was used as the underlying theory in this study, many of the elements in this theory were essentially taught by Allah through his prophet
Muhammad SAW.
5.5 Practical Implications
Tourism market segmentation is considered as a valuable marketing tool for creating an effective marketing strategy. The market consists of buyers, and the buyers are differing in many ways in the motive, the behaviour, and the buying habits. These differences indicate that the market for a product is not homogeneous but is heterogeneous. This is driving the company to market segmentation. Segmentation is the grouping of buyers in a market that has the same needs and behaviours. Both tourism researchers and tourism industry personals use market segmentation widely to study opportunities for competitive advantage in the marketplace. The result of this study can be used to customise the tourism products for the Malay customers in general and for the Muslim customers. By knowing the behaviours of certain race, the tourism stakeholders may direct additional attention, investment and time towards developing tourism products that will sell. For example, in this study found that the Malays
144 prioritized 'Availability of Halal Food'. Hence, the provision of halal food will attract the Malays and the Muslims visitors and will have a higher possibility of creating loyal visitors to a destination. Additionally, the service providers may develop halal tourism products that are both unique and can be used for souvenirs purpose. In relation to a promotional aspect, the marketing efforts can be focused on developing an effective message for the Malays and Muslims travellers (e.g., Halal Products) and by communicating the message through an effective communication channel (e.g.,
Islamic magazines for Muslim tourists). In conclusion, it is possible that segmentation is the art of identifying and utilizing opportunities the emerging in the market. The segmentation allowing the stakeholders to focus more on allocating resources.
Segmentation is the basis for determining the components of strategy, tactics and overall value. Segmentation accompanied by target market selection will provide a reference and basis for positioning. Finally, segmentation is a key factor to defeat competitors. Therefore, this study has provided relevant information that are very practical to the study of Malays’ travel behaviour.
5.6 Limitations and Recommendation of the Study
In this study, there are some limitations that need to be addressed. The first limitation applies to the literature review studied. Most literature reviews are from other fields such as business and sociology. In fact, the behavioural theories referred to by this study are connected to the economics, geography and sociological fields. Literature reviews involving religious influencing behaviours are also composed of Western- based studies which gave attention to the influence of Christianity on behaviour. For future research, more research needs to be done regarding the influence of Islam and other religion on one's behaviour including travel behaviour. Behaviour can be
145 attributed to engagement, preference and frequency. This study has examined travel behaviour based on frequency and for future studies, there should be more studies which are able to relate travel behaviours based on engagement and preference, especially with Muslims as the focus point.
The second limitation of this study is that the variables studied are Islamic values in Malays while the Malays also applied cultural values when they travel. There is also a lack of scientific information that brings together all the Malays’ cultural values related to travel. Most of the information on the Malays cultural values related to travel presented in Chapter 2 are based on the authors’ experiences and some were obtained through an informal conversation with the Malay elders. Therefore, this study does not examine the relationship between the Malays’ cultural values and their travel behaviour. To relate cultural values to travel behaviours is rather difficult because the younger generation is no longer practising them and they didn’t even know the existence of these cultural values. Cultural values in the Malay community also involve travelling in the jungle and on the ocean. Perhaps which is why the new generation of Malays are no longer practising them.
This study was carried out in Penang and the Malay community here lives a relatively modern lifestyle and most of them have limited knowledge of the Malays cultural values. It is recommended for the future studies to include the Malays living in other places as the respondents. By doing so, the results are more transferable and could represent the Malays in general, in relation to their travel behaviour.
This study employed TRA as the underlying theory. Basically, this theory begins by outlining the idea of intention as the only variable has impact on behaviour.
After that, the number of variables was expanded to include belief, attitudes and intention determine behaviour. Over time, TRA evolved and was improvised into the
146 Theory of Planned Behaviour which includes new variables such as normative belief, motivation and control belief variables. The gap in the body of knowledge can be addressed if the future studies include these variables to study the travel behaviours of
Malays. It will be more interesting if there is a study comparing the differences and similarities of travel behaviours among the three largest travel races in Malaysia, namely: Malay, Chinese and Indian.
5.7 Conclusion
Understanding the Malays’ travel behaviour is actually an effort to provide the best tour package for the Malays. Costs and time can be saved if stakeholders get accurate information about the target market. Through the appropriate marketing strategy, it will be able to attract the Malays to visit a destination. Malays are the people who adhere to the Islam religion and the teachings of Islam; therefore, this study also, in fact, provided an indirect impression of who are Muslim travellers. In detail, this study has contributed to providing the understanding of the Malays awareness on the teachings of Islam related to travel and the level of practising that awareness.
If viewed from the perspective of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), this study followed the predictions expressed by this theory. The behaviour displayed by each individual is diverse and unique. That diversity and uniqueness attracted experts to study on human behaviour. There are many theories that explain the determinants of human behaviour. In those theories, experts describe his or her opinion on how behaviour is formed and what factors influence. On the other hand, TRA is based on the basic assumptions that humans behave in a conscious way and consider all available information. TRA states that the intention of a person to conduct a determining behaviour is to do or not to do the behaviour. This study has shown how
147 the intention of the Malays throughout every travel stages determined their travel behaviour while on the destination. Many studies in the social field have proven that
Theory of Reason Action (TRA) is a fairly adequate theory in predicting behaviour.
There are also several demographic and travel characteristics that affect the
Malays travel behaviour. Among the demographic factors affecting travel behaviours are 'gender', 'occupation', 'status' and 'education'. While for travel characteristics, attributes that affect travel behaviour are like 'last destination' visited, 'information sources from the internet', 'information sources from word of mouth' and 'numbers of companion'. It is also learned that the Malays gave attention towards 'responsible for rented goods' variable. This shows that the Malays know they should be responsible for the items borrowed and rented during travel.
This study comes to conclude that the 'Availability of Halal Food' variable was the most prioritized item by the respondents. Halal food for Muslims is important because the Muslims believe that the food consume will be infused with their soul. It is the Islam teaching that emphasizes the well-being of a soul can be achieved with the consumption of halal food, other than practising the other teachings of Islam.
148
REFERENCES
Abd Rahman, N. N. (2007). Amalan Fatwa di Malaysia: Antara Keterikatan Mazhab dan Keperluan Tarjih. Jurnal Fiqh, 4.
Abrahamse, W., & Steg, L. (2009). How do socio-demographic and psychological factors relate to households’ direct and indirect energy use and savings?. Journal of economic psychology, 30(5), 711-720.
Ahmed, Q. A., Arabi, Y. M., & Memish, Z. A. (2006). Health risks at the Hajj. The Lancet, 367(9515), 1008-1015.
Aisyah, M. (2016). The Influence Of Religious Behavior On Consumers’intention To Purchase Halal-Labeled Products. Business and Entrepreneurial Review (BER), 14(1), 15-32.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50(2), 179-211.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological bulletin, 84(5), 888.
Aljunied, S. M. K. (2005). Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles' discourse on the Malay World: a revisionist perspective. Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 20(1), 1-22.
Akbar, M. M., & Yoonus, K. K. (1992). What is Islam? Globalisation, and Postmodernity. London: Routledge.
Aki A. W.. (1962). Jom Hidupkan Roh Haji : Tranformasi Ke Arah Manusia Sempurna, Bandar Baru Bangi : KarnaDya Solutions.
Al Asqalani, I. H. (2004). Fath al Bari. Beirut: Dar al-Ma’rifah, 1379.
Al-Bakri, M., Zulkifli, H., Hanafi, H., Hakim, T. H. L., Hassan, S., & Najihuddin, S. (2010). Hajjatu Al-Wada : Hadis Jabir Fiqh Dan Faedahnya.
Al-Hamarneh, A., & Steiner, C. (2004). Islamic Tourism: Re-Thinking The Strategies of Tourism Development in the Arab World after September 11th. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 24(1), 18- 27.
A'la Mawdudi, S. A. (2013). Towards Understanding Islam. Kube Publishing Ltd.
Aminurrashid, H. (1961). Chatetan ka-tanah suchi. Pustaka Mĕlayu.
149 Aminurrashid, H. (2011). Panglima Awang. ITBM.
Andaya, L. Y. (2001). The search for the ‘origins’ of Melayu. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 32(03), 315-330.
Anisah, S., Ahmad, K., Arif, N., Omar, S. S., & Rakiman, U. S. (2017). Islam, Muslim and Business. Advanced Science Letters, 23(5), 4708-4711.
Atran, S. (1998). Folk biology and the anthropology of science: Cognitive universals and cultural particulars. Behavioral and brain sciences, 21(04), 547-569.
Bamberg, S., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2003). Choice of travel mode in the theory of planned behavior: The roles of past behavior, habit, and reasoned action. Basic and applied social psychology, 25(3), 175-187.
Bamberg, S., & Schmidt, P. (2003). Incentives, morality, or habit? Predicting students’ car use for university routes with the models of Ajzen, Schwartz, and Triandis. Environment and behavior, 35(2), 264-285.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American psychologist, 44(9), 1175.
Battour, M., Ismail, M. N., & Battor, M. (2011). The impact of destination attributes on Muslim tourist's choice. International Journal of tourism research, 13(6), 527-540.
Battour, M., Battor, M., & Bhatti, M. A. (2014). Islamic attributes of destination: Construct development and measurement validation, and their impact on tourist satisfaction. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(6), 556- 564.
Beeton, S. (2005). The case study in tourism research: A multi-method case study approach. Tourism research methods: Integrating theory with practice, 37- 48.
Bickman, L., Rog, D. J., & Hedrick, T. E. (1998). Applied research design: A practical approach. Handbook of applied social research methods, 19, 19.
Bin Kasimin, A. (1983). Religion and social change amongst the indigenous peoples of the Malay Peninsula (Doctoral dissertation, University of Aberdeen).
Blakemore, S. J., & Frith, C. (2003). Self-awareness and action. Current opinion in neurobiology, 13(2), 219-224.
Block, H. D., & Marschak, J. (1960). Random orderings and stochastic theories of responses. Contributions to probability and statistics, 2, 97-132.
Bogari NB, Crowther G, & Marr N. (2004). Moti-vation for domestic tourism: a case study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Tourism Analysis 8(2): 137–141.
Bori, C. (2004). A new source for the biography of Ibn Taymiyya. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 67(3), 321-348.
150 Braddell, R. (1936). An introduction to the study of ancient times in the Malay Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 14(3 (126), 10-71.
Brey, E. T., & Lehto, X. Y. (2007). The relationship between daily and vacation activities. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(1), 160-180.
Burkill, I. H. (1966). A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula.,2(2nd edition).
Chapin, F. S. (1974). Human activity patterns in the city: Things people do in time and in space (Vol. 13). Wiley-Interscience.
Che Omar, N., & Ali, M. (2011). Persepsi Waite (sows Spi, Utm) Bermusafir Menurut mazhab Syafie (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia).
Chen, L. F. (2016). Exploring Luo-Dong Home Stay and Tourist Satisfaction. International Journal of Organizational Innovation (Online), 8(3), 271.
Chin, J. (2015). The Costs of Malay Supremacy. New York Times, 27.
Chowdhury, A., Raj, R., Griffin, K., & Clarke, A. (2017). Terrorism, Tourism and Religious Travellers. International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, 5(1).
Collins-Kreiner, N., & Kliot, N. (2000). Pilgrimage tourism in the Holy Land: The behavioural characteristics of Christian pilgrims. GeoJournal, 50(1), 55-67.
Correia AN, Oom do Valle P, Moço C. (2007). Modeling motivations and perceptions of Portuguese tourists. Journal of Business Research 60(1): 76–80.
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches.
Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. L., Gutmann, M. L., & Hanson, W. E. (2003). Advanced mixed methods research designs. Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research, 209, 240.
Creswell, J. W., & Miller, G. A. (1997). Research methodologies and the doctoral process. New Directions for Higher Education, 1997(99), 33-46.
Cristea, M., & Gheorghiu, A. (2016). Attitude, perceived behavioral control, and intention to adopt risky behaviors. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 43, 157-165.
Damen, T. G., Van Bargen, R. B., Brass, M., Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2015). Put your plan into action: The influence of action plans on agency and responsibility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 850.
Dann, G. M. (1992). Travelogs and the management of unfamiliarity. Journal of Travel Research, 30(4), 59-63.
151 Darmawati, D. (2014). Corporate Social Responsibility dalam Perspektif Islam. Mazahib, 13(2). de Dios Ortuzar, J., & Willumsen, L. G. (1994). Modelling transport. New Jersey: Wiley.
Department of Information, Ministry of Communications & Multimedia, Malaysia. 2015 retrieved from http://www.kkmm.gov.my
Department of Statistic Malaysia (2015) retrieved from https://www.dosm.gov.my
Din, K. H. (1989). Islam and tourism: Patterns, issues, and options. Annals of tourism research, 16(4), 542-563.
Din, M. A. O. (2011). Asal usul orang Melayu: menulis semula sejarahnya (The Malay origin: rewrite its history). Jurnal Melayu, 7, 1-82.
Dugan, B. (1994). Religion and food service. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 35(6), 80-85.
Domencich, T. A., & McFadden, D. (1975). Urban travel demand-a behavioral analysis (No. Monograph).
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Edwards, A. M., & Polman, R. C. J. (2013). Pacing and awareness: brain regulation of physical activity. Sports Medicine, 43(11), 1057-1064.
Endsley, M. R. (1995). Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human factors, 37(1), 32-64.
Esposito, J. L. (2016). Islam: The straight path (Vol. 4). Oxford University Press.
Essoo, N., & Dibb, S. (2004). Religious influences on shopping behaviour: An exploratory study. Journal of Marketing Management, 20(7-8), 683-712.
Fagin, R., & Halpern, J. Y. (1987). Belief, awareness, and limited reasoning. Artificial intelligence, 34(1), 39-76.
Falkmer, T., & Gregersen, N. P. (2001). A questionnaire-based survey on road vehicle travel habits of children with disabilities. IATSS research, 25(1), 32-41.
Fatih, M. (2015). Hadis dalam Perspektif Ahmad Hassan. Mutawatir, 3(2), 324-342
Fleischer, A. (2000). The tourist behind the pilgrim in the Holy Land. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 19(3), 311-326.
Fleischer, A., & Nitzav, Y. (1995). Christian pilgrims-the tourism potential for peripheral regions in Israel. Center for Development Studies, Rehovot, Israel.
152 Francis, J., Eccles, M. P., Johnston, M., Walker, A. E., Grimshaw, J. M., Foy, R. & Bonetti, D. (2004). Constructing questionnaires based on the theory of planned behaviour: A manual for health services researchers.
Frey, B. S. (1988). Ipsative and objective limits to human behavior. Journal of Behavioral Economics, 17(4), 229-248.
Frye, D., Zelazo, P. D., & Palfai, T. (1995). Theory of mind and rule-based reasoning. Cognitive Development, 10(4), 483-527.
Garbing, T., Gillholm, R., & Garling, A. (1998). Reintroducing attitude theory in travel behavior research: The validity of an interactive interview procedure to predict car use. Transportation, 25(2), 129-146.
Gardner, B. (2015). A review and analysis of the use of ‘habit’in understanding, predicting and influencing health-related behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 9(3), 277-295.
Gerolamo Emilio Gerini (1974). Researches on Ptolemy's geography of eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay archipelago: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 101. ISBN 81-70690366.
Ghouri, N., Atcha, M., & Sheikh, A. (2006). Influence of Islam on smoking among Muslims. British medical journal, 332(7536), 291-294.
Ghozali, I., & Hamid, I. B. (1954). Ihya’ulumuddin. Mesir: Darul Ihya, juz awal.
Goldman, A. I. (2012). Theory of mind. The Oxford handbook of philosophy of cognitive science, 402-424.
Gordon, P., Kumar, A., & Richardson, H. W. (1989). Gender differences in metropolitan travel behaviour. Regional Studies, 23(6), 499-510.
Grigg, D. (1995). The geography of food consumption: a review. Progress in Human Geography, 19(3), 338-354.
Hakim, L. (2012). Internalisasi Nilai-Nilai Agama Islam dalam Pembentukan Sikap dan Perilaku Siswa Sekolah Dasar Islam Terpadu Al-Muttaqin Kota Tasikmalaya. Jurnal Pendidikan Agama Islam-Ta’lim, 10(1), 67-77.
Hamid, A. F. A., & Fauzi, A. (2015). The Challenge of Religious Pluralism in Malaysia with Special Reference to the Sufi Thought of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad. Comparative Islamic Studies, 9(1), 9-40.
Handy, S. (2005). Critical assessment of the literature on the relationships among transportation, land use, and physical activity. Transportation Research Board and the Institute of Medicine Committee on Physical Activity, Health, Transportation, and Land Use. Resource paper for TRB Special Report, 282.
Hanegraaff, W. J. (1999). New age spiritualities as secular religion: A historian's perspective. Social Compass, 46(2), 145-160.
153 Hanqin ZQ, Lam T. (1999). An analysis of Mainland Chinese visitors' motivations to visit Hong Kong. Tourism Management 20(5):587–594.
Harris, R. J., & Mills, E. W. (1985). Religion, values and attitudes toward abortion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 137-154.
Hasan, R. (2012). Kepercayaan Animisme Dan Dinamisme Dalam Masyarakat Islam Aceh. Miqot: Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Keislaman, 36(2).
Hasan, S. (1994). An introduction to the science of Hadith (p. 58). London: Al-Quran Society. Al Asqalani, I. H. (2004). Fats al Bari. Beirut: Dar al-Ma’rifah, 1379.
Hashas, M., Corrao, F. M., & Eyadat, Z. (2018). Islam, State, and Modernity.
Hashim, N. H., Murphy, J., & Hashim, N. M. (2007). Islam and online imagery on Malaysian tourist destination websites. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 12(3), 1082-1102.
Henderson, J. C. (2010). Sharia-compliant hotels. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 10(3), 246-254.
Herlina, H. (2014). Islam Dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Peradaban Melayu. Tamaddun, 14(2), 189-212.
Hewer, C. T. R. (2006). Understanding Islam. London: SCM Press.
Hooker, V. M. (1999). History, Literature And Social Change: Harun Aminurrashid's Independence Novel" Panglima Awang". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 72(2 (277), 5-16.
Howe, L. (2001). Hinduism & hierarchy in Bali. James Currey Publishers.
Hunter, P. (2014). Margin of error and confidence levels made simple. i. Six Sigma.
Ibrahim, J. (2017). Signifikansi Akhlak Dalam Pendidikan Islam. At-Tafkir, 10(1), 154-172.
Isaac, R. (2008). Understanding the behaviour of cultural tourists. Towards a Classification of Dutch Cultural Tourists.
Ismail, M. Y. (1990). Siamese Buddhism in a Malay state: some notes on temple organization in Kelantan, Malaysia. Radical conservatism: Buddhism in the contemporary world: articles in honour of Bhikkhu Buddhadasa's 84th birthday anniversary. Bangkok: Sathirakoses-Nagapradipa Foundation.
Ismail, M. Y. (1996). Pengaruh Siam dan Buddha Terhadap Sistem Kepercayaan Tradisional Orang Melayu Kelantan. Akademika, 49(1).
I-Tsing (2005). A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671-695). Asian Educational Services. pp. xl – xli. ISBN 978-8120616226.
154 Jamrozy U, Uysal M. (1994). Travel motivation variations of overseas German visitors. Journal of International Consumer Marketing 6(3,4): 135–160.
Jang S, Wu C-ME. (2006). Seniors' travel motivation and the influential factors: an examination of Taiwanese seniors. Tourism Management 27(2): 306–316.
Jang S, Cai LA. (2002). Travel motivations and destination choice: a study of British outbound market. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 13(3): 111–133.
Jun, S. H., Vogt, C. A., & MacKay, K. J. (2007). Relationships between travel information search and travel product purchase in pretrip contexts. Journal of Travel Research, 45(3), 266-274.
Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on psychological science, 5(3), 292-314.
Kim, K. K. (1974). Malay Society, 1874–1920s. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 5(02), 179-198.
Kim K, Giri J, Jeonghee N. (2006). Travel decisions of students at a US university: segmenting the international market. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(4): 345–357.
Klöckner, C. A., & Blöbaum, A. (2010). A comprehensive action determination model: Toward a broader understanding of ecological behaviour using the example of travel mode choice. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 574-586.
Klöckner, C. A., & Matthies, E. (2004). How habits interfere with norm-directed behaviour: A normative decision-making model for travel mode choice. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(3), 319-327.
Klöckner, C. A., Matthies, E., & Hunecke, M. (2003). Problems of operationalizing habits and integrating habits in normative decision‐making models. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(2), 396-417.
Laland, K. N., & Brown, G. R. (2011). Sense and nonsense: Evolutionary perspectives on human behaviour. Oxford University Press.
Loo, S. P. (2009). Schooling in Malaysia. Going to school in East Asia, 207-32.
Machado, L. P. (2010). “Does destination image influence the length of stay in a tourism destination? “, Tourism Economics, 16(2), 443-456.
Maio, G. R., & Olson, J. M. (1995). Relations between values, attitudes, and behavioral intentions: The moderating role of attitude function. Journal of experimental social psychology, 31(3), 266-285.
Mamat, A., Ahmad, A. B., & Yabi, S. (2017). Al-Qanun Al-Kulliy: A philosophy in understanding faith in Islam. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 25(Special Issue), 45-56.
155 Mansfeld, Y. (1992). “From Motivation to Actual Travel.” Annals of Tourism Research, 19: 399-419.
Manski, C. F. (1977). The structure of random utility models. Theory and decision, 8(3), 229-254.
March, A. F. (2015). Political Islam: Theory. Annual Review of Political Science, 18, 103-123.
Maslow, A. H. (1954). The instinctoid nature of basic needs. Journal of Personality, 22(3), 326-347.
McAlister, A. L., Perry, C. L., & Parcel, G. S. (2008). How individuals, environments, and health behaviors interact. Health Behavior, 169.
McFadden, D. (2001). Economic choices. The American economic review, 91(3), 351-378.
McFadden, D. (2007). The behavioral science of transportation. Transport policy, 14(4), 269-274.
Melchert, C. (2012). Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Oneworld Publications.
Meng, F. (2010). Individualism/collectivism and group travel behavior: a cross- cultural perspective. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4(4), 340-351.
Mey, L. P., & Mohamed, B. (2010). Service quality, visitor satisfaction and behavioural intentions: Pilot study at a museum in Malaysia. Journal of Global Business and Economics, 1(1), 226-240.
Miller, H. J. (2005). A measurement theory for time geography. Geographical analysis, 37(1), 17-45.
Mohsin, A. (2003). Analysis of West Malaysians attitudes towards holidaying in the Northern Territory: an assessment of cultural and inter generational differences.
Mohsin, A., & Ryan, C. (1997). Business visitors to the northern territory expo. Tourism Recreation Research, 22(2), 67-69.
Montano, D. E., & Kasprzyk, D. (2015). Theory of reasoned action, theory of planned behavior, and the integrated behavioral model. Health behavior: Theory, research and practice, 95-124.
Mugiyono, M. (2016). Integrasi Pemikiran Islam Dan Peradaban Melayu: Studi Eksploratif Historis Terhadap Perkembangan Peradaban Melayu Islam Di Nusantara. Jurnal Ilmu Agama, 17(1), 23-45.
Muhd. Kamil Ibrahim. (2009). Travelog dakwah: meniti hari esok. PTS Islamika.
Munshi, A. (1955). The Hikayat Abdullah. Oxford University Press.
156 Munsyi, M. I., & Othman, M. F. (1980). Kisah Pelayaran Muhammad Ibrahim Munsyi. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pelajaran, Malaysia.
Natarella, M. A. (1976). The United States: A Historical Travelog. Language Arts, 53(1), 34-36.
Neuman, L. W. (2002). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Noh, H. M., & Marziana, L. (2013). Manifestasi pandangan dunia Melayu dalam rupa dan jiwa seni catan wanita Melayu thin 1970-1990, Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Pemikiran & Kepimpinan Melayu 2013, UiTM, 98-106.
Nordin, F. N. (2012). A review on the sunnah of miswak (Salvadora Persica) and its potentiality to improve oral health. Revelation and Science, 2(01).
Nor, S. N. B. M., & Daud, N. (2012). Destination branding strategies on Halal hospitality and its effect on tourists’ intention towards Malaysia. In 3rd International Conference on Business and Economic Research, Bandung, Indonesia.
Nor, M. R. M. (2011).Menangani CabaranUmat Islam Era Moden. Jurnal Al- Tamaddun Bil, 6, 107-121.
Norman, P., & Hoyle, S. (2004). The theory of planned behavior and breast self‐ examination: Distinguishing between perceived control and self‐efficacy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(4), 694-708.
Osman, M. T. (1989). Malay folk beliefs: an integration of disparate elements. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Paulssen, M., Temme, D., Vij, A., & Walker, J. L. (2014). Values, attitudes and travel behavior: a hierarchical latent variable mixed logit model of travel mode choice. Transportation, 41(4), 873-888.
Perdue, R. R. (1985). Segmenting state travel information inquirers by timing of the destination decision and previous experience. Journal of Travel Research, 23(3), 6-11.
Perner, J. (1999). Theory of mind. Developmental psychology: Achievements and prospects, 205-230.
Phillips, D. R. (Ed.). (2002). Ageing in the Asia-Pacific region: Issues, policies and future trends. Routledge.
Poria, Y., Butler, R., & Airey, D. (2003). Tourism, religion and religiosity: A holy mess. Current issues in tourism, 6(4), 340-363.
Prochaska, J. O., Redding, C. A., & Evers, K. (2008). The transtheoretical model and stages of change. Chapter 5. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice, fourth ed. Jossey-Bass, Inc, San Francisco, CA, 170- 222.
157 Prochaska, J. O., & Velicer, W. F. (1997). The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American journal of health promotion, 12(1), 38-48.
Pudliner, B. A. (2007). Alternative literature and tourist experience: Travel and tourist weblogs. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 5(1), 46-59.
Qin, Q., Wall, G., & Liu, X. (2011). Government roles in stimulating tourism development: A case from Guangxi, China. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 16(5), 471-487.
Rahim, R. A. A., Nor, R. M., Dahlal, N. H. B. M., & Hamid, N. A. (2015). Islam Dan Kearifan Tempatan Di Alam Melayu: Analisis Kritikal. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.
Rashid, H., Shafi, S., Haworth, E., El Bashir, H., Ali, K. A., Memish, Z. A., & Booy, R. (2007). Value of rapid testing for influenza among Hajj pilgrims. Travel medicine and infectious disease, 5(5), 310-313.
Rasma, A. A. (2008). Tourism… Islam put it controls and corrected the distorted concepts. al-forqan, V (493) [Online]. Retrieved July 413, 2008.
Rauf, M. A. (1964). A Brief History of Islam: with special reference to Malaya. Oxford University Press.
Rex, J. (2017). Secular substitutes for religion in the modern world. Politics and Religion Journal, 1(1), 3-10.
Richardson, S. and Crompton, J. (1988), ‘‘Cultural variations in perceptions of vacation attributes’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 128-36.
Rinschede, G. (1992). Forms of religious tourism. Annals of tourism Research, 19(1), 51-67.
Salami, S. O. (2008). Demographic and psychological factors predicting organizational commitment among industrial workers. Anthropologist, 10(1), 31-38.
Salleh, Muhammad (2012), Early History of Penang. Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Samian, A. L. (2015), “A General Theory of the Malay Akal Budi”, Agathos, 6(2), 77.
Sanusi, K., & Legino, R. (2015). Iconic Transformations from Hinduism to Islamic Art. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Research of Arts, Design and Humanities (ISRADH 2014) (pp. 65-77). Springer, Singapore.
Schwartz, S. H., & Howard, J. A. (1981). A normative decision-making model of altruism. Altruism and helping behavior, 189-211.
158 Shafi, S., Memish, Z. A., Gatrad, A. R., & Sheikh, A. (2005). Hajj 2006: communicable disease and other health risks and current official guidance for pilgrims. Euro Surveill, 10(12).
Shamsudin, R., Maslan, A., & Akhir, N. S. M. (2014). Ibadah Haji Masyarakat Melayu: Antara Sunnah dan Amalan Kebiasaan. Sains Humanika, 3(1)
Sheth, J. N. (1977). Demographics in consumer behavior. Journal of Business Research, 5(2), 129-138.
Simon, H. A. (1990). Invariants of human behavior. Annual review of psychology, 41(1), 1-20.
Siniscalco, M. T., & Auriat, N. (2005). Questionnaire design. Quantitative research methods in educational planning. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris.
Smith, W. W., Li, X. R., Pan, B., Witte, M., & Doherty, S. T. (2015). Tracking destination image across the trip experience with smartphone technology. Tourism management, 48, 113-122.
Suhid, A. (2007). Pengajaran addax & akhlak Islam dalam membangunkan modal insan. Jurnal Pengajian Umum Bil, 8, 167.
Syarfina, T. (2015), Sinkretisme dalam Jampi Melayu Deli: Tinjauan Transformasi Budaya. Atavisme Jurnal Ilmiah Kajian Sastra,11(1), 29-40.
Talib, S. (2007).Salam Kembara , Bukit Mertajam, Penang: Goal Intelligent Publishing Sdn. Bhd
Tanner, C. (1999). Constraints on environmental behaviour. Journal of environmental psychology, 19(2), 145-157.
Thurstone, L. L. (1927). A law of comparative judgment. Psychological review, 34(4), 273.
Timothy, D. J., & Iverson, T. (2006). Tourism and Islam: considerations of culture and duty. In Tourism, religion and spiritual journeys. Routledge.
Tirtosudarmo, R. (2005). The Orang Melayu and Orang Jawa in the'lands Below the Winds'. Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity.
Tlou, E. R. (2009). The application of the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour to a workplace HIV/AIDS health promotion programme (Doctoral dissertation).
UNESCO (2001) retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and- information/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered- heritage/registered-heritage-page-8/sejarah-melayu-the-malay-annals/
159 Vagias, Wade M. (2006). Likert-type scale response anchors. Clemson International Institute for Tourism & Research Development, Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management. Clemson University
Van Acker, V., Van Wee, B., & Witlox, F. (2010). When transport geography meets social psychology: toward a conceptual model of travel behaviour. Transport Reviews, 30(2), 219-240.
Veal, A. J. (2006). Research methods for leisure and tourism: A practical guide. Pearson Education.
Vogt, C. A. (2010). Customer relationship management in tourism: Management needs and research applications. Journal of Travel Research.
Wahbah, A. Z. (1997). al-Fiqh al-Islami wa Adillatuh.
Wake, C. H. (1964). Malacca's early kings and the reception of Islam. Journal of Southeast Asian History, 5(2), 104-128.
Wall, R., Devine-Wright, P., & Mill, G. A. (2007). Comparing and combining theories to explain proenvironmental intentions: The case of commuting-mode choice. Environment and behavior, 39(6), 731-753.
Warjio, W., & Kusmanto, H. (2015). Politic Of Islamic Development In The City Of Hanoi (Vietnam): Study Of Halal Food Restaurant. Jurnal Administrasi Publik: Public Administration Journal, 5(1), 50-59.
Weidenfeld, A. (2006). Religious needs in the hospitality industry. Tourism and Hospitality research, 6(2), 143-159.
Weidenfeld, A. D. I., & Ron, A. S. (2008). Religious needs in the tourism industry. Anatolia, 19(2), 357-361.
Wheeler, L. R. (1928). Islam in Malaya. International Review of Mission,17(2), 342- 353.
White, N. J. (2015). Malaysia. The New Economic Policy in Malaysia: Affirmative action, ethnic inequalities and social justice Edited by Edmund Terence Gomez and Johan Saravanamuttu Singapore: NUS Press. 2013. Pp. xviii+ 393. Map, Notes, Index. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies,46(01), 155-158.
Wilder, W. (1970). Socialization and social structure in a Malay village. Socialization: The approach from social anthropology, 215-68.
Williams, W. (2002). Aspects of the creed of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal: a study of Anthropomorphism in early Islamic discourse. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 34(3), 441-463.
Wilson, P. J. (2014). A Malay village and Malaysia: social values and rural development.
160 Winstedt, R. O. (1968). The Hindu period. A history of Malaya by Richard O. Winstedt. Kuala Lumpur, 1968. Chapter 11, p. 29-43, proff copy, with corrections on printed pasted pink slips, wrappers.
Winzeler, R. L. (1983). The study of Malay magic. Bijdragen tot de taal-, land-en volkenkunde, (4de Afl), 435-458.
Wright, B. S. (1981). Islam and the Malay Shadow Play. Asian Folklore Studies, 51- 63.
Wong, S. C. K., & Ko, A. (2009). Exploratory study of understanding hotel employees’ perception on work–life balance issues. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(2), 195-203.
Yoon Y, Uysal M. (2005). An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction on destination loyalty: a structural model. Tourism Management 26(1): 45– 56.
Yusoff, W., & Mazwati, W. (2010). Tok Kenali (Muhammad Yusuf bin Ahmad): modernisation of the Pondok. The Other Press.
Zaʻba, Pendita; Asmah Haji Omar (2008), “Pengembaraan ke Kedah, Perlis dan Kelantan”. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur
Zamani‐Farahani, H., & Henderson, J. C. (2010). Islamic tourism and managing tourism development in Islamic societies: the cases of Iran and Saudi Arabia. International journal of tourism research, 12(1), 79-89.
161
No ID.:
LOKASI : ______
Lokasi: ______
Kaji Selidik Tingkah Laku Perjalanan Dalam
Kalangan Orang Melayu
Tuan/Puan yang dihormati,
Kaji selidik ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji tingkah laku perjalanan orang Melayu yang melibatkan ajaran agama Islam. Maklumat yang diperolehi akan digunakan untuk tujuan akademik sahaja. Kerjasama anda dalam menjawab soal selidik ini adalah amat dihargai. Untuk maklumat lanjut, sila hubungi [email protected]
SEKSYEN A : Demografi
1. Jantina: Lelaki [ ] Perempuan [ ] 5. Pekerjaan :
2. Umur: ______tahun [ ] Kerajaan [ ] Swasta 3. Status: [ ] Bekerja Sendiri [ ] Pelajar [ ] Bujang [ ] Tidak Bekerja [ ] Berkahwin [ ] Pencen / Bersara [ ] Duda/Janda [ ] Lain-lain (Sila nyatakan)______4. Tahap Pendidikan Tertinggi: 6. Pendapatan Bulanan : [ ] Sarjana/PhD [ ] Sarjana Muda RM ______[ ] Sijil/Diploma
[ ] Sekolah Menengah [ ] Sekolah Rendah [ ] Pendidikan Bukan Formal
1
SEKSYEN B : Karakteristik 11. Nyatakan sumber maklumat bagi perjalanan anda? Tandakan (√) SEMUA Perjalanan yang berkenaan 7. Destinasi perjalanan terakhir yang [ ] Internet/media sosial dilawati (perjalanan sekurang-kurangnya [ ] Rakan/saudara/hebahan mulut 81 kilometer daripada tempat tinggal anda): [ ] Pengalaman sendiri ______[ ] Majalah/surat khabar/buku /risalah Soalan 8 hingga 15 merujuk kepada [ ] TV/radio jawapan anda pada soalan 7. [ ] Ekspo/pameran pelancongan [ ] Agensi/syarikat pelancongan 8. Tujuan UTAMA perjalanan (pilih SATU [ ] Sistem maklumat dalam penerbangan sahaja) [ ] Lain-lain (nyatakan) ______
[ ] Percutian /rekreasi/liburan 12. Siapakah teman seperjalanan anda? [ ] Melawat rakan/saudara-mara Tanda (√) SEMUA yang berkenaan [ ] Perniagaan [ ] Pendidikan/pelatihan/kursus/bengkel [ ] Seorang diri [ ] Membeli-belah [ ] Pasangan/suami/isteri [ ] Rawatan kesihatan [ ] Keluarga [ ] Keagamaan [ ] Rakan [ ] Kejohanan sukan/acara [ ] Pensyarah/guru [ ] Pelajar [ ] Lain-lain (nyatakan) [ ] Lain-lain (nyatakan) ______9. Pengangkutan UTAMA ketika melakukan perjalanan: (pilih SATU sahaja) 13. Bilangan orang bersama dengan anda: _____ orang [ ] Pengangkutan darat [ ] Pengangkutan udara 14. Tempat tinggal semasa di destinasi? [ ] Pengangkutan air Tanda (√) SEMUA yang berkenaan [ ] Pengangkutan rel ( contoh keretapi) [ ] Hotel/resort [ ] Lain-lain, (nyatakan) [ ] Banglo/villa ______[ ] Pangsapuri servis/apartmen
[ ] Rumah rakan atau saudara-mara 10. Pengangkutan KEDUA ketika [ ] Program Inap desa (homestay) melakukan perjalanan (jika ada) : Tanda [ ] Lain-lain (nyatakan): (√) SEMUA yang berkenaan ______[ ] Pengangkutan darat
[ ] Pengangkutan udara 15. Jumlah perbelanjaan anda untuk [ ] Pengangkutan air perjalanan ini? [ ] Pengangkutan rel ( contoh keretapi) [ ] Lain-lain, (nyatakan) RM ______(termasuk penginapan & ______pengangkutan)
16. Secara purata saya melakukan perjalanan _____kali dalam setahun.
2
SEKSYEN C : Kepercayaan
Sila nyatakan sama ada anda SEDAR amalan berikut terdapat di dalam ajaran agama Islam ketika melakukan perjalanan berdasarkan skala berikut:
Kesedaran 1 2 3 4 5 Tidak langsung Sedikit sedar Agak sedar Sederhana Amat sedar sedar sedar
Sila nyatakan juga sama ada anda MENGAMALKAN amalan tersebut ketika melakukan perjalanan berdasarkan skala berikut:
Amalan 1 2 3 4 5 Tidak langsung Jarang Kadang Sering Amat mengamalkan mengamalkan mengamalkan mengamalkan mengamalkan
Persiapan sebelum perjalanan Kesedaran Amalan 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 Melakukan solat Istikharah 2 Berniat baik di dalam melakukan perjalanan 3 Berpesan pada seseorang yang boleh menjaga keluarga ketika ditinggalkan 4 Membuat rujukan bagi mendapatkan informasi tentang perjalanan 5 Memilih teman yang berakhlak baik sebagai teman seperjalanan 6 Membawa barang keperluan diri (seperti sikat/berus gigi/sabun dan sebagainya)
Bertolak Kesedaran Amalan 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 Memilih melakukan perjalanan pada hari Khamis 2 Berangkat awal pagi ketika akan melakukan perjalanan 3 Keluar daripada rumah di dalam emosi yang tenang 4 Keperluan mempunyai teman seperjalanan 5 Membaca do’a musafir 6 Tidak membawa barangan yang mempunyai loceng
3
Kesedaran 1 2 3 4 5 Tidak langsung Sedikit sedar Agak sedar Sederhana Amat sedar sedar sedar
Amalan 1 2 3 4 5 Tidak langsung Jarang Kadang Sering Amat mengamalkan mengamalkan mengamalkan mengamalkan mengamalkan
Sepanjang Perjalanan Kesedaran Amalan 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 Memperbanyakkan doa 2 Memilih ketua kumpulan sekiranya melakukan perjalanan secara berkumpulan 3 Bertakbir “Allahu Akbar” ketika sedang situasi mendaki (seperti mendaki bukit,kapal terbang berlepas dan sebagainya) 4 Bertasbih “Subhanallaah” ketika situasi menurun (seperti menuruni cerun, kapal terbang mendarat dan sebagainya) 5 Menghiburkan diri (seperti menyanyi,berpuisi dan sebagainya) 6 Membaca “Bismillah” jika mengalami gangguan dalam perjalanan
Semasa Di Destinasi Kesedaran Amalan 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 Melakukan solat sunnah dua rakaat 2 Berzikir ketika tiba ke destinasi 3 Mengelak menetap melebihi 3 hari di rumah seseorang 4 Makan bersama dengan teman seperjalanan 5 Bersolat secara Jama’ dan Qhasar 6 Bertanggungjawab terhadap barang yang disewa (jika ada)
Kepulangan Kesedaran Amalan 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 Bersegera kembali ke keluarga setelah selesai urusan 2 Melakukan solat sunnah dua rakaat 3 Memberi cenderahati kepada keluarga/teman 4 Memberitahu keluarga waktu kepulangan 5 Memilih untuk sampai ke rumah pada siang hari berbanding malam 6 Menjamu makanan kepada keluarga/teman/jiran
4
SEKSYEN D : Tingkah Laku Perjalanan di Destinasi
Sila nyatakan tahap KEKERAPAN anda melakukan tingkah laku berikut di destinasi perjalanan berdasarkan skala yang diberikan.
Aktiviti Tiada Jarang Kadang- Kerap Selalu Pernah Kadang
1 Memerlukan bilik penginapan yang ada penunjuk arah kiblat
2 Memerlukan ruang fasiliti (seperti gimnasium, kolam renang dan sebagainya) yang mengasingkan pengguna lelaki dan perempuan
3 Berasa selesa untuk tinggal di penginapan yang menggantung ayat Al-Quran di dinding
4 Memilih tempat penginapan yang berhampiran dengan masjid
5 Memerlukan ruang solat jika berkunjung ke tempat tarikan (seperti pasaraya, taman tema dan sebagainya)
6 Berkunjung ke sesuatu tempat kerana terdapat senibina masjid yang menarik di situ
5
Aktiviti Tiada Jarang Kadang- Kerap Selalu Pernah Kadang
7 Makan di tempat yang mempunyai sijil halal yang sah
8 Makan makanan yang hanya dimasak oleh orang Islam
9 Memastikan kandungan bahan makanan juga adalah halal
10 Menghindari mengunjungi tempat maksiat
11 Mengelak melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti berunsur perjudian
12 Berasa tidak selesa ketika berada di premis yang menghidangkan arak
TERIMA KASIH
6