Nr 8 / 2016 Nr 8 / 2016

nr 8 / 2016

nr 8 / 2016 RES MUSICA nr 8 / 2016

Eesti Muusikateaduse Seltsi ja Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia muusikateaduse osakonna aastaraamat TOIMETUS / EDITORIAL BOARD Toomas Siitan, peatoimetaja / editor in chief Kerri Kotta (muusikateooria / music theory) Kristel Pappel (muusikateater, muusikaajalugu / music theatre, music history) Žanna Pärtlas (etnomusikoloogia / ethnomusicology) Jaan Ross (muusikapsühholoogia / music psychology) Anu Schaper, toimetaja / editor

TOIMETUSKOLLEEGIUM / ADVISORY PANEL Mimi S. Daitz (New York City University, USA) Jeff ers Engelhardt (Amherst College, USA) Mart Humal (Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia / Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre, Eesti/Estonia) Timo Leisiö (Tampereen Yliopisto / University of Tampere, Soome/Finland) Margus Pärtlas (Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia / Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre, Eesti/Estonia) Johan Sundberg (Kungliga Tekniska högskolan / Royal Institute of Technology, Rootsi/Sweden) Avo Sõmer (University of Connecticut, USA) Andreas Waczkat (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen / Göttingen University, Saksamaa/Germany)

Res Musicale avaldamiseks esitatud artiklid retsenseeritakse anonüümselt kahe vastava valdkonna asjatundja poolt. All articles submitted are reviewed anonymously by two experts in the fi eld.

Keeletoimetajad / Language editors Richard Carr, Triin Kaalep Küljendus ja numbri kujundus / Layout and design of the current issue Maite Kotta

Tatari 13 10116 Tallinn, Eesti Tel.: +372 667 5717 e-mail: [email protected] www.muusikateadus.ee/resmusica © EMTS, EMTA, autorid Trükitud AS Pakett trükikojas ISSN 1736-8553

Res Musica artiklid on refereeritud ja indekseeritud RILMi andmebaasis (RILM abstracts of music literature). Selle kogu sisu on elektrooniliselt kättesaadav RILMi kaudu (RILM abstracts of music literature with full text). Res Musica is abstracted and indexed in RILM abstracts of music literature. Its full-text content is available electronically through RILM abstracts of music literature with full text. Sisukord / Table of Contents

Saateks koostajalt ...... 5 Editor’s Preface ...... 7

ARTIKLID/ARTICLES

Ignazio Macchiarella Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal ...... 9 Mõiste multipart music kui kontseptuaalne vahend. Mõned ettepanekud (resümee) ...... 26

Ardian Ahmedaja The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music ...... 28 Mõistete määratlemine mitmehäälse muusika uuringutes (resümee) ...... 42

Žanna Pärtlas Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony ...... 44 Teoreetilised lähenemised heterofooniale (resümee) ...... 71

Susanne Fürniss What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception ...... 73 Mis on partii? Polüfoonia taju ja kontseptsiooni vahel (resümee) ...... 85

Anda Beitāne The Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation ...... 87 „Harmoonia“ küsimus kohalikus mitmehäälses muusikapraktikas: Ida-Läti terminoloogiaeksperimentide väljana (resümee) ...... 98

Ulrich Morgenstern European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives ...... 100 Mitmehäälse soolo-instrumentaalmuusika traditsioonid Euroopas. Terminoloogilised probleemid ja perspektiivid (resümee) ...... 115

Alessandro Bratus Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music ...... 116 Salvestise suhestuslike ruumide jälgel: multipart-vaatenurk levimuusika analüüsis (resümee) ...... 131

3 ARVUSTUSED/REVIEWS

Enrique Cámara de Landa ...... 132 Maurizio Agamennone (ed.). Polifonie. Procedimenti, tassonomie e forme: una rifl essione “a più voci”. Venezia: il Cardo, 1996, 283 pp.

Toomas Siitan ...... 143 Peter C. Bouteneff . Arvo Pärt: Out of Silene. Yonkers (N.Y.): St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2015, 231 lk.

Margus Pärtlas ...... 146 Eduard Tubin – rahvushelilooja, professionaal, isiksus Eino Tubin. Ballaad. Eduard Tubina lugu. Tallinn: Eesti Teatri- ja Muusikamuuseum, 2015, 239 lk. Vardo Rumessen (koost.). Vestlused Eduard Tubinaga. Tallinn: Rahvusvaheline Eduard Tubina Ühing, 2015, 360 lk.

Tiina Selke ...... 148 Marju Raju. Some aspects of singing development, the song creating process and favorite songs of Estonian children / Mõningaid aspekte Eesti laste laulmise arengust, ise laulude loomisest ja lemmiklauludest. Tallinn: Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre Dissertations 6 / Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia Väitekirjad 6, 2015, 130 lk.

Anu Kõlar ...... 151 Heli Reimann. Jazz in Soviet Estonia from 1944 to 1953: Meanings, Spaces and Paradoxes. University of Helsinki, Academic Dissertation (E-Thesis), 2015

KROONIKA ...... 156

AUTORID / AUTHORS ...... 158

4 Saateks koostajalt

Res Musica kaheksas number on juba teine sel- liskeelse terminoloogia üle, kuid abiks ja võrdlu- le aastaraamatu väljaanne, mis on pühendatud seks võetakse ka teiste maade (näiteks Saksamaa, etnomusikoloogia uurimisvaldkonnale (Res Mu- Prantsusmaa, Itaalia, Venemaa, Läti ja Eesti) termi- sica esimene etnomusikoloogiline number ilmus noloogilisi traditsioone, mistõttu tekivad sageli aastal 2012). Seekord on tegemist artiklitega, mis terminite tõlke küsimused ning mitmes artiklis põhinevad 19.–20. septembril 2014 Eesti Muusi- võib leida kirjanduse tsiteerimist paralleelselt ka- ka- ja Teatriakadeemias toimunud rahvusvahelise hes, originaali ja inglise keeles. seminari teemadel. Seminari korraldas mitme- Samas väljendab terminoloogia teadlaste teo- häälsuse probleemidele keskenduv uurimisrühm reetilisi arusaamasid uuritava muusika loomusest, ICTM (International Council for Traditional Music) nii et arutlused sel teemal ei puuduta kaugeltki Study Group on Multipart Music ning selle tee- mitte ainult sõnade valikut, vaid ka mitmehäälsu- maks oli „Mitmehäälne muusika: teoreetilised se kui kultuurilise, psühholoogilise ja muusikalise lähenemised terminoloogiale” („Multipart Music: nähtuse põhiküsimusi. Tallinna seminaril ilmnes, theoretical approaches on the terminology”). et nendele küsimustele võib läheneda üsna mit- Mainitud akadeemilise ürituse formaat erines mest vaatenurgast, rõhutades seejuures muusi- tavapärase konverentsi omast selle poolest, et kalise protsessi eri aspekte. Käesoleva väljaande osalejate arv oli piiratud kaheksa kutsutud spet- artiklites võib samuti leida erineva suunitlusega sialistiga, kes ettekannete asemel juhtisid eri uurimusi, mis käsitlevad traditsioonilise mitme- teemadele pühendatud sessioone, mille käigus häälsuse sotsiaalseid, kultuurilisi, käitumuslikke, toimusid ühised diskussioonid. Viimane asjaolu kognitiivseid ning ka puhtmuusikalisi tahke. mõjutab otseselt käesoleva väljaande nägu. Esi- Väljaande kolm esimest artiklit käsitlevad Tal- teks iseloomustab seekordse aastaraamatu tekste linna seminari teema kõige üldisemaid küsimu- tavalisest palju suurem temaatiline ühtsus, mis si. Ignazio Macchiarella loob kontseptsiooni tuleneb seminari üsna selgepiiriliselt formuleeri- mitmehäälsest muusikast (multipart music) kui tud teemast. Teiseks on paljud artiklid mõjutatud sotsiaalsest interaktsioonist ja indiviidide koordi- seminaril peetud diskussioonidest, nii et tekstide neeritud koosmusitseerimise protsessist. Inimes- vahel tekib dialoogiline side. te muusikalise tegevuse ja selle helilise tulemuse Traditsioonilise mitmehäälsusega seotud ter- ühendamiseks pakub ta uut mõistet „heližest” minoloogia arenes koos kogu etnomusikoloogia (sound gesture), mis pole rakendatav mitte ainult teadusharuga selle tekkimisest peale ning see traditsioonilise, vaid igasuguse muusikalise heli- areng liikus üldjoontes Lääne muusikateooriast tekitamise iseloomustamisel. Ardian Ahmedaja pärit terminite süsteemilt uuemate mõistete suu- arutleb mitmehäälset muusikat tähistavaid nas, mille eesmärgiks on ühelt poolt ajalooliselt katustermineid mõisteteooria üldises konteks- ja stiililiselt neutraalsemate väljendite leidmine, tis. Uuritakse kolme katusterminit: ingliskeelseid mis võimaldaks nende rakendamist erinevate polyphony ja multipart music ning saksakeelset rahvaste muusika suhtes, teiselt poolt aga igale Mehrstimmigkeit. Samuti tutvustab Ahmedaja ka muusikakultuurile spetsiifi liste (rahva)terminite uuemaid mõisteid Schwebungsdiaphonie, polymu- väärtustamine uuritava muusika loomust kõige sic ja singing in company, näidates, et uued termi- adekvaatsemalt väljendavate kontseptidena. Sel- nid tekivad nii muusika kõlalisest kui ka sotsiaal- le protsessi tulemusena leiame ennast olukorras, sest aspektist lähtuvalt. Žanna Pärtlase artikkel kus paralleelselt eksisteerib rohkesti erineva pä- on pühendatud traditsioonilises muusikas väga ritoluga mitmehäälsuse termineid ja klassifi kat- levinud mitmehäälsuse ilmingule – heterofoo- sioone, mida tõlgendatakse erinevalt eri maade niale, mida vaadeldakse muusikalise, sotsiaalse teaduskoolkondades. Käesoleva väljaande artik- ja psühholoogilise nähtusena. Kuna heterofoonia lites arutletakse kõigepealt rahvusvahelise ing- teoreetiline mõtestamine paneb proovile muusi-

5 kateooria ja etnomusikoloogia kõige üldisemaid Alessandro Bratuse artikkel laiendab kogumiku mitmehäälsusega seotud mõisteid, on suur osa teemat traditsioonilise muusika piiridest väljapoo- artiklist pühendatud selle ala baasmõistetele. le. Bratus uurib võimalusi, kuidas rakendada mõis- Kogumiku kahte järgmist artiklit ühendab te multipart music stuudios salvestatavale levi- tähelepanu emic ja etic lähenemiste mõjule mit- muusikale, analüüsides detailsemalt Isaac Hayesi mehäälsuse terminoloogiale, kusjuures erinevalt algusteemat fi lmist „Shaft”. eelmistest artiklitest on need kaks pühendatud Tallinna seminariga seotud tekstidest peab veel konkreetsetele muusikatraditsioonidele. Nii põ- mainima Enrique Cámara de Landa ülevaadet hineb Susanne Fürnissi artikkel aka (Kesk-Aafri- raamatust „Polifonie. Procedimenti, tassonomie e ka Vabariik) ja baka (Kamerun) hõimude vokaal- forme: una rifl essione „a più voci”” (toimetaja Mau- se muusika kauaaegsel uurimisel. Autor arutleb rizio Agamennone, 1996). Kuigi tegemist ei ole kontseptsioonilisi vastuolusid, mis tekivad tra- viimase aja publikatsiooniga, pidasime selle raa- ditsioonilise mitmehäälsuse muusikaanalüütilise matu tutvustamist kogumiku teema seisukohalt representatsiooni ja kohaliku traditsioonisisese kasulikuks, seda enam, et keelebarjääri tõttu ei ole diskursuse vahel. Ligilähedast problemaatikat Itaalia uurijate tööd paljudele etnomusikoloogide- arutleb Anda Beitāne, kasutades näiteid Ida- le tuttavad. Läti mitmehäälsest laulust. Artikkel käsitleb Lätis Res Musica käesoleva numbri põhiartiklid on kasutatavat muusikateaduslikku terminoloogiat, avaldatud inglise keeles, kuid neile on lisatud mis on seotud mitmehäälsusega, ja võrdleb seda pikad eestikeelsed resümeed. Vastavalt reegli tele folkloorse terminoloogia ja traditsioonikandjate läbisid kõik artiklid anonüümse retsenseerimise arusaamadega nende tehtavast muusikast. kompetentsete spetsialistide poolt. Toimetus Ulrich Morgensterni uurimus on kogumikus tänab südamlikult kõiki retsensente nende asja- ainus, mis käsitleb mitmehäälsust traditsioonilises tundliku töö eest, mis aitas tõsta väljaande tea- instrumentaalses muusikas. Vaatluse all on soolo- duslikku kvaliteeti. Raamatu valmimist on toeta- esituses tekkivad mitmehäälsed nähtused. Autor nud Euroopa Liit Euroopa Regionaalarengu Fondi üritab korrastada terminoloogiat, mida kasu- kaudu (Eesti-uuringute tippkeskus), see on seotud tatakse erinevate faktuuride tähistamisel, pöö- Eesti Haridus- ja Teadusministeeriumi uurimis- rates erilist tähelepanu burdooniga faktuuridele. projektiga IUT12-1. Žanna Pärtlas

6 Editor’s Preface

This eighth issue of the yearbook Res Musica is the terminology of other traditions (e.g. those of the second number dedicated to the domain of Germany, France, Italy, Russia, Latvia and Estonia). ethnomusicology (the fi rst was the 2012 edition). As a result, questions of the translation of terms This time the collection of articles develops the arise, and we can fi nd in several articles the cita- topics discussed at the First Seminar of the ICTM tions of the literature given in parallel in two lan- (International Council for Traditional Music) Study guages (the original and English). Group on Multipart Music, held on 19–20 Septem- The special nature of this volume is also infl u- ber 2014 at the Estonian Academy of Music and enced by the fact that the terminology manifests Theatre, Tallinn. The theme of the Seminar was the researchers’ theoretical comprehension of the “Multipart Music: theoretical approaches on the nature of the music under study, so that the dis- terminology”. It should be mentioned here that cussions on this topic concern not only the choice the form of this event was quite unusual – the of the words but also the basic issues of multipart number of participants was limited to eight in- music as a cultural, psychological and musical vited specialists who, instead of giving standard phenomenon. During the Tallinn Seminar, it be- conference papers, chaired the discussions on came apparent that these questions may be ap- the related topics. This circumstance has shaped proached in diff erent ways, proceeding from the the conception of the present volume. Firstly, the diff erent aspects of the musical process. This col- clearly delimited theme of the Seminar has result- lection includes articles dealing with the social, ed in the greater thematic homogeneity of the cultural, behavioural, cognitive and musical as- collection than usual. Secondly, the infl uence of pects of traditional multipart music. the Seminar’s discussions is often apparent in the The fi rst three articles of this volume discuss articles, leading to dialogic connections between the most general questions of traditional multi- the texts. part music. Ignazio Macchiarella develops the The terminology related to traditional multi- conception of multipart music as the process of part music has developed alongside the entire social interaction and intentionally coordinated discourse of ethnomusicology since its begin- music-making. He also introduces the new term nings. This development has proceeded from the ‘sound gesture’, which joins the musical action use of the common Western musicological terms and its sound outcome and can be applied not to the invention of newer concepts, in the search only to traditional music, but also to any kind of for historically and stylistically neutral terms that sound activity. Ardian Ahmedaja explores the may be applicable to the music of diff erent cul- terms that designate multipart music in the gen- tures. At the same time, the researchers began eral context of concept theory. He focuses on to value the local vernacular terms, as they ex- three umbrella terms: the English terms ‘polyph- press most adequately the nature of their respec- ony’ and ‘multipart music’ and the German term tive musical traditions. Nowadays we witness a Mehrstimmigkeit. Ahmedaja also discusses some situation in which numerous terms of diff erent newer terms – Schwebungsdiaphonie, ‘polymusic’ origin and various classifi cations of multipart and ‘singing in company’, showing that the es- (polyphonic, multilinear, plurilinear, etc.) music tablishing of the new concepts can proceed from exist in the ethnomusicological world; and quite both the musical outcome and the social aspect often these terms are diff erently understood by of multipart music. The article by Žanna Pärtlas researchers belonging to the diff erent national is dedicated to heterophony – one of the wide- traditions. In this volume, the authors concentrate spread principles by which a multilinear texture mainly on the international English-language ter- comes about in the music of oral tradition. The ar- minology, but they also involve as a comparison ticle approaches heterophony as a musical, social

7 and psychological phenomenon. As the theoreti- ing into consideration multipart phenomena in cal comprehension of heterophony requires the popular music. He searches for the possibilities revision of the basic concepts related to multipart of applying the concept of multipart music to re- and multilinear music, these concepts are also put corded popular music, analysing in considerable under the microscope in the article. detail the opening theme by Isaac Hayes for the The next two articles investigate the infl uence fi lm Shaft. of the emic and etic attitudes on the terminol- Among the texts relating to the Tallinn Semi- ogy of multipart music, discussing this question nar, the present collection also includes an over- with reference to concrete musical traditions. The view of the book Polifonie. Procedimenti, tassono- research by Susanne Fürniss is based on the in- mie e forme: una rifl essione “a più voci” (edited by depth study of the music of the Aka people from Maurizio Agamennone, 1996) written by Enrique the Central African Republic and the Baka from Cámara de Landa. Although this book is not a re- Cameroon. The author points to the possibility of cent publication, we found that its presentation contradictions between the emic (native) concep- here would be very useful from the viewpoint of tion and etic (researchers’) perception of plurilin- the theme discussed in this volume, especially ear music, which sometimes raises questions as to taking into account the fact that the ideas of Ital- the designation of the forms of musical texture. ian researchers are not widely known in interna- Anda Beitāne examines similar problems with tional ethnomusicological circles owing to the regard to the multipart song tradition of eastern language barrier. Latvia. Her study scrutinizes the multipart music In this issue of Res Musica the main articles are terminology that is common in Latvian ethnomu- published in English with detailed summaries in sicological scholarship and compares it with the Estonian. According to the rules of the journal, folk terminology and the local understandings all the articles published here were anonymously concerning multipart singing. peer reviewed by competent specialists. The edi- The research paper by Ulrich Morgenstern is tors express their sincere gratitude to all the re- the only one in this volume that focuses on tra- viewers, whose expert work has helped to raise ditional instrumental music and on the multipart the academic quality of this publication. This phenomena in a solo performance. The author volume was supported by the Estonian Minis- attempts to organize the terminology used for try of Education and Research (research project the designation of the diff erent types of musi- IUT12-1), and by the European Union through the cal texture, paying special attention to textures European Regional Development Fund (Centre of with bourdon. The article by Alessandro Bratus Excellence in Estonian Studies). widens the scope of the volume’s theme, bring- Žanna Pärtlas

8 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal Ignazio Macchiarella

Abstract The term ‘multipart music’ began to be used within our literature recently. Literally, it designates a generic co-presence of manifold components ‘inside a music’ without qualifying exactly what kind of co- presence is in play. Nevertheless, ‘multipart music’ is used more and more often, replacing the historically connoted term ‘polyphony’ which immediately refers to the domain of so-called Western art music. Importantly, ‘multipart music’ has the advantage of containing the term ‘part’ which can be considered in the theatrical sense of ‘role’, thus shifting the focus towards the essence of the musical action, namely the performative behaviours from which the sound intertwining springs. These actions can be interpreted as coordination of diff erent sound gestures, i.e. bodily actions which begin and end and which have c haracteristic features and confi gurations that can be represented in terms of rhythmic- temporal dimensions and pitch chains. In such a perspective this paper focuses on what individuals do when they sing/play together in organized ways. Using diff erent examples, the paper off ers a contribution to the theoretical discourses of the ICTM (International Council for Traditional Music) Study Group on Multipart Music.

What is the point of the term ‘multipart ized resounding of manifold sound components music’? (let us just call it this for the moment) – manifests such a disparate variety of musical experiences As is usual in musicology (and in the humanities that no defi nition could be more eff ective, and no in general) terminologies are often ambiguous or expression could adequately represent this sub- far too generic and little eff ective: ‘multipart mu- stantial diversity of musical processes – at least sic’ is no exception! The term ‘multipart music’ be- according to today’s knowledge and current re- gan to be used within our recent literature mostly search perspectives. Indeed, to insist on search- in order to generally replace the term ‘polyphony’, ing for a more eff ective and more comprehensive or in a vague attempt to extend the fi eld of po- denomination would imply a kind of paradox, lyphony (see Ardian Ahmedaja’s article in this vol- precisely because of the substantial, both formal ume). Literally, multipart music designates noth- and conceptual, variety of the articulation of the ing more than a generic co-presence of manifold phenomenon in (and among) diff erent cultures: components inside a music, without qualifying it would be like trying to fi nd a word with a po- exactly what kind of co-presence is in play, what tential universal meaning in order to deal with the term ‘part’ means, what the relationships something of which one admits a substantial among the parts are, and so forth. Thus, the locu- and irreducible cultural variability. In fact, as a tion ‘multipart music’ is simply the attestation of a conscious collectively shared human experience, compound music, made up of diff erent elements making music together in a coordinated manner resounding together – which is a sort of tautol- requires diff erent forms of conceptualization that, ogy since, in a sense, all music is always made up as appropriate, may refer to rationalities even very of various elements. In this regard, ‘multipart mu- diff erent from ours. sic’ works pretty much like the term ‘polyphony’ Therefore, the choice to resort to ‘multipart which, in an equally generic way, denotes noth- music’ is not due to its literal meaning. Rather, it ing more than a co-presence among more sounds springs from the fact that it is a relatively recent (poly-sounds), without specifying how this musi- term that does not carry as much baggage as cal co-presence occurs. ‘polyphony’. Furthermore, it has the advantage In actual fact, such a kind of terminological of containing the term ‘part’ which – beyond the vagueness seems inevitable: the phenomenon common sense in the context of Western musi- that we are interested in studying – this organ- cal grammar – can be considered in the theatrical

9 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal sense of the ‘role’ (I shall deal with this later), thus written tradition, a belief still commonly repeated shifting the focus towards the essence of the mu- in the media (and on the Internet). From the fi rst sical action, the core of my contribution. half of the Twentieth century onwards, the aware- In short, multipart music is more likely to be ness of a much broader and diff erentiated spread used to indicate a particular approach to the of a coherently organized overlapping of diff erent study of coordinated organized making music, sounds in the various cultures of the world slowly something which the Study Group on Multipart began to mature; the route has been a long and Music of the International Council for Traditional circuitous one, marked by various discoveries and Music (ICTM) has been trying to develop ever stages that were well outlined and discussed by since it came into being in 2009. The following Maurizio Agamennone (1996).2 pages aspire to pursue this discourse just a little Specifi cally, ‘polyphony’ seems to mainly re- further, going beyond previous contributions (cf. fer to the idea of sound combinations which are Macchiarella 2012a). Our starting point is the defi - explicable and understandable only in terms of nition currently adopted by our Study Group: (mathematical) relations between pitches: a representation that infl uences the conceptualization Multipart music is a specifi c mode of music of the extreme, and in many respects indefi nable making and expressive behaviour based on variety of processes through which people in the the intentionally distinct and coordinated world make music together in a coordinated man- participation in the performing act by sharing ner. knowledge and shaping values.1 In fact, the representation suggested by the term ‘polyphony’ is resolutely oriented to the evaluation of sound outcomes. It is aff ected by Compromising connotations Western Academia’s way of thinking and under- Without doubt, ‘multipart music’ has the advan- standing music – a representation that is deep- tage of being devoid of the baggage of conno- rooted and also variously experimented by a tations accompanying the term ‘polyphony’. Of wide (ethno)musicological3 literature in the study Greek origin, ‘polyphony’ (polys-phoné) is one of a wide variety of musical expressions around of the key terms of so-called Western art music. the world (cf. Cook 2001). Pivoted on the roman- Although it has assumed various meanings over tic concept of absolute music, this perspective time, and is also used outside of the specifi c music tends to consider sounds as detached from their context with a metaphorical function (for exam- context, with no particular (or, indeed, any) atten- ple, a ‘polyphony of intent’ indicates accordance tion being paid to the modalities put into place between persons), the term is immediately con- for its performance. In this sense, using the term nected with the idea of the overlapping musical ‘polyphony’ implies the use of reference factors as lines which are written down in a score. Indeed, paradigms – for example, distance interval, syn- in many ways, the term ‘polyphony’, as in a kind of chronization among the voices, accuracy of into- metonymy, is considered representative of the for- nation, etc., – and such factors are not always rel- mal and conceptual complexity of Western music, evant or important in the conceptualization and and even a statement of its (alleged) superiority implementation of a coordinated overlapping of over the other musical expressions of the world. multiple sounds. For a long time in fact, musicological literature has This pre-eminence granted to the resulting corroborated the belief that the phenomenon of sound inferred from the use of the term ‘polyph- polyphony was a unique invention of the Western ony’ tends to reinforce a concept of music as rep-

1 www.multipartmusic.eu (28 June 2015). 2 See also the overview of Agamennone 1996 by Cámara de Landa in this volume. 3 I am among those who do not like the word ‘ethnomusicology’ because of the ‘ethno’ prefi x, which is a legacy of past colonial prejudices. I believe our studies have “come to represent a conduit through which a more open, refl exive, representative, democratic and interdisciplinary approach to the study of music might be achieved.” (Stobart 2008: 1). This implies the study of all music, without any distinction on ethnic, geographic, social, etc. criteria. In this sense, I believe I am a musicologist. However, with reference to a consolidated tradition of studies and literature, I prefer to write the word as I have done on previous occasions: (ethno)musicology.

10 Ignazio Macchiarella ertories of pieces, or ‘works of art’ in the meaning the sound production is due to the mutual inter- of Western Academic music, that is to say, the idea action of real men and women. that a music piece is presumed to have an existence apart from any performance act and that it is always attributable to someone. This includes pro- The perspective of multipart music cesses of imagination of bounded entities, meta- Free of any cultural baggage of historical sedi- phorically explained by words like forms, texts or mentation, ‘multipart music’ is therefore more works which are often taken for granted by peo- practical for allowing us to focus from a diff erent ple in diff erent times and places (Clayton 2001: 6). perspective on certain characteristics of making In other words, the consideration of only (or main- music together, compared to the ordinary one ly) the sound outcome of a performance (i.e. what based on the immateriality of sound. Where part is being played/sung and written/recorded, etc.) has the meaning of role, ‘multipart music’ may just corresponds to a well-established way of thinking highlight the (too often neglected) materiality of about music in the Western world (roughly start- the meeting which is necessary for any collective ing from the second half of the Nineteenth cen- and coordinated music making to take place. It tury onwards): through the use of ‘polyphony’ this follows that the core of the scrutiny becomes the conceptualization somehow came to be project- performance behaviour from which the inter- ed onto the interpretation of other music cultures weaving sounds, perceptible by listening, arise.5 and practices for which it is not appropriate. This These are the real organized group actions of is all the more so because, due to the substantial the men and women which are led into the lime- transitional feature of sound, music cannot be an light. These actions can be interpreted as the co- object: rather than a product, music is always a ordination of diff erent sound gestures, i.e. bodily process, an “intrinsically meaningful cultural prac- actions which begin and end and have character- tice” (Cook 2001: 3) which is socially contextual- istic features and confi gurations that can be rep- ized. Thus, beyond our common habit, granted resented in terms of rhythmic-temporal dimen- by contemporary technologies of recording and sions and pitch chains. sound reproduction (which I do not take into ac- The defi nition of sound gesture wishes to go count here), it is not possible to separate sound beyond the common idea adopted in studies on from the act of its production – which, by the way, polyphony of part as a melodic line.6 It is intended is an act where the uniqueness of those who play/ to include any type of sound activity which is con- sing (those who, literally, give body to the music) sciously and intentionally produced during the is manifested.4 This is even more true in the case act of making music together in a coordinated of collectively coordinated expressions, in which way, and which is recognized as such by the per-

4 However, there are recent approaches that take into account the agency of a group as a necessary condition for polyphony: for instance, according to Kobow (2011: 1, 17) “[t]he concept of polyphony […] can make a philosophical account of human agency, especially group agency, more comprehensive […] It gives us – literally – a sense of power, because hearing single-voice melodies and polyphone melodies refl ects our diff erent abilities to act alone or with others” (the defi nition considers agency as the intentional stance of the agent, not any physical movement). 5 From the 1960s onwards the notion of skilful body has risen within diff erent domains, testifying the relevance that the body’s perception and behaviour has within the processes of knowledge. The body is therefore a means of interaction with the outside world but also a tool for expression and knowledge. In recent times, a large part of (ethno)musicological literature is pivoted on the essential foundation of the performance behaviours for the analysis of music results: for instance, from a diff erent perspective, see Brinner 1992; Keil, Feld 1994; Cottrell 2004; Tenzer 2006; Baily 2008. 6 The experience of (ethno)musicological literature off ers a very large palette of aural components of a multipart expression, beyond our idea of sequences of notes, and outside any presumed boundary between sung and spoken, sound and noise, and so on. Of course, sound gesture is not to be understood as a synonym of the term ‘part’ as a functionally diff erentiated layer of musical texture, as it is for Western academia. Besides, the same consolidated term ‘part’ is rather diffi cult to identify if we go beyond the Western academic tradition, see Ahmedaja 2008, Fürniss 2006 (see also Fürniss’s essay in this volume). Furthermore, ‘sound gesture’ is also diff erent from the notion of ‘musical gesture’ which has been adopted in recent Western musicology with the aim of stressing the dynamic intervention of the body at diff erent stages of art musical production (composition, performance, listening: see for instance Gritten and King 2006), and from other notions developed within psychological research based on the endless fascination of the concept of gesture.

11 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal formers. Any sonorous production can be a sound interpretable as the result of shared know-hows gesture, so that the variety of the expressions to regulating interactions between individuals (real which the term applies is imponderable and un- men and women in their uniqueness), which limited. Through the combination and interaction give rise to diff erent music outcomes every time. of sound gestures, multipart music manifests its Adopting and developing these assumptions, I nature of shared behaviour that acts on the lives believe that the locution ‘multipart music’ could of real women and men, namely soundful bodies identify a conceptual tool built on a coherent (see below). analysis of the musical behaviours from which It goes without saying that this perspective the sound intertwining springs up. Consequently, is pivoted on the concept of music as a perfor- the fi rst word of our locution, ‘multi-part’, should mance, which is like a lived experience to be un- be understood as (or should suggest the idea derstood and interpreted in a given space and of) multi-action music, multi-role music, multi- time. Thus, it is a viewpoint that does not concern coordinated behaviours, and so forth (rather than music as a stream of sounds emitted from some multi (poly) -sounds). This implies that ‘multipart electronic device (nor the idea of a pure analysis music’ is not to be used to denote features that of music representation written down in a paper are found in the overlapping combination of document).7 sounds and perceptible by listening: that is to say, Nowadays, music can also be a sequence of im- the study of multipart music cannot do without material sounds that are disconnected from the a direct observation of real performance, and it hic et nunc of the performance that we listen to cannot be realized simply through listening to re- through speakers: this is the common experience corded materials. of music (Cook 2000). But, for our ancestors (and The multipart music phenomenon is not, how- still for many people in the world today), music ever, a straightforward matter of the mixing of was (is) necessarily the real interaction between music behaviours to be an end in themselves. We men and women – and nothing else! There are are well aware that, as Gilbert Rouget stated, “Mu- two substantially diff erent human experiences sic is always more than music” (cf. Lortat-Jacob (both from the perspective of the producer and 2006), and of course, if we consider its collective/ the listener) which are both defi ned with the same inter-acting features, the approach to the phe- term: ‘music’. Although, I do not want to dwell on nomenon must mean to encounter (and to face) this point,8 I should however like to stress how the the intermingling between actions and thoughts analysis of human sound production processes on music, which are ‘other’ than those we are is unavoidable for the approach to the multipart accustomed to, in virtue of our own conceptual music phenomenon. framework (see below).9 To study this phenomenon means to focus on In this perspective, the term ‘multipart music’ what individuals do when they sing/play together is not an alternative to ‘polyphony’, or, even less, in organized ways. In fact, every performance is its synonym. Dealing with multipart music means,

7 However, the performer’s body could also be present in the recordings. In fact, recordings are “reproductions of performances that never actually took place but resulted from mixing and editing multiple takes. Although such performances of popular music are immaterial, they are not truly disembodied […]” because recordings “always imply the physical actions and presence of the human beings who produced them no matter how manipulated they may be” (Auslander 2006: 263). Cf. the interesting contribution by Alessandro Bratus in this volume. 8 That is to say I do not deal with what music is; I like to remember that “[m]usic is a very small word to encompass something that takes as many forms as there are cultural or subcultural identities” (Cook 2000: 18). 9 I have come across this during my own research activity, which till now has taken place not far from my native land. Furthermore, since I am one of those so-called ethnomusicologists-at-home, I have had (and still have) a special possibility of developing very close personal relations, including confi dential ones, that are practically part of my personal daily life. Inter alia, this has given me the opportunity to learn ‘how’ to deal with the music practices related to the customs of diff erent villages or groups of singers (and over the technical aspects). In particular, I have gradually come to understand that opinions about the performance were regarded as opinions about the people who sing (or play), within a sort of aesthetics of the relationships represented by the sounds, where aesthetics is close to ethic, since music coincides with the real people who give it life (in a word: sharing a sound experience is above all sharing a human experience) (Macchiarella 2014). The local singers often allow me to take part in the intense and ‘day after day’ talking about the music practice (beyond the performative moments) which have a crucial relevance for the sound

12 Ignazio Macchiarella therefore, developing a diff erent perspective on Special collective actions making music together in a coordinated way, On this basis, the phenomenon of multipart whose results may (or should) intertwine with music immediately appears as being extremely the common methodologies of studying and broad. In fact, in many ways it defi es delimitation, analysing sound outcomes. It is a diff erent inter- if only because of its continuous transformation pretative perspective wherein, whilst safeguard- (since it is, after all, making music tout court), in a ing the interest in the content (i.e. what is being constant change of the processes of interaction/ performed), privileged attention is devoted to combination put in act by women and men dur- what happens and what it means when collective ing their collectively organized making music. For music actions happen, i.e. to both the performa- this reason, no discussion may achieve a complete tive behaviours and shared conceptualizations inventory purpose. Furthermore, let it be clear from which the concrete intertwining of sounds right from the start that dealing with multipart derives. music does not mean aiming to identify a list of I underline that multipart music must not re- repertories, or genres, or pieces, or generic music late to some musical typologies – and in particu- practices to which the defi nition may be applied. lar it does not concern what is usually called tra- On the contrary, it means identifying and classify- ditional music,10 or orally transmitted music, or, in ing typologies of coded behaviours to which – in a word, those music practices conventionally col- principle – the multiplicity of the intentional and located out of the range of the so-called Western coordinated interweaving of diff erent sound ges- art music.11 The aim is to think about any kind of tures during a performance relates. Beyond an collective and coordinated music behaviours. Of acoustic analysis, what is crucial is the clear identi- course, the features of the sound outcomes, the fi cation of the expressive behaviours that belong variety of the reference of the performance (e.g. to the multipart music fi eld, and vice-versa, cases written scores, orally transmitted music traces, in which these behaviours are not a part. sound recording, and so on),12 the diversity of the In general, making music means carrying out contextual situations, of the performance’s space, actions whose goal is to achieve expected sound time, purposes, etc. are all features that must be results, which are imagined and idealized before taken into account, since they off er indispensable the performance, recognized as such during it, interpretative elements. For what is important and commented on and discussed by both per- here, it is a question of integrating these elements formers and listeners in the aftermath. Each per- with the pivotal focus on collective and coordi- formance is therefore interpreted as a diff erent nated music behaviour.

outcomes, and in which some conceptual points are clearly manifested. Thus, for instance, for (at least many) Sardinian and Corsican singers with whom I work, who is performing with whom is far more important than what is actually being sung: therefore the quality of the relationships among those who take part in a performance can be pivotal not only for the quality of the sound outcome (the amalgams of the voices, the acoustic harmony of the results, and so on), but also just for the contents of the same performance (what they sing), for its contextual value (when they sing, why) and so on (Macchiarella 2013; 2015a). I shall return to this point. 10 Incidentally, ‘traditional music’ is literally vague and insignifi cant, since in the concreteness of the performance, music is contemporaneity: cf. Lortat-Jacob 2000. 11 Besides, ‘multipart music’ does not correspond to other terms that one can fi nd in our literature with the impossible purpose of identifying some belonging within the boundless fi eld of polyphonic music: such is the case of the term polivocalità, frequently found in Italian (ethno)musicological literature, which is usually adopted with the aim of distinguishing a supposed folk or traditional or oral polyphony from the art / written down polyphony (instead, the English ‘polyvocality’ concerns more the use of multiple voices in a narrative context). This is also the case of ‘multilinear music’ which proposes the vagueness of polyphony in a sort of counterpointistic sense. Another terminological variant is ‘multi-voice’, in order to focus any individual sound emission within an organized collective performance: the term works like a neutral enlargement of the defi nition of polyphony (cf. Pärtlas 2012: 134). And so forth: I defer an in depth study of this terminological issue to a future occasion. 12 In particular “the musical notation which underpins performance events in the Western art tradition is as much (and perhaps more) a text in the Geertzian sense, as something ethnomusicologists might pore over in situ to discover local meanings […] Musical texts become sites through which social relationships are negotiated” (Cottrell 2004: 91). Roughly the same could be said for sound recordings when they are collectively listened to and discussed as traces for a new performance (see Macchiarella 2012a).

13 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal manifestation each time of conducts put into ac- al cooperation, reciprocity, competition, confl ict, tion on the basis of shared rules, known by the and so on (see below). performers (and recognized by the listeners, at This availability implies the acceptance of con- least by those who share the space and time of a straints on one’s own musical production and performance). therefore on one’s own behaviour. Apart from These rules build the scenario within which some particular situations (see later on), anyone individuals and groups accomplish their choices practising any type of multipart music recognizes based on what they know, what they would like to the existence of the limitations of his/her own do and what they try to realize: that is to say, they actions; he/she knows (and experiences during put their own experience in place. At the same performance acts) that one cannot do what one time, the inevitable uncertainty implicit in any wants, but has to negotiate every sound gesture performance questions any acquired knowledge both with someone else, and in reference to col- in the encounter with the constantly changing lectively shared experiences. In other words, it is a situations and conditions of music-making, which special way of articulating the knowledge of oth- requires new forms of experimentation each time, ers and relating to them. e.g. a constant building experience (in the mean- Thus, the fundamental character of the nego- ing of the Latin root of the word experiri). tiation of musical behaviour typifi es multipart These dynamics between the experiences music. Through it, collective music makings becoming from acquired knowledge and the experi- come special collective actions that deserve a ence in the making are implicit in any music mak- peculiar consideration and distinct processes of ing, and, in general, in any performance. Multi- interpretation. It is a feature that has a strong and part musics stand out for the collective character particular iconic value, since it can be considered of these dynamics, that is to say, they are always as representative of aspects of shared cognitive negotiated music manifestations among more in- models inherent to the social life of men and dividuals. women, which are experienced and lived in each To take part in a multipart music means to be performance. This interpretative horizon is the part of a group, accepting its rules and being ac- centre of my proposal regarding the multipart cepted as a member. It is a way of being together: music concept. it implies having to agree to be in close proxim- ity with others, and, at the same time, it sets indi- Soundful bodies in action vidual participation in a collective meeting. Every In a sense, any musical expression might be de- multipart music expression is based, in fact, on fi ned as multipart, since music, by defi nition, is a collectively negotiated music conducts: what one social fact (Blacking 1989), the result of “a special can do and what one eff ectively does during a kind of social action” (Blacking 1995: 223), which performance are the result of mechanisms of mu- somehow includes a form of collective participa- sical exclusivity/inclusivity that are based on one’s tion. Within a large majority of making music con- individual availability to collaborate with others, texts, the (real or presumed) co-presence of more to admit the closeness of others, to share a certain persons means, in any case, the occurrence of time and a certain space, and so on. forms of social communication/interaction, even Negotiation is a key word. Within the multipart though these may diff er according to the specifi c music phenomenon, collective negotiation is in- situations. It is rare that one makes music really eluctable: it is a necessary condition of the actions alone, without someone who is listening. Often, that the music-makers take before, during, and one does it with a social purpose, that is, to re- after the performance. It means that the single hearse something in preparation for a public per- sound gesture can not resonate without listening formance, or to record a track for a disc intended to another one and, above all, that this interacting for an imagined audience during a performance between sound gestures is not based exclusively in a studio (Davidson 2002: 95). on criteria of previously planned sound corre- Anyone can ‘live the music’, both as an active spondences, but is actually born in the hic et nunc participant in a performative act or as a receiver of of the real performance, within scenarios of mutu- music made by others. Here lie the two basic roles

14 Ignazio Macchiarella of music: the performer, engaged in the produc- musical experiences, in the ability of knowing tion of organized sounds, and the listener who how to react to develop a real performance, and receives and interprets these sounds. These two so on (Stone 1982). In the case of multipart music, roles are not always clearly distinguished or dis- this unavoidable component of freedom does not tinguishable: they both necessarily infl uence each contradict (because it can not) the necessary ac- other by interacting with one another in diff erent ceptance of the constraints on one’s own music ways depending on the circumstances.13 In this behaviour. Rather, this limited freedom enlarges wide sense, dealing with the interaction between the level of negotiation, allowing its development the parts (e.g. roles) of performer and listener towards unpredictable and unlimited horizons means to deal, in general, with music as a social that are able to reveal much both about the in- experience (Turino 2008). This issue goes far be- dividuality of those who are making music and yond the phenomenon that I intend to consider also about the specifi c music scenarios. Thus, it is here: a phenomenon that, in essence, concerns a question of freedom which is conditioned twice, the generative processes of sound production, both by the rules of the performance pattern and and therefore the general role of the performer. by the necessary collective negotiating between Thus I shall focus on the side of the performer, the real performers. In this way, every multipart without minimizing the infl uence exerted by the music performance ends up off ering, in principle, listener, but deferring any systematic study of the new elements concerning the interaction of spe- issue to a future work. cifi c individual identities, the representation and Far from being an anodyne and faithful repro- the questioning of interpersonal relationships, ducer of sounds (something that is actually im- the mechanisms of mutual musical communica- possible due to the ephemeral nature of sound), tion, and so on (Macchiarella 2013). every participant in the performance act is what he/she does, in other words, he/she coincides with the vocal and/or instrumental sound he/she pro- Challenges and collaboration between duces. As such, every participant in a performance individuals is a soundful body who manifests his/her singular The basic condition for multipart music is the co- musicality more or less evidently and consciously, presence, at least, of two people who intention- according to the shared music mechanism, to the ally take part in a sound emission. This condition circumstances and the purposes of the perfor- simply does not happen by itself and, at least cus- mance, on the basis of his/her music skills, back- tomarily, is not random. In fact, it needs specifi c ground, taste, preferences, and so forth. Willingly requirements and procedures of interactions and or unwillingly, consciously or not, everyone puts coordination between individuals and groups. something of him/herself into his/her sound pro- In such a perspective, the defi nition of multipart duction; conversely, every performance can be music, ipso facto, does not lead to the musical ex- interpreted as an encounter and interaction be- pressions made by one individual, that is to say, tween individual musicalities. Within the extent those consisting of only one sound gesture. As of the rules and the resources of the performative is evident, these expressions lack the element device, any music maker shows a specifi c sonic characterizing the phenomenon at issue here, signature, a musical personality, an inventiveness namely the negotiation of music between two of his/her own, and so on. or more people. During a performance by one The actual music making is therefore an act individual, the music maker is alone with him/ that includes more or less wide margins of music herself. Although he/she can interact with his/her freedom, rooted in the patterns of accepted and audience or may have discussed his/her musical shared behaviours, in the situation in which the choices before and/or after the performance, he/ performance occurs, in the memory of previous she is the sole protagonist and responsible for the

13 Cf. the useful distinction proposed by Thomas Turino (2008: 23–60) between participatory performance – in which there is a non performer-audience distinction, “only participant and potential participant performing diff erent roles” and presentational performance – in which one group of people “prepares and provides music for another group, the audience, who do not participate in making the music”.

15 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal real sound outcome, which manifests itself like a socialization, interaction, and collective co-partic- monologue with no inter-action and which is per- ipation of multipart music, so I shall not take in haps exclusive if not self-centered. account of them here. This kind of exclusion, therefore, concerns any However, within certain scenarios of social solo performance beyond the sonic result ob- life (or at least, within specifi c performance situ- tained: namely, both in the case of true monodies ations), making music alone produces peculiar (in which the sound emission is constituted by a practices that show forms of inter-individual col- single line of singing or by one monophonic in- laboration, characterized by coordinate alternat- strument with no accompaniment) and in the ing between several performers: strictly speaking, case in which a performer plays a polyphonic these practices can be understood in the concept instrument, or again when a performer sings of multipart music. accompanying him/herself with any kind of in- For instance there are the orally transmitted strument (both polyphonic or monodic). As one practices based on typologies of music-poetical can well imagine, there are numerous examples duels between two or more individuals, such as which go from a minister singing a liturgical chant the so-called Ottava rima (Eighth rhyme). Spread to a pianist playing a sonata, from a woman sing- throughout Tuscany and Central Italy, the Ottava ing a lullaby to a folk singer who accompanies his rima consists of regulated matches during which singing on the guitar, and so on: in these cases we two or three poets, with no accompaniment, take have a unique music maker who is responsible for turns performing octaves of hendecasyllables the sounds, who (almost) exclusively has the privi- that deal with topics chosen on the spur of the lege of his/her choices in the here and now of the moment by the listeners or other poets. Without performance. going into the details of this performance prac- Let me point out again that this matter con- tice (see Agamennone 2009), every duel is a clear- cerns the occasion of the performance and not ly ritualized event whose timing is organized by what is being performed and/or the type of mu- the form of poetical meter: every performer sings sical instruments being played. Therefore, the an octave when it is his/her turn and has (more or same liturgical song might be sung by many less) the same time both to demonstrate his/her voices (that is, by several people), and in this case capabilities as far as poetic quality is concerned14 it should enter the sphere of observation of mul- and to compete with the other participants. On tipart music, whilst a piano sonata can be tran- the basis of the shared rules, the Ottava rima ends scribed for a duo, trio or more instruments, and up being a collective-coordinated music-making, so on. From a diff erent point of view, pianists (and albeit alternately, through which some individu- other polyphonic instrument players) often play als negotiate their status within the tradition, in diff erently composed music groups, interacting which (paraphrasing Slobin 1993) we can call the both with human voices and other instruments, micro-music world of the Ottava, made up of all within performance situations which fully belong the poets and their audience and, more in gener- to the multipart music phenomenon. al, by all the people of the regions who are some- To sing/play alone refers to a subjective di- how involved therein. If we consider the heated mension of music expression (and possibly of so- mechanisms of rivalry (although they come about called talent) which can be interpreted diff erently within a generally friendly atmosphere), the Ot- depending on the situation: the pleasure of being tava rima can be represented as a reverence of by yourself, the diffi culty (or unwillingness) to col- certain individuals’ capabilities (in particular the laborate with others, the exaltation of absolute idea of a gift from nature that must be nurtured/ musical identities within social scenarios in which cherished) whose basis lies in some aspects of the the values of individuality are fundamental, since conceptual framework of the region’s peasant they are emphasized in the perspective of multi- culture, which is continuously actualized in the ple juxtaposed selves, and so on. In any case, they scenarios of the contemporary social life of some are extraneous perspectives to the processes of groups of people (Agamennone 2009).

14 This includes both the contents and the value of extemporaneous poetic production and the properties of the performance act on the whole (the pertinence of the vocal emission, proxemics, gestuality, etc.).

16 Ignazio Macchiarella

Musical practices of this type can be found none, Facci, Giannattasio 1996; Arom et al. 2005). elsewhere and also include other forms of impro- Rather, the sound outcomes of this performance vised poetry around the world. The idea of a chal- pattern are often not considered music in the lenge, rivalry and comparison between individual full meaning of the term (Ayats 2002), such is the performers, which is organized and coordinated case of the slogans of demonstrating protesters, in a frame of multipart alternation, belongs to or those of chanting football fans, or other analo- many cultures, even though it is often diff erently gous expressions belonging to our common so- articulated. One only needs to recall the great va- cial experience. riety of music contests (including piano, guitar, At the same time, the performative principle and other polyphonic instrument competitions) per se would appear to be beyond the fi eld of in which soloists, possibly in the presence of pan- multipart music studies since, seeing that all the els of experts, compete for awards, and so on. This participants make the same gesture, it lacks the competition “acts as a mechanism for elite musi- basic idea of interaction/negotiation between cians to fi ll Their Own ranks, thereby producing individuals. But this is only in theory, because, in a distinction between consecrated performers actual fact, the issue is far more complex than it (professionals) and lesser musicians (‘amateurs’ is usually represented. Moreover, really signifi cant in the derogatory sense)” (McCormick 2009: 6) cases can be discovered by studying specifi c ex- based on the romantic notion of the rarity and examples within the endless sets of music practices clusivity of musical talent, at odds with the idea of arising from the performance pattern. making music together. This is particularly true when we consider that the requested synchronization of collective mak- Many people who make one identity – but ing music in unison is anything but natural (or not always … granted, or hackneyed). As a minimum, it requires One of the world’s most popular performance that the performers check (with relative care) their patterns seems to be collective singing (or play- emissions and the ones of the other participants ing a monodic instrument) in order to achieve (or in the performance. Small lags, fortuitous over- try to achieve) the same sound emission. Appar- lapping among sounds, uncertainty in tuning and ently easy, it can breathe life into a virtually un- rhythmic stressing, approximation of synchroni- limited variety of music expressions, performance zation, etc. are quite common. Inter alia, studies contexts, conveyed meanings, etc. of experimental acoustics have demonstrated Such a pattern is usually a highly inclusive per- that sounds perceived as simultaneous (even in formative one, that is to say, it is able to foster an the presence of an external reference such as, for extremely high collective participation by means example, a choir director or orchestra) are never of a minimal individual engagement: for those actually perfectly synchronized, since a really who take part in this kind of musical actions, in perfect synchronization does not exist in reality brief, it is to do what the other does, overcoming (Rasch 1988). Indeed, in some cases, the creation one’s personality/individuality with the aim of of perfect unison makes conducting music diffi - constructing a sort of collective identity. In a cer- cult, as it requires extreme precision and rhythmic tain sense, it is a making music that is diametri- coordination (see the case concerning the perfor- cally opposed to the soloistic one I mentioned mance of chamber music studied by Giura Longo above. Besides, in this case, the act of the collec- 2015: 127–131).15 tive synchronization is more important than the More in general, the apparent simplicity of content of the performance. the performance pattern does not promote (and As a rule, this kind of pattern is regarded as be- has not promoted) the carrying out of in-depth ing outside polyphony, on account of the lack of (ethno)musicological research. Contributions musical parts identifi able by listening (Agamen- mostly concern the social value of the performa-

15 Furthermore, other ideas and practices of unison are found in diff erent cultures: for instance, within the vast literature on the music from the Indian continent, see Napier 2006 who deals with an idea of ‘fl exible unison’ that is “thought as a continuum way of hearing” (Napier 2006: 104); cf. also Keil 1994.

17 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal tive act.16 In particular, musical mechanisms have formance, but usually the fi gure who is somewhat seldom been the explicit focus of examination – more charismatic, independently of his/her vocal albeit with certain very relevant exceptions such quality.17 The performance, thus, refl ects group as Ayats 1997 and 2002. dynamics and typically reiterates and reinforces The presence of one or more individualities them, but special performance acts may also chal- that assume (or are delegated to play) a pivotal lenge consolidated roles.18 role in the performance is a recurring element. As a rule, it is the singer(s) or instrument player(s) (More or less) Consciously avoided who has (or have) the task of starting the perfor- synchronism mance, and whose sound gesture is taken as a ref- As I mentioned previously, within many music erence by the remaining participants. This is the practices the act of collective synchronization case of the so-called megaphonist who, thanks to at the unison of individual sound gestures is the a simple portable speaker, leads the scanning of reason for the performances. Indeed, the possible slogans during street protests with the purpose of lack of this synchronization can have a negative synchronizing an indefi nite number of individual impact and symbolically represent a group’s lack sound gestures in order to create a unifi ed group of unity. However, many other music practices action against the other, intended as the State, propose diff erent interpretations of the sense of the powers that be, another group, and so on synchronicity, since, while they are essentially piv- (Ayats 2002). Selected by virtue of his charisma, oted on the collective performance of the same the megaphonist has the task of animating the individual sound gesture, they do not intention- group, of continuously varying the slogans, possi- ally aim to achieve a shared unison. bly proposing new ones, and of reviving the per- This is the limitless fi eld of music practices formance (changing, for example, the dynamics, which, in the perspective of the studies on sound the intensity of the sound volume, and so on). His outcomes, fall under the defi nition of heteroph- proposals are usually accepted by the group, but ony (cf. Arom et al. 2005): the term is actually situations of mutual misunderstanding can bring very generic, not least because it concerns a phe- his role and prestige within the group into ques- nomenon that is seen as a border area between tion. monophony and polyphony, and which, “being Accordingly, this role-leader involves forms of intrinsically connected with oral and collective collective negotiation that are usually not based music creation, has no direct analogies in Western on music-aesthetic criteria, but on other aspects written music” (Pärtlas 2012: 129).19 of a group’s values and hierarchies: that is to say, As regards the present discussion, these are it is not the person with the most aesthetically mechanisms of behavioural synchronizations de- beautiful voice in the group who guides the per- liberately ‘other’ than our idea of homorhythm

16 Relevant contributions, above all on collective singing, come from the sociological literature written about social movements: see for instance Bensimon 2012. 17 This is true and has even more relevance in the cases of overlapping between distinctive sound gestures: for instance “[i]n a performance in Borsh the mayor of the village sung the marrës (fi rst voice) despite his limited abilities as singer. He thereby intended to present and make audible his superior social role both to the foreign visitor and to members of his own community” (Pistrick 2012: 191). 18 In actual fact, research on specifi c music scenarios has demonstrated how, especially during special contextual occasions, the acquired roles of guiding the collective singing can be questioned through the real performance: for instance, this occurs within the music practice of the singing of the rosary in several parts of Sardinia (see Merici 2014). In a diff erent scenario, something similar happens within the extremely synchronized collective singing of football fans: in Cagliari, the group of fans called the Sconvolts contemplates hierarchies between some capo-cori (choir-heads) (who lead the performance), their assistants and some coristi d’appoggio (supporting choristers): the individuals who are charged with these roles have a clear place on the terraces of the stadium, so that anyone in the know can deduce the status of the relationship within the fans’ leader group. Each individual is responsible for the quality of synchronization of his pertaining sector and pays the consequences if something does not go well, so that he is encouraged to have good relations with the people under his control (Garzia 2009). 19 A large and eff ective discussion on the term ‘heterophony’ is also in Pärtlas 2012; cf. also Napier 2006: 89–93. See also the perspective of Bouët 2012, Ferran 2012.

18 Ignazio Macchiarella

(or homo/monophony), which manifest a diff er- cluding more or less conscious micro-variations ent nature at a conceptual level, depending on of the pattern) to underline specifi c occurrences specifi c performative practices (and the relative in their music wanderings, such as an encounter cultural framework).20 Within the very large and with a friend with whom they interact for a while rich bibliography, diverse contributions about (for instance, gradually increasing the speed of signifi cant case studies have underlined the lack the pattern, or performing it in a back-and-forth of collective coordination, so that any participant way, or carrying out a few rhythmic variations, performs (or seems to perform) his/her sound etc.). An otherwise large concentration of drum- gesture addressing him/herself, which gives rise mers in one place stimulates enterprising indi- to an eff ect of simultaneity of solos in the same viduals to make ‘rhythmic jokes’ (for instance, time and space. Other works emphasize the exist- stressing the backbeat of the pattern, or varying ence of intentionality (or, on the contrary, the lack its agogic, etc.). Some well-known characters (in- of intentionality) in the vertical dimension – but, cluding ones specialized in traditional music mak- of course, the boundary between intentionality ing) continuously diff erentiate themselves from and un-intentionality could be almost ephemeral the others by making use of special devices in and is impossible to fi x objectively. Moving the fo- their sound gestures, and so on: in short, there is a cus towards the analysis of the musical behaviours vast range of (mostly conscious) individual sound which are at the origin of the (seemingly chaotic) gestures, which are substantially due to real inter- resounding of this sound intertwining could off er actions between real men and women, according relevant contributions. to their diff erent intentionalities, purposes, etc. In my limited experience of such a type of mu- The whole event always respects the basic shared sic making, there is a special case of collective rhythmic pattern – otherwise, the sound gestures performance pivoted on the same sound gesture would not be allowed. The general result is a sort that evidently oscillates between both inten- of organized Carnival music anarchism which is tional and unintentional synchronization: namely, in contrast with the severity of the music making the so-called Jovia ‘e lardajola (corresponding to that comes about during the rest of the year, and Maundy Thursday), within the Carnival festa in the which, above all, provides an enjoyable frame for Sardinian village of Gavoi. On this day, the sa sortil- conducting personal relationships.22 Once again, la ‘s sos tumbarinos (the coming out of the drums) in a case of music densities like this one, I believe takes place: hundreds of men and women, organ- that the multipart music approach to human be- ized in fl exible groups, make their way around the haviours and interpersonal negotiations is able to streets of the village, all playing drums with the give innovative interpretative elements. same sonic gesture, which is actually made up of a very schematic rhythmic pattern that allows Women, men and sound gestures the greatest collective participation. Normally, Within the general phenomenon of multipart mu- the groups try to achieve full synchronization, sic a substantial bi-polarization can be identifi ed although clearly unintentional approximations between, on the one hand, music practices con- are not infrequent both within each group (espe- sisting of interlocking between individual sound cially, when it contains young players or people gestures, i.e. each constitutive sound gesture is from other villages) and between the groups.21 performed by one voice or by one instrument;23 At other moments, individual drummers clearly and, on the other, music practices in which each perform intentional lacks of synchronization (in- distinct and perceptible aural component is real-

20 Inter alia, see the cases of Berber ahidous (Lortat-Jacob 1980: 29-43) or the Baptist congregational lining out (Titon 2006: 319–322). 21 In fact, any inhabitant of the village can invite his/her friends from other villages to join in the drum performance: this symbolically represents the subversive spirit of Carnival, since, in ordinary times, every traditional music expression is exclusively reserved for the villagers (cf. Macchiarella 2012b). 22 The village’s soundscape in these days is enriched by the sound of other instrumental groups, including the pipaiolu (a kind of cane fl ute), triangles, and other drums (possibly with the addition of diatonic accordions): these groups also wander around the village, often meeting and interweaving with sos tamburinos. Unfortunately, an in-depth study on this music practice is lacking: see its description in Marras 2012: 46–48.

19 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal ized by two or more persons who synchronically or big orchestras)25 collective identities. The latter sing (or play) the same sound gesture (or try to do come into play with other analogous identities ac- so), thereby giving less (or no) relevance to their cording to the mechanisms of intentional collec- single individualities as performers. This basic dis- tive synchronization mentioned before (including tinction has never been given due consideration possible unintended approximations, although in studies on polyphony which consider sound the special attention needed to achieve unison outcomes in terms of texture. In actual fact, it is assumed by those who are synchronized with does assume a crucial importance within multi- each other, especially in the cases of ensemble part music approaches and has a signifi cant im- performances led by a conductor). pact on the real results of a performance, beyond This diff erent individual involvement contains what is permitted by the mechanisms of musical various implications: fi rstly, of course, a diff erent combination/superposition. value is assigned to the individual performance There is no clear hiatus between the two poles engagement. As summed up by several Sardinian and one can fi nd a continuum of intermediate pos- singers of orally transmitted multipart practices, sibilities, including patterns where one or more it is a matter of responsibility. For instance, Mario individual sound gestures are combined with Carboni, the contra of the a cuncordu quartet from aural components performed in unison by more Bortigali (cf. Macchiarella 2015a: 47) states than one individual. Furthermore, depending on when one of us fa una voce [makes a voice, i.e. the scenario, the same multipart pattern could takes part in the a tenore / cuncordu singing] also be performed by either an individual or a col- and he makes a mistake, then you suddenly lectively synchronized rendition: this variability understand that he is wrong, that he is respon- gives meaning and value to the performative act sible for the mistake and consequently for a with specifi c social contexts, both in participatory bad performance; instead, when one sings in and presentational performances (see the case in a choir a sa nuoresa [polyphonic choirs with Macchiarella 2009: 52–60).24 a conductor, whose repertory is made up of At the fi rst pole lie music expressions in which written harmonizations of Sardinian tradition- the contribution of each performer (that is to say al tunes], if he is wrong how can you become his/her sound gestures and through these his/her aware of it? When we sing [in four voices] we music identity) is evident. Together with the vo- assume our own responsibility for what we do; cal/instrumental amalgam, each individual contri- the others do not do this.26 bution is (more or less) immediately perceptible by listening and has a basilar value since it directly Another singer, Gianluca Beccu, member of characterizes and qualifi es the musical image of a an a cuncordu quartet from Santulussurgiu em- performance. At the other extreme, the individual phasizes the matter and points out that singing performers lose (or tend to lose) their individual- in four voices off ers the possibility to customize ity and become part of a kind of diff erent micro the musical emission so that, if a singer is able to (or, sometimes, macro, in the cases of large choirs “do something nice with his voice” these abilities

23 At the moment I consider the use of monophonic or polyphonic instruments as equivalent, identifying the single personality of the player in a distinctive participation towards a combined emission: I shall deal with the matter in the near future. 24 In presentational contexts (for instance on the stages of the world music stream), performances of multipart patterns characterized by individual sound gestures often lose their fundamental unpredictable character, as they are very predictable concert music (Lortat-Jacob 2000) on account of the redoubled rendition of every aural component. The specifi c infl uence of auditory feedback on multipart music performance is a very interesting issue for future research (cf. also Turino 2008: 23–60). 25 For instance, the great Soviet orchestras of the past were made up of hundreds of instruments synchronized in unison, immediately representing an idea of cultural homogeneity (During 2005: 156–159). 26 This could determine a sort of performance anxiety (the so-called stage fright) which infl uences the musical outcome. This anxiety has a double value in multipart music because any mistake also aff ects the collective performance, that is to say, the eff orts of the other participants. It “is a common problem among both amateur and professional musicians. It affl icts individuals who are generally prone to anxiety, particularly in situations of public exposure and competitive scrutiny, and so is best understood as a form of social phobia (a fear of humiliation).” (Wilson, Roland 2002: 47).

20 Ignazio Macchiarella are recognized and appreciated by the listeners, centre of attention are banned (for instance, if whereas this cannot happen when singing in a someone sings at a high volume or embellishes choir (Macchiarella 2015b). their singing/playing too much). Within the gal- It is evident that performing music in a situa- axy of the musical mechanisms between the two tion oriented towards interlocking between in- extremes, blends of both individual and collec- dividual sound gestures provides a (relatively) tively synchronized sound gestures lead to mech- greater music freedom than can be off ered by the anisms symbolizing rivalries between individuals situation of the overlapping of collective synchro- and groups within a society (see, for instance, the nizations. This relative freedom works eff ectively two diff erent competitive systems of the multi- when singing/playing in small groups, which of- part singing analysed respectively in Sassu 1978; fer the best possibility for integrating the close at- Castéret 2012). tention of individuality with amalgams with other ones. These are very representative situations of Iconic values multipart music practice because there is a real Another relevant issue for the conceptualization and conscious interaction-negotiation between of multipart music concerns the complex rela- diff erent soundful bodies. The real sound over- tions between sound gestures, i.e. musical roles lappings have an immediate representative value within the mechanism of musical overlapping/ since they can be read as depictions of both inter- interaction: this has a crucial signifi cance for both individual and collective relationships. At every the behavioural aspects and the related mean- performance these relationships are reshaped, re- ings. In short, depending on the diff erent musi- inforced or questioned, since the performers have cal scenarios and local practices, not all the per- the opportunity to present challenges, to engage formance roles are considered as being of equal in private rivalry or other kinds of relationships, importance. There are essential or main roles, sec- etc. (Lortat-Jacob 1996, 2011; Macchiarella 2013, ond leads or complementary roles, inessential or 2015a). Thus, the performance constitutes very subordinate ones, and so on. One could probably complex and unpredictable performance mecha- epitomize what is known about the issue as lying nisms which have their own relevance: any sound along a continuum, where at one end there is a gesture is the result of conscious choices made clear distinction between a leader role and one by the particular singers in relation to the real or more accompanying roles, while at the other, circumstances of the given performance, which, we fi nd the co-presence of two or more equiva- above all, means the identities of the other sing- lent music roles. The diff erent relevance of the ers taking part in the music-making and the lis- roles may be interpreted as the projection of the teners to whom the performance is addressed.27 organizational patterns of the society expressing On the contrary, performances constituted by them, following John Blacking’s concept of music overlapping between collective synchronizations “understood as expressions of cognitive process- customarily give an image of overall harmony. es that may be observed to operate in the forma- They are often a consequence of preceding co- tion of other structures” (Blacking 1974: 24).29 ordinated operations (including formalized re- On the one hand, many multipart music prac- hearsals) during which musical mechanisms are tices are pivoted on a main role, usually per- experienced. Individual comparisons, confl icts or formed by one individual (even though collec- rivalry are not revealed in the performance (they tively synchronized leader roles are not rare). Of are possibly encountered during the preceding course, a solo singer with an instrumental accom- meetings),28 while individual desires to be the paniment constitutes the most common prac-

27 “The individual singer […] is valued both for his voice and for his behaviour. At any rate singing is but the acoustical form of a moral quality” (Lortat-Jacob 2011: 30). 28 See the typical case of confl ict/comparison among people within and between the sections of an amateur choir belonging to the so-called Alpine tradition, in Macchiarella 2004. 29 This kind of representation must not induce a mechanical connection between certain music features and (abstract) social models. In actual fact, there are some aspects of music organization (such as the idea of hierarchy) that in the awareness of the performers (and their listeners) refer to a common way ‘to think the world and life’ which is “somehow fi tting with the general conceptual framework with which one is familiar” (Patel 2008: 326).

21 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal tice, of which there is an indefi nite and almost ent separate aural components, i.e. with sound illimitable variability. Usually, the leader role of- gestures that manifest intentional distinctive (and fers someone the opportunity to widely express creative!) participation. his/her musical individuality, with the feeling of Even the apparently simplest accompanying putting something of him/herself into the perfor- sound gesture – such as a single drone on one mance: in fact, the role has a (more or less) large sustained pitch – implies music choices: for in- margin of variation, without however ignoring stance, as far as the timbre within a possible scale the other roles. In some way, a singer/player who of nuances is selected or admitted into a music usually performs a leader role in multipart music scenario. Agreeing to perform an accompanying enjoys special consideration and a good reputa- part involves both accepting a hierarchical idea tion within the ordinary social relationships of of music and the acknowledgement of a leader’s his/her group. Leading a multipart performance role ascribed to somebody else. Through music means leading a group of people in a collective making, culturally situated hierarchies are some- and coordinated action and, consequently, not all how negotiated and performed. the members of a group are capable (or consid- Other multipart music mechanisms sketch out ered capable) of carrying out this task. Indeed, a an idea of a kind of ‘music democracy’, which is kind of leadership quality is required to maintain organized in equipollent parts dialoguing among the musical group (and must be recognized by themselves, i.e. in sound identities that interact all the performers), and this attitude concerning reciprocally. Of course, this equipollence is not interpersonal relations is confi rmed and depicted a matter of quantity of notes, but concerns the by the music performance.30 The other roles are quality of intentionality and participation in the essentially subordinated to the leader’s musical music making. For instance, this is chiefl y por- choices but actively contribute to the entire music trayed by the common idea of a string quartet result. According to the specifi c performative pat- (mainly a kind of quartet writing emblematized tern, music creativities may occur in any of these by the Beethovenian ones) as an erudite conver- parts, often including a large component of fl ex- sation between four equal players. In a sense the ibility and adaptability. quartet seems to have the ideal characteristic of This is particularly evident in so-called homo- distributing the role and the task, implying a basic phonic music, i.e. the common pattern of the cur- interdependence (Murnighan, Conlon 1991). rent mainstream of popular music, conceived as Other widely participated orally transmitted a single melody with accompaniment (or back- multipart musics are pivoted on the iteration of ing) by functional chords, according to general contrasting rhythmic patterns occurring simul- Western harmonic principles. This melody-ac- taneously and through which relations among companiment dualism is the common basis for social groups are represented (see for instance constructing musical meaning: the foreground/ Locke 1992, or Agawu 1995). Interactions between background relationships propose a clear distinc- (more or less) equivalent roles could determine tion between the individual and the rest of the very exclusive typologies of music making. They social reality that has immediate iconic contents are normally performed within particular cultural referring to social experiences.31 For our purpos- contexts by very specialized groups which have es, however, the notion of homophony is far too been trained through a peculiar iter of musical ap- reductionist and deterministic: notwithstanding prenticeship, including the acceptance of unwrit- the relatively rigorous musical constraints, per- ten rules of social life settled by local customs. formances of single melodies accompanied by Every singer aims to sign his performance by functional chords could be articulated in diff er- means of peculiar vocal elements (often minimal

30 As observed before, there are music scenarios pivoted on the predominance of a leader part where personal charismatic qualities are determinant for the guidance of both the performance and the music group, beyond any musical endowments: for instance, in a real multipart music scenario, see the complex dynamics within the instrumental ensembles analysed in Bouët, Lortat-Jacob, Radulescu 2002). 31 In actual fact, the notion of homophonic music has no clearly defi ned boundaries and works especially well in the sphere of tonal harmony.

22 Ignazio Macchiarella expressive nuances) and this kind of signature is cepting the cultural frameworks concerning the recognized and discussed (appreciated or criti- interaction/overlapping of diff erent music roles cized) by both the other singers and the special- and agreeing to contribute by playing one of ized listeners. Through conscious and minutely these performing roles. Through the iconic value controlled vocal emissions, the quality of the per- of multipart music making, these roles are contin- formance is the quality of interaction between uously acted, negotiated, and even questioned. unique musical personalities: performances rep- The last two polarizations concerning the real resent and develop the intensity of the relations actualization of sound gestures and their over- among the participants, including very personal lapping, I believe, represent useful operational challenges and rivalry (see for instance, Lortat- agendas for the development of the approaches Jacob 1996; Macchiarella 2009). to multipart music. Widening these approaches passes through both the proper scrutiny of the Still, many things to do … literature and specifi c research activities. For the Multipart music in a sense represents and puts moment, I rest my case, in the hope that the previ- into question the world of music makers, a world ous notes might prove interesting for the discus- constituted with other thoughts and individual sion within the ICTM Study Group on Multipart doings together. Agreeing to take part in the per- Music. formance of a multipart music implies both ac-

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Singing in company. – European August 2015). Voices II. Cultural Listening and Local Discourse in Multipart Cottrell, Stephen 2004. Professional Music-Making in Singing Traditions in Europe. Schriften zur Volksmusik 23, ed. London. Ethnography and Experience. SOAS musicology Ardian Ahmedaja, Wien/Köln/Weimar: Böhlau, pp. 23–35. series, Aldershot: Ashgate. Macchiarella, Ignazio 2004. La pratica corale amatoriale Davidson, Jane 2002. Developing the ability to perform. nel Trentino. – Professione: musicista. Ed. Rossana Dalmonte, – Musical Performance. A Guide to Understanding. Ed. John Carlo Nardi, Trento: U.C.T., pp. 96–122. Rink, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 89–101. Macchiarella, Ignazio 2009. Cantare a cuncordu. Uno studio During, Jean 2005. Power, Authority and Music in the a più voci. Udine: Nota. Cultures of Inner Asia. – Ethnomusicology Forum 14/2, pp. Macchiarella, Ignazio 2012a. Theorizing on Multipart 143–164. Music Making. – Multipart Music: A Specifi c Mode of Musical Thinking, Expressive Behaviour and Sound. Ed. Ignazio Ferran, Hugo 2012. The concepts of “part” and “multipart Macchiarella, Udine: Nota, pp. 7–22. music” for the Maale of southern Ethiopia. – Multipart Music: A Specifi c Mode of Musical Thinking, Expressive Behaviour and Macchiarella, Ignazio 2012b. Current Creativities in Sound. Ed. Ignazio Macchiarella, Udine: Nota, pp. 105–128. Multipart Singing Practice. – Trans. Revista Transcultural de Música 16 / Trans. Transcultural Music Review 16, (14 August 2015). Tenzer, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 163–204. Macchiarella, Ignazio 2013. Secondary Orality and Garzia, Daniele 2009. Gli sconvolts. Modi di organizzazione e Creativity Processes in Multipart Singing. – Local and Global comunicazione nel tifo calcistico a Cagliari. Bachelor’s Thesis, Understandings of Creativities: Multipart Music Making University of Cagliari. and the Construction of Ideas, Contexts and Contents. Ed. Giura Longo, Alessandra 2015. Communication et Interaction Ardian Ahmedaja, EBL-Schweitzer, Newcastle upon Tyne: dans la Musique de Chambre. L’exemple de l’œuvre ouverte Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 24–41. dans la musique contemporaine anglo-saxonne. Thèse de Macchiarella, Ignazio 2014. Exploring Micro-worlds of Doctorate, Université d’Evry-Val-d’Essonne. Music Meanings. – El oído pensante 2/1, Aldershot/Burlington: Ashgate. (14 August 2015).

24 Ignazio Macchiarella

Macchiarella, Ignazio 2015a. Le tante musiche praticate a Pistrick, Eckehard 2012. A Fading Musical Memory? Bortigali. – Bortigali un paese e le sue pratiche musicali. Ed. National Identity Construction in Lab Epic Songs. – Albania: Ignazio Macchiarella, Sebastiano Pilosu, ass. Sas Enas (a cura Family, Society and Culture in the 20th Century. Eds. Andreas di), Udine: Nota, pp. 14–71. Hemming, Gentiana Kera, Enriketa Pandelejmoni, Studies Macchiarella, Ignazio 2015b. For those who have ears to on South East Europe 9, Münster et al.: LIT, pp. 187–202. hear. Individual signatures in Sardinian Multipart Singing. Rasch, Rudolph 1988. Timing and synchronization in – Multipart Music. Individuals and Educated Musicians in ensemble performance. – Generative processes in music. Ed. Traditional Practices. Eds. Pál Richter, Lujza Tari, Budapest: John Sloboda, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Institute of Musicology, pp. 1–20. Sassu, Pietro 1978. Canti della comunità di Premana. – Marras, Marcello 2012. Gli strumenti. – Enciclopedia della Mondo popolare in Lombardia 4. Como e il suo territorio. Ed. musica sarda. Vol 12, ed. Francesco Casu, Marco Lutzu, Roberto Leydi, Glauco Sanga, Milano: Silvana, pp. 273–294. Cagliari: L’Unione Sarda, pp. 1–191. Slobin, Mark 1993. Subcultural Sounds: Micromusics of the McCormick, Lisa 2009. Higher, Faster, Louder: West. Middletown CT / Hanover: Wesleyan University Press. Representations of the International Music Competition. – Stobart, Henry (ed.) 2008. The New (Ethno)musicologies. Cultural Sociology 3/1, pp. 5–30. Europea: Ethnomusicologies and Modernities 8, Lanham/ Merici, Angela 2014. Pratiche musicali devozionali a Toronto/Plymouth: Scarecrows Press. Lunamatrona: Il Rosario cantato e s’arrapicu. Bachelor’s Stone, Ruth M. 1982. Let the Inside be Sweet: Interpretation Thesis, Conservatory of Music of Cagliari. of Music Event Among the Kpelle of Liberia. Bloomington: Murnighan, J. Keith, Donald E. Conlon 1991. The Dynamics Indiana University Press. of Intense Work Groups: A study of British String Quartets. – Tenzer, Michael (ed.) 2006. Analytical Studies in World Music. Administrative Science Quarterly 36/2, pp. 165–186. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Napier, John 2006. A ‘Failed’ Unison or Conscious Titon, Jeff Todd 2006. “Tuned Up with the Grace of God”: Diff erentiation: The Notion of ‘Heterophony’ in North Indian Music and Experience among Old Regular Baptists. – Music Vocal Performance. – International Review of the Aesthetics in American Religious Experience. Eds. Philip V. Bohlman et al., and Sociology of Music 37/1, pp. 85–108. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 311–344. Pärtlas, Žanna 2012. Musical thinking and sonic realization Turino, Thomas 2008. Music as Social Life. The Politics of in vocal heterophony. The case of the wedding songs of the Participation. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Russian-Belarusian Borderland tradition. – Multipart Music: Press. A Specifi c Mode of Musical Thinking, Expressive Behaviour and Wilson, Glenn D., David Roland 2002. Performance Anxiety. Sound. Ed. Ignazio Macchiarella, Udine: Nota, pp. 129–142. – The Science and Psychology of Music Performance. Creative Patel, Aniruddh D. 2008. Music, Language, and the Brain. Strategies for Teaching and Learning. Eds. Richard Parncutt, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gary McPherson, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 47–63.

25 Multipart Music as a Conceptual Tool. A Proposal

Mõiste multipart music kui kontseptuaalne vahend. Mõned ettepanekud

Ignazio Macchiarella (tõlkinud Žanna Pärtlas)

Terminit multipart music1 hakati kasutama kirjanduses võrdlemisi hiljuti (vt. Ardian Ahmedaja artiklit käesolevas kogumikus). Sõna-sõnalt ei tähenda multipart music midagi muud kui eri komponentide ül- dist kooseksisteerimist „muusika sees” ilma täpse piiritluseta, millise kooseksisteerimisega on tegemist. Tegelikult ei lähtugi otsus termini multipart music eelistamise kasuks selle otsesest tähendusest. Pigem tuleneb see asjaolust, et tegemist on küllaltki uue terminiga, mis on lisatähendustega vähem laetud kui „polüfoonia”, ja seega on tema eeliseks vabadus konnotatsioonide kooormast. Pealegi on termini multipart music eeliseks asjaolu, et ta sisaldab sõna part (‘osa’, ‘partii’), mida võib lisaks tavalisele tähen- dusele Lääne muusikalise grammatika kontekstis tõlgendada teatraalses mõttes kui „osa”, „rolli”, nihu- tades seega tähelepanu keskpunkti muusikategemise akti olemusele, mis on minu artikli keskne teema. Lühidalt öeldes sobib termin multipart music paremini osutamaks erilisele lähenemisviisile, mida kasutatakse koordineeritud ja organiseeritud musitseerimise uurimises; lähenemisele, mida meie uurimisrühm (Study Group on Multipart Music of the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM)) on üritanud arendada asutamisest alates. Seal, kus sõna part kasutatakse osa ehk rolli tähenduses, saab mõiste multipart music tegelikult vaid tõsta esile kohtumise „materiaalsust”, mis on vajalik igasuguse kollektiivse ja koordineeritud musitseerimise asetleidmiseks. Sellest järeldub, et uurimise keskpunktiks tõuseb esituskäitumine [performance behaviour], mis tekitab kuulmisel eristatavaid põimuvaid helisid. Need on inimeste reaalsed organiseeritud kollektiivsed tegevused, mis viiakse rambivalgusesse. Neid võib interpreteerida kui koordinatsiooni eri heližestide [sound gestures], s.o. kehaliste tegevuste vahel, millel on algus ja lõpp ning iseloomulikud omadused ja konfi guratsioon, mis võivad väljenduda rütmilis-ajalises dimensioonis ja helikõrguste ahe- latena. Mõiste „heližest” defi nitsioon peaks autori idee järgi hõlmama helilise tegevuse kõiki tüüpe, mida koordineeritud koosmusitseerimisel teadlikult ja taotluslikult teostatakse ning mida esitajad sellisena teadvustavad. Iga helitekitamine võib olla heližest, niisiis on termin rakendatav piiramatule hulgale eri- sugustele muusikaavaldustele. Seega tähendab mitmehäälse [multipart] muusika uurimine keskendumist sellele, mida teevad indiviidid, kui nad laulavad/mängivad koos organiseeritud viisil. Iga esitust saab tõlgendada kui jagatud teadmiste [know-hows] tulemust, mis reguleerivad indiviidide (s.t. reaalsete meeste ja naiste kogu nende ainulaadsuses) vastastikuseid toiminguid, viies iga kord erinevatele muusikalistele tulemustele. Neid eel- dusi omaks võttes ja arendades usun, et väljendist multipart music võiks saada kontseptuaalne vahend, mis põhineb helide mitmehäälse põimumise allikaks oleva muusikalise käitumise järjekindlal analüüsil. Multipart music ei pea seostuma mingi muusikatüübiga – konkreetsemalt öeldes ei pruugi see käia just selle kohta, mida tavaliselt nimetatakse „traditsiooniliseks muusikaks” või „suuliselt edasiantavaks muusikaks”, või teisiti öeldes, „muusikapraktikateks”, mida tavapäraselt paigutatakse nn. Lääne kunstmuusikast väljapoole. Meie eesmärk on mõtiskleda kollektiivse ja koordineeritud muusikalise käitumise kõikidest vormidest. Muidugi peab võtma arvesse ka kõlaliste tulemuste [sound outcomes] omadusi, esituse kõikvõimalikke allikaid (näiteks kirjalikke nooditekste, suuliselt edasiantava muusika jälgi, helisal- vestisi jms.), kontekstuaalsete situatsioonide, esituskohtade, -aja, -eesmärkide jms. mitmekesisust, sest kõik need faktorid pakuvad asendamatuid seletavaid elemente. Siinkohal on oluline küsimus, kuidas ühendada neid elemente peamise uurimisfookusega, mis keskendub kollektiivsele ja koordineeritud muusikalisele käitumisele.

1 Ingliskeelset terminit multipart music ei saa tõlkida eesti keelde sõnasõnaliselt (tõlgetel „mitmepartiiline” või „mitmeosaline” oleks eesti keeles teine tähendus). Kõige sobivam tõlge oleks „mitmehäälsus”, kuid ingliskeelses terminoloogias võib mõistel multipart music olla lisatähendusi või tähenduse piiranguid, mis on seotud sõna multipart sisuga. Käesolev artikkel arutlebki nendel teemadel. (Tõlkija märkus.)

26 Ignazio Macchiarella

Minu artikkel uurib koordineeritud muusikalise käitumise erinevaid juhtusid, nende hulgas: kollektiivne laulmine eesmärgiga saavutada (või üritada saavutada) ühesugust kõlalist tulemust; teist moodi kollektiivne laulmine, mis ei püüdle sünkroonsuse poole selle tavalises mõttes (s.t. lauljatel ei ole ette- kavatsetud eesmärki saavutada ühist unisooni); muusikapraktikad, mis vastanduvad olemuslikult põi- muvatest individuaalsetest heližestidest koosnevatele muusikapraktikatele (s.t. et iga tervikut moodus- tav heližest või muusikaline partii on esitatud ühe hääle või instrumendiga); muusikapraktikad, kus iga eristuvat ja tajutavat kõlakomponenti realiseerivad kaks või enam inimest, kes laulavad (või mängivad) sünkroonselt sama heližesti (või üritavad seda teha); heližestide muusikalise kattumise/interaktsiooni erinevad mehhanismid, mis näitavad samuti tõeliselt hierarhiliste mudelite (liidri osa pluss üks või rohkem alluvat häält) ja suhteliselt “demokraatlike mudelite” (kõigil heližestidel on enam-vähem võrdne tähendus ja tähtsus) olemuslikku vastandumist; ja nii edasi.

27 Th e Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music Ardian Ahmedaja

Abstract The starting point of this article is Hilary Putnam’s idea of getting away from the picture of the meaning of a word as something like a ‘list of concepts’. That a term may have diff erent uses rather than one absolute meaning is all too familiar in ethnomusicology. The vast diversity of the musical practices focused on, the local terminologies, the manifold worldviews of the individuals involved in them, and the signifi cant impact the terminology of studies of “Western art music” plays are all decisive in this context. In studies of multipart music the designation of concepts is connected both with the diff erent understandings attributed to terms already in use, such as ‘polyphony’, ‘multipart music’ or the German term Mehrstimmigkeit, and with the establishment of new terms. The newly established terms focus on the one hand on the musical outcome, as in the cases of Schwebungsdiaphonie and ‘polymusic’, and on the other hand on the role of the music makers, their understandings and the complexity of their interactions during the performance and in discussions about it, as in ‘singing in company’. These diff erent approaches are attempts to verbalize the actions of the (re)creation of acoustical forms based on the interactions of “individualists in company”.

1. Introduction 77–78) Another supporter of this orientation, Jer- “Theoretical terms in science have no analytic ry A. Fodor, states that if defi nitions […]; yet these are surely items (and the computational theory of the mind is true not atypical items) in the vocabulary of natural (and if, as we may assume, content is a seman- languages.” (Putnam 1975: 146; italics in origi- tic notion par excellence) it follows that con- nal) The term ‘natural language’ is understood in tent alone cannot distinguish thoughts. More philosophy as a “human language like English or exactly, the computational theory of mind Japanese, as opposed to a computer language, requires that two thoughts can be distinct musical notation, formulas in logic, and so on” in content only if they can be identifi ed with (Pinker 1994: 478). Hilary Putnam formulates the relations to formally distinct representations. statement on theoretical terms in the article “Is se- (Fodor 1981: 227) mantics possible?” in which he suggests the need “to get away from the picture of the meaning of a This perspective is helpful to comprehend the word as something like a list of concepts” (Putnam importance of the discussion about the desig- 1975: 146; italics in original). nation of concepts both in a broad sense and in In metaphysics and especially ontology, a con- more specifi c contexts. Studies on multipart mu- cept is a fundamental category of existence. Ac- sic are under-represented in this context. This is cording to Eric Margolis and Stephen Lawrence obviously one of the reasons why this subject is there are “two dominant frameworks in contem- also being given more and more space in the dis- porary philosophy” concerning the question of cussions of the Study Group on Multipart Music what is a concept. “One proposes that concepts of the International Council for Traditional Music are mental representations, while the other pro- (ICTM). poses that they are abstract objects.” (Margolis, The view of concepts as “abstract objects” Lawrence 2007: 561) goes back to the German philosopher and math- As far as mental representations are concerned ematician Gottlob Frege, who introduced the Steven Pinker emphasises that “the theory of terms Sinn (sense) and Bedeutung (reference) into thinking called ‘the physical symbol system hy- the philosophical discourse in his article of 1892 pothesis’ or the ‘computational’ or ‘representa- “Über Sinn und Bedeutung” (“On sense and ref- tional’ theory of mind […] is as fundamental to erence”). “The Fregean tradition maintains that cognitive science as the cell doctrine is to biology the meaning of a declarative sentence is a prop- and plate tectonics is to geology.” (Pinker 1994: osition, where propositions are understood to be

28 Ardian Ahmedaja abstract objects that exist independently of our which is considered in this case to be a means for minds and that are the primary bearers of truth.” transmitting thought (see Fodor 1975). (Margolis, Lawrence 2007: 564) Steven Pinker formulates three main argu- An alternative view of the question of what is ments for this perspective in the third chapter of a concept is that of the so-called abilities view, his book The Language Instinct (1994). This chapter according to which concepts are neither mental is entitled “Mentalese”, meaning a language of images nor word-like entities in a language of thought. The fi rst argument is about the obser- thought. Ludwig Wittgenstein is mentioned fre- vation that language can be ambiguous, while quently as one of the leading representatives of thoughts are not. One of the examples taken from this idea. He completed the fi rst part of his Philo- newspaper headlines which contain ambiguous sophical Investigations in 1945. Section 122 reads words and are discussed in this chapter reads: as follows in the English translation: “Drunk Gets Nine Months in Violin Case”. Pinker explains this and other examples: “[…] surely the A main source of our failure to understand is thought underlying the word is not ambiguous; that we do not command a clear view of the the writers of the headlines surely knew which of use of our words. – Our grammar is lacking in the two senses of the words […] they themselves this sort of perspicuity. A perspicuous repre- had in mind. And if there can be two thoughts sentation produces just that understanding corresponding to one word, thoughts can’t be which consists in ‘seeing connexions’. Hence words.” (Pinker 1994: 79; italics in original) the importance of fi nding and inventing inter- The second argument is the refl ection that mediate cases. The concept of a perspicuous language has to be learned, therefore thought is representation is of fundamental signifi cance prior to language. for us. It earmarks the form of account we give, the way we look at things. (Is this a ‘Weltan- Knowing a language, […], is knowing how to schauung’?) (Wittgenstein 1986 [1958], Part I; translate mentalese into strings of words and italics in original) vice versa. People without a language would still have mentalese, and babies and many The question of concept is a topic in the phi- nonhuman animals presumably have simpler losophy of language as well. Putnam asserts that dialects. Indeed, if babies did not have a men- “there are many usable extensions of the notion talese to translate to and from English, it is not of an object […]” (Putnam 1994: 304–305) and clear how learning English could take place, that “in particular the notions of object and ex- or even what learning English would mean. istence, have a multitude of diff erent uses rather (Pinker 1994: 82) than one absolute ‘meaning’” (Putnam 1987: 71). In the case of ethnomusicology this is all too The third argument is connected with the es- familiar, as researchers within the discipline focus tablishment of new concepts which are named on the most diverse musical practices. The mani- later on. Referring to the science-fi ction novel fold worldviews of the individuals involved in the Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, published music making processes make the matter more in 1949, and the government’s language in it, complex. A special issue in this context are local called Newspeak, Pinker writes his “predictions for terminologies, which are particularly important in the year 2050”. The second of these, which is the multipart music practices as a way of representing most relevant for the subject of this paper, reads: performing practices from inside. Studies of mul- “since there are far more concepts than there are tipart music are, moreover, a specifi c example in words, and listeners must always charitably fi ll in which the terminology of studies of “Western art what the speaker leaves unsaid, existing words music” has a signifi cant impact. will quickly gain new senses, perhaps even regain Before concentrating on concepts and terms their original senses.” (Pinker 1994: 82) in this context, the question of the priority of lan- On the other hand there are philosophers who guage towards the concepts or vice versa should claim that at least in some cases concepts are es- be referred to as well. One of the perspectives in tablished in the internal system of representation, philosophy in this context is the view of concepts constituting natural language competence. Peter as prior to and independent of natural language, Carruthers, for example, writes: “If […] natural lan-

29 The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music guage is constitutively involved in our conscious sic’ (section 4) the German term Mehrstimmigkeit thinkings […], then language is itself the primary (section 3) is also examined, to give an example medium of such thought, and much such thinking from a musical literature other than that in Eng- is essentially linguistic.” He refers to it as “the cog- lish. German seems appropriate in this case, as nitive conception of language, since it accords a the language in which comparative musicology, central place to natural language within our cog- the antecedent of ethnomusicology, was fi rst pre- nition”. Furthermore he emphasizes that from this sented. When it comes to the newly established viewpoint “we often think in language, and the terms, among those connected primarily with the trains of reasoning which lead up to many of our musical outcome Schwebungsdiaphonie (section decisions and actions will consist in sequences of 5.1.1) and ‘polymusic’ (section 5.1.2) are focused natural language sentences.” (Carruthers 1996: 2; on, while among those connected with the kinds italics in original) of music making and with social and behavioural Considering language to have “an intra-per- questions the term ‘singing in company’ (section sonal cognitive function” as well as “its obvious 5.2) is introduced. interpersonal uses” creates a diff erent picture of communication through language. 2. Polyphony When a speaker utters a sentence, on this The term ‘polyphony’ along with its connotations view, their utterance expresses a thought by in various references is the most-frequently used constituting it, not by encoding or signalling it. one in scholarly literature. It is signifi cant that in A hearer who is a competent user of the same Greek antiquity, polyphonia appeared fi rst as a language will then understand that utterance parallel term to diaphonia in its technical sense in virtue of it constitutively expressing, for and also as a neologism. The noun ‘polyphony’ them, the very same (or a suffi ciently similar) was used apparently almost exclusively as a mu- thought. (Carruthers 1996: 2; italics in original) sical term only in post-Hellenic times in ancient Greek literature, while the adjective and its de- A further argument here is connected with rivatives had other meanings too, including the spatial reorientation, which is selectively im- classical ones: polyphonia – that which has many paired when the linguistic system is engaged but sounds, polyphonos – “of many sounds, many not when comparable attention is given to non- voices” and “abundant in linguistic expression” linguistic distractors (see Carruthers 1996: 48). (Frobenius 1995 [1980]: 70). In studies on multipart music, the issue of con- The term has a long history of use in the lit- cepts and their coming into being is connected erature on “Western art music”, mostly meaning to diff erent understandings attributed to terms a compositional technique. The contents associ- already in use as well as to the establishment of ated with it have constantly changed, also be- new terms as a result of new research perspec- cause of the diff erent views composers of dif- tives. The diff erent understandings are striking, ferent times and places have imparted to it (see particularly in the case of umbrella terms. The Frobenius 1995 [1980]). Diff erent contents have most-commonly used ones in English ethnomusi- been given to this term in ethnomusicological lit- cological literature are ‘polyphony’ and ‘multipart erature as well. Characteristic is that since Guido music’. The establishment of new terms shows Adler and Erich Hornbostel ‘polyphony’ is often two main tendencies: many studies are concen- considered an umbrella term (see section 3). In trated primarily on the musical outcome, while in the 1995 edition of New Grove, the defi nition of others the focus is on the role of the music mak- ‘polyphony’ reads: ers, their understandings and the complexity of the interactions between them. A term used in connection with the technique In this paper ways of designating the most of composition to designate various impor- utilized terms in studies of multipart music are tant categories in music: namely, music in discussed as one of the approaches towards the more than one part, music in many parts, and designation of concepts in this research area. As the style in which all or several of the musical far as the umbrella terms are concerned, in addi- parts move to some extent independently. tion to ‘polyphony’ (section 2) and ‘multipart mu- (Frobenius 1995 [1980]: 70)

30 Ardian Ahmedaja

Simha Arom makes another diff erentiation, ac- mehr – ‘more, some, multi- (as prefi x)’ – the ad- cording to which “all multi-part music is not nec- jective mehrstimmig in the meaning of ‘several essarily polyphonic” (Arom 1991: 34) stating that voices and/or parts’. This adjective with the suf- “a true polyphonic procedure must be ‘multi-part, fi x -keit build the noun Mehrstimmigkeit which simultaneous, hetero-rhythmic and non-parallel’” might be translated literally into English as ‘mul- (Arom 1991: 38). Later a group of researchers led tipartite (music)’, ‘multi-part/multi-voiced mu- by Arom carried out a classifi cation of polyphonic sic’. Moreover, the adjective stimmig (coherent, techniques, published fi rst in Italian (Arom et al. consistent) and the suffi x -keit build together the 2005) and then in French (Arom et al. 2007). The noun Stimmigkeit, which means ‘coherence, con- classifi cation begins with the phrase: “A general sistency’, adding another connotation to the term agreement has been reached to consider as po- Mehrstimmigkeit. lyphony all music that does not come under Guido Adler uses the term Mehrstimmigkeit monody – music in unison or in octaves – i.e. for example in the study Die Wiederholung und every plurilinear manifestation, independent of Nachahmung in der Mehrstimmigkeit. Studie zur the modalities in which it appears.”1 (Arom et al. Geschichte der Harmonie (Repetition and Imitation 2007: 1088) Rudolf Brandl, on the other hand, for- in Multipartite Music. A Study About the History mulated a defi nition in 2008 (see section 3) which of Harmony) published in 1886. In the same article takes into account the modalities of appearance he also uses the term Polyphonie, characterising and cognition. ‘imitation’ as a “factor of the highest importance The broad range of perspectives revealed by in the history of polyphony”2 (Adler 1886: 3). these and other interpretations of the term ‘po- Furthermore, according to Adler the diff erence lyphony’ (see for example contributions in Aubert between the terms ‘repetition’ (Wiederholung) 1993 and Meyer 1993) has been enriched in the and ‘imitation’ (Nachahmung) creates a diff erence last few decades by views gained from acoustic in the understanding of and psychoacoustic approaches. These have led […] mono- or multipartite (music). If a motive in turn to the establishment of new terms (see is repeated from one and the same part, re- section 5.1). gardless of whether it is done in the same or only in a similar way, it is a ‘repetition’; but if 3. Mehrstimmigkeit the theme is taken from a second part or sev- In the musical literature of languages other than eral parts, this is an ‘imitation’, because the fol- English, other terms are also used in parallel to lowing parts imitate the leading part.3 (Adler the term ‘polyphony’ to connote similar contents. 1886: 4) In German the term Mehrstimmigkeit was already Hornbostel explained the term Mehrstimmig- used by Guido Adler in his article of 1885 “Um- keit in 1909 in the essay “Über Mehrstimmigkeit in fang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft” der außereuropäischen Musik” (About Multipart (The Scope, Method, and Aim of Musicology) in Music in the Non-European Music) as an umbrella this context. term for the terms ‘harmony’ (Harmonie) and ‘po- In the core of this term is the noun Stimme, lyphony’ (Polyphonie): which in everyday life is used in several meanings. Important for the term under discussion are the From pure monopartite [music] (homophony), meanings ‘voice’ and ‘(musical) part’. This noun which is still today practiced by a large part of makes together with the pronoun or quantifi er mankind, multipartite forms are being devel-

1 “On s’accorde généralement pour considérer comme polyphonie tout ce qui ne relève pas de la monodie – musique exécutée à l’unisson au à l’octave –, c’est-à-dire toute manifestation plurilinéaire, indépendamment des modalités selon lesquelles elle se manifeste.” 2 “Faktor, von höchster Bedeutung in der Geschichte der Polyphonie.” 3 “[…] Ein- oder Mehrstimmigkeit. Wird ein Motiv von einer und derselben Stimme, einerlei ob in gleicher oder nur ähnlicher Fassung wiederholt, dann ist dies eine ‘Wiederholung’; wird aber das Thema von einer zweiten Stimme oder von mehreren Stimmen aufgenommen, dann ist dies eine ‘Nachahmung’, den die nachfolgenden Stimmen ahmen die führende Stimme nach.”

31 The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music

oped because of two totally diff erent mental helpful with regard to research into understand- attitudes or dispositions which must be diff ering the mechanisms which determine the making entiated sharply from each other. One can pay of this kind of music. They have led to the estab- attention to the common sounds [Zusammen- lishment of new terms (see section 5). klänge] as such, so that the form of the melo- Other diff erentiations than those mentioned dy appears unchanged even in all its details, until now concern ways in which the umbrella only doing so in a fuller setting. This kind of terms, which also form part of the scholarly dis- multipart music, which we would like to name course, can be understood. Examples concerning harmony, behaves towards homophony in the terms Mehrstimmigkeit and Polyphonie can exactly the same manner as a melody per- be found, for example, in the chapter “Universal formed on an instrument with a timbre which Basic Defi nitions of Multiple Sequences” in Rudolf is full and rich in overtones to the same melo- Brandl’s essay “New Considerations of Diaphony dy when it is formed of simple tones without in Southeast Europe” (2008). overtones. Or one can spread the attention Mehrstimmigkeit […] is a two-dimensional vir- to several simultaneously-performed melod- tual-cognitive structuring of the musical ex- ic entities which are more or less diff erent to perience in which, by means of rules beyond each other. We would like to confi ne the name the partial notes of the melody’s fundamental polyphony to the multipart music defi ned in tones, the exclusively vertical-synchronous allo- this manner.4 (Hornbostel 1909: 299) cation of sounds and noises of other parts to a 6 Several studies of the fi rst half of the 20th cen- horizontal-temporal axis takes place. (Brandl tury, including Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit 2008: 287) (History of Multipartite Music) by Marius Schnei- Polyphony is the virtual-cognitive three-dimen- der (1934, 1935, 1969), were carried out from a sional structuring of the musical experience, in “eurocentric aspect to discover the early forms which at least two independent horizontal-lin- of multipart music of the ‘high mountains of the ear regulated sound and/or noise-sequenc- modern European art of sound’ (C. Sachs 1959, es (parts) are guided by means of a meta-rule p. 5) or the origin of (European) multipart music in their vertical connection (= synchronicity), (C. Stumpf 1911, pp. 42 ff ).”5 (Simon 1996: 1767) and the meta-rule overrides the linear rules, This attitude changed through the growing i.e. the latter adapt to the meta-rule.7 (Brandl knowledge about local practices in diff erent parts 2008: 288) of the world, combined with acoustic and psychoacoustic approaches and studies of concepts and This essay has been printed in the original Ger- perceptions of music. These changes were also man and in English translation, taking into ac-

4 “Aus der reinen Einstimmigkeit (Homophonie), die von einem großen Teil der Menschheit noch heute praktiziert wird, entwickeln sich mehrstimmige Formen auf Grund zweier ganz verschiedener psychischer Einstellungen, die begriffl ich scharf auseinander gehalten werden müssen. Man kann entweder auf die Zusammenklänge als solche achten, so, daß die Form der Melodie auch in allen Einzelheiten ungeändert, nur in vollerer Besetzung erscheint. Diese Art der Mehrstimmigkeit, die wir Harmonie nennen wollen, verhält sich zur Homophonie genau so, wie sich eine auf einem Instrument mit satter obertonreicher Klangfarbe vorgetragene Melodie zu derselben Melodie verhält, wenn sie aus einfachen obertonlosen Tönen gebildet ist. Oder man kann die Aufmerksamkeit auf mehrere zugleich ablaufende, untereinander aber mehr oder weniger verschiedene melodische Gebilde verteilen. Auf die so defi nierte Art der Mehrstimmigkeit wollen wir den Namen Polyphonie beschränken.” 5 “[…] eurozentristischen Aspekt, die Vorformen der mehrstimmigen Musik zum ‘Hochgebirge der modernen europäischen Tonkunst’ (C. Sachs 1959, S. 5) oder den Ursprung der (europäischen) Mehrstimmigkeit zu entdecken (C. Stumpf 1911, S. 42 ff ).” 6 “Mehrstimmigkeit ist eine zweidimensionale virtuell-kognitive Strukturierung des musikalischen Erlebnisses, in der zu einer horizontal-temporalen Achse der Melodielinie durch Regeln über die Partialtöne der Melodiegrundtöne hinausgehend die ausschließlich vertikal-synchrone Zuordnung von Klängen und Geräuschen anderer Parts erfolgt.” (Brandl 2008: 305) 7 “Polyphonie ist die virtuell-kognitiv dreidimensionale Strukturierung des musikalischen Erlebnisses, bei der mindestens 2 autonom horizontal-linear geregelte Klang- und/oder Geräusch-Folgen (Parts) durch Meta-Regelung in ihrer vertikalen Beziehung (= Synchronizität) gesteuert werden, wobei die Meta-Regel die linearen Regeln überstimmt, d. h. diese sich an die Meta-Regel anpassen.” (Brandl 2008: 306)

32 Ardian Ahmedaja count fi rstly the issue of language informing the music also. But polyphonic.” (Bird 1999: 147–148; philosophical rationale of and the methodologi- italics in original) cal approach to research. A second argument has Grainger comments in his article “The Impress been the question of holding an academic dis- of Personality in Unwritten Music” (1915) on the course of diff erent cultures and practices only in music and the way the Rarotonga singers perform one language, which is problematic in terms of their “improvised part-singing” (Grainger 1915: reducing individual interpretations while promot- 423). ing singular readings. These choral songs, which were sung as thank- off erings by the Rarotongas in return for gifts they received from the Maoris of Otaki, are 4. Multipart music more full of the joy of life than any other music The term ‘multi-part’ or ‘multipart music’ is (art or native) it has yet been my good fortune 8 still not represented in any music dictionary to hear, though they also abound in touching although it has been used for a long time in re- and wistful elements. (Grainger 1915: 424) cords of and writings on local musical practices. One of the fi rst records is connected with writings Later in the same article he draws attention to about the songs of the Rarotonga, inhabitants of the performers: Rarotonga, the most populous island of the Cook It will be seen that a great range of personal Islands in the South Seas. James Cowan, a well- choice was left to all the members of this Raro- known writer in New Zealand of the fi rst half of tongan choir, in each of whom a highly com- the 20th century, wrote as follows in the Offi cial plex, delicate and critical sense for ensemble Record of the New Zealand International Exhibition was imperative. Each of these natives had to of Arts and Industries, held in Christchurch from 1 be a kind of improvising communal composer, November 1906 to 15 April 1907: and to a far greater degree simultaneously Chanting their ear-haunting tuneful himenes, creative and executive than is the case with and clattering away with a strange barbaric peasant songsters in Great Britain or Scan- rhythm on their wooden drums, the brown dinavia, though a somewhat similar gift for Islanders from the Cook Group were day after complex improvised part-singing is displayed day the centre of intensely interested groups, in the wonderful Russian choral folk music so Ahoris as well as whites. One never tired of admirably collected and noted by Madame listening to the delightful part-singing harmo- Lineff . (Grainger 1915: 425) nies of these South Sea people, [...]. (Cowan Percy Grainger, born in 1882 in Brighton, near 1910: 353) Melbourne, was a pianist, composer and folk mu- Sound recordings of these songs were made sic collector. After being educated in Frankfurt in January 1907 in Otaki by Alfred John Knocks (Germany) he was based in London between 1901 (Knocks 1907) born at Waikanae, New Zealand and 1914 and later in the USA, where he died in (Hutton, Akeli, Mallon 2010: 99) with a group of 1961 (see Dreyfus 1983). He is often described as singers participating at the Christchurch exhibi- a contradictory and eccentric character. It is espe- tion. Percy Grainger listened to these recordings cially striking that although he was interested in in January 1909 and wrote in a telegram to his diff erent kinds of music and in the musical tradi- mother Rose Grainger on 20 January 1909: “NEV- tions of diff erent parts of the world, in letters to ER HEARD THE LIKE TREAT EQUAL TO WAGNER I friends he expressed extreme anti-Semitic and AM GODLY LUCKY […]” (Dreyfus 1985: 263) and racial views (see Gillies, Pear 1994: 4–6). David in a letter to Roger Quilter: “these Rarotongan Pear emphasizes that: “His private writings reveal things are the strongest impressions I’ve met a more insidious racism than his mellowed words since the Faeroe dance tunes. These are dance for public consumption.” (Pear 2006: 33)

8 An entry is planned for the SAGE Encyclopedia of Music and Culture, general editor Janet Sturman, publication probably in 2017.

33 The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music

As far as other uses of the term ‘multi-part published in 1994. The results of the research are music’ in the ethnomusicological literature are based on experiences and cooperation with many concerned, a prominent case is to be found in musicians, especially with a well-known bagpipe the book Metre, Rhythm, Multi-Part Music by Jaap player and his wife, and with a well-known singer. Kunst (1950). Including examples from Hornbos- Rice aims to provide an understanding of how mu- tel’s and Schneider’s publications, Kunst states: sic is individually created and experienced, how it “we fi nd true two-part and multi-part music in is historically constructed, and how it is socially many parts of the world, […]” (Kunst 1950: 35). maintained (Rice 1994: 8). In Jane Sugarman’s At the same time he uses the division in “a. po- study Engendering Song. Singing and Subjectivity lyphony, […] b. homophony” (Kunst 1950: 37) at Prespa Albanian Weddings (1997), in which mul- which strongly recalls Hornbostle’s understand- tipart songs are a key element, the contexts and ing mentioned in section 3 of this paper. Bruno contents of performances as well as gender are Nettl remarks hereof: “The term ‘multi-part music’, among the most important issues. By contrast, as used by Kunst, comes closer to our defi nition the passion in the music and the life of a brother- of polyphony than does the term polyphony in its hood are fundamental in the study Chants de Pas- narrow sense.” (Nettl 1963: 247) This view applies sion. Au cœur d’une confrérie de Sardaigne (Songs to many studies until today, including for exam- of Passion. At the Heart of a Brotherhood in Sar- ple two of the latest publications by Gerhard Ku- dinia) (1998b) by Bernard Lortat-Jacob. The focal bik about multipart singing practices in several points of the analysis are questions of time and regions in Africa (Kubik 2010 and 2014). place, repertoire and musical techniques, faith The diff erent connotations given to the term and celebration, saying, thinking, and doing, as ‘multipart music’, which comes, like the term ‘eth- well as confl icts and strategies. In 2009, the book nomusicology’ itself, from a European language, Cantare a cuncordu. Uno studio a più voci (Singing refl ect concepts established alongside the back- a cuncordu. A Study in Many Parts) was published, ground of diff erent scholarship perspectives. Con- written by Ignazio Macchiarella and four sing- notations which are connected with the musical ers from a village in Sardinia as an experiment in outcome have a longer history. Those connected collective writing which lasted more than three with the ways in which this music comes into be- years. The processes of the coming into being of ing as well as with the action and interaction of this technically very complex singing practice are music makers became pivotal for research only viewed in various scenarios of the contemporary later. As a matter of fact, observations on specifi c life of the village. In the study A Diff erent Voice, phenomena connected with the second tenden- A Diff erent Song: Reclaiming Community through cy may also be found every now and then in early the Natural Voice and World Song (2014), Caroline studies and writings, as in the above-mentioned Bithell focuses on “the natural voice movement, statement by Grainger about the “great range of associated in the United Kingdom with a thriv- personal choice” and the “highly complex, deli- ing network of open-access community choirs, cate and critical sense for ensemble” of Raroton- weekend singing workshops and summer camps” ga singers. Nevertheless, it was Alan Merriam’s and “a growing transnational network of amateur interpretation of music with three areas of equal singers who participate in multicultural music ac- importance – concept, behaviour, and sound – tivity by performing songs from ‘other’ cultures, (1964) and, more especially, John Blacking’s view […]” (Bithell 2014: 1). of music-making as a special kind of intentional, The defi nition used by the ICTM Study Group meaningful human action (1979) that had a strong on Multipart Music, as the subject of continuous impact on research into the roles of protagonists discussions, is an attempt to take into account the in the making of multipart music. vast variety of understandings and viewpoints. It Referring to only a few studies based on long reads: “Multipart music is a specifi c mode of music term research into some musical practices in Eu- making and expressive behaviour based on the rope might help to obtain an impression of the intentionally distinct and coordinated participa- vast diversity of the issues focused on in this tion in the performing act by sharing knowledge context. May It Fill Your Soul: Experiencing Bulgar- and shaping values.” The results of the discus- ian Music is the title of a study by Timothy Rice sions held until now are incorporated into the

34 Ardian Ahmedaja contributions of the proceedings of the fi rst two for a phenomenon known in several musical prac- symposia published so far: Multipart music: A Spe- tices in diff erent parts of the world. The phenom- cifi c Mode of Musical Thinking, Expressive Behaviour enon described as polymusic is also widespread. and Sound (Macchiarella 2012) and Local and Glob- This is closely connected with situations (mostly al Understandings of Creativities: Multipart Music ceremonies) “in which diff erent types of music are Making and the Construction of Ideas, Contexts and juxtaposed” (Rappoport 2013: 33). Contents (Ahmedaja 2013). Here I would like to emphasize that one part of the discussions concern- 5.1.1. Schwebungsdiaphonie ing this defi nition is concentrated on the manifold The German term Schwebungsdiaphonie is made components of which multipart music is made up up of the nouns Schwebung and Diaphonie. While and by which it comes into being. Signifi cant in the second noun is another use of the Greek term, this framework are becoming issues of “who” is the fi rst one means ‘to beat’, and also contains the performing and “how” (i.e. in what way), “where”, root of the verb schweben for ‘fl oating, hanging “why”, “for whom” etc. In many situations such in the balance’. The term describes a sound cre- questions seem far more important than “what” ated through modulations of frequency and am- is being performed (see Macchiarella in this vol- plitude. This state is known in psychoacoustics ume). Signifi cantly, Bernard Lortat-Jacob stated in as the ‘maximal roughness’ (German: maximale the section “La musique et son mystère: la quin- Rauhigkeit). tina” (The music and its mystery: la quintina) of As early as 1953, Heinrich Husmann noted from an essay about the Chants de Passion in Sardinia the viewpoint of psychoacoustics that the phe- in 1996, that: “La quintina, as a phenomenon of nomenon can occur only in the state of monaural acoustic fusion, is derived from the social fusion hearing, forming one of the reasons which con- which engenders it: it is, in a way, the acoustic wit- strain performers to stand close together. Later ness of an ideal arrangement […]”9 (Lortat-Jacob on, in 1974, Ernst Terhardt wrote a well-known 1996: 162). article entitled “On the Perception of Periodic In this context the term ‘part’ as an element of Sound Fluctuations (Roughness)”. Gerald Florian a whole appears to a greater extent in the sense Messner examined the phenomenon in his PhD of ‘taking part’, ‘playing a role’, ‘participating in dissertation Die Schwebungsdiaphonie in Bistrica. the action’, ‘infl uencing interaction’, ‘performing Untersuchungen der mehrstimmigen Liedformen behaviour’ than it does in a “purely” musical con- eines mittelwestbulgarischen Dorfes completed text. in 1976 and published in 1980. In 2013 followed the English translation, which is entitled: Do They 5. New terms Sound Like Bells or Like Howling Wolves? Interfe- New terms are, on the one hand, the result of rential Diaphony in Bistritsa. An Investigation Into new perspectives in research, while on the other a Multi-Part Singing Tradition in a Middle-Western hand they enable new perceptions of the mak- Bulgarian Village (Messner 2013). ing and/or understanding of music. Examining According to Messner, the sound of Schwe- the processes by which new terms are invented bungsdiaphonie in the multipart songs in Bistrica is therefore of particular signifi cance, not only to is “a strong interferentiated interval between 80 know more about the ways the concepts are des- and 165 cents (this corresponds more or less to a ignated, but also about contemporary tendencies diff erence of about 15–30 Hz)” (“ein stark interfe- in research. rierendes Intervall zwischen 80–165 Cent (dies ent spricht etwa einem Distanzunterschied von 5.1. New terms based on the musical outcome 15–30 Hz)”; Messner 1980: 61). It is created through Two terms will be focused on in this section of the a “combination manoeuvre [of the vocal parts] paper. The fi rst one is Schwebungsdiaphonie. It has to reach the reference tone” (“Kombinations- its roots in psychoacoustic research and stands manöver zur Erreichung des Bezugstones, […]”;

9 “Phénomène de fusion acoustique, la quintina naît de la fusion social qui l’engendre: elle est en quelque sorte le témoin acoustique d’une entente idéale […].”

35 The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music

Figure 1. Combination maneuvers of the vocal parts to reach the reference tone in two- and three-part songs from the village Bistrica in Bulgaria (a fragment from Messner 1980: 60).

Messner 1980: 60). Messner gives the following cher Sicht” (The Schwebungs-Diaphonie from the interpretation of this phenomenon in two- and Musical-Ethnological and Systematic-Compara- three-part songs from the Bulgarian village of Bis- tive Musicological Perspective) (1989b). Later on, trica. Fig. 1 depicts schematically the long dwell Brandl defi nes the term as follows: tones in which the condition of Schwebung is […] the Schwebungsdiaphonie (roughness-di- reached. They “are almost always of the same du- aphony) is a two to three-dimensional mixed ration as the moved ‘melodic’ section” (“fast im- form of inherent inter-weavings of patterns mer ebenso lang dauern wie der bewegte ‘melo- and heterophony. In the Balkans, the domi- dische’ Abschnitt”; Messner 1980: 61). nant meta-rule of voice-crossings of the parts The main attention of the [female] singers is causes virtual two–three parts that in some directed towards “the central tone and the com- cases fuse together with the maximal-disso- mon sound” (“auf den Zentralton und auf den Ge- nant drone-cluster lying in a small range of samtzusammenklang gerichtet”; Messner 1980: tones, with the most punctual localization 61). The performers are strongly dependent “on possible, and the separate parts remain de- the psychologically produced and experienced pendent and do not make sense without each sound” (“vom psychologisch erzeugten und er- other.10 (Brandl 2008: 289) lebten schwebenden Klang”; Messner 1980: 61). From the publications of Rudolf Brandl concern- A similar sound has been found in the Admi- ing the term and the phenomenon, the follow- ralty Islands. Messner published the results of ing articles can be mentioned: “Die bulgarische his work there in the article “The Two-Part Vocal Schwebungsdiaphonie und ihre balkanischen Style on Baluan Island Manus Province, Papua Parallelen im Lichte neuer psychoakustischer New Guinea”, in which he refers to parallels to Erkenntnisse” (The Bulgarian Schwebungsdia- the Bulgarian case and similarities to other musi- phonie and its Balkan Parallels in the Light of cal practices in Europe, Asia and Africa (Messner New Psycho-Acoustical Knowledge), (1989a) and 1981: 435). In the above-mentioned essay of 2008, “Die Schwebungs-Diaphonie – aus musikethno- Brandl also points out other examples: logischer und systematisch-musikwissenschaftli-

10 “Schwebungsdiaphonie […] ist eine zwei- bis dreidimensionale Mischform aus inhärenter Pattern-Verfl echtung und Heterophonie, wobei auf dem Balkan durch die dominante Meta-Regel aus Stimmkreuzungen der Parts virtuelle 2–3 Stimmen entstehen, die z. T. mit dem maximal-dissonanten, im engen Tonraum liegenden Bordun-Cluster bei möglichst punktueller Lokalisierung verschmelzen, wobei die Einzelparts unselbständig sind und einzeln keinen Sinn ergeben.” (Brandl 2008: 307)

36 Ardian Ahmedaja

Schwebungsdiaphonie was and is found in this sound, in his article of 1909 (Hornbostel 1909: Flores, Indonesia (J. Kunst); among ethnic mi- 300). norities in the border area of Burma and Yün- 5.1.2. Polymusic nan (China) where it seems to be linked with mouth organs made of bamboo (recordings The neologism ‘polymusic’ was coined in 1991 at by Brandl 1998); on the Admiralty Islands near a seminar of the French Ethnomusicology Labo- Papua New Guinea (Messner 1981 and 1986); in ratory of the French National Scientifi c Research a slightly diff erent form among the Nuristani Centre (CNRS). Dana Rappoport notes that it was (border between Afghanistan and Pakistan); defi ned by the acoustician Gilles Léothaud (n.d.) and on Taiwan among the indigenous people as being the total result of the simultaneous, de- (a historical recording found in Berliner Pho- liberate presence of several autonomous musical nogrammarchiv with a ritual song for the god entities, without any coordination in time (Rappo- port 2013: 10, footnote 5). This is “a special kind of millet). (Brandl 2008: 283) of musical performance, surprisingly widespread Rytis Ambrazevičius, who has worked on the throughout the world, which involves a particu- phenomenon of Schwebungsdiaphonie and its pe- lar use of sound in space and time: various mu- culiarities in the Lithuanian vocal and instrumen- sical acts are performed simultaneously and de- tal sutartinės, emphasized: liberately in the same space.” (Rappoport 2013: […] it should be pointed out that the require- 9) Rituals very often off er good opportunities to ment of maximum roughness is not categori- perceive this phenomenon. It is therefore not a cal in the Lithuanian case […] It could be stat- surprise that Rappoport has experienced and reed that maximum roughness is a desirable searched it in several kinds of ritual in Indonesia. quality, but the zone of the suitable roughness She defi nes this manner of music-making as fol- is quite wide; the factor of roughness is pos- lows: sibly reduced by other important factors of ar- Polymusic can be understood as a phenome- ticulation. (Ambrazevičius 2005b: 19; see also non in which two or more groups simultane- Ambrazevičius 2005a: 253) ously perform diff erent tunes (i.e. that could Concerning Baluan, Messner reports on the at- also be played separately), derived from the tention of the performers “to detailed rules con- same or diff erent genres, but without tempo- cerning certain standing positions, and the partic- ral/rhythmic coordination (that is, they do not ular angles formed between the two singers […] entrain a shared beat, and they do not begin It is striking that similar rules for performance are and end together), and without the intention observed by all the people who perform Schwe- of playing a single piece of music together but bungsdiaphonie […].” (Messner 1981: 442) It is in- rather of playing separately, side by side. (Rap- teresting that in Manus Messner played “a tape poport 2013: 10) of diff erent types of Schwebungsdiaphonie with- In other musical practices individuals also out telling the listeners where it was from. They make music in this manner. One example is a now recognized the music as being closely related to almost vanished lament of women in the town of their own style and at fi rst thought it came from Gjirokastër in the region of Labëri in southern Al- neighboring areas of their province.” (Messner bania. One of its local designations is të qarët me 1981: 445) bot (Shituni 1982: 140), which might literally be Similarities among the traditions in question translated into English as ‘mourning with jugs/ had already been noted by Alan Lomax in 1976: mugs’ in the sense of ‘full of tears’. This used to “Melanesia, Admiralties, Baluan Island. Three happen (or still happens) during the rituals for a women performing in harmony amazingly close dead person as well as on memorial days in cem- to Balkan examples.” (Lomax 1976: 173) Hornbos- eteries. tel, who had heard recordings from the Admiral- ty Islands made by Richard Thurnwald in 1907 5.2. ‘Singing in company’ (Thurnwald 1910: 140–142), had hesitated to give The concept of ‘singing in company’ was shaped any theoretical explanation of the peculiarities of by Bernard Lortat-Jacob in his keynote address for

37 The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music the symposium European Voices II (Vienna 2008), sion on the concept as a fundamental category of contributions to which were published in 2011 existence emphasize the importance such a dis- (see Lortat-Jacob 2011). In several of his previous cussion has also for studies of multipart music. studies he had paid attention to the action and in- Moreover, ideas such as that of the notions of teraction of the makers of music (see for example object and existence having a multitude of diff er- 1990, 1993, 1998a, 1998b, 2001, 2004). In the 2011 ent uses rather than one absolute “meaning” are essay his interest lay on the motivation of “com- all too familiar in ethnomusicology. The vast di- pany” singers, their aesthetic feelings, their styles versity of the musical practices focused on, the lo- and their performances. Important at the same cal terminologies, the manifold worldviews of the time are those who watch the singers, who listen individuals involved in them, and the signifi cant to them and who are not fundamentally diff erent impact the terminology of studies of “Western art from them since, over the course of the evening, music” plays are all decisive in this framework. they are likely to take their place and quite often The two diff erent perspectives in philosophy covet it (Lortat-Jacob 2011: 23). concerning the question of the priority of lan- Furthermore, each moment of musical time is guage over concepts or vice versa are notable also social time “off ered to the senses and direct- as well. The view of concepts as prior to and in- ed at the aff ects. By defi nition, those aff ects are dependent of natural language, which is consid- ‘embodied’, but this embodiment is always both ered in this case to be a means for transmitting mediatised and socially qualifi ed by the perform- thought (see Fodor 1975) opposes that which ers’ personal history (or rather by what is known claims that at least in some cases concepts are of it).” (Lortat-Jacob 2011: 28) The aff ects represent established in the internal system of representa- the performer and off er a unique image “which is tion, constituting natural language competence defi nite in time, partially controlled and above (Carruthers 1996). all subject to interpretation. They feed shared In studies of multipart music the designation experiences (just as much as they feed on them) of concepts is connected both to the diff erent which are not only lived through but also played understandings attributed to terms in use and through.” (Ibid.) to the establishment of new terms. The diff erent The mutuality between the performer’s per- understandings of the most-commonly used um- sonality and the performers’ interaction shows brella terms in English ethnomusicological litera- how this music stems from “a body of uncertain- ture ‘polyphony’ (section 2) and ‘multipart music’ ties due to the superposition of approximate (section 4) are remarkable. The same can be said knowledge and know-how.” (Lortat-Jacob 2011: about the German term Mehrstimmigkeit (section 33) These prevalent features, present in all social 3). The establishment of new terms shows two and musical aspects of the performance, contrib- main tendencies. In many studies the attention is ute signifi cantly to making every performance “a concentrated primarily on the musical outcome. musical adventure” (Lortat-Jacob 2011: 24) and a In this article the terms Schwebungsdiaphonie surprise from which the “interest for the song and (section 5.1.1) and ‘polymusic’ (section 5.1.2) were its beauty proceed” (Lortat-Jacob 2011: 33). discussed. In other investigations the focus is on the role of music makers, their understandings and the complexity of their interactions both in the moment of the performance and outside it. Conclusions In this context the term ‘singing in company’ (sec- The starting point of the discussion about the des- tion 5.2) was presented. ignation of concepts in studies of multipart music In conclusion, it can be said that the diff erent in this article was Hilary Putnam’s idea of getting approaches presented in this paper are attempts away from the picture of the meaning of a word to verbalize the actions of the (re)creation of as something like a list of concepts (Putnam 1975: acoustical forms based on the interactions of “in- 146). The current results of philosophical discus- dividualists in company”.

38 Ardian Ahmedaja

References Brandl, Rudolf 1989b. Die Schwebungs-Diaphonie – aus musikethnologischer und systematisch- Adler, Guido 1885. Umfang, Methode und Ziel musikwissenschaftlicher Sicht. – Volks- und Kunstmusik in der Musikwissenschaft. – Vierteljahresschrift für Südosteuropa. Südosteuropa-Studien 40, Schriftenreihe Musikwissenschaft 1, S. 5–20. der Hochschule für Musik München 9, Hrsg. Cornelius Eberhardt, Günther Weiß, Regensburg: Bosse, S. 51–67. Adler, Guido 1886. Die Wiederholung und Nachahmung in der Mehrstimmigkeit. Studie zur Geschichte der Harmonie. Brandl, Rudolf 2008. New Consideratons of Diaphony in Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. Southeast Europe. (Translated from German by Barbara Haid.) – European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans Ahmedaja, Ardian (ed.) 2013. Local and Global and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video Understandings of Creativities: Multipart Music Making and examples included. Eds. 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Published by Authority of the Right Hon. Sir Joseph G. Ward, Ambrazevičius, Rytis 2005b. Psychoacoustic and Cognitive P.C., K.C.M.G. Prime Minister of New Zealand, Wellington: Aspects of Musical Scales and their Manifestation in Lithuanian John Mackay, Government Printer. Traditional Singing. Summary of the Doctoral Dissertation, Dreyfus, Kay 1983. Grainger, George Percy (1882–1961). – Humanities, Study of Art (03 H), Vilnius, Lithuanian Australian Dictionary of Biography. Volume 9, 1891–1939, Gil– Academy of Music and Theatre, (Accessed 10 April Vic.: MUP, pp. 69–72. 2016). Dreyfus, Kay (ed.) 1985. The Farthest North of Humanness. Arom, Simha 1991. African Polyphony and Polyrhythm: Letters of Percy Grainger 1901–44. South Melbourne et al.: Musical Structure and Methodology. Cambridge: Cambridge Macmillan. University Press. Fodor, Jerry A. 1975. The Language of Thought. Cambridge, Arom, Simha et al. 2005. Tipologia delle tecniche MA: Harvard University Press. polifoniche. – Einaudi Enciclopedia della Musica, Vol. 5. L’unità della musica. Ed. Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Torino: Einaudi, pp. Fodor, Jerry A. 1981. Methodological Solipsism Considered 1065–1068. as a Research Strategy in Cognitive Psychology. – Representations. Philosophical Essays on the Foundations of Arom, Simha et al. 2007. Typologie des techniques Cognitive Science. Cambridge, Mass.: Bradford Books / MIT polyphoniques. – Musiques. Une encyclopédie pour le XXIe Press, pp. 225–253. siècle. Vol. V, éd. Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Paris: Actes Sud / Cité de la Musique, pp. 1088–1109. Frege, Gottlob 1892. Über Sinn und Bedeutung. – Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik NF 100, S. 25–50. Aubert, Laurent (ed.) 1993. Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles 6. Polyphonies. Frobenius, Wolf 1995 [repr. of 1980]. Polyphony. – New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 15, ed. Stanley Bird, John 1999. Percy Grainger. Oxford / New York: Oxford Sadie, London: Macmillan, pp. 70–72. University Press. Gillies, Malcolm, David Pear (eds.) 1994. The All-Round , Caroline 2014. A Diff erent Voice, A Diff erent Song. Bithell Man: Selected Letters of Percy Grainger 1914–1961. Oxford: Reclaiming Community through the Natural Voice and World Clarendon Press. Song. Oxford / New York: Oxford University Press. Grainger, Percy 1915. The Impress of Personality in Blacking, John 1979. The Study of Man as Music-Maker. – Unwritten Music. – The Musical Quarterly 1/3, pp. 416–435. The Performing Arts: Music and Dance. World Antrhopology, eds. John Blacking et al., The Hague / Paris / New York: Hornbostel, Erich M. von 1909. Über Mehrstimmigkeit in der Mouton Publishers / De Gruyter, pp. 3–15. außereuropäischen Musik. – III. Kongreß der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft. Wien, 25. bis 29. Mai 1909. Bericht vorgelegt Brandl, Rudolf 1989a. Die bulgarische Schwe- vom Wiener Kongreßausschuß. Wien: Artaria & Co / Leipzig: bungsdiaphonie und ihre balkanischen Parallelen im Breitkopf & Haertel, S. 298–303. Lichte neuer psychoakustischer Erkenntnisse. – Kulturelle Traditionen in Bulgarien. Bericht über das Kolloquium der Husmann, Heinrich 1953. Vom Wesen der Konsonanz. Südosteuropa-Kommission 16.–18. Juni 1987. Abhandlungen Heidelberg: Mü ller-Thiergarten-Verlag. der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Hutton, Grace, Safua Akeli, Sean Mallon 2010. Rediscovering Philologisch-Historische Klasse, Folge 3, Nr. 177, Hrsg. the collection: Cook Islands material culture in the Museum Reinhard Lauer, Peter Schreiner, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. – Tuhinga 21, pp. 99– Ruprecht, S. 151–168. 123.

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Knocks, Alfred John 1907. Field recordings. Southern 19–20 September 2014. Manuscript, used with permission. Cook Islanders in New Zealand. Christchurch International [To be printed in Res Musica 8.] Exhibition [recorded sound]. Grainger collection, Grainger Margolis, Eric, Stephen Laurence 2007. The Ontology of Museum, University of Melbourne, unpublished. Concepts – Abstract Objects or Mental Representations? – Kubik, Gerhard 2010. Chapter III. A Structural Examination NOÛS 41/4, pp. 561–593. of Multi-Part Singing in East, Central and Southern Africa. Merriam, Alan P. 1964. The Anthropology of Music. Evanston: – Theory of African Music. Vol. 1, Chicago: University of Northwestern University Press. Chicago Press, pp. 169–248. (Copyright: Wilhelmshaven: Florian Noetzel Verlag, 1994.) Messner, Gerald Florian 1980. Die Schwebungsdiaphonie in Bistrica. Untersuchungen der mehrstimmigen Liedformen eines Kubik, Gerhard 2014. African Music. Multipart-singing. mittelwestbulgarischen Dorfes. Tutzing: Hans Schneider. – Encyclopædia Britannica. (last updated 8-25-2014. Accessed 30 September on Baluan Island Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. – 2014). Ethnomusicology 25/3, Pacifi c Issue, pp. 433–446. Kunst, Jaap 1950. Metre, Rhythm, Multi-Part Music. Leiden: Messner, Gerald Florian 2013. Do They Sound Like Bells or E.J. Brill. Like Howling Wolves? Interferential Diaphony in Bistritsa. An Investigation Into a Multi-Part Singing Tradition in a Lomax, Alan 1976. Cantometrics: An Approach to the Middle-Western Bulgarian Village. CD included, translation Anthropology of Music. Berkeley: University of California, of the doctoral thesis (Vienna, 1976), Vergleichende Extension Media Center. Musikwissenschaft 7, Hrsg. Michael Weber, August Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 1990. Savoir les chanter, pouvoir Schmidhofer, Franz Födermayr, Frankfurt am Main: Peter en parler. Chants de la Passion en Sardaigne. – Cahiers de Lang. musiques traditionnelles 3. Musique et pouvoir, pp. 5–22. Meyer, Christian (éd.) 1993. Polyphonies de tradition Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 1993. En accord. Polyphonies de orale. Histoire et traditions vivantes. Actes du colloque de Sardaigne: quatre voix qui n’en font qu’une. – Cahiers de Royaumont, 1990, Collection “Rencontres à Royaumont”, musique traditionelles 6. Polyphonies, pp. 69–86. Paris: Éditions Créaphis. Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 1996. Chant de la Passion en Nettl, Bruno 1963. Notes on the Concept and Classifi cation Sardaigne et hypothèses concernant la structure of Polyphony. – Festschrift Friedrich Blume zum 70. harmonique du chant corse. – Le chant religieux corse: état, Geburtstag. Eds. Anna Amalie Abert, Wilhelm Pfannkuch, comparaisons, perspectives. Les cahiers du Cerimm [Fondation Kassel: Bärenreiter, pp. 243–251. Royaumont]. Éd. Marcel Pérès, [Paris]: Éditions Créaphis, pp. Pear, David 2006. Grainger the Social Commentator. – Facing 153–175. Percy Grainger. Ed. David Pear, Canberra: National Library of Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 1998a. Le chant et ses raisons. Australia in association with the Grainger Collection, the Pratiques passionnelles à Castelsardo (Sardaigne). – Cahiers University of Melbourne, pp. 31–38. de musiques traditionnelles 11. Paroles de musiciens, pp. 73– Pinker, Steven 1994. The Language Instinct: The New Science 86. of Language and Mind. London: Penguin. Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 1998b. Chants de Passion. Au cœur d’une confrérie de Sardaigne. Paris: CERF. Putnam, Hilary 1975. Is semantics possible? – Mind, Language and Reality. Philosophical Papers Volume 2, Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 2001. S’entendre pour chanter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 139–152. Une approche anthropologique du chant en Sardaigne. – L’anthropologie de la Méditerranée. Collection L’atelier Putnam, Hilary 1987. Truth and Convention: On Davidson’s méditerranéen, éd. Dionigi Albera, Anton Blok, Christian Refutation of Conceptual Relativism. – Dialectica 41/1–2, pp. Bromberger, Aix-en-Provence: Maison méditerranéenne 69–77. des sciences de l’homme / [Paris]: Maisonneuve et Larose, Putnam, Hilary 1994. The Question of Realism. – Words and pp. 539–554. Life. Ed. James Conant, Cambridge, Mass. / London: Harvard Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 2004. Ce que chanter veut dire. Étude University Press, pp. 295–314. de pragmatique. – L’Homme (Musique et anthropologie), Rappoport, Dana 2013. Space and Time in Indonesian pp. 83–102, 171–172. Polymusic. – Archipel 86, pp. 9–42. Lortat-Jacob, Bernard 2011. Singing in company. – European Rice, Timothy 1994. May It Fill Your Soul: Experiencing Voices II. Cultural Listening and Local Discourse in Multipart Bulgarian Music. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Singing Traditions in Europe. Schriften zur Volksmusik 23, ed. Press. Ardian Ahmedaja, Wien/Köln/Weimar: Böhlau, pp. 23–35. Sachs, Curt 1959. Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft: Musik Macchiarella, Ignazio 2009. Cantare a cuncordu. Uno studio der Fremdkulturen. 2., neubearb. Aufl ., Musikpädagogische a più voci. Udine: Nota. Bibliothek 2, Heidelberg: Quelle und Meyer. Macchiarella, Ignazio (ed.) 2012. Multipart Music: A Specifi c Schneider, Marius 1934. Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit. Mode of Musical Thinking, Expressive Behaviour and Sound. Historische und phänomenologische Studien. Teil I.: Die Udine: Nota. Naturvölker. Berlin: Verlag J. Bard. Macchiarella, Ignazio 2016. Multipart Music as a Conceptual Schneider, Marius 1935. Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit. Tool. A Proposal. – Presentation at the First Seminar of the Historische und phänomenologische Studien. Teil II.: Die ICTM Study Group on Multipart Music. Tallinn, Estonia, Anfänge in Europa. Berlin: Verlag J. Bard.

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Schneider, Marius 1969. Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit. Sugarman, Jane C. 1997. Engendering Song. Singing and Historische und phänomenologische Studien. Teil III.: Die Subjectivity at Prespa Albanian Weddings. Chicago/London: Kompositionsprinzipien und ihre Verbreitung. Tutzing: Hans University of Chicago Press. Schneider. Terhardt, Ernst 1974. On the Perception of Periodic Sound Shituni, Spiro 1982. Vëzhgime etnomuzikore rreth vajtimit Fluctuations (Roughness). – Acustica 30/4, pp. 201–213. lab. – Kultura Popullore 2, pp. 139–151. Thurnwald, Richard 1910. Im Bismarckarchipel und auf den Simon, Artur 1996. Mehrstimmigkeit. A. Einleitung und Salomoinseln 1906–09. – Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 42/1, S. Systematik. – Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Sachteil 98–147. Bd. 5, hrsg. von Ludwig Finscher, Kassel u. a.: Bärenreiter/ Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1986 [1958]. Philosophical Metzler, Sp. 1766–1772. Investigations. 2nd ed., translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, Stumpf, Carl 1911. Die Anfänge der Musik. Leipzig: Barth. Oxford: Basil Bleckwell.

41 The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music

Mõistete määratlemine mitmehäälse muusika uuringutes

Ardian Ahmedaja (tõlkinud Žanna Pärtlas)

Selle artikli lähtepunktiks on Hilary Putnami idee loobuda ettekujutusest sõna tähendusest kui millestki mõistete nimekirja meenutavast (Putnam 1975). Kaasaegne fi losoofi line diskussioon mõiste kui olemise fundamentaalse kategooria üle on jõudnud tulemusteni, mis rõhutavad sellise diskussiooni tähtsust muu hulgas ka mitmehäälse muusika uurimise jaoks. Peale selle on seisukoht, et objekti ja olemise mõistetel on pigem palju erinevaid kasutusvõimalusi kui üks absoluutne „tähendus”, vägagi tuttav ka etnomusikoloogias. Uuritavate muusikapraktikate erakordne mitmekesisus, kohalikud terminoloogiad, nendega seotud indiviidide erinevad maailmavaated ja „Lääne kunstmuusika” terminoloogia tugev mõju mängivad selles raamistikus otsustavat rolli. Peab samuti mainima fi losoofi a kahte erinevat perspektiivi, mis puudutavad küsimust keele prioritee- dist mõistete suhtes või vastupidi. Arusaam, et mõisted on primaarsed ja sõltumatud loomuliku keele suhtes, mida vaadeldakse sel juhul mõtte edasiandmise vahendina (Fodor 1975), vastandub arusaamale, mille järgi vähemalt mõnedel juhtudel kujunevad mõisted loomuliku keele kompetentsi moodustavas sisemises representatsioonisüsteemis (Carruthers 1996). Mitmehäälse muusika uuringutes on mõistete määratlemine seotud erinevate arusaamadega, mida omistatakse kasutusel olevatele terminitele, ning samuti uute terminite väljatöötamisega. Erinevad arusaamad terminitest polyphony (artikli 2. peatükk) ja multipart music (4. peatükk), mis on kõige tavali- semad katusterminid ingliskeelses etnomusikoloogias, on tähelepanuväärsed. Samal ajal kui esimene nendest terminitest on kasutusel olnud väga erinevates kontekstides Kreeka antiikajast alates, ilmub teine 20. sajandi alguses peamiselt seoses kohalike muusikapraktikatega maailma eri osades. Selle kasu- tus suurenes pärast Jaap Kunsti raamatu „Metre, Rhythm, Multi-Part Music” publitseerimist 1950. aastal. Veel üks katustermin on saksakeelne määratlus Mehrstimmigkeit (3. peatükk). Seda kasutasid juba etnomusikoloogia eelkäija võrdleva muusikateaduse alusepanijad, näiteks Guido Adler (1885) ja Erich M. von Hornbostel (1909). Uute terminite väljatöötamine näitab peamiselt kahte tendentsi. Suures osas uurimustest keskendutakse kõigepealt muusikalisele tulemusele. Teiste uuringute fookuses on muusikategijate roll, nende arusaamad ja nende interaktsiooni keerulisus esituse hetkel ja selle üle arutlemisel. Esimene termin, mille üle arutletakse artiklis seoses muusikalise tulemusega, on Schwebungsdiapho- nie (alapeatükk 5.1.1). Selle aluseks on psühhoakustilised uuringud nähtusest, mis esineb mitmes muusikapraktikas maailma eri paigus. See termin kirjeldab sagedus- ja amplituudmodulatsiooni abil tekitatud heli. Sellist kõlaefekti tuntakse psühhoakustikas kui „maksimaalset karedust”. On tähelepanuväärne, kui tugevasti sõltuvad esitajad psühholoogiliselt tekitatud ja kogetud kõlast. Teine muusikalisest tulemusest lähtuv uus termin, mille üle artiklis arutletakse, on polymusic. Selline muusikalise esituse vorm põhineb kõla erilisel kasutamisel ruumis ja ajas: erinevad muusikalised aktid on teostatud üheaegselt ja ettekavatsetult samas ruumis. See tähendab, et kaks või rohkem rühma (või indiviidi) esitavad samaaegselt erinevaid viise (s.t. selliseid, mida võib esitada ka eraldi), mis pärinevad samast või mitmest eri žanrist, kuid ilma ajalise/rütmilise koordinatsioonita (s.t. nad ei jaga ühist pulssi ning ei alga ega lõpe koos) ja ilma kavatsuseta mängida koos ühte muusikapala, vaid pigem kavatsusega mängida eraldi üksteise kõrval. Nendest uutest terminitest, mis on põhiliselt seotud muusikategijate rollidega, esitletakse artiklis terminit singing in company (alapeatükk 5.2). Bernard Lortat-Jacob, kellelt pärineb see termin, keskendub kooslauljate motivatsioonile, nende esteetilistele tunnetustele, nende stiilidele ja nende esitustele. Samas on tema jaoks tähtsad ka need inimesed, kes jälgivad lauljaid, kes kuulavad neid ja kes ei ole lauljatest oluliselt erinevad, kuna õhtu jooksul nad võivad asendada lauljaid ning sageli ihkavad seda (Lortat-Jacob 2011: 23).

42 Ardian Ahmedaja

Veelgi enam – muusikalise aja iga hetk on samuti ka sotsiaalne aeg, mis on „avatud meeltele ja suunatud afektidele. Need afektid on vältimatult „kehastatud”, kuid seda kehastamist vahendab ja määratleb sotsiaalselt alati esitajate isiklik ajalugu (või see, mis on sellest teada).” (Lortat-Jacob 2011: 28.) Afektid esindavad esitajat ja pakuvad unikaalset kujundit, „mis on ajas määratud, osaliselt kontrollitud ning on ühtlasi interpretatsiooni objektiks. Nad toidavad jagatud kogemusi (just sama palju, kui nad toituvad nendest), mida mitte ainult ei elata läbi, vaid ka mängitakse läbi.” (Ibid.) Lõpetuseks peab ütlema, et erinevad lähenemised, mida selles artiklis esitletakse, on kõik katsed sõ- nastada akustiliste vormide (taas)loomise aktsioone, mis põhinevad „seltskonnas tegutsevate individua- listide” [individualists in company] interaktsioonidel.

43 Th eoretical Approaches to Heterophony Žanna Pärtlas

Abstract Heterophony is one of the basic principles by which a multilinear texture comes about in the music of oral tradition. It can be found in many cultures both as a particular form of music making and as a component of more complex multipart practices. Heterophony is also a very intriguing topic for ethnomusicological investigation, especially if the researcher intends to describe this phenomenon at the theoretical level. The problems start with the very notion of ‘heterophony’, and in attempting to resolve them the researcher is faced with the ambiguity of such basic terms as polyphony, monophony, unison, etc. The reason why heterophonic music is especially diffi cult to describe using standard European terminology is that the phenomenon of heterophony, being intrinsically connected with oral and collective music creation, has no direct analogies in Western written music. The present article aims to interpret heterophony as a musical, social and psychological phenomenon, using and merging diff erent approaches – music-analytical, anthropological and cognitive. The article also discusses the use of the ethnomusicological terminology connected with a musical texture – especially the umbrella terms for multilinear music – and searches for a more inclusive, yet diff erentiative and limiting defi nition of heterophony.

Timothy Rice in his article “Ethnomusicological One of such ‘conversations among ethnomu- theory”, published in the Yearbook for Traditional sicologists’ on the theoretical issues of the fi eld Music, Vol. 42 (2010), expresses his concern over took place during the First Seminar of the ICTM the tendency among most contemporary ethno- (International Council for Traditional Music) Study musicologists to recognize and use too little eth- Group on Multipart Music (Tallinn, 2014); this pro- nomusicological theory in their works. According vided the impulse for the discussion in the pre- to Rice and some other authors to whom he refers sent article. The theme of the Seminar, “Multipart (e.g. Ruth Stone 2008), despite quite frequent ref- Music: theoretical approaches on the terminol- erences to the various theoretical concepts (espe- ogy”, was dedicated to the part inherent in every cially of sociological origin), serious, well-argued theoretical system – its conceptual and termino- discussions on theoretical topics are rather rare in logical apparatus; the actual core of the discus- ethnomusicological publications (Rice 2010: 101). sion, however, seemed rather to be the question Ethnomusicological theory is, of course, present of the nature of multipart music making. In ac- in a latent form in every piece of ethnomusico- cordance with the Seminar theme, its participants logical research. Rice suggests, however, making were inclined to theorizing more than usual and it more explicit and beginning a more systematic the brief ‘idiographic reports’ served merely as il- theoretical dialogue among ethnomusicologists: lustrations to the theoretical discussion. Although Writing ethnomusicological theory involves, theorizing and generalization also prevail in the at its minimum [...], conversations among eth- present article, I fi nd it useful to mention in ad- nomusicologists. [...] Without explicit ethno- vance that my personal experience with tradi- musicological theory developed in conversa- tional heterophony, which is the central subject of tions among ourselves, the fi eld is in danger of this research, is mainly connected with two song being little more than the sum of a succession traditions: the ritual songs of the Russian-Belorus- of idiographic reports from here and there, a sian borderland, where heterophony occurs in its kind of academic journalism of fl eeting inter- pure form, and the ancient two-part singing of est, but of little or no long-term consequence the Seto (South-East Estonia), where one of the (Rice 2010: 106). parts is performed heterophonically.1

1 About these two song traditions see, for example, my recent publications: Pärtlas 2012, 2013.

44 Žanna Pärtlas

In the light of the article by Rice cited above, ysis and music psychology should also be valued I was prompted to consider whether the Tallinn as relevant approaches to traditional multipart discussions and my own research belong to the music. In this article, I try to take into account dif- frame of ethnomusicological theory, as under- ferent aspects of the musical process, merging stood by Rice. Hopefully this question can be the anthropological, music-theoretical and cogni- answered in the affi rmative, because Rice’s defi - tive research methods. nition of ethnomusicological theory is very broad With the goal of achieving a general theoreti- and inclusive: cal understanding of heterophony and taking into account the theme of the present collection Ethnomusicological theory involves the writ- of articles, which is intended as an extension to ing of descriptions, classifi cations, compari- the Tallinn Seminar, it also seems useful to place sons, interpretations, and generalizations heterophony into the more general context of about music (and possibly sound) in general, both traditional multipart music and ethnomusi- about particular musical traditions, about mu- cological theory with regard to multipart music. sic in a set of related communities, or about In fact, in such a context the topic of heterophony music in relation to cognitive, artistic, experi- is of special interest, since this widespread form ential, social, cultural, political, and economic of traditional music making lies on the border issues, themes, and processes (Rice 2010: 105). of multipart music, and merely answering the The diversity of the theoretical approaches in- question as to whether heterophony is multipart cluded in this defi nition was also noticeable dur- music or not could be illuminating for the more ing the Tallinn Seminar discussions, where it was general theoretical discussion. Heterophony, be- revealed, among other ways, in the diff erent inter- ing broadly understood as the simultaneous vari- pretations of the basic terms and concepts con- ation of the same melody, is one of the basic prin- nected with traditional multipart music. ciples by which a multilinear texture comes about Multipart music may, indeed, be viewed from in the music of oral tradition. It can be found in diff erent positions. According to the defi nition many cultures both as a particular form of musi- used by the ICTM Study Group on Multipart Mu- cal texture and as a component of more complex sic, it is fi rst of all a process of music making and multipart practices – indeed, almost everywhere a form of expressive behaviour: “Multipart music where the parts are performed collectively. All is a specifi c mode of music making and expres- the same, at the theoretical level, heterophony sive behaviour based on the intentionally distinct can function as an indicator that reveals how the and coordinated participation in the performing researcher understands the main concepts of eth- act by sharing knowledge and shaping values”.2 nomusicology and music theory related to musi- Following this defi nition, the most relevant ap- cal texture – such concepts as ‘polyphony’, ‘mo- proaches to multipart music would be anthro- nophony’ and ‘homophony’ and also newer terms pological and sociological. However, it is clear like ‘multipart’, ‘multivoiced’, ‘plurivocal’, etc. that multipart music is also an outcome of music For this reason, the present discussion will be- making – a musical text and a sound object, both of gin with a critical overview of the respective ter- which have their own principles of organization minology. After an overview of the main terms, I and structure. Both the above-named aspects will then concentrate on the term ‘heterophony’ merit close examination not only as academically itself, which is one of the most ambiguous no- interesting research subjects, but also because of tions in both music theory and ethnomusicology. their signifi cant place in the value system of the bearers of tradition. Furthermore, multipart music 1. On the terminology should also be studied as a cognitive process and, from this point of view, we can examine both the 1.1. The names for ‘simultaneous otherness’ creation and perception of multipart music. Thus, In the book The Wellsprings of Music, Curt Sachs such methods as musical analysis, acoustical anal- suggested four choices for how the term ‘heter-

2 http://www.ictmusic.org/group/multipart-music (15.01.2016).

45 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony ophony’ can be understood.3 According to the most general and neutral possible with respect to broadest defi nition, which was actually not ap- the reasons behind the textural multilinearity, the proved by Sachs himself as the most useful one, musical structure and style. “heterophony is in every composition in which It is remarkable that in music theory the most ‘other notes’ are heard at the same time, including fundamental diff erentiation of the types of tex- a simple drone with a melody, but also includ- ture is based on the presence or absence of ‘simul- ing modern polyphony and harmony” (emphasis taneous otherness’. The question arises as to why mine) (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 190). This defi nition al- this characteristic is so crucial, for whom it matters most coincides with Sachs’ broadest defi nition of and from what period of music history it comes. polyphony: “The word polyphony marks the per- I assume that this circumstance was not equally formance and perception of more than one note at a important in all musical cultures and at all times. time” (emphasis mine) (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 175). In The recognition of the ‘simultaneous otherness’ both cases, the main criterion for the defi nition is of sound probably came with the emergence of the simultaneous sounding of two or more notes/ its opposite notion, ‘unison’, and was connected pitches – the phenomenon which Sachs, in the with the rise of a degree of control over musical same book, once named a “simultaneous other- sound and texture. A high degree of control over ness” (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 177). The idea of ‘simulta- sound is more characteristic of the written music neous otherness’ corresponds very well with the traditions, where the prescriptive notation gives etymology of both words – ‘heterophony’ (from the performers quite a detailed musical text for Greek heteros – diff erent, other) and ‘polyphony’ execution. Although a high level of sound control (from Greek polus – many, much). However, we is also possible in the music of oral tradition, we should agree with Sachs that a more specifi c use may assume that many oral musical cultures exist of the term ‘heterophony’ would be preferable, where there is neither any notion of unison nor meaning that ‘simultaneous otherness’ is not the any conscious control over deviations from it. This only attribute of heterophony. Nevertheless, this is probably the most likely situation for the devel- feature is essential and obligatory, and if we want opment of heterophony. to understand the place of heterophony among In English-language music theory, the terms other forms of ‘simultaneous otherness’, we monophony and polyphony are commonly used should fi rst concentrate on this phenomenon and as a pair to diff erentiate diff erent types of tex- on the terms used for its designation. ture according to the criterion of the presence First of all, we should recognize that by speak- or absence of ‘simultaneous otherness’. In some ing about ‘simultaneous otherness’ we consider languages, there are native terms which are used music as a sound outcome, a sound object. At for this purpose – the terms such as Einstimmigkeit this level, we do not ask how performers conceive and Mehrstimmigkeit in German or одноголосие the musical texture, why the multilinear texture and многоголосие in Russian.4 In the opposition appears or what the logic of its structure is. We ‘monophony v. polyphony’, both concepts be- merely state the fact that two or more diff erent long to the level of sound outcome and have the notes have sounded simultaneously, i.e. were per- most broad and neutral meaning (see the Sachs’ formed and/or perceived in such way – “the per- defi nition of polyphony cited above). From this formance and perception”, according to the defi - viewpoint, heterophony, being a form of ‘simul- nition by Sachs cited above. We are dealing here taneous otherness’, should be also a form of po- with the most elementary level of music analysis, lyphony. However, it seems that many scholars do and therefore the terms we need for the designa- not agree with the last statement. Sachs himself tion of ‘simultaneous otherness’ should be the asserts that “unconscious heterophony is, psycho-

3 The ancient Greek term ‘heterophony’ was revived by Carl Stumpf in his research “Tonsystem und Musik der Siamesen” (1901). To the early ethnomusicological use of this term there also belong the writings by Guido Adler (1908) and Erich M. von Hornbostel (1909). In this article it is not my intention to give a detailed overview of the history of the term ‘heterophony’; I begin here with the defi nitions by Sachs, because his approach to ‘heterophony’ seems to be especially deep and consistent and provides a good basis for further discussion. 4 The list of examples could certainly be continued. Thus, in Estonian there are terms ühehäälsus and mitmehäälsus, which literally correspond to the above-mentioned German and Russian terms.

46 Žanna Pärtlas logically speaking, a non-polyphonic type of mu- but also with the type of musical thinking, wheth- sic” (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 186). The question asked er or not heterophony belongs to the domain of by Jaap Kunst – “who can fi x the place where het- polyphony depends on how heterophonic music erophony turns into polyphony?” (Kunst 1950: 47) is intended by the performers. – reveals that Kunst also did not consider heter- One further ‘disadvantage’ of the term ‘po- ophony as a form of polyphony. Here we witness lyphony’, to which some ethnomusicologists re- the contradiction between the defi nitions and fer, is that it is historically too closely connected the actual use of the terms. Thus, Sachs, giving with the European written musical culture. Some the defi nition of polyphony at the level of sound ethnomusicologists prefer not to use the term realization (“more than one note at a time”), then ‘polyphony’ with reference to traditional oral mu- uses this term as belonging to the cognitive level sic because of its manifold historical-stylistic con- (“psychologically speaking”). It is the absence of a notations (e.g. see Macchiarella 2012: 9). clear distinction between the levels and aspects Since the mid 20th century (and even earlier) of musical phenomena that leads to the ambigu- dissatisfaction with the term ‘polyphony’ has im- ity of the scholarly terminology. pelled ethnomusicologists to invent new terms for Besides the lack of clarity as to the question of ‘simultaneous otherness’, such as ‘multipart’, ‘mul- which level – textural, cognitive, behavioural, etc. tivoiced’ and ‘plurivocal’ music. These terms are – the notion of ‘polyphony’ belongs to, the use of intended in the most general and neutral manner, this term as the most general and neutral is also being independent of any historical, geographi- awkward because it has a narrower meaning as cal or cultural context and embracing all forms of well, constituting a terminological pair not only ‘simultaneous otherness’. Among them, the term with the term ‘monophony’, as mentioned above, multipart music is the most used, substituting the but also with the terms ‘harmony’ and ‘homoph- term ‘polyphony’ in its broader sense. The origins ony’. Polyphony and harmony (homophony) are and the history of the use of the term ‘multipart’ very often opposed as two forms of ‘simultane- are described in detail in the article by Ardian ous otherness’, which diff er by the prevalence of Ahmedaja in this volume; therefore I only mention ‘horizontal’ or ‘vertical’ musical thinking. The term here that, according to Ahmedaja, the word ‘part- ‘polyphony’ is broadly accepted as designating singing’ was fi rst used in 1910 by James Cowan in the type of texture that consists of “two or more his writing on the songs of the Rarotonga (Cook simultaneous lines of independent melody”.5 This islands), and the word ‘multipart’ fi rst appeared in meaning of the word ‘polyphony’, which also re- the book Metre, Rhythm, Multi-Part Music by Jaap fers to the rhythmical independence of the voic- Kunst (1950). Nowadays, though there are many es, is close to that of ‘counterpoint’. In the case of ethnomusicologists who prefer the expression harmony (homophony), “two or more parts move ‘multipart music’ as an umbrella term for all forms together in harmony, the relationship between of ‘simultaneous otherness’ (e.g. the majority them creating chords”.6 The homophonic texture of the authors in this volume), there is an equal may be either monorhythmic or melody with number of scholars who prefer to stick to the old- harmonic accompaniment (as in the so-called er term ‘polyphony’. Thus, Joseph Jordania in his ‘melody-dominated homophony’).7 Since such an book Who Asked the First Question? argues that the interpretation of the term ‘polyphony’ deals not shorter term ‘polyphony’ is more convenient as a only with the musical texture (sound outcome), ‘family name’, especially when deriving the more

5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony (15.01.2016). I deliberately cite here such a not very academic source as Wikipedia, because its defi nitions refl ect well the widespread understandings of common terms as they are usually used in educational practice. 6 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophony (15.01.2016). 7 Sachs considers these two types of musical texture as ‘vertical’ (harmony) and ‘horizontal’ (counterpoint) polyphony: “Western terminology distinguishes two basic concepts of polyphony. One is ‘harmony’ or ‘vertical’ polyphony: we hear simultaneous sounds or ‘chords’ in a lawful sequence of tension (‘dissonance’) and relaxation (‘consonance’). The other concept is ‘counterpoint’ or ‘horizontal’ polyphony: we hear a lawful coexistence of voice parts or simultaneous melodic lines.” (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 175)

47 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony complex names for the sub-types of polyphony diff erent roles in the performance of music), but (e.g. ‘drone polyphony’, ‘ostinato polyphony’, etc.) actually sing or play in unison or at the octave. (Jordania 2006: 24). He reasons: In the search for a more neutral term for ‘simultaneous otherness’ than ‘multipart’, one of although both terms (“polyphony” and “mul- solutions may be the word multivoiced, which is ti-part music”) actually mean the same (the the literal translation to the words Mehrstimmig- fi rst one in a long ago dead ancient Greek keit, многоголосие, etc. (Stimme – голос – voice). language, and another in very much alive For this last reason, in my previous works (Pärtlas and the most widespread contemporary Eng- 2012) I preferred this term to other new inven- lish) we have in one case the one-word-term tions such as ‘plurivocal’ or ‘polyvocal’ and distin- (“polyphony”) and in another case complex guished the terms ‘multipart’ and ‘multivoiced’ three-word-combination to denote the same on the basis of the diff erence between the mean- phenomenon (“multi-part music”). This simple ings of the words ‘part’ and ‘voice’. I interpreted fact works in favor of the practical use of one- the word ‘part’ as referring to the intentional word-term “polyphony” (Jordania 2006: 24). diff erentiation of musical roles between the per- There are also researchers who use these terms formers, and the word ‘voice’ as designating the alternatively with the same meaning. Thus Izaly individual melodic line. Accordingly, the term Zemtsovsky in his article “Polyphony as a Way of ‘multipart’ was understood as belonging to the Creating and Thinking: The Musical Identity of level of musical thinking and behaviour and the Homo Polyphonicus” (2003) uses both the terms term ‘multivoiced’ as the concept at the level of ‘polyphony’ and ‘part-singing’. sound realization. However, we must ask whether the term ‘mul- However, as my further discussions with col- tipart music’ is the universal name for all forms leagues have shown, the word ‘multivoiced’ was of ‘simultaneous otherness’ in music. Clearly the also not a perfect choice for the designation of answer to this question is that it is not, because ‘simultaneous otherness’.9 The problem is that in the case of ‘multipart music’ the reason for the the word ‘voice’ has too many other meanings emergence of ‘simultaneous otherness’ is clearly besides that of the individual melodic line. One designated by the term itself – it is the distinc- of these meanings, unfortunately, coincides with tion between several textural parts, which implies that of the word ‘part’, and, therefore, the words their functional diff erence. In collectively per- ‘multipart’ and ‘multivoiced’ can be perceived as formed music, it means that singers or musicians synonyms. Actually, the word ‘voice’ frequently are divided into parts and this division is deliber- designates one part of a multipart texture also in ate and usually refl ected in the folk terminology.8 folk terminology, e.g. in the Russian (голос), Es- Since the concept of ‘part’ refers, fi rst of all, to tonian (hääl) and Mordvinian (Moksha) (вайгяль) musical thinking and behaviour, the concept of song traditions (the list of examples could cer- ‘multipart’ belongs fi rst and foremost to the re- tainly be continued – see, for example, the essay spective aspects of musical process. Of course, by Anda Beitāne on Latvian traditional songs in multipart music has also a sound dimension and, this volume). In traditional terminology, the word in this respect, a ‘simultaneous otherness’ is its ‘voice’ also often means the tune, the melody, very characteristic feature, but this is neither while for some scholars, the word ‘voice’ mainly strongly obligatory nor determinative. In fact, the associates with the human voice and vocal music; simultaneous sound of diff erent notes can appear and then there are, in addition, the philosophical without the division of performers and musical meanings of this word in anthropology and soci- texture into diff erent parts – this is the case in ology as well. many forms of heterophony. Moreover, the oppo- To avoid such misunderstandings, in this arti- site situation is not excluded, where the perform- cle I decided to use the term multilinear instead ers declare their division into parts (i.e. they have of ‘multivoiced’. It seems that the word ‘line’ is not

8 In this connection, it should be noted that the above-cited defi nition of multipart music given by the Study Group on Multipart Music excludes solo performance from the domain of multipart music practices. 9 This became especially clear to me during the Tallinn Seminar.

48 Žanna Pärtlas charged with so many diff erent meanings as the being ‘uncertain’ or ‘vague’, a ‘catchall’, etc. Al- word ‘voice’ and, when applied to music, it mostly though the term ‘heterophony’ has been in use associates with the musical texture as a sound as- among ethnomusicologists for more than a cen- pect of musical process. A further advantage of tury now, new attempts to fi nd a better defi nition the term ‘multilinear’ as opposed to ‘multivoiced’, for it are still appearing, and this paper makes its ‘multiphonic’, ‘plurivocal’, ‘plurilinear’ and ‘poly- own contribution to the topic. However, the short vocal’ is that it is more often used in music stud- defi nition of heterophony that appears at the end ies (especially in music theory) and therefore does of this article is by no means the main goal of my not sound strange;10 it is also equally applicable to research. both vocal and instrumental music. However, I am The concept of heterophony raises many is- compelled to state that an ideal term for ‘simul- sues. First of all, there is the question of how broad taneous otherness’ simply does not exist, unless or narrow the defi nition of heterophony should we invent a totally new word. One drawback of be and which level of musical process it should the word ‘multilinear’ as a neutral term is its con- characterize. The broadest defi nition at the level nection with the word ‘linear’, which is often used of sound, given by Sachs, was discussed above. in music theory and jazz-research as pointing to Sachs’ fourth (and preferred) suggestion is also the specifi c way of musical thinking where a ‘hori- very broad, but it belongs to the level of musical zontal’ musical dimension strongly prevails over thinking, connecting heterophony to all kinds of the ‘vertical’ one, or where it is the only factor improvisation in the oral musical tradition: “het- of music composition (e.g. such terms as ‘linear erophony is every type of part-performance left counterpoint’, ‘linear polyphony’, and ‘linear har- to tradition and improvisation – contrapunto alla mony’). As to heterophony, the word ‘linear’ char- mente as against res facta” (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 191). acterizes well the essence of this music in which In ethnomusicological literature we can also fi nd the vertical sonorities are not under the control of many narrower defi nitions that describe one eth- the performers. However, our goal here is to fi nd nic tradition or a group of them (see, for example, a neutral term for the level of musical texture – a the defi nition for Russian heterophonic singing term which would not be associated with a cer- in Narodnoye … 2005: 496). Such defi nitions may tain type of musical thinking. This problem could be very precise in terms of the respective musical be partly resolved by adding the word ‘texture’ styles to which they refer, but their cross-cultural to the term ‘multilinear’ wherever possible. In this use is rather more limited. It seems that the best article I use the concepts of multilinear music and working defi nition, which can be applied to many multilinear texture as belonging entirely to the diff erent musical styles, is still the ‘classical’ one level of sound realization (sound outcome) and (used by Stumpf, Hornbostel, Sachs, Cooke, Nettl, embracing all forms of ‘simultaneous otherness’ etc.), according to which, heterophony is the si- including every manifestation of heterophony. multaneous variation of the same melody. The ad- This term would seem to be useful in the context vantage of this defi nition is that it is simple and of both the general theory of musical texture and, clear. Nevertheless, it remains incomplete in that especially, in the discussion of heterophony. too many essential questions are left unresolved and some inherent features unnamed. 1.2. What does ‘the simultaneous variation of Although, at fi rst glance, the defi nition ‘simul- the same melody’ mean? taneous variation’ appears unequivocal and un- The original meaning of the ancient Greek term ambiguous, it can actually describe very diff erent ‘heterophony’, revived by Carl Stumpf in 1901, is musical phenomena. Let us examine the possible unclear. At the same time, almost all authors ad- meanings of ‘simultaneous variation’. In connec- mit that its new usage is also unsatisfactory – the tion with the word ‘variation’, a question arises term ‘heterophony’ is usually characterized as about the ‘theme’ of the variations. What is the

10 Among the terms mentioned here, the word ‘plurilinear’ might also be satisfactory as a neutral term at the level of texture (sound outcome). However, I would prefer ‘multilinear’ because it constitutes a better pair with ‘multipart’. Moreover, it would also be sensible to avoid the parallel use of three diff erent prefi xes – ‘poly-’ (in ‘polyphony’), ‘multi-’ (in ‘multipart’) and ‘pluri-’ (in ‘plurilinear’).

49 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony

‘theme’ of heterophonic variations, and where ation at the respectful distance of an eighthnote is it to be found? Does it sound simultaneously without disturbing or confusing the listener with with its variations? Or is it a pre-existing melody, its random con- and dissonances” (Sachs 1977 on which musicians create the variations? The an- [1962]: 187). Furthermore, the two last examples swer to these questions would also explain the show that not only ‘variation’, but also such a functional interrelations between the voices: are seemingly simple notion as simultaneity can be they equivalent melodic lines or, rather, subordi- called into question.11 John Napier shows this by nated polyphonic parts, one of which is a main examining what ‘as soon as possible’ means in melody, the ‘theme’, while the others are depend- North Indian sangat (Napier 2006: 94–95). Sachs’ ent parts, ‘variations’? description of Japanese musical practice confi rms With regard to many traditions of vocal heter- the possibility that the heterophonic divergences ophony (for example, Russian and, more broadly, can be caused not only by melodic variation, but East Slavic, Mordvinian, Udmurtian, etc.), we can also by the shift in synchronicity. assert that all variants of the song tune are func- Rudolf Brandl describes heterophony as the tionally equal and homogeneous and no single simultaneous performance of the ‘basis melody’ one of them can be considered as the ‘theme’. and ‘equivalent-alternative’ variations: Izaly Zemtsovsky describes the variation process Heterophony, too, is a two-dimensional cogni- in Russian folk songs as “variations without a tive structuring of the audible image in which, theme” (Zemtsovsky 1980: 38). However, the mu- by means of rules, an exclusively horizontal sical styles based on diff erent principles are also allocation of sounds and noises in additional often characterized as ‘heterophony’ – the arti- parts to a melody-line takes place. There is no cles in the musical dictionaries (such as The New vertical rule for the connection with the basis Grove, MGG and others) usually refer to such in- melody. [...] Heterophonic parts are seen as strumental music traditions as Japanese gagaku, equivalent-alternative forms of the basis melody Indonesian gamelan, Philippine kulintang, Thai (heterophony of variants) (Brandl 2008: 288; traditional music, etc. The term ‘heterophony’ is emphasis as in the original). also used to describe many practices of “accompanied vocal music of the Middle East and East Brandl does not provide concrete examples Asia, where the instrument provides an embel- of music where the ‘basis melody’ sounds simul- lished version of the vocal part” (Cooke 2001: 466). taneously with its ‘equivalent-alternative’ varia- Unlike functionally homogeneous vocal het- tions. It seems, however, that his defi nition corre- erophony, instrumental and vocal-instrumental sponds neither to the vocal heterophonic styles heterophony is usually functionally diff erentiated. mentioned above, where there is not a ‘basis mel- One example of such music could be the North ody’ as such, nor, presumably, to many practices Indian melodic accompaniment known as san- of instrumental and vocal-instrumental ‘simulta- gat. According to the description by John Napier neous variation’ in the music of Asia, where the (2006), in this kind of performance the melodic variations may not be ‘equivalent-alternative’. line of the singer-soloist can be understood as a There is also the question of the variation tech- ‘theme’ to which the accompanist adds a more niques that are relevant to heterophony. While or less diff erentiated variation almost simultane- some authors speak about homogeneous variously with the soloist’s part. Curt Sachs describes ants of the melody as the characteristic feature a similar practice in Japanese music: “the accom- of heterophony (Brandl 2008: 288; Narodnoye … panying instrument follows the singer in free vari- 2005: 495–496), others describe specifi c methods

11 Usually the ‘simultaneity’ of heterophonic variations means not merely their sounding at the same time, but implies the synchronicity of musical form. However, in the literature on heterophony there are cases where it is understood as the overlapping performance of similar musical utterances. Thus, Steven Brown, who sees the origins of music in the primary ‘contagious heterophony’, defi nes his newly invented term as follows: “a group vocalization in which each individual produces a variation on a similar kind of call but in which the members of the group call asynchronously; group-wide vocalizing emerges through a sequential process of spreading and contagion” (Brown 2003: 68). The typical example of such ‘contagious heterophony’ is the howling of wolves.

50 Žanna Pärtlas of variation such as ornamentation, simplifi ca- and is not usually designated as ‘heterophony’.12 tion, shortening, etc. (Sachs 1977 [1962]; Cooke Although we can fi nd here many heterophonic 2001; Napier 2006). With regard to this question divergences within the collectively performed there is no agreement among ethnomusicolo- parts (especially the lower main part), the general gists. Thus, David Morton, who shares the former compositional principle of the multipart texture is point of view, in his book The Traditional Music of the contradistinction of two or three parts, which Thailand (1976) objects to the designation of the are fully recognized as such by the singers. From Thai instrumental simultaneous variation as het- the above, we may conclude that heterophonic erophony: variations, as they are usually understood by researchers, are always situated at the same pitch The technique of combining simultaneously level (with the exception of octave duplications), one main melody and its variants is often and they are not intended as lower and upper incorrectly described as heterophony: poly- melodic parts. Heterophonically related melodic phonic stratifi cation seems a more precise de- lines should consequently have a suffi cient num- scription, since each of the ‘layers’ is not just a ber of unison (or octave) points to be perceived as close approximation of the main melody, but the variations of the same melody. also has distinct characteristics and a style of In relation to these unison points, the question its own (Morton 1976: 39). arises as to the extent to which the heterophonic While Morton’s observation concerning the variations should diff er from each other. This is, diff erent principles that can underlie simultane- so to speak, a quantitative characteristic of hetero- ous variation is very important for our under- phonic variation. The most usual understanding standing of heterophony, nevertheless we cannot is that the diff erence between the melodic vari- ignore the century-long tradition of the usage of ants should be rather small in heterophony. Some the term ‘heterophony’ (which is supported by researchers (e.g. the Russian ethnomusicologists) the musical dictionaries), and it seems that the draw a distinction between ‘monodic’ and ‘vari- only solution would be the more inclusive, but ant heterophony’ depending on the amount of not catch-all, defi nition of this term. multilinear divergence. Another example of such The question of the variation techniques in a quantitative approach is the statement by Jo- heterophony is even more complex, because seph Jordania in the book cited above: there is also the unresolved problem of where to heterophonic polyphony diff ers from all other draw the border between a variation of the same types of polyphony, because it can belong to melody and a melodically distinct part. For exam- (a) polyphonic family (when the diff erences ple, should we consider a subsidiary part moving between the versions are well defi ned), or it in the parallel thirds with the main melody as a could also belong to (b) monophonic fam- variation of the latter? The similarity of the me- ily (when the deviations from the unison are lodic contours and the unity of the rhythm sug- minimal) (Jordania 2006: 28–29). gest that such melodic lines are related as some kind of variants. However, scholars do not usually Jordania admits that in this case “the diff er- consider this type of variation as a heterophonic ence is purely quantitative (and not qualitative)”, technique. Thus, though the Russian so-called which reveals that when distinguishing between подголосочная полифония (literally, ‘the po- polyphony and monophony he proceeds primar- lyphony of subsidiary voices’) is essentially the ily from the level of the sound outcome. Although polyphony of melodic variants, it is divided into such an approach is pertinent in diff erentiating functionally diff erent (main and subsidiary, lower between particular kinds of musical texture, it and upper) and harmonically regulated parts, seems to me that the more appropriate approach

12 The rare exception is the position of Joseph Jordania, who characterises the entire Russian multipart singing tradition (except some cases of ‘drone polyphony’) – and even more widely, that of the Eastern Slavs – as ‘variant heterophony’ (Jordania 1988: 27) or ‘heterophonic polyphony’ (Jordania 2006: 226–227). I fi nd that the preferable English term for подголосочная полифония would be ‘variant polyphony’ (Emsheimer 1991: 279), as this allows us to diff erentiate between the latter and the various forms of Russian one-part singing named by local researchers ‘heterophony’.

51 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony to the main types of musical thinking, such as mo- is an inherent feature of heterophony, it should be nophony and polyphony, should be ‘qualitative’. refl ected in its defi nition.13 It seems to me, how- With regard to heterophonic variation, the ques- ever, that the issue of consciousness, intention, tion as to how the variation is intended and un- control over the sonic outcome and vertical reg- derstood by the performers themselves is more ularity is much more diffi cult than it may at fi rst essential than the amount of multilinear activity glance appear. Therefore, these questions will be in the texture. discussed separately in the relevant section of this Thus we can say that the most usual defi nition article. of heterophony – ‘the simultaneous variation of the same melody’ – allows diff erent interpreta- 2. Bipartite and tripartite theoretical models tions and embraces diff erent musical phenomena. in the approach to heterophony If one prefers a more specifi c use of this concept In the previous discussion, I mentioned the im- (as, for example, Morton, Brandl and Russian eth- portance of making a distinction between the dif- nomusicologists), the relevant defi nition should ferent levels of musical process – for example, the include the additional limitations concerning the levels of musical thinking and sonic realization. functional interrelation of the melodic lines and Such diff erentiation can be illuminating in the ex- the methods of variation. The latter aspect should plaining of the nature of heterophony and other be specifi ed even if we agree with the more gen- forms of musical texture and also help to systema- eral usage of the term, and the distinction be- tize the terminology. In this connection, I will try tween diff erent forms of heterophony is still of to compare and possibly incorporate the ideas use in both situations. originating from Russian-language music theory In any case, there are some other essential and ethnomusicology (especially, the theory of features of heterophony which the ‘classical’ defi - musical texture by Tatyana Bershadskaya) with nition fails to mention, though these are often the well-known tripartite model by Alan P. Mer- discussed by ethnomusicologists in this context. riam ‘concept – behaviour – sound’. Although nei- I refer here to questions about the consciousness ther of these concepts is new, they still seem to be or unconsciousness of heterophony and the exist- very fruitful for attaining a better understanding ence of vertical coordination between the melodic of the process of oral music-making and its sound variations. With respect to the former question, results. Curt Sachs and some other ethnomusicologists fi nd it necessary to make a distinction between 2.1. The music theoretical viewpoint: musical ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’ heterophony. The thinking and sonic realization answer to the question about vertical coordina- Heterophony is often considered to be a bor- tion is unanimously negative, i.e. there is none. der area between monophony and polyphony.14 Reading the literature on the question gives the Sometimes heterophony is named the primary impression that the lack of ‘vertical rules’ is no less form of polyphony; less frequently it is called the an essential attribute of heterophony than ‘simul- primary form of monophony (and even, some- taneous variation’. For Guido Adler, who was an times, the primary form of music, as in Brown important fi gure in the popularization of the term 2003). It can also be considered as a transitional ‘heterophony’ at the beginning of the 20th centu- form between monophony and polyphony. ry, it was even the main criterion of heterophony, Whether heterophony is interpreted as belonging which he defi ned as “rudimentary irregular po- to polyphony or monophony depends on which lyphony” (Adler 1985 [1908]: 631). From the above, type of heterophonic music the scholar has in we can conclude that ‘the simultaneous variation mind, how this music is intended by the singers/ of the same melody’ is not a suffi cient explanation instrumentalists, and how it is heard and under- of the phenomenon of heterophony. If irregularity stood by researchers. At the same time, however,

13 ‘The simultaneous variation’ in itself does not mean the lack of vertical organization. 14 See, for example, the statement of Jordania: “Heterophony is strategically positioned between polyphony and monophony” (Jordania 2006: 225).

52 Žanna Pärtlas this depends no less on how the terminology is Applying Bershadskaya’s theory to heteropho- interpreted. Are monophony and polyphony no- ny, we can say that in many cases one is dealing tions belonging to the level of musical thinking here with monodic musical thinking realized in or just types of musical texture, i.e. notions at the a polyphonic texture. Using other terms (which level of sound? I would prefer in English), it is a realization of This issue was widely debated in Russian-lan- monophonic thinking in a multilinear texture. Such guage ethnomusicology and music theory dur- an explanation fi ts well with many styles of vocal ing the 1970s and 1980s (Kharlap 1972; Skrebkov heterophony, which are mostly unintentional and 1973; Bershadskaya 1985 [1978]; Galitskaya 1981; unconscious. The singers intend to perform the Alekseyev 1986). In this discussion, the position same melody (monophonic thinking), but they do of the music theorist Tatiana Bershadskaya seems not aim to sing it in a strict unison. In such condi- to be the most coherent and systematically for- tions, the melodic variation, which is an intrinsic mulated. Bershadskaya makes a clear distinction characteristic of oral music, causes the multilinear between the levels of musical thinking and its divergences in the texture (multilinear texture). In sonic realisation (the level of sound). For the fi rst some styles of vocal heterophony (e.g. the het- level, Bershadskaya uses the term музыкальный erophonic songs of some regions of Russia), these склад or just склад (this word can be translated divergences can be so signifi cant that they create as ‘constitution’ or ‘composition’). This level is es- the impression of intentional polyphony.16 In such sentially an ideal, pointing to the inner logic, the cases, researchers, defi ning the type of musical deep structure of the musical texture. The level thinking, proceed from the comments of singers, of sonic realisation (sound) is designated by the who assert that they sing ‘in one voice’. term фактура (‘texture’). This is a material level However, as mentioned above, the multilinear (i.e. the level of the materialization), which is con- music that ethnomusicologists name ‘heteropho- nected with the particular surface structures. ny’ is not always unconscious. In this context the Bershadskaya distinguishes between three gen- question emerges as to how we should defi ne the eral principles of musical thinking (музыкальные musical thinking of the singers/instrumentalists склады): monodic, polyphonic (in the sense of if they are themselves aware of the heterophonic Sachs’ ‘horizontal polyphony’), and harmonic, all divergences, if the variation is intentional, if the of which can be realised in multiple forms of mu- performers divide themselves into functionally sical texture (Bershadskaya 1985 [1978]: 11–12).15 diff erent parts, but when they nevertheless still She draws attention to the fact that the appear- do not aim to coordinate the vertical aspect of the ance of musical texture can diff er from and even multilinear texture. Is their thinking polyphonic, oppose the principles that give rise to it. For in- since they produce the multilinear texture delib- stance, polyphonic thinking can be realised in a erately, or monophonic, since every performer chordal (harmonic) texture (as is often the case in proceeds in the creation of his/her melodic line Renaissance polyphony), while behind the mono- from a purely horizontal (i.e. melodic, linear) musi- phonic texture there can be both polyphonic and cal logic and without taking into account the ver- harmonic principles (viz. the well-known cases of tical sonorities that emerge as result of variation? implicit polyphony and harmony) (Bershadskaya To answer this question, we should again defi ne 1985 [1978]: 12–14). Thus we should distinguish our terms. Do we understand polyphony merely between monophonic musical thinking and as “a texture consisting of two or more simultane- monophonic texture, between polyphonic think- ous lines of independent melody”,17 or should the ing and polyphonic texture, and also between defi nition include the condition of vertical regu- harmonic (homophonic) thinking and harmonic larity, e.g. “simultaneously combining a number (homophonic) texture. of parts, each forming an individual melody and

15 When ascribing the names to the types of musical thinking, Bershadskaya prefers the term ‘monodic’ to ‘monophonic’ and ‘harmonic’ to ‘homophonic’ because of the special tradition of the usage of these terms in Russian music theory. 16 A particularly developed multilinear texture appears in the Russian so-called ‘diff erentiated heterophony’ and ‘drone-like diaphony’ (бурдонная диафония) (see Narodnoye … 2005: 496–497). 17 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony (15.01.2016).

53 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony harmonizing with each other” (emphasis mine)?18 to the traditional shared knowledge concern- Although the larger part of polyphonic music is ing the structure of multilinear texture and the governed by both melodic and harmonic rules, it techniques of its production. The most focused seems that the question of vertical coordination manifestation of this knowledge is the traditional should not be determinative for the recognition terminology. We are not dealing here with an ab- of musical thinking as polyphonic. This is because stract music theory. On the contrary, traditional the notion of polyphony refers fi rst and foremost terminology is mostly connected with the practi- to the building of musical texture (the texture lay- cal organization of the process of music making, ers, their functions, etc.) and to the thinking con- and it also functions as a teaching tool (although nected with this, while the pitch relations belong the main method of teaching in the oral traditions rather to the domain of a modal or tonal system. is usually by imitation). The terminology and other Thus, I would conclude that the deliberate pro- verbalised forms of traditional knowledge refl ect duction of a multilinear texture of melodic char- the generally accepted understandings about acter should be a suffi cient reason for speaking the division of roles between performers and the about polyphony in terms of both the musical building of musical texture. These doubtless have thinking and its realization. a signifi cant eff ect on the musical practice, but we cannot be sure that they conform entirely to what 2.2. The music anthropological viewpoint: singers/instrumentalists really do (the level of concept – behaviour – sound behaviour) or to the actual musical outcome (the While music theory, by contradistinguishing the level of sound). Moreover, there are some aspects ideal (cognitive) and material levels of musical of musical structure that are not usually discussed process, off ers a bipartite model for approach- by the bearers of tradition. When answering the ing the issue of musical texture, in ethnomusicol- questions of ethnomusicologists, the bearers of ogy we have the well-known tripartite model of tradition are able to go beyond the scope of tra- Merriam, concept – behaviour – sound, which also ditional discourse in their explanations, but topics distinguishes between the diff erent levels of mu- remain which are completely outside their tradi- sical process. Although Merriam’s triad suggests tional way of thinking. the general scheme for ethnomusicological stud- The traditions of functionally homogeneous ies and is applicable to many areas of research, it vocal heterophony are usually poor in terminol- can be also a very effi cient tool for investigating ogy. Singers have no need to negotiate the divi- questions related to musical texture and the pro- sion of roles or the methods of variation. The very cesses of its formation. It would seem very helpful typical answer to the inquiry of ethnomusicolo- to examine all kinds of multipart and multilinear gists is ‘we sing in one voice’, which means both music bearing in mind the clear distinction be- the same part and the same tune. For instance, tween the three levels of Merriam’s triad. With re- such a statement is characteristic of all types of spect to heterophony, it gives especially interest- Russian heterophonic singing, including the so- ing results, because one can fi nd here (apparent) called ‘diff erentiated heterophony’ and ‘bourdon discrepancies between these three levels. For in- diaphony’, which give to the outsider-listener the stance, the performers of heterophonic songs can impression of intentionally organized multipart assert that they all sing ‘in one voice’ (the level of singing (Narodnoye … 2005: 496). The performers conceptualization), but actually they signifi cantly of functionally diff erentiated heterophony (which vary the melody (the level of musical behaviour) is mostly instrumental or vocal-instrumental) are and as a result we can hear a dense multivoiced obviously able to give more detailed explana- texture (the level of sound). I will now try to ap- tions concerning the formation of the multilinear ply Merriam’s model consistently to the issue of texture, variation technique and the relations be- heterophony. tween the parts. Concept. The level of “conceptualisation about Behaviour. The notion of “behaviour in relation music” (Merriam 1964: 32) refers, in our case, to music” (Merriam 1964: 32) embraces many dif-

18 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/defi nition/english/polyphony (15.01.2016).

54 Žanna Pärtlas ferent aspects. Merriam distinguishes between 1976: 21). What links the two kinds of heterophony three kinds of behaviour – physical, social and ver- is the lack of vertical coordination at the level of bal – which can be further subdivided into more musical behaviour (i.e. we do not exclude the pos- particular forms of behaviour (Merriam 1964: 33). sibility that a vertical coordination can be present Among the behavioural manifestations related to at the level of sound) and the principle of simulta- music are the posture of the performers’ bodies, neous variation (although the methods used may gestures, the interaction between the perform- be diff erent). ers in the ensemble, the reaction of the listeners, Sound. The level of sound would seem to be etc. It seems that ‘behaviour in relation to music’ more unequivocal, less ambiguous. This is the should also include ‘musical behaviour’ as such, material level of music, the sonic realization of the i.e. the musical decisions, both conscious and musical thinking, the sound outcome of the pro- unconscious, that singers/instrumentalists make cesses of conceptualization and behaviour. Sound during the performance of music. To specifi cally can be also understood as a ‘musical text’ and, in musical decisions belong, for example, improvisa- this respect, it has a multilevel, multi-aspect struction, variation, the use of melodic embellishment, ture. When investigating conceptualization and the choice of the part in multipart music, the ad- behaviour we can prognosticate the sound result; justment of one’s own part to the parts of other and when investigating the sound result we can performers, the reaction to their musical deci- make assumptions as to the conceptualization sions, and so on. and behaviour. However, the level of sound is to If we include such forms of musical behaviour some extent independent. Not all the regular pat- in the middle category of Merriam’s triad, we can terns that can be found in the musical text pro- state that in heterophony, at the level of musical ceed directly from the theoretical intentions or behaviour, a melodic variation always takes place. even from the actual behaviour of the perform- In functionally homogeneous heterophony, all ers. Music is in some sense a self-organizing sys- performers actualize the melody within the vari- tem, where order at one level of musical structure ation zone inherent to the musical tradition. As can result in regular patterns at other levels. Thus, a rule, they do not employ specifi c methods of in respect of a multilinear texture, the vertical variation, the use of which could create func- sonorities can depend on the musical scales and tional diff erences between the variants. Such a vice versa; the vertical organization can be condi- type of ‘equivalent-alternative’ variation can be tioned by the rules of melodic development and considered as a specifi cally ‘heterophonic varia- vice versa; some aspects of the harmony can be tion’, although this characterizes only one kind of explained through the rhythmic system, and so heterophonic music. One more essential feature on. Therefore, it is sometimes suffi cient that one of ‘heterophonic variation’ is that it is optional, of the aspects of musical structure be consciously i.e. there is no obligation to vary the melody. The organized in order to produce regular patterns in variation happens spontaneously and if it does other aspects which are not under the direct con- not happen, or if melodic variants coincide with trol of the performers. each other, it is not a problem for the performers. The organization of the vertical aspect of mul- Finally, a specifi cally ‘heterophonic variation’ is tilinear music can take diff erent forms and mani- individual and non-coordinated: Each performer fests itself with diff erent degrees of intensity. We makes his/her musical decisions personally with- can even say that some elements of regularity can out taking into account the musical decisions of be always found inasmuch as music diff ers from other performers, at least with respect to the re- noise. The question thus arises as to what kind of sulting sonorities. In functionally diff erentiated orderliness should be considered as an example heterophony, on the other hand, the methods of of ‘vertical organization’ in multilinear music. It variation can be intentionally or unintentionally seems that this is a question of limitation. If the specialized. Such specialization is often connect- structure of vertical sonorities is limited only by ed with the technical abilities of the instruments the structure of the musical scale, it is not enough – as David Morton explained this in relation to to draw the conclusion that the vertical aspect is Thai music, “each individual line follows the style organized, because such limitation is inevitable idiomatic for the instrument playing it” (Morton per se and does not need the intervention of the

55 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony

human mind. ‘True’ vertical coordination begins Figure 1. Comparison of the bipartite and tripartite when the usage of the possible sonorities is lim- models of musical process. ited by some additional principle – this might be, for example, the prevalence of the specifi c intervals or combinations of the scale notes.19 Such regularities may manifest themselves at diff erent levels of musical structure and are usually more evident at its deeper levels (Pärtlas 2012).

2.3. Comparison of the bipartite and tripartite models The use of both the models described above – the music theoretical and music anthropological – helps understand better the nature of multipart and multilinear music. Both conceptions pro- all aspects of musical text – structural, acoustical, ceed from the diff erentiation between thinking perceptional, etc.; in Bershadskaya’s conception, in relation to music and its realization as sound. the ‘texture’ refl ects the structural aspect of the However, they are quite diff erent. The scheme in musical text (more exactly the surface layer of the the Figure 1 shows the relation between the two structure). The profound diff erence between the models – the white ovals designate the levels of two research models under consideration con- the tripartite model by Merriam, while the grey cerns, however, the source of the information: the ones refer to the bipartite model suggested by ethnomusicological approach takes into account Bershadskaya. all the sources of information available to the re- The major diff erence here is that the level of be- searcher, whereas the music theoretical approach haviour is present only in Merriam’s model, which obtains information about musical thinking from is a manifestation of the ethnomusicological ap- an analysis of the musical text. It would seem that proach. Additionally, the notion of ‘musical think- the analytical potential of the music theoretical ing’ is not exactly the same as that of ‘conceptu- approach might also be used successfully in eth- alization’. Whereas the latter refers to knowledge nomusicological research, especially when mu- that can be verbalized (‘thinking about music’ sical texts (e.g. archival recordings) are the only rather than ‘musical thinking’), the former notion source available. In any case, we can state that a is broader – it includes not only conceptualization consideration of the diff erent aspects and levels but also specifi cally musical thinking, which can of the musical process gives us a more complete, be a non-verbal cognitive process.20 Bershads- multi-dimensional insight into the issue of musi- kaya’s notion of texture seems, on the contrary, cal texture and multipart and multilinear music to be narrower than that of sound. According to making. Merriam, the “sound has structure, and it may be a system” (Merriam 1964: 32). The ‘texture’ in Ber- 3. Towards an inclusive and diff erentiated shadskaya’s theory also has a structure, but it is a conception of heterophony surface structure, and the level of the deep structure, that of the musical system, is designated as 3.1. One-part and multipart heterophony the склад (which is, at the ideal level, a manifesta- When discussing the topic of heterophony, eth- tion of the ‘musical thinking in relation to texture’). nomusicologists do not usually touch upon the In ethnomusicology, the level of sound embraces question of the diff erent kinds of heterophony

19 Concerning the diff erent principles of the formation of the vertical sonorities in multilinear music see Pärtlas 2010. 20 The concept of ‘musical thinking’ as a specifi c form of non-verbal imaginative thinking is very important for Russian musicological thought in general (e.g. see the works of the leading Russian scholars such as Yuri Kholopov, Yuri Tyulin, Viktor Bobrovsky, Vyacheslav Medushevsky, Yevgeny Nazaikinsky and others). With regard to traditional multipart singing, the importance of ‘musical thinking’ and ‘musical hearing’ is emphasized by Izaly Zemtsovsky, who describes “part-singing as part-thinking”, which means that part-singing is only possible when each member of polyphonic community (Homo Polyphonicus) is able to hear and think polyphonically (Zemtsovsky 2003: 47, 51).

56 Žanna Pärtlas that occur in the diff erent musical cultures of the bution of every singer/instrumentalist, etc. Using world, their comparison or the search for an inte- the words ‘part’ and ‘multipart’ fi guratively, au- grating defi nition. Individual researchers mostly thors sometimes express quite radical ideas, like proceed from the particular musical traditions that of Ignazio Macchiarella, for example, who that they investigate. For instance, John Napier in draws attention to the ‘parts’ of performer and his article “A ‘Failed’ Unison or Conscious Diff er- listener: “Indeed, all music might be considered entiation: The Notion of ‘Heterophony’ in North ‘multipart’, since all music (or almost all music) Indian Vocal Performance” (2006) provides a per- is a social act (“a social experience” in Blacking’s spicacious discussion of many theoretical ques- terms), i.e. it comes from interactions between tions of heterophony, but he does not go beyond at least two parts: performer and listener” (Mac- those topics which are directly connected to his chiarella 2012: 9). Although this remark is valu- musical subject. In English-language ethnomusi- able in itself, it is hardly helpful to use the term cological works we very seldom fi nd references ‘multipart’ with such a broad meaning. The other to heterophonic styles other than those of the radical interpretation would be to understand the instrumental and vocal-instrumental music of word ‘part’ as an individual musical contribution South-East, East and South Asia and the Middle of each performer. In this case, we would have to East. Despite some exceptions to this tendency, confess that all collectively performed music is such as Scottish Gaelic psalm-singing (one of the ‘multipart’, which is also too broad a meaning of common examples of heterophony given in mu- the term. Even if we assume that a ‘part’ means sic dictionaries), the vast layer of heterophonic the division of the performers into the function- singing in Eastern Europe (Eastern Slavs, Finno- ally diff erent parts, the problem remains that such Ugric peoples) is hardly considered. On the other a division is not necessarily connected with their hand, Russian-language ethnomusicology, in simultaneous sound, since the parts can be per- which the subject of heterophony is thoroughly formed successively – for example, the parts of investigated and theoretically discussed, takes the lead singer and responding chorus.21 The very into account only the heterophonic singing styles broad interpretations mentioned above make characteristic of the latter region. My own disser- the term ‘multipart’ too catchall and obliterate tation on heterophony in the ritual songs of the its meaning as a term relating to the domain of Russian-Belorussian borderland (1992) follows, in musical texture and to the conceptualization and this respect, the Russian theoretical tradition, and behaviour that give rise to it. To keep the mean- the defi nition of heterophony which I have pro- ing of the term ‘multipart’ within reasonable posed in that work is valid only for the relevant borders, it would be sensible to limit its usage to type of heterophonic singing. cases of the intentional production of ‘simultane- One of the purposes of this article is to fi nd a ous otherness’. This means that, at the diff erent defi nition of heterophony which would be in- levels of musical process, the notion ‘part’ would clusive enough to encompass all kinds of het- designate (1) the musical textural function that is erophonic music making and, at the same time, recognized by the singers/instrumentalists (the suffi ciently diff erentiative to point to the principal level of musical thinking and conceptualization), diff erences between them. The necessary condi- (2) the single performer or group of performers tion for the achievement of such a goal is to make who execute a functionally diff erentiated part of a clear distinction between one-part and multi- the musical texture (the level of behaviour), and part heterophony. To understand this distinction (3) the respective layer of the musical texture (the unambiguously, we should fi rst agree on what we level of sound). Under such conditions, the term mean by a ‘part’. ‘multipart’ would mean intentional and negotiated The word part is rich in meanings, both musi- division of the performers into functionally diff erent cal and general. In ethnomusicology, the term parts with the goal of producing the simultaneous can denote the layer of the musical texture, the sound of two or more melodic lines. part of the performing group, the musical or so- In accordance with the above, I would suggest cial role of the performer, the individual contri- using the notion one-part heterophony in those

21 Susanne Fürniss pointed to this problem of terminology in her paper at the Tallinn Seminar.

57 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony cases in which all the singers/instrumentalists variant heterophony the diff erences between perform the same part – in other words, when the individual melodic lines are quite small. In they are not divided into diff erent parts. Such a the former case, they are limited by diff erences situation mostly occurs when the group of per- in tuning, micro-melodic and micro-rhythmic formers is homogeneous, consisting only of sing- elements and voice embellishment (which still ers or of one kind of musical instrument. creates a specifi c sound very diff erent from the One-part heterophony is a widespread phe- unison of art music). According to the textbook nomenon. For example, it is typical of many re- we are referring to here, variant heterophony gional song traditions of the East Slavs; it also can be one- and two-register, which means that occurs among Finno-Ugric peoples such as Mord- some of the singers perform their variants of the vinians and Udmurts and among the Kryashen- melody an octave above the others (such a form Tatars (Boyarkina 1986; Nuriyeva 2008; Almeyeva of singing is typical of North-Russia and some 2008). Russian ethnomusicology, describing such other regions) (Narodnoye … 2005: 496).22 In dif- a type of music making, names heterophony ferentiated heterophony and bourdon diaphony функциональное одноголосие (in relation to vo- one can fi nd some rudiments of functional dif- cal music, it can be translated as ‘functional one- ferentiation, with some singers mostly using the part singing’) and opposes it to the функциональ- lower or upper part of the scale and some singers ное двухголосие (‘functional two-part singing’, performing the fragments of the bourdon. While the term coined by Yevgeny Gippius) (Narodnoye the sound outcome gives the impression of quite … 2005: 495–496). The latter means that the sing- a developed degree of polyphony, we are never- ers consciously diff erentiate between two tex- theless still dealing here with one-part singing, in tural parts and have a respective terminology as much as (1) the singers do not recognize these (Narodnoye … 2005: 498). In the work just men- divergences as diff erent parts (although they are tioned (which was intended as a textbook on Rus- to some extent aware of them), (2) they do not sian traditional music), the following defi nition is have traditional terms for designating these tex- given for heterophony: tural functions, and (3) such kinds of specialized variation are not obligatory for the singers.23 Functional one-part singing [функциональ- Collectively performed one-part music which ное одноголосие] or heterophony […] is the is realized in a multilinear texture can be always type of multilinear texture [многоголосной defi ned as heterophony, because singing/play- фактуры] that is characterized by the inter- ing one part always means performing the same lacement of the diff erent performers’ versions melody or, more precisely, melodic model. In the within the confi nes of the same voice part [го- case of multipart practice there can be diff erent лосовой партии]. In respect to such texture, situations: the simultaneously performed parts the folk singers say that they all sing ‘in one can proceed from diff erent melodic models (this voice’ (Narodnoye … 2005: 496). is the more typical situation) or from the same In the same textbook, three types of heter- model. The latter case impels us to consider the ophony are described: (1) ‘variant heterophony’, use of the term ‘heterophony’. If we agree to ex- (2) ‘diff erentiated heterophony’ and (3) ‘bourdon tend the use of this term to cases of the intention- diaphony’ (бурдонная диафония, Yevgeny Gip- al, functionally diff erentiated simultaneous varia- pius’ term) (Narodnoye … 2005: 496–497). In some tion of the same melody, we should use in such a other publications, ‘monodic heterophony’ (‘a context the notion of multipart heterophony. Such wide unison’) is also mentioned. In monodic and a use of the term ‘heterophony’ was actually quite

22 It seems to me that in the case of the two-register singing the use of the term ‘heterophony’ is questionable, because the lower and upper parts have diff erent textural and even social functions (the married women sing with the chest voice and young unmarried women with the head voice) and the performers are aware of this. They characterize the timber of the voices as ‘thick’ and ‘thin’ voices (Narodnoye … 2005: 496). This ‘two-register heterophony’ also occurs among Udmurts (Nuriyeva 2008: 65, 66). 23 The singing practices described here are obviously the transitional forms between one-part and multipart musical practice.

58 Žanna Pärtlas usual from the very beginning, when this notion of the particularities of the instruments’ playing was introduced into scholarly language, and is techniques and conventional musical idioms. legitimized by long ethnomusicological practice. According to Benjamin Brinner: “Given a basic In connection with the topic of heterophony, eth- melody, musicians will rely on their idiomatic nomusicologists very often refer to the orchestral knowledge of instrument-specifi c conventions music of south-east Asia, such as the Indonesian (the “idiom” of that instrument) to create the gamelan (e.g. Cooke 2001). This musical practice strands that make up the rich, dense texture char- can provide a very good example of ‘multipart acteristic of Javanese gamelan” (Brinner 2008: 24). heterophony’. The conjunction of the melodic versions into the All researchers describe the texture of gamelan whole texture is coordinated on the basis of cer- music as consisting of multiple textural layers tain vertical rules and musicians create their vari- (usually named ‘strata’) which are easily distin- ations taking into account the musical decisions guishable for listeners owing to their specifi c of the other participants in the performance. As sound characteristics. The strata can be grouped Brinner asserts: “Musicians listen to one another, into four or fi ve functional layers such as “(1) foun- acutely aware of what others are doing and at- dation/colotomic, (2) simplifi ed/abstracted mel- tuned to the cues that come from those playing ody, (3) elaborated/varied melody, and (4) drum leading roles” (Brinner 2008: 24). patterns” (Spiller 2004: 71).24 The melodic strata According to the descriptions above, the mul- (the second and third functions in Spiller’s clas- tipart heterophony of gamelan essentially diff ers sifi cation) are based on the same melodic mod- from the one-part vocal heterophony of the East el – pokok in Balinese and balungan in Javanese Slavs, Finno-Ugric peoples and others: the parts tradition (Jaap Kunst named it ‘nuclear melody’) are functionally diff erentiated, the variation tech- – which is varied in accordance with the textural niques are specialized, one of the parts is recog- functions and specifi c characteristics of the in- nized as the theme (model) for variation, and the struments. As Henry Spiller explains: simultaneous melodic variants are coordinated at least at some certain points of the metrical and The lower-pitched instruments (jengglong rhythmic form. Nevertheless, we are still dealing and demung) play versions of the melody here with the principle of simultaneous variation, that are very simple – only seven notes in the the melodic versions have the same reference example. The versions played by the higher- notes (i.e. the structurally fi xed sonorities are uni- pitched instruments (boning and titil) are, by sons or octaves), and, between obligatory unison comparison, very elaborate. They are consid- points, the vertical outcome of variation is not a ered to be diff erent versions of the same mel- matter for detailed aural control.25 ody because they land on the same pitches at Another kind of the ‘multipart heterophony’ is regular time intervals. The simplifi ed version, to be found in accompanied vocal music where a played by the lower-pitched instruments, in- melodic instrument performs the variation of the cludes only the melody’s most essential con- vocal part. In this connection, I referred above to tours (Spiller 2004: 70). the North-Indian melodic accompaniment sangat The diff erences between variations emerge (Napier 2006) and to a similar Japanese practise not only as a result of performing diff erent com- mentioned by Sachs (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 187). positional functions such as ‘abstraction’ and Certainly, there must also be other examples of ‘elaboration’ (Tenzer 2000: 53), but also because such heterophonic accompaniment, including

24 Michael Tenzer names these functions in a slightly diff erent way and adds the function of ‘mediation’ – “pokok reinforcement (or colotomic melody)” (Tenzer 2000: 53). 25 In connection with the theory and terminology of gamelan music, it should be noted that contemporary gamelan researchers do not actively use the word ‘heterophony’, preferring instead the notions of ‘polyphonic stratifi cation’ and ‘simultaneous variation’. However, some authors mention that the latter technique can be named ‘heterophony’ (Brinner 2008: 88; Spiller 2004: 12, 278); sometimes the term ‘stratifi ed heterophony’ is used in this connection. It is also interesting that, as Tenzer remarks, the understandings of strata and their compositional functions are more characteristic of the Western conceptualization of gamelan music, whereas “the traditional taxonomies are not concerned with the idea of strata” (Tenzer 2000: 52).

59 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony

‘self-heterophony’, which emerges when a singer 3.2. Consciousness, intention, control and accompanies his/her singing on a melodic instru- vertical regularities in heterophony ment, as is the case with the Serbian epic songs The concepts listed in the title of this subsection with gusle. Some cases of heterophonic accom- are closely connected to one another, but they paniment were already briefl y described above; are not the same. As mentioned above, Curt Sachs therefore here I will only summarize their es- makes a distinction between ‘unconscious’ and sential features, comparing them with the other ‘conscious’ heterophony (1957, 1962). Peter Cooke types of heterophonic music making. (2001) uses in this context words with slightly Such practises should be defi ned as multipart diff erent meanings: ‘accidental’ and ‘deliberate’. music because the parts of the singer and accom- John Napier (2006) wittily notes that heterophony panist are functionally diff erentiated and subor- can be unintentional but conscious, if the reason dinated. The singer’s part is considered to be the for variant deviations lies in the skills of the musi- main part and the reference melody for the ac- cians involved. He also mentions the expression companist; from the point of view of variation, it “a planless plan” by Alan Lomax (1976), which is a ‘theme’. The accompanying instrumental part refers to the contrary situation – heterophony (or parts) is a subsidiary part, which follows the so- that is intentional (planned) but not conscious loist’s musical decisions. According to John Napi- in details. The intention to produce a multilinear er’s description, “if the authority of the soloist is texture does not necessarily mean that musicians accepted, and their line is understood as ‘prime’, also carefully coordinate their parts and control it may be interpreted as the ‘normal’ version pre- the resulting vertical sonorities. When consider- sented at the same time as one or more accompa- ing coordination and control, we should not think nying voices actually present ‘the heterophony’” in the terms of ‘yes’ or ‘no’, but ought always to (Napier 2006: 93). As in the case with gamelan, ask the extent to which the sound is coordinated the variation methods of the instrumentalists are and controlled. Finally, the lack of deliberate verti- idiomatic for their instruments. All the same, the cal coordination and control does not mean that performers’ attitude towards the diff erences be- there are no regularities in the vertical aspect of tween the parts may, in some respects, be similar the music. These cognitive questions and some to that of one-part vocal heterophony, because other relative topics of heterophony will be dis- musicians tend to declare that the accompanist cussed below. follows the soloist exactly (Napier 2006: 102). Summarizing the above, we may conclude that 3.2.1. Hearing and listening in the perception of the main diff erences between one-part and mul- heterophony tipart heterophony concern the question of func- From the cognitive point of view, it would be in- tional diff erentiation (including subordination) teresting to consider the discrepancies between and the method of variation. One-part heter- the intention of the performers to sing/play the ophony is characterized by the lack of functional same melody and the multilinear textural out- diff erentiation and subordination of the melodic come. Moreover, the question is not only one lines and by the ‘equivalent-alternative’ method of intention, but also of the perception of the of variation, whereas the textural layers of multi- sound result. John Napier comments on the san- part heterophony are functionally diff erentiated gat practice: “I was surprised when not one, but and subordinated and the variation methods are two consultants told me that the accompanist specialized. The most important common fea- can play the same thing at the same time. This tures of both types of heterophony are the princi- seemed to fl y in the face of both commonsense, ple of ‘simultaneous variation’ and the lack of de- and almost everything that I had heard” (Napier liberate aural control over the vertical sonorities 2006: 102). Questioning the traditional singers (except structural unisons). However, the ques- of the Russian-Belorussian borderland in 1980s, tion of aural control and coordination is quite a I received the same ‘standard’ explanation, which diffi cult one and will therefore be discussed in the was mentioned above in connection with Russian next part of the article. heterophonic singing (Narodnoye … 2005: 496):

60 Žanna Pärtlas

“We sing these songs in one voice”. When I in- Equally, it is also possible that some performers sisted and explained my question more precisely, consciously produce a multilinear texture, while I was fi nally told that everyone sings the tune in others just perform their individual variants of the his/her own way and it is possible that they do not melody. sing exactly the same melody. It seemed to me In the perception of heterophonic music by that my question was strange to my consultants outsider listeners (e.g. by ethnomusicologists), and that normally they do not think about it. Of the emphasis of aural attention is often shifted. course, they would be able to hear the deviations We tend to pay attention to the aspects of sound from unison in their singing, but apparently they which are not essential for the bearers of the tra- usually do not listen to them. dition. The same occurs when ‘secondary’ musical Although the singers/instrumentalists may not collectives (e.g. so-called ‘folklore ensembles’) try be interested in careful control over the musi- to imitate one-part heterophonic music. In such a cal texture, it can be presumed that the specifi c situation, the attention of performers is directed sound of a multilinear texture in every concrete to the intentional production of heterophony, musical style becomes a ‘sonic ideal’ for the bear- which is an attitude fundamentally diff erent from ers of the respective tradition and the deviations that of the performers of the ‘primary’ tradition.26 from this ‘ideal’ (e.g. if an unexpected enduring unison or an over-dense multilinear texture 3.2.2. Levels and forms of texture control emerges) can cause dissatisfaction. In multipart Heterophony is often described as an unconscious heterophony the performers are evidently far and/or irregular multilinear texture. Together more conscious of the overall sound. However, with the principle of ‘simultaneous variation’, this psychologically speaking, the vertical aspect of would seem to be the second main characteristic music in both one-part and multipart heteroph- feature of heterophony. However, as demonstrat- ony is traditionally something for hearing rather ed above, heterophony can be both unconscious than for listening, i.e. it can be passively perceived, and conscious and, as will be shown in the next but it is not the object of a “concentrated, goal subsection, the irregularity of the vertical out- oriented interest in noticing what is sounding” come of heterophony can be called into question (Günther 2007: 10). Even when we speak about in many cases. I would suggest that this essential ‘listening’, the question remains as to what sing- quality of heterophony could be better described ers/instrumentalists actually listen to – whether using the notion of control. Discussing the prob- it is to the general sound, to the melodic vari- lem in these terms, we can say that whether het- ation of other performers, or to the structure of erophony is conscious or unconscious, irregular the vertical sonorities. This last kind of listening or regular, the performers of heterophonic music do (listening to the structure of the vertical sonori- not have (or have a rather limited) control over the ties) is apparently not characteristic of any type of vertical aspect of sound. However, we should take heterophony. into account the fact that musical processes can- Of course, when speaking about ‘hearing’ and not be completely controlled or uncontrolled – it ‘listening’ in heterophony and, more generally, is a question of degree, and control can manifest about all conscious and unconscious musical cog- itself at diff erent levels and in diff erent forms. nitive processes, we should also take into account First of all, it should be understood which as- the individual factor. When analysing such pro- pects of the multilinear texture can be controlled. cesses, we should distinguish between general The most elementary level of control, which is tendencies and the peculiarities of musical think- characteristic of all kinds of heterophony, is unity ing of the individual performers. Thus it is always of tonality and synchronicity of form. This mani- possible that there are some performers who are fests itself in the structural unisons, which are inclined to ‘listen’, whereas others merely ‘hear’. always found in the heterophonic texture. The

26 As my personal experience in teaching heterophonic songs to music students shows, the avoidance of unison is quite a challenging task for the ‘secondary’ performers, and, unless they concentrate specifi cally on the individual melodic variation, the heterophonic elements easily disappear and the texture inconspicuously becomes plain unison.

61 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony second level of control is that of the textural co- i.e. the use of the diff erent parts of the musical ordination between individual melodic lines. In scale (higher and lower) in the diff erent parts. The this respect, three attitudes are possible: (1) the situation where some singers/instrumentalists intentional production of a multilinear texture, perform the lower melodic variants while others (2) the intentional production of a unison texture, perform higher variants occurs in many styles of and (3) a neutral attitude towards the texture. In multipart music, but, as a rule, it is not character- heterophony, we are dealing with the fi rst or third istic of heterophony. Some exceptions like the attitude. above-mentioned Russian ‘diff erentiated heter- The neutral attitude means that singers/instru- ophony’ point to transitional forms of textural mentalists do not plan any kind of texture – they thinking. As in the case with ‘rhythmic diff eren- just do not think in the terms of texture, having tiation’, the use of the lower and higher melodic neither the concept of unison nor that of multi- variants does not necessary mean that the result- linear texture. Such music making is conceptually ing vertical sonorities are under the control of the one-part and its textural outcome depends to a performers, who may simply maintain the unity of great extent on the structural complexity of the the tune’s modal scale. melody – the more complex melody, the more The third level of control concerns the structure multilinear divergences we can expect to emerge. of vertical sonorities. As mentioned above, such In vocal music, this is often connected with the control can manifest itself mainly in two forms: in number, length and structure of the melismata – the preference for certain harmonic intervals (e.g. the singing of a single syllable of the text with two thirds or perfect fi fths) and/or in the preference or more successive melody notes. In the Estonian for certain combinations of scale notes (Pärtlas runic tunes, which are structurally very simple and 2010). The control over the structure of the ver- mostly syllabic, the heterophonic divergences are tical sonorities can also be more or less detailed, minimal (Oras 2008); in the more melismatic Rus- depending on what exactly the subject of the con- sian tunes, the heterophonic elements are usually trol is – all real sonorities or only the structural so- more developed. The density of the heterophonic norities. In the latter case, the number of vertical texture also depends on the variation technique sonorities that are not structural and, therefore, and the modal structure. In those styles that are that are not the subject of the control depends characterized by the exchangeability of certain (as in the case of heterophonic divergences) on scale notes in the melodic variants (as in many the development of the melodic embellishment Russian regional song styles), heterophnonic di- (including the melismata). For example, in the vergences can often appear even without a melis- Seto multipart songs, almost all real sonorities matic context. are structural (due to the very small number of The intentional production of a multilinear tex- melismata), and therefore almost all real vertical ture is conceptually a multipart attitude, though sonorities have a regular structure. In the South- this does not mean that performers have com- Russian multipart singing, on the contrary, one plete control over the musical texture. So there may fi nd many, as it were, accidental sonorities are several compositional devices which can en- between the structural sonorities that act as a sure the multilinear result without any control tonal and formal reference; one of the reasons for over the structure of vertical sonorities. One such this is the more developed and complex melodic possibility is rhythmic diff erentiation, which means style of the songs. There are also traditional styles that performers use complementary rhythms ei- where the thorough aural control over the vertical ther by the simultaneous singing/playing of the sonorities is a special aesthetic attitude (e.g. the melodic variants with a diff erent rhythmic density cantu a cuncordu style in Sardinian music). or by fi lling the long notes in one part with the It appears, however, that the highest level of shorter notes in the other. The former device is vertical control – the control over the structure often consciously used in multipart heterophony of vertical sonorities – is not characteristic of any (as is the case with gamelan); the latter situation, kind of heterophonic music. The singers/instru- on the other hand, may appear by chance in the mentalists can be conscious of the fact of the vari- process of variation. Another device for creat- ant divergences in the texture; they can like the ing a multilinear texture is pitch diff erentiation, sonic outcome and produce such types of texture

62 Žanna Pärtlas intentionally; but the quality of the vertical soas the pentatonic and diatonic scales and the norities is not planned and/or controlled by the scale based on the overtone series (Kubik 1968). performers. This last phenomenon – the lack of I found an analogous principle in the Russian and control over the quality of the vertical sonorities – Seto (South-East Estonia) songs based on the should be considered as a second attribute of het- whole-tone and one-three-semitone scale (Pärt- erophony along with ‘the simultaneous variation’. las 2006). What is especially important is that under the conditions of diff erent scales the principle 3.2.3. Vertical regularities in heterophony of ‘overjumping’ gives the diff erent intervallic re- Usually, when speaking about the unconscious- sults: thus, in diatonic music the sonorities of the ness of heterophony, researchers automatically minor and major thirds emerge, in the pentatonic assume a lack of any vertical organization27 in the music perfect fourths and major thirds, in the heterophonic texture. The main goal of this sub- whole-tone and one-three-semitone mode the section is to show that some harmonic regulari- major thirds only, etc. ties can also be found in the multilinear texture Although Kubik interpreted the principle of that emerges unintentionally and/or is not under ‘overjumping’ as the method forming the vertical the control of the performers. The existence of sonorities, I would like to draw attention to the such regularities can be explained by the connec- possibility that this principle could be of melodic tions between the diff erent aspects of the musical origin. It seems that the theoretical substantiation structure – they are essentially resulting regulari- of this phenomenon could be the theory of ‘ter- ties which emerge when intentional coordination tial induction’ (теория терцовой индукции) of of one aspect of the musical structure provides the Russian music theorist Lev Mazel (1972). Lev unintentional coordination of another aspect. In Mazel was not satisfi ed with the common expla- the case of heterophony, the rules of melodic build- nation of the tertial chord structure in tonal mu- ing and variation determine the regularities in the sic by the acoustic qualities of vertical intervals structure of vertical sonorities. alone. He added a functional explanation, which At the most elementary level, the interval takes into account the melodic functions of the structure of the vertical sonorities can be deter- scale notes. Since the notes placed next but one mined by the very structure of the musical scale, in the scale both have a melodic tendency to go especially when dealing with scales that consist to the same scale note located between them, of a small number of scale notes. Such a correla- they have a similar melodic function (for instance, tion is obvious, but sometimes the interdepend- the upper and the lower neighbouring tones of ences that occur are more complex. For example, the same scale note). Since stepwise melodic mo- the resulting vertical coordination can be con- tion has a special importance in many musical nected with the rules of the interchangeability of cultures, the principle of ‘overjumping’ is wide- scale notes in the melodic variants. Thus, in many spread in traditional (and art) music. The vertical musical traditions, the rule of so-called ‘over- sonorities that result from this principle may be jumping’ (Überspringverfahren – Gerhard Kubik recognized by the performers as a desirable har- 1968) underlies the formation of both melodic monic sounds, but the method of ‘overjumping’ variants and vertical sonorities. According to this can also work without any harmonic intentions. rule, the vertical sonorities are composed of the The heterophonic songs of the Russian-Belorus- notes placed next but one in the scale. Investigat- sian borderland provide a good example of this ing the multipart music of Central and East Africa, last situation (an example of the musical style is Kubik discovered that this principle can be real- provided in Ex. 1).28 ized in music with diff erent scale structures, such

27 Actually, I would prefer the notion of ‘harmonic regularities’, were the word ‘harmony’ not so strongly connected for many musicologists with the functional harmony of the Western art music. The regularities in the structure of the vertical (i.e. harmonic) sonorities, however, can be found in music that is not related to functional harmony. So we can speak about a harmonic dimension in all musical styles where the ‘simultaneous otherness’ is coordinated by certain intervallic and/or modal rules. 28 I described this song tradition and its heterophonic style in more detail in Pärtlas 2012; therefore I will provide here the minimum necessary examples and explanations.

63 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony

Example 1. The most widespread wedding tune of the Russian-Belorussian borderland (the variant from Ver- hovye village of the Velizh district in the Smolensk region of Russia, 1990).

Example 2. The harmonic scheme of the same wedding tune: structural notes at the level of syllabic rhythm.

While on the subject of vertical regularities material analysed allowed me to fi nd such micro- in heterophony, one more topic should be men- variants for the majority of syllable-notes in diff er- tioned, namely the structural level on which the ent performances. Surprisingly, the tunes’ models manifestations of vertical coordination can be consisting of the structural notes (at the level of found. The vertical regularities can be most eas- syllabic rhythm) revealed a predominantly ter- ily observed if they manifest themselves at the tian vertical structure (Ex. 2). The schemes of the level of surface structure, which means that most structural notes also showed that it is possible to of the real sonorities are built in accordance with substitute any scale note with the tonic (the note some harmonic principle (e.g. most of the vertical G in the schemes and notations) and with the fi fth sonorities are thirds). However, statistical analysis above or the fourth below the tonic (the note D). of the wedding songs of the region just named The tertian correlation of the structural notes revealed no clear regularities at this level: unison points to the validity of the rule of ‘overjumping’ prevailed, as is common in heterophonic music, in this heterophonic style. The interchangeabil- but the number of the seconds and thirds in the ity of all scale notes with the tonic, upper fi fth multilinear texture was approximately the same. and lower fourth indicates the function of these Consistent patterns emerged, however, when three notes as imaginary ‘drones’ or the reference examining the deeper structural level – namely, tones of musical mode. The observations made the level of the syllabic rhythm.29 To avoid sub- in the large number of experimental recordings jectivity, I searched for those variations where showed that the bearers of this tradition use the the syllable-notes were performed as one note same melodic variants when singing in diff er- and, although the whole strophe can never be ent ensembles and alone and never correct their performed in this manner, the large amount of individual versions of the tune in order to create or

29 The syllabic rhythm (слогоритм) is one of the most important categories of the ‘structural-typological method’ (структурно-типологический метод) of music analysis widely used in Russian-language ethnomusicology. The unit of syllabic rhythm, a ‘syllable-note’ (слогонота), is the sum of durations of all notes corresponding to one syllable of text.

64 Žanna Pärtlas avoid particular vertical sonorities. This suggests be an entirely self-suffi cient aesthetic phenom- that in the heterophonic tradition under consid- enon; however, I would like to draw a distinction eration: (1) the musical thinking of the singers is between heterophony and simple inaccuracy in essentially melodic; (2) at the level of behaviour performance. The case of so-called ‘mass sing- they do not coordinate their melodic variants; and ing’ usually involves the latter situation. Ignazio (3) the regularities that can be found at the level Macchiarella diff erentiates between ‘mass sing- of sound result entirely from the melodic logic of ing’ practices, which “should not be considered the tunes. as multipart music since they lack intentionality”, and heterophony, which according to him is mul- 3.2.4. Heterophony and ‘mass singing’ tipart music, because “these intentional unper- Before moving on to the concluding section, I fect music synchronisms are fully part of the ex- would like to touch upon one more topic related pressions of multipart music” (Macchiarella 2012: to heterophony, although it is somewhat ‘risky’ 10). While agreeing with the idea that imprecise and perhaps provocative. This topic concerns the musical performance and heterophony are dif- aesthetic evaluation of the diff erent forms of het- ferent in nature, I cannot agree with the reason erophony. In this connection, Curt Sachs diff er- Macchiarella gives for this diff erence, because, entiated between ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ heter- as I have attempted to demonstrate above, one- ophony, proceeding from the understanding that part heterophony is essentially unintentional and ‘positive’ heterophony is conscious and ‘negative’ lacks vertical awareness. I think that the border unconscious. So bringing an example of ‘uncon- between ‘true’ heterophony and discordant ‘mass scious’ heterophony, Sachs speaks about congre- singing’ is not the border between conscious and gational singing in church; he notes that it “would unconscious, or intentional and unintentional. be unbearable if intention and attention were fo- In my opinion, the question here relates to how cused on satisfactory sense perception, meaning, music is initially meant and how it is performed. The on art” (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 186). ancient heterophonic songs are initially ‘meant’ Although nowadays we usually avoid evaluat- to be performed with variation and not in unison ing any kind of music as ‘negative’, it would be un- and heterophonic performance is in full accord- reasonable to deny the obvious fact that diff erent ance with their very nature. In such songs, the musical phenomena may have a diff erent aesthet- unintentional heterophonic divergences are re- ic value for the insiders of a tradition and for those ally an inherent part of the musical expression. outside it. In musicology, the word ‘heterophony’ In the case of ‘mass singing’, we are very often is often associated with musical phenomena that dealing with music that was initially meant to have little or no aesthetic value, such as crowd be sung either solo, in unison or in a harmoni- singing at a demonstration or some sports event, cally coordinated multipart way (as in the case, soldiers’ songs performed while marching, etc. for example, of popular songs used as marching For this reason, the term ‘heterophony’ is some- songs). The ‘mass performance’ of such music is times perceived as having a negative meaning. usually far from being perfect and the performers Some negative attitudes towards heterophony, themselves do not consider such music making which can be found even among ethnomusicolo- as skilled and aesthetically valuable: such music gists, are also rooted in the essentially ethnocen- making fulfi ls other functions. tric belief that the level of control over the musi- Every kind of music indeed, including hetero- cal process determines the quality of the musical phonic songs, can be performed improperly. For result and that real mastery means an awareness example, I witnessed an occasion when two wom- of every smallest detail of musical performance. en started to sing a heterophonic wedding song Proceeding from such an attitude, the value of in parallel seconds. I asked them whether it was a heterophony is sometimes seen in its ‘polyphonic proper performance and they said ‘no, it was not’. potential’, i.e. in the assumption that it may be This suggests that although the heterophonic di- considered as historical step in the development vergences in these songs were unintentional, the of a truly polyphonic style (Bouёt 2012). performers were fully conscious of the need to For me there is no doubt that heterophony support the unity of tonality. It seems that in such in both its forms – one-part and multipart – can cases we should not speak about heterophony,

65 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony but, rather more mundanely, about inaccurate levels and aspects of musical and cultural phenom- performance. Of course, the border between het- ena. Using (and merging) the existing structural erophony and inaccurate performance can some- models of musical process, such as Merriam’s tri- times be very vague, and it depends, too, on the partite model ‘concept – behaviour – sound’ and cultural and musical context. Bershadskaya’s bipartite model склад – фактура (musical thinking and sonic realization (texture)), Conclusions I tried to better understand to which level(s) one In my research I proceeded from the assumption or another (ethno)musicological term refers and that a clear system of concepts and terms is a nec- formulate defi nitions that take into account diff er- essary condition for every productive theoretical ences between the levels. discussion. While Alessandro Bratus in his essay At the level of sound (sonic realization), I pro- in the present volume praises the term ‘multi- pose the use of the concept multilinear texture as part’ for its “positive ambiguity”, which allows it the most neutral term for designating every form to be applied to diff erent musical practices, I try of ‘simultaneous otherness’. Heterophony, as a to overcome the ‘negative ambiguity’ of this term, kind of texture, is always multilinear. A multilinear which impedes understanding between ethno- texture is also characteristic of multipart music, musicologists. I also try to enunciate a defi nition but not all multilinear music is multipart. ‘True’ mul- of ‘heterophony’ that is both inclusive and coher- tipart music implies the “will to produce diff eren- ent, clearly pointing to the distinctive attributes tiated sound emissions” (Macchiarella 2012: 10), of this phenomenon and diff erentiating between which refers to the level of concept. This means its particular forms. that multipart music should be defi ned proceeding, I believe that ‘heterophony’ is a term that is fi rst of all, from the level of concept, and the aspects well worth theorizing about. This term could be of behaviour and sound outcome are secondary very useful in ethnomusicological discourse, since with respect to that of conceptualization. it combines in itself two important advantages: At the level of concept (musical thinking), two on one hand, it is a Western term of a very old types of heterophony should be distinguished origin, which does not need much translation; on – one-part and multipart heterophony. ‘One-part the other hand, its ‘new history’ is not long and it heterophony’ means that the performers do not is mostly used for designating the phenomena of divide themselves into diff erent textural parts. non-Western music. On the subject of the useful- The other characteristic features of ‘one-part het- ness of a clearly defi ned international terminolo- erophony’ are: (1) the performers lack the con- gy, I completely agree with John Napier, who said: cept of unison; (2) the multilinear divergences are unintentional; (3) all the singers/instrumentalists some straightforward terminological deter- have an equal role in the musical performance, mination may be necessary, one that perhaps executing ‘equivalent-alternative’ variants of the does not mire writers in awkward translation, melody; (4) though in some cases the perform- verbose descriptions of what they perceive, ers can be aware of the multilinear divergences in endless neologisms, or the constant introduc- the texture, nevertheless they do not control the tion of non-Western terminology, which in structure of the vertical sonorities. One-part het- itself always requires a degree of translation erophony typically occurs in homogeneous en- (Napier 2006: 86). sembles (the same type of musical instruments) Such terms as ‘heterophony’ allow us better to and, especially, in vocal music. ‘Multipart heter- identify some universal features in human musi- ophony’, on the other hand, means that: (1) the cal thinking and in the ways of music making and performers are consciously divided into function- ensure the possibility of the cross-cultural use of ally diff erent textural parts; (2) their roles in the the terminology. musical performance are diff erentiated and of- It would appear that the most typical cause of ten subordinated; (3) the performers use specifi c ambiguous defi nitions and their diff erent under- methods of variation, which are often idiomatic of standings is an insuffi cient attention to the diff erent their instruments; (4) they are completely aware

66 Žanna Pärtlas of the multilinear character of the texture, but of any kind of heterophony is the intentional for- they still do not control the structure of the verti- mation of particular vertical sonorities (except the cal sonorities. structural unisons). The resulting sonorities may The level of behaviour is the bridge between be passively perceived by the traditional perform- the level of concept and that of the sound. When ers and listeners, but they are not the aim of the studying heterophony, one should take into ac- performance. count that musical behaviour includes compo- To summarize the theoretical discussion above nents that are not acknowledged at the level of in a short defi nition of heterophony, I would pro- concept or which can even (apparently) contra- pose the following formulation: the term ‘heter- dict the assertions of the bearers of tradition. The ophony’ may be used to defi ne diff erent types of level of behaviour includes among other compo- music making, both one-part and multipart, which nents also the specifi cally musical decisions and are characterized by a multilinear texture and which choices made by singers/instrumentalists during come into being through the process of the simul- performance. taneous variation of the same melody when the The descriptions of one-part and multipart performers do not control the quality of the vertical heterophony proposed above may seem quite sonorities. This defi nition contains as its inevitable contrasting, but there are two essential features and necessary part the usual description of het- that link them together. The fi rst of these is the erophony as ‘the simultaneous variation of the simultaneous variation of the same melody, which same melody’. One of its new components points is the well-known defi nition of heterophony. As I to the lack of control over the vertical sonorities showed in this article, it works relatively well, but on the part of the performers. This is an attribute it is not suffi cient and can be variously interpret- of heterophony which is of no less importance ed. The second attribute of heterophony, which than ‘the simultaneous variation’. The wording has gained much less attention in ethnomusi- used for this attribute in the present defi nition cological research, is the lack of control over the emphasizes that we are speaking here about the structure of vertical sonorities. In this paper I have levels of conceptualization (intention) and behav- tried to defi ne this second characteristic feature iour (control), but not about the sound outcome, of heterophony very carefully, because in this re- because the latter may be ‘vertically’ regulated by spect diff erent understandings are possible. The the rules resulting from the melodic (‘horizontal’) second attribute of heterophony is very impor- musical logic. This new defi nition also points to tant, because the better we realize it, the better the diff erences at the level of conceptualization we can understand the fi rst one, i.e. the nature between one-part and multipart heterophony of heterophonic variation. It would be incorrect and to the fact that both one-part and multipart to claim that performers completely lack control musical thinking can be realized in a multilinear over the vertical aspect of heterophonic music, texture. for they can be aware of the multilinear texture I hope that this defi nition, which is both inclu- emerging as a result of the simultaneous vari- sive and limiting and which takes into account dif- ation, and indeed they can even coordinate the ferent levels and aspects of the music-making pro- variation process (in the case of multipart het- cess, facilitates the cross-cultural use of the term erophony). Neither would it be correct to assert ‘heterophony’. The recognition of heterophony as that heterophonic texture is always irregular with a complex and multilevel process also contributes respect to the intervallic structure of the vertical to the more general discussion about the nature sonorities. Vertical regularities can be found in of traditional multipart music, drawing attention the resulting sonorities, but these are rooted in to the fundamental question about the relation- the rules of melodic variation and in the structure ship between human agency (musical thinking of musical scales. What really is not characteristic and actions) and sound structure in music.

67 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony

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Ignazio Macchiarella, Udine: Nota, pp. 129–142. muzykal’nykh kul’tur [Finno-Ugric Multi-Part Music in the Pärtlas, Žanna 2013. On Musical Creativity in “Text-oriented” Context of Other Music Cultures]. Töid etnomusikoloogia Song Traditions: The Processes of Melodic Variation in alalt 5, eds. Triinu Ojamaa, Žanna Pärtlas, Tartu: Eesti Seto Multipart Songs. – Local and Global Understandings Kirjandusmuuseum / Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia, of Creativities: Multipart Music Making and the Construction pp. 64–78. [Нуриева, Ирина 2008. Многоголосие в of Ideas, Contexts and Contents. Ed. Ardian Ahmedaja, удмуртской народной музыке: к постановке проблемы. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. – Финно-угорское многоголосие в контексте других 60–76. музыкальных культур. Töid etnomusikoloogia alalt 5, Rice, Timothy 2010. Ethnomusicological theory. – Yearbook pед. Трийну Оямаа, Жанна Пяртлас, Тарту: Эстонский for Traditional Music 42, pp. 100–134. литературный музей / Эстонская академия музыки и театра, стр. 64–78.] Sachs, Curt 1957. Heterophonie. – Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik. Bd. 6, Oras, Janika 2008. Geterofoniya v runicheskoy pesne Kikhnu hrsg. von Friedrich Blume, Kassel/Basel/London: Bärenreiter, – na osnove zapisey Liis Alas i Reet Sutt [Heterophony in Sp. 327–330. Kihnu regilaul – based on the recordings by Liis Alas and Reet Sutt]. – Finno-ugorskoye mnogogolosiye v kontekste Sachs, Curt 1977 [1962]. The Wellsprings of Music. Ed. Jaap drugikh muzykal’nykh kul’tur [Finno-Ugric Multi-Part Music in Kunst, New York: Da Capo Press. the Context of Other Music Cultures]. Töid etnomusikoloogia Skrebkov, Sergey 1973. Khudozhestvennyye printsipy alalt 5, eds. Triinu Ojamaa, Žanna Pärtlas, Tartu: Eesti muzykal’nykh stiley [The Art Principles of Music Styles]. Moscow: Kirjandusmuuseum / Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia, pp. Muzyka. [Скребков, Сергей 1973. Художественные 94–106. [Орас, Яника 2008. Гетерофония в рунической принципы музыкальных стилей. Москва: Музыка.] песне Кихну – на основе записей Лийз Алас и Реэт Сутт. Spiller, Henry 2004. Gamelan: The Traditional Sounds of – Финно-угорское многоголосие в контексте других Indonesia. Santa-Barbara/Denver/Oxford: ABC-CLIO. музыкальных культур. Töid etnomusikoloogia alalt 5, pед. Трийну Оямаа, Жанна Пяртлас, Тарту: Эстонский Stone, Ruth M. 2008. Theory for Ethnomusicology. Upper литературный музей / Эстонская академия музыки и Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. театра, стр. 94–106.] Stumpf, Carl 1901. Tonsystem und Musik der Siamesen. Pärtlas, Žanna 1992. Geterofonnoye mnogogolosiye russkoy – Beiträge zur Akustik und Musikwissenschaft 3. Hrsg. Carl narodnoy pesni: opredeleniye fenomena, zakonomernosti Stumpf, Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, S. obrazovaniya i stroyeniya (na materiale traditsii russko- 69–138. belorusskogo pogranich’ya) [Heterophony in Russian Folk Tenzer, Michael 2000. Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Song Tradition: Defi nition of the Phenomenon, Formation Twentieth-Century Balinese Music. Chicago/London: The Rules and Structure (on the Material of the Russian-Belorussian University of Chicago Press. Borderland)]. Ph. D. Dissertation, St.-Petersburg: The Rimski- Zemtsovsky, Izaly 1980. Problema varianta v svete Korsakov Saint Petersburg State Conservatory. [Пяртлас, muzykal’noy tipologii [The Problem of Variant in the Light

69 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony

of the Musical Typology]. – Aktual’nye problemy sovremennoj Zemtsovsky, Izaly 2003. Polyphony as a Way of Creating fol’kloristiki: sbornik statej i materialov. Ed. Viktor Gusev, and Thinking: The Musical Identity of Homo Polyphonicus. Leningradskiy gosudarstvennyy institut teatra, muzyki i – The First International Symposium on Traditional Polyphony. kinematografi i, Leningrad: Muzyka, pp. 36–49. [Земцовский, Proceedings. Eds. Rusudan Tsurtsumia, Joseph Jordania, Изалий 1980. Проблема варианта в свете музыкальной Tbilisi: International Research Center for Traditional типологии. – Актуальные проблемы современной Polyphony of Tbilisi Vano Sarajishvili State Conservatoire, фольклористики: сборник статей и материалов. Сост. pp. 45–53. Виктор Гусев, Ленинградский государственный институт театра, музыки и кинематографии, Ленинград: Музыка, стр. 36–49.]

70 Žanna Pärtlas

Teoreetilised lähenemised heterofooniale

Žanna Pärtlas

Heterofoonia on üks lihtsamaid (algelisemaid) mitmehäälsuse vorme traditsioonilises muusikas ning samas üks segasemaid teoreetilisi teemasid etnomusikoloogias. Selle nähtuse tekkimine on otseselt seotud traditsioonilise muusika suulise loomuse ja sellest lähtuva muusikalise mõtlemisega, mistõttu on seda raske kirjeldada kasutades Euroopa kunstmuusikast välja kasvanud terminoloogilist aparaati. Heterofoonia teoreetiline mõtestamine on keeruline ülesanne ka selle poolest, et paneb proovile muusikateooria ja etnomusikoloogia kõige üldisemaid muusikalise faktuuri ja selle tekitamisviisidega seotud mõisteid, millele lisandub etnomusikoloogiliste terminite tõlkimise probleem (siinne artikkel käsitleb põhiliselt ingliskeelset terminoloogiat, mis domineerib rahvusvahelises muusikateaduslikus suhtluses). Artiklis üritatakse mõtestada heterofooniat kui muusikalist, sotsiaalset ja psühholoogilist nähtust, ühendades erinevaid lähenemisviise – muusikaanalüütilist, antropoloogilist ja kognitiivset. Ühtlasi arutletakse mitmehäälsusega seotud terminoloogia kasutamist ning otsitakse heterofooniale defi nitsiooni, mis oleks senistest täielikum (s.t. hõlmaks kõiki selle nähtuse olulisi tunnuseid), diferentseerivam (s.t. eristaks heterofoonia põhilisi liike) ja piiritlevam (s.t. määraks selgemini selle nähtuse piire) ning arves- taks niipalju kui võimalik ka väljakujunenud terminoloogilist traditsiooni. Viimase puhul võib täheldada mõningat vastuolulisust, mille üheks põhjuseks tundub olevat vähene arvestamine muusikalise protsessi mitmetasandilisusega, mis tähendab, et termineid kasutades jääb sageli teadvustamata, millisele tasandile üks või teine mõiste kuulub, ja nii satuvad eri tasandite terminid vastuollu. Artiklis üritatakse lahendada seda probleemi, vaadeldes järjekindlalt heterofoonia eri aspekte – rahvamuusikute mõtle- misviisi, muusikalise käitumise mustreid ning muusikat kui kõlalist objekti. Vastavalt eelmainitud eesmärkidele koosneb artikkel kolmest peatükist. Esimeses peatükis (On the terminology) arutletakse mitmehäälsusega seotud üldisemaid mõisteid ning analüüsitakse heterofoonia n.-ö. klassikalist defi nitsiooni the simultaneous variation of the same melody (‘sama meloodia üheaegne varieerimine’). Üldistest terminitest pööratakse erilist tähelepanu neutraalsetele katusterminitele, mille eesmärk on tähistada igasugust muusikalist kooskõlamist sõltumata mitmehäälse faktuuri ehitusest ja tekkimise põhjustest (sellega seoses on kasutatud Curt Sachsi väljendit simultaneous otherness (Sachs 1977 [1962]: 177)). Paljudest käibel olevatest mõistetest (polyphony, multipart, multivoiced, plurivocal, plurilinear music jms.) jääb katusterminina sõelale väljend multilinear music, mis seostub põhiliselt muusikalise protsessi kõlatasandiga ja ei ole üleliia koormatud ajalooliselt väljakujunenud kitsamate tähen- dustega. Analüüsides heterofoonia tavapärast defi nitsiooni leitakse, et selle näiliselt lihtsa sõnastuse igast komponendist võib aru saada (ja seda ka tehakse) üsna mitut moodi, mis teeb heterofoonia mõiste ebaselgeks ja laialivalguvaks. Muu hulgas vaadeldakse artikli selles osas heterofoonilise varieerimise spetsiifi kat, meloodialiinide funktsionaalset vahekorda, sünkroonsuse mõistet jms. Samuti selgub, et heterofoonia üldlevinud defi nitsioon jätab nimetamata selle nähtuse ühe väga olulise tunnuse – faktuuri vertikaalse aspekti ebakorrapärasuse –, kuigi seda heterofoonia omadust mainitakse korduvalt selleala- ses kirjanduses, alustades termini kasutuselevõtust 20. sajandi alguses. Tähelepanu juhitakse ka sellele, et „vertikaalse irregulaarsuse” mõiste ise nõuab lähemat seletamist ja täpsustamist. Artikli teine peatükk (Bipartite and tripartite theoretical models in the approach to heterophony) loob heterofoonia uurimisele metodoloogilise aluse. Selle eesmärgiga võrreldakse kahte teoreetilist kontseptsiooni: Vene muusikateoreetiku Tatjana Beršadskaja kahetasandilist mudelit склад–фактура (~‘mõtlemislaad–faktuur’),1 kus esimene tasand iseloomustab faktuuriga seotud muusikalise mõtlemise põhiprintsiipi ja teine selle realiseerimist konkreetses faktuuris (Bershadskaya 1985 [1978]), ning Amee- rika muusikaantropoloogi Alan P. Merriami kolmetasandilist mudelit concept–behaviour–sound (‘idee– käitumine–kõla’; Merriam 1980 [1964]), mis lisab muusika ideaalse ja materiaalse tasandi vastandamisele

1 Selle terminipaari esimest sõna on raske tõlkida eesti keelde (otsetõlge oleks „laad”, „viis”, „kord”), sest sellele vastav muusikateooria termin „kirjaviis” viitab ühetähenduslikult kirjalikule muusikatraditsioonile. Beršadskaja faktuuriteooria seisukohalt oleks kõige sobivam tõlge „mõtlemislaad” või „mõtlemisviis”, kusjuures peab meeles pidama, et jutt käib just muusikalise faktuuri aspektist.

71 Theoretical Approaches to Heterophony ka antropoloogilise dimensiooni. Heterofoonia puhul võivad nende tasandite vahel tekkida (näilised) vastuolud: traditsioonikandjad võivad uskuda, et nad laulavad või mängivad ühehäälselt (idee tasand), samas varieerida meloodiat olulisel määral (käitumise tasand), mille tagajärjena osutub kõlaline tulemus mitmehäälseks (kõla tasand). Samuti on võimalik situatsioon, kus muusikud ei koordineeri meloodia va- rieerimist ei idee ega käitumise tasandil, kuid ometi osutub kõla tasandil muusika vertikaalne aspekt korrapäraseks (Pärtlas 1992, 2012). Kolmas peatükk (Towards an inclusive and diff erentiated conception of heterophony) koosneb kahest alaosast. Neist esimeses (One-part and multipart heterophony) eristatakse heterofoonia kahte tüüpi: one- part heterophony, mille puhul esitajad ei jagune partiideks ning kõik meloodia variandid on funktsionaal- selt võrdsed, ning multipart heterophony, mille puhul esitajad jagunevad teadlikult partiideks ning meloodia variandid täidavad erinevaid funktsioone ja nende vahel võivad olla ka subordinatsiooni suhted.2 Esimest tüüpi heterofoonia tekib põhiliselt homogeensetes ansamblites ja eriti vokaalmuusikas (näiteks esineb seda palju slaavlaste ja soomeugrilaste vanemas rahvalaulus); teine tüüp on omane heterogeen- setele instrumentaalansamblitele (nagu Indoneesia gamelan või Filipiini kulintang) ja vokaal-instrumen- taalmuusikale, kus meloodiline instrument saadab soololauljat (nagu Põhja-India instrumentaalsaade sangat). Need kaks heterofoonia tüüpi erinevad ka varieerimistehnika poolest: kui ühe partii raames toimuv varieerimine lähtub meloodiamudeli realiseerimise põhimõttelisest paljususest, siis eri partiides kasutatakse spetsialiseeritud varieerimistehnikaid (põhiliselt meloodia lihtsustamist ja keerustamist) ning meloodiavariandid on sageli idiomaatilised neid esitavatele muusikapillidele. Kolmanda peatüki teises osas (Consciousness, intention, control and vertical regularities in heterophony ) vaadeldakse küsimusi, mis on seotud mitmehäälse faktuuri tekitamise kognitiivsete aspektidega: tead- vustatuse ja kavatsuslikkusega ning kontrolliga kõlalise tulemuse üle. Heterofooniat käsitlevates uurimustes ei pöörata üldjuhul tähelepanu erinevustele mainitud aspektide vahel. Käesolevas artiklis näi- datakse, et mitmehäälsuse olemasolu teadvustamine ei tähenda selle kavatsuslikku tekitamist ning mõlemad ei tähenda, et muusikud üritavad või suudavad hoida mitmehäälset tulemust kuuldelise kontrolli all. Samuti lahatakse mitmehäälsuse tekitamise strateegiaid ning kuuldelise kontrolli ulatust, juhti- des tähelepanu faktile, et kontroll võib olla osaline ja puudutada vaid mõningaid mitmehäälse faktuuri aspekte. Heterofoonia atribuudina tõstetakse esile kontrolli puudumist mitmehäälsuses tekkivate koos- kõlade üle, mis ühendab kõiki heterofoonia liike sõltumata sellest, kas mitmehäälsus on teadvustatud ja taotluslik ning kas muusikud jagunevad partiideks või mitte. Samuti näidatakse ühe konkreetse muusi- katraditsiooni, nimelt Vene-Valgevene piiriala pulmalaulude näitel, kuidas heterofoonia teadvustamatus ja mitmehäälsete kavatsuste puudumine lauljate poolt ei tähenda, et viisi varieerimise mitmehäälne tulemus oleks kaootiline. Viisi varieerimise meloodilised seaduspärasused, mis lähtuvad lauludele omasest laadisüsteemist, tagavad ka muusika vertikaalse aspekti korrapärasuse, kuigi keegi ei püüdle selle poole ei idee ega käitumise tasandil. Artikli kokkuvõttes iseloomustatakse heterofoonia fenomeni, lähtudes järjest muusikalise protsessi kolmest tasandist – muusikalisest mõtlemisest, käitumisest ja kõlalisest tulemusest – ning võttes arvesse erinevusi heterofoonia kahe põhilise tüübi vahel (jagunemisega ning jagunemiseta partiidesse). Dis- kussiooni summeerivas heterofoonia defi nitsioonis osutatakse lisaks faktuuri tavapärasele kirjeldusele kõla tasandil („meloodia samaaegne varieerimine”) ka selle kognitiivsele ja käitumuslikule aspektile, ja nimelt – heterofoonia kahe tüübi olemasolule ning kontrolli puudumisele kooskõlade üle kui heterofoonia olemuslikule tunnusele. Uus defi nitsioon ühendab ja diferentseerib erinevaid muusikalisi nähtusi, mille puhul on heterofoonia terminit kasutatud, ning näitab nende ühiseid ja olulisi jooni. Loodetavasti võimaldab artiklis esitatud heterofoonia kontseptsioon selle mõiste mittevasturääkivat kasutamist erinevate muusikakultuuride puhul ning panustab ka üldisemasse diskussiooni traditsioonilise mitmehääl- suse olemuse üle.

2 Ingliskeelsete terminite one-part ja multipart otsetõlge eesti keelde ei kõla kuigi hästi – „ühepartiiline” ja „mitmepartiiline”. Samuti ei sobi ka terminid „ühe- ja mitmehäälne”, sest need on kõlatasandiga seotud katusterminid, samal ajal kui „partii” viitab idee ja käitumise tasanditele. Võib-olla tasuks kasutada selles kontekstis vene etnomusikoloogia eeskujul termineid „funktsionaalne ühe- ja mitmehäälsus” (функциональное одноголосие и многоголосие) (Narodnoye … 2005).

72 What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception Susanne Fürniss

Abstract For an ethnomusicologist, it is a particular challenge to approach the analysis and theorization of traditional music both from the “scientifi c” perspective – with the tools of (ethno)musicology – and from the “autochthonous” one – through the musical concepts that operate in the local culture. Such a twofold approach off ers an enriching perspective, not only for evaluating of how insiders and outsiders conceive the music, but also in terms of a diff erentiated use of musicological concepts and terms. This article concerns polyphonic techniques in two oral traditions (Aka from the Central African Re- public and Baka from Cameroon) and the relationship between the conceptualization of the parts, their reference patterns, as well as modalities of realization and variation. As soon as several voices are heard together, the musicologist tries to classify the acoustical result and to determine the polyphonic technique. Although quite often several techniques are combined, this type of classifi cation makes it quite possible to depict large musically relevant categories. But when the anthropologist crosses the musicological classifi cation with autochthonous categories of musical parts and their realization, what is clearly defi ned acoustically as being multipart music may eventually be considered as several simultaneous appearances of the same part, certainly multiple, but still thought of as one. This categorial divergence may reveal such an important gap between scientifi c and local conceptions that it leads to a refi ning of musicological categories.

For an ethnomusicologist, it is a particular chal- used by a large number of people as “objective, lenge to approach the analysis and theorization non-temporal” references, how can they be re- of traditional music both from the “scientifi c” perfi ned in order to be applicable to music from dif- spective – with the tools of (ethno)musicology ferent times and places without betraying the – and from the “autochthonous” one – through theoretical considerations that underlie the mu- the musical concepts that operate in the local cul- sic’s existence? ture. Such a twofold approach off ers an enriching The present article concerns vocal polyphonic perspective, not only for evaluating of how insid- techniques in oral tradition and the relationship ers and outsiders conceive the music, but also in between reference patterns, their realization and terms of a diff erentiated use of musicological con- variation. Although this is a general issue in ethno- cepts and terms. musicology, the main thread of the argument will In one of his articles on the categorization of be my research on Aka music from Central African anthropological objects, the French linguist and Republic and Baka music from Cameroon,1 both anthropologist Frank Alvarez-Pereyre (2004: 61) so-called “Pygmy” cultures which have a common questioned the appropriateness of analytical historical origin (Bahuchet 1992). Though close, categories and insisted on the fact that scientifi c these ethnonyms name two diff erent societies: categories are just as indigenous as those that are the Aka (or BaAka), who speak a Bantu language, used in any specifi c culture. Transposed to eth- and the Baka, whose language belongs to the nomusicological concerns, this leads to two main Ubangian language family. questions: 1) To what extent does the musicological approach match that of the culture it studies, or, in Polyphony, multipart music, and other words: in which cases do autochthonous plurilinearity conceptions of music operate on the same basis, Peter Cooke’s excellent article on non-Western i.e. with the same criteria as musicology? polyphony in the Grove Music Online (2007) al- 2) As musicological concepts carry their own ready points towards some of the questions con- historical and geographical backpack, but are sidered here. His text is the entry point to the

1 I conducted fi eldwork among the Aka between 1989 and 1994 and among the Baka between 1999 and 2009.

73 What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception question to which new material will give some one to embrace whatever music with the same particular detailed insights in this paper. In the criteria. general introduction of the article “Polyphony”, the Grove Music Online (Frobenius 2007) mentions What is a part? “music in more than one part”. In his introduction But why – at this very general stage of description to the section dedicated to non Western music, – not use the term multipart music? Here the eth- Cooke states that for some ethnomusicologists nologist interferes in the musicologist’s business such as William P. Malm, for instance, polyphony by asking: what is a “part” for you? The notion of covers all kinds of multipart singing, but that for a “part” is indeed the basic issue of the confronta- others “all multi-part music is not necessarily tion between autochthonous and scholarly con- polyphonic”. He quotes Simha Arom (1991), who ceptions concerning polyphony, and it is at the reserves this term for music in two or more simul- centre of the present argument. It challenges the taneous parts which are melodically and rhythmi- idea of performing together in an organized way. cally independent. A broad characterization of “parts” could be dif- Since 1991 Arom has continued to develop this ferent melodic or rhythmic expressions executed concept, together with seven other French schol- within the same piece, identifi ed as such by the ars, Nathalie Fernando, Sylvie Le Bomin, Fabrice musicians. There may be a specifi c vernacular de- Marandola, Emmanuelle Olivier, Hervé Rivière, nomination for each utterance. In this sense, one Olivier Tourny and myself. We established a typol- must admit that several parts can join in diff erent ogy of polyphonic techniques in orally transmit- types of formal organisations. ted music, which was published in Italian in the The most important formal organisation in Einaudi Enciclopedia della Musica (Nattiez 2005) Africa is a responsorial alternation between two and in French in Musiques. Une encyclopédie pour parts. In the Aka culture, the call is named mò- le XIXe siècle (Nattiez 2007). The following can be tángòlè (“the one who counts”) and the response read there: ósêsê (“below”) (Arom 1994) no matter which way the “song” (lémbò) is expressed. Call and response A general agreement has been reached to may be declaimed as in Example 1.3 consider as polyphony all music that does not They may be sung a cappella, as in one of the come under monody – music in unison or in very rare monodic songs (Ex. 2). octaves – i.e. every plurilinear manifestation, But in the very common African situation of independent of the modalities in which it ap- call and response between a soloist and a choir, pears2 (Arom et al. 2005: 1065). it says nothing about the vertical aspect of the The standpoint has shifted: in Grove, the defi ni- choir’s part. tions insist on the presence of several “parts”: they They may also be accompanied by a harp-zith- therefore concern the conception of the musical er or a harp (Ex. 3). construction. Here the defi nition looks more at In performance practice, overlapping as a re- what can be heard by a musicologist by introduc- sult of variation may be so important that, in many ing the concept of ‘plurilinearity’. As Arom had cases, it hides the basic responsorial structure by already mentioned earlier (1991: 20), “this denom- a simultaneous unfolding of the parts throughout ination has the advantage of being neutral as it nearly the whole cycle. But this aspect of the tem- mentions a phenomenon without indicating by poral chaining of parts will be left aside here in which musical technique it is realized”. This defi - order to concentrate on what is happening within nition is quite cautious. It stays deliberately on an one formal section that is conceptually executed observer’s – or auditor’s – standpoint, allowing by several singers.

2 All translations to English by the author. As the defi nitions have initially been shaped out in French, I provide also the French version for all quotations. “On s’accorde généralement pour considérer comme polyphonie tout ce qui ne relève pas de la monodie – musique exécutée à l’unisson ou à l’octave –, c’est-à-dire toute manifestation plurilinéaire, indépendamment des modalités selon lesquelles elle se manifeste.” (Arom et al. 2007: 1088). 3 Examples 1, 2, and 4 have been recorded by Simha Arom and transcribed by Susanne Fürniss. All other examples have been recorded and transcribed by Susanne Fürniss.

74 Susanne Fürniss

Exemple 1. Ndosi. Song for the “infant whose mother is pregnant again”. (CD Central Africa. Anthology of Aka Pygmy Music track I, 14.)

Exemple 2. Kòngòbele (“Wading bird”). Playsong. (CD Central Africa. Anthology of Aka Pygmy Music track I, 17.)

Exemple 3. Ka kudu (“Its only Turtle”). Song with harp-zither (author’s archives).4

4 Similar examples can be heard on the CD Central Africa. Aka Pygmies: Hunting, Love & Mockery Songs.

75 What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception

Exemple 4. Sesengo (“The spine”). Song of the tale dikèmè (“The Guinea Fowl”) (Simha Arom’s archives).

Realisation of the same part in two lines ture is that there are some rules for doubling the The choir’s response to the soloist’s call may be melody when it contains lyrics sung by all singers monodic – the group singing in unison –, as can together. Contrary to Kofi Agawu’s fi ndings in Ewe be found in Burundi music (CD Burundi. Musiques music, where there seems to be a relative inde- Traditionnelles track 2). Or it may contain several pendence of melody and speech tones (Agawu simultaneous melodic lines, i.e. it may be plurilin- 1988), Aka music demands an identical melodic ear, as the majority of African call and response contour of two simultaneous melodic lines. In music. In this case, the central question has to be this, it follows the same rules as other Central Afri- asked again: what is a part? Everyone may hear can cultures (Eno Belinga 1970; Bois 1981; Fürniss, that there are several simultaneous melodic lines, Guarisma 2004). The metrical organisation makes but what is their status from the musicians’ view- for the integration of the common pronunciation point? Are they considered as diff erent comple- of the words in a clearly defi ned rhythm. mentary parts responding at the same time or Ex. 4 is an example of a systematized plurilin- as simultaneous and equivalent versions of the earity as, from an acoustic point of view, there same – one and only – response part? are two distinct reproducible “voices”. But is it simultaneous multipart singing? For the Aka, the only conceptualized parts are the call and the The Aka in parallels response. The two melodic lines of the response The phenomenon of simultaneous versions of a ósêsê are not diff erentiated. In the performance unique part can be found in Aka music where the practice, the dual nature of the response gives response – except for some playsongs – is always the participants a great fl exibility. They are free sung in two melodic lines (Ex. 4). to choose the initial tessitura and their melodic In Ex. 4, a soloist alternates with a choir singing pathway through the material, as individual sing- roughly in homorhythmic parallel movement. In ers are allowed to switch from one line to another spite of a short structural overlapping, this is un- at any point in the melody. Doing this, they are derstood by the Aka as singing in two successive not locked up in the constraints of the homo- parts, again mòtángòlè and ósêsê. The polyphonic rhythmic parallelism, but they have the possibility realisation of the response in two melodic lines to vary their singing without betraying the lyrics is considered as being the embroidering of the of their part. choir’s only responding part, ósêsê. While the Aka’s conception is well outlined by At this point, a short digression to linguistics is these observations, as a musicologist, I would necessary. The Aka language is a tone language in like to go a little further into music theory. Arthur which the syllables are pronounced on diff erent Morris Jones’ and Gerhard Kubik’s works on the relative pitches.5 The consequence on song struc- relation between a pentatonic scale and an 8-5-

5 Aka is classifi ed as a Bantu C10-language (Guthrie 1971). As an illustration of the lexical tones in this language: mbókà (high-low) “village”, mbòká (low-high) “cultivated fi eld ready to be harvested”, mbóká (high-high) “African palm civet, Nandinia binotata” (Thomas et al. 1993: 121–124).

76 Susanne Fürniss

4 harmony (Jones 1959; Kubik 1968) are corrobo- phonic construction founded on the superimpo- rated by Aka music: the ósêsê is generally realized sition of two or several distinct melodic lines with in two melodic lines of identical contour, at a dis- diff erent rhythmic articulations” (Arom et al. 2005: tance of a fourth. The “skipping process” establi- 1072).6 In 1991, this had been Arom’s general defi - shed by Kubik (1968: 28–30) fi nds its application nition for ‘polyphony’, quoted in Cooke’s article in here: an anhemitonic pentatonic scale the Grove Music Online. Further on in Arom et al., gives way to several fourths and one major third one reads: by combining one degree with the next but one: […] counterpoint is founded on a limited . In the pentatonic confi guration shown number of constituent parts – that are as here, the complete system is only visible when many minimal versions – which the diff erent the melody has an ambitus of an octave plus one participants enrich with various ornamenta- degree. According to Kubik (ibid.), the lower line tions, variants and variations. Most often, each corresponds to the accompanying part. of the parts has a name in the vernacular lan- When writing about parallelism, most au- guage, which proves that they originate from thors implicitly take for granted that it covers the a conceptualization that happens before reali- whole range of the scale. Aka music never real- zation (Arom et al. 2005: 1073).7 izes a parallelism which is extended over more This defi nition centres the argument on the than three successive degrees of the pentatonic number of initial constituent parts, thus switch- scale. Therefore, it is not possible to clearly deter- ing from what may be perceived to how the mu- mine a musical predominance of one of the two sic is conceived. The authors now talk about cases melodic lines. This is confi rmed by the musicians where the starting point of the autochthon’s con- themselves, who consider the lines as completely ception is simultaneity of several distinct parts. equivalent without any distinction of value. There Such an affi rmation cannot be made without is no terminology to distinguish the two tessituras ethnographic enquiry. As already mentioned, and neither of them is supposed to generate the in Aka music, counterpoint is the most common other. polyphonic technique. It is based on four con- To conclude from this example, the musicolo- stituent parts, each of which is named and has gist hears two successive parts, the second of distinctive features (Arom 1994). For every song, which is realized in two defi nable and reproduc- each of the four parts has its own essential me- ible lines. The unicity of the response – the rea- lodic pattern. son why the Aka refute its essential plurality – is The four parts are: nevertheless easy to establish with musicological – the mòtángòlè, literally “the one who counts”, criteria since rhythm, melodic contour and lyrics which is generally sung by a man. It is the princi- are the same for the two lines. These criteria are pal voice that contains the essential words of the the base on which the Aka’s and the scholar’s con- song and allows the other singers to identify the ceptions can meet. piece without ambiguity; – the ósêsê, literally “below” (which means infe- Digression: Contrapuntal conception rior in hierarchy to the mòtángòlè), a female mid- Emic and etic criteria meet as well in counter- dle voice characterized by fairly little melodic and point, which is the Aka’s main expression. It is rhythmic movement; also the icon of the musical identity of so-called – the ngúé wà lémbò, literally “the mother of “Pygmy” cultures. the song”, which is a male part as well. It is gener- Arom et al. defi ne counterpoint as the follow- ally situated lower and has longer rhythmic values ing: “We understand by counterpoint every poly- than the mòtángòlè;

6 French version: “On entend ici par contrepoint tout édifi ce polyphonique fondé sur la superposition de deux ou plusieurs lignes mélodiques distinctes dont l’articulation rythmique diff ère” (Arom et al. 2007: 1095). 7 French version: “[…] le contrepoint est fondé sur un nombre limité de parties constitutives qui sont autant d’épures mélodiques et que les diff érents participants enrichissent par de nombreuses ornementations, variantes et variations. Le plus souvent, chacune de ces parties porte un nom dans la langue vernaculaire, ce qui prouve bien qu’elles procèdent d’une conceptualisation en amont de la réalisation.” (Arom et al. 2007: 1096).

77 What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception

Exemple 5. Mabe (“Subtlety”). Divination song (author’s archives).

Exemple 6. No ma (“Rain drops”). Song for the second funerals (author’s archives).

Exemple 7. No ma. Inversion of melodies.

78 Susanne Fürniss

These three parts are sung with the chest voice. not include the melodic line as particular musical – the dìyèí, literally “yodel”, is sung above all material. Melody and tessitura are not conceptu- the other parts by women. It is determined by the ally linked. One may sing either of the melodies in yodel technique, i.e. the alternation of head voice either of the tessituras (Ex. 7). and chest voice. In which classifi catory drawer shall we put this The three latter parts do not use words, but are notion of tessitura? The tessitura is quite a gen- sung with meaningless syllables. The modelized eral criterion, and as a musicologist I would not transcription of mabe, a divination song, gives an like to stop the analysis at this point. In a scholarly idea of the interaction of the parts (Ex. 5). It has conception of polyphony, the tessitura stands be- been obtained by the analytical rerecording tech- hind the dominating criterion of the melodic line, nique (Arom 1976) which allows for the successive even behind the criterion of rhythmical articula- isolation of the individual parts. tion. From a musicological point of view there are Each part generates variations that follow dif- two melodic lines in a contrapuntal relationship. ferent techniques and rules, which are illustrated As specifi c musical material, they are not named in detail in Fürniss (2006). and not formed into a hierarchy. Compared to As far as we know, the Aka share four part the Aka’s double realization of the response in counterpoint with the Wagogo and the Kuria in parallel movement, it is much less evident to Tanzania (Vallejo 2004). More than four parts are see the equivalence of the two melodic lines in extremely rare, as for instance the Dorzé polypho- the response part of the Baka music. In this case, nies in Ethiopia which have six parts (CD Ethiopia. we are defi nitely in a polyphonic technique that Polyphony of the Dorze). can be identifi ed as counterpoint following the beginning of the defi nition quoted earlier: “We The Baka in counterpoint understand by counterpoint every polyphonic As already mentioned, counterpoint is the icon construction founded on the superimposition of of “Pygmy” music, but its use in Baka music from two or several distinct melodic lines with diff erent Cameroon leads us to question our analytical rhythmic articulations” (Arom et al. 2005: 1072). tools more critically. In Baka music theory, there is a verbalized con- The main principle of Baka singing is the call ception of complementary duality combined with and response between a soloist and a choir. Again a non verbalized conception of two melodic inde- there are two successive parts: kpó njàmba (“to pendent parts. Here we are in an intermediate pick (gather) the beginning of a song”) and na ja zone between the notion of variation – simulta- (“to take”). But instead of realizing the response neous but slightly diff erent realizations of the same in a parallel movement as the Aka do, the Baka part – and the notion of basic multipart singing – sing in two complementary lines. In their music, simultaneous realization of diff erent parts. The sec- the words are reduced to an existential minimum, ondary line in the high tessitura is not considered sung only by the leader. The choir is free from any as a simple “variant” of the lower one, as it gives linguistic constraint (Ex. 6). way in its turn to variations. The two lines of the response are termino- logically distinguished as ngbè líè “the big voice” The concept of variation which is the lower one and líè na téè “the small The concept of variation – and particularly the voice” which is the higher one. What do these nature of variation – is a crucial issue in our ar- terms cover? It appears that the Baka make a dis- gument. Simultaneous variations of the same tinction between the tessitura and the musical melody create denseness, which is an important content. The two terms characterize the tessitura: aesthetic issue. What is signifi cant here is that to sing with a low or a high voice. If there is only variation may create a distinct melodic line, but it one singer for the response, she will sing with a does not necessarily create a distinct part. low voice, compared to which the high voice is Diff erent types of variations are conceptual- considered as a complement. This hierarchy does ized in the musical discourse.8 The Baka call the

8 The Aka consider kpokpo (“straight on”), kètè banyè (“take a shortcut” or “take a small path alongside of the large way”), kuka ngo dikukè (“simply cut it”, a specifi c process of rhythmic variation), and dìyèí (“yodel”) (Fürniss 2006).

79 What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception

Exemple 8 a–c. No ma. Variants. a) Call kpo njamba.

b) Response na ja, higher tessitura liè na tèè.

80 Susanne Fürniss c) Response na ja, lower tessitura ngbè liè.

minimal version of a part kpaje kpode (“one path”) their construction predictable. In a conventional or nde a banda (“without reinforcement” > “sim- ritual performance with between seven and thir- ple”). The singer varies her part – na penda be (“to ty active singers, these variations intermingle to cross the song”, “to interweave the song”) – either a large extent with overlapping that creates even singing “normally” – gbèlè be (“simple song”) – i.e. greater density on another formal level. with the chest-voice, or using the yodel technique Given the predictability of variants which – yeyi, yeli or ndando (marked by a ° above the are embedded in a set of rules, we are far away notes) (Ex. 8). from ‘heterophony’. Though this term defi nes a Examples 8 a–c display the inventory of vari- “simultaneous variation of a single melody” as ants sung during an analytical recording session9 Cooke writes in the Grove Music Online, it should with Baka women from Messéa. The melodic be reserved for those variations that are unpre- variants given in the fi rst lines of the fi gures are dictable: “heterophony is characterized by the the most refi ned versions and can therefore be absence of any regularity of the plurilinear phe- characterized as the reference for the creation of nomena. It is an intermediate category between variants. The fi rst ones are sung “normally”, that monody and any type of systematized plurilinear- is with the chest voice, and the last ones are yo- ity” (Arom et al. 2005: 1066).10 Vincent Dehoux and delled. This variation technique is not applied to Monique Gessain (1992) illustrate this topic very the lowest line of the response. Both rhythmic and well through Bassari music from Senegal, where melodic variations follow a set of rules that make the heterophonic realization of alternating choir

9 Adapting Arom’s method of rerecording (1976), the author recorded one singer after the other. The fi rst singer sang with the rhythmic accompaniment. After a while, the second singer joined in and the fi rst singer was asked to stop singing while the second one was heard alone. The same method was applied to the recording of the third singer. 10 French version: “L’hétérophonie se caractérise par l’absence de toute régularité des phénomènes plurilinéaires. Il s’agit là d’une catégorie intermédiaire entre la monodie et un type quelconque de plurilinéarité systématisée” (Arom et al. 2007: 1089).

81 What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception parts has its roots in aesthetic considerations and In this sense, there is a stratifi cation of the de- is conceptualized through a very rich metaphoric scription which depends on the angle of the re- discourse: search and on the advancement of ethnographic enquiry. Independently from fi eldwork, it is pos- [...] the most effi cient technique [to make one’s sible to establish a global classifi cation of pluri- voice stand out from the others] is based on linear music in the perspective of a comparative a process of relative heterophony [...] a good musicological study. singer is the one who moves forward like a One cannot affi rm, however, that a specifi c football player: he has to know how to drib- polyphony is multipart music. In the 1980 edition ble, to advance in zig-zags. [...] by adding small of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi- melismas, he will bring slight but continuous cians, the quite condensed article on ‘polyphony’ modifi cations to the trajectory of the melody, by Wolf Frobenius (1980: 70) insists twice on the which has the eff ect of making him audible “consciousness” or the “conception of a simulta- and drawing the auditors’ attention to him neity of a number of parts”. This notion, which (Dehoux, Gessain 1992: 28). needs knowledge of local music theory, has been slightly lost in the new online edition. Theoretical outcome of conceptual Once one knows more about the cultural con- divergence ceptions of the musical result, it is possible to go The issue of multipart versus plurilinear music one level further in the detailed characterization has already been a part of a joint comparative of polyphony, i.e. to determine whether it is (or is research project by Emmanuelle Olivier and Su- not) multipart music. Indeed, to come back to the sanne Fürniss on music of the Ju|hoansi Bushmen question “what is a part for you?”, the ethnolo- and the Aka Pygmies (1999). Based on an identical gist may take the position that a part is what the research method that allows for a direct compari- autochthonous theory identifi es as such. This is a son of every item analyzed, it provides an illustra- radically one-sided position, which is anchored, tion of how two diff erent basic conceptions can as mentioned in the introduction, in the search lead to a similar result. For the Aka, counterpoint for convergences between scholarly and autoch- is the starting point – it is multipart singing –, thonous conceptions. The explanation of Aka par- whereas for the Ju|hoansi it is the outcome – as allel singing needed ethnographical enquiry. It the simultaneous variation of a monody.11 Like leads to a certain adaptation of the scholarly view the Baka, with the vernacular names the Ju|hoansi in order to elucidate the base criteria on which conceptualize a relative position in the sound the two conceptions may meet in the recognition space and a voice quality, but there is no tangible of a single response part. musical material, as this is expressed through the The problem still remains to decide what sta- melody. However, this is the main operational cri- tus to give the unnamed plurilinear realizations of teria in the musicological defi nition of polyphony. a same basic part as we fi nd in Ju|hoan and Baka These phenomena oblige the ethnomusicolo- music. In both cases, it is the tessituras that are gist to question the musicological concepts used. named and that form another categorial axis com- In this regard, the development of terminology plementary to the two unnamed melodic lines. which is as clear as possible is a crucial point. Two But naming is not the only argument for concep- terms are questioned here: ‘polyphony’ and ‘mul- tualization. The intersection of the two axes ap- tipart singing’. The confrontation of musical anal- pears as a stable analytical point that gives way to ysis with the autochthonous conception brings to a double culturally relevant articulation: towards light the fact that these terms are not completely contrapuntal realization – as it obeys the same operational without some explanatory additions. kind of variation rules as conceptual multipart Two planes of investigation appear, the perceptu- singing – as well as towards monodic conception, al and the conceptual one. These two planes may by introducing a heuristic aspect of generating or may not converge. polyphony from monody. This intrication would

11 Our approach has been criticized by Victor Grauer (2009). His analysis however did not take into account the fundamental ethnomusicological distinction between conception and acoustical result.

82 Susanne Fürniss not have been perceptible without ethnography. have no problem to conceive of ‘multipart sing- Thus, from an ethnomusicological point of view, it ing’ as a monodic call and response. The desire for becomes possible to consider that the fundamen- an overall valid and univocal terminology – that tal distinction which musicology makes between includes both scholarly and vernacular theories – monody and polyphony might be inadequate in a causes the analyst to falter. Through the use the certain cultural context. Aka make of their polysemic terminology, the What is interesting coming back to this con- limit appears clearly. The Aka have no problem ceptual diff erence of simultaneous singing is that with the diff erent sounding realities of the parts the examples presented here introduce two new mòtángòlè and ósêsê, because they are associated criteria: another level of musical analysis, namely with diff erent repertoires and diff erent circum- formal segmentation, and a conceptual diver- stances that imply diff erent symbolic meanings: gence expressed through vernacular polysemics. no confusion is ever possible (Fürniss 1999). For In Baka culture counterpoint is embedded in a the Aka, the research for univocity in the termi- call and response structure, whereas Aka culture nology is irrelevant. Here we see the limits of uses a formally unique structure to oppose coun- sameness in scholarly and autochthonous cat- terpoint to parallel singing in call and response. egorization. The fact that the Aka identically name the two As an echo to Agawu’s refl ections on “analy- successive parts of the call and response and zing diff erence” (Agawu 2003) it seems to me that two of the four simultaneous parts of the coun- this implies not only describing music as much as terpoint reveals the point where the Cartesian possible with musicological tools, but also neces- separation of parameters fi nds its limits. The mu- sarily questioning their adequacy at any step of sicologist who wants to inscribe this polyphony the analysis. Once one accepts Alvarez-Pereyre’s in a worldwide comparative frame distinguishes notion and admits that the Western musicologi- between a successive unfolding of monodies cal categories are also indigenous categories, one and a simultaneous execution of complementary sees their limitations and they become possible parts. In this sense, ‘multipart singing’ concerns to refi ne. When working with the Other, a sharp- only the simultaneous superimposition of parts. ened view allows for a fertile introspection, which The ethnologist who claims “that a part is what can then open up initially limited perspectives. the autochthonous theory identifi es as such” may

References

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84 Susanne Fürniss

Mis on partii? Polüfoonia taju ja kontseptsiooni vahel

Susanne Fürniss (tõlkinud Žanna Pärtlas)

Frank Alvarez-Pereyre (2004: 61) on tõstatanud küsimuse Lääne analüütiliste kategooriate sobivusest traditsioonilise muusika käsitlemisel, rõhutades fakti, et need on samamoodi kohalikud nagu need, mida kasutatakse igas spetsiifi lises kultuuris. Etnomusikoloogilisele problemaatikale rakendatuna viib see kahe põhilise küsimuseni: 1) Millisel määral ühtib muusikateaduslik lähenemine uuritava kultuuri omaga, ehk teisisõnu: millistel juhtudel töötavad autohtoonsed muusikakontseptsioonid samadel alustel, s.t. samade kriteeriumi- dega kui muusikateadus? 2) Kuna vaatamata sellele, et muusikateaduslikud mõisted kannavad oma ajaloolist ja geograafi list pa- gasit, kasutab suur hulk inimesi neid kui „objektiivset ja ajatut” lähtepunkti, siis kuidas saaks neid täiustada, et nad oleksid rakendatavad eri aegadest ja eri kohtadest pärit muusikale ilma muusika eksistentsi aluseks olevaid teoreetilisi arusaamasid moonutamata? Käesolev artikkel uurib vokaalse polüfoonia tehnikaid suulises traditsioonis ning seoseid muusikaliste mudelite, nende realisatsiooni ja varieerimise vahel. Uurimus põhineb minu uuringutel aka (Kesk-Aafrika Vabariik) ja baka (Kamerun) hõimude kohta.

Polyphony, multipart music ja plurilinearity: mis on partii? Peter Cooke’i artikkel mitte-Lääne polüfooniast entsüklopeedias Grove Music Online (2007) on juba suunatud neile küsimustele, mida arendatakse siin. Ta mainib seoses mõistega polyphony „muusikat, mis koosneb rohkem kui ühest partiist”. Sellal kui see defi nitsioon rõhutab muusikalise struktuuri kontseptsiooni, nihutab Simha Aromi traditsiooniliste polüfooniliste tehnikate tüpoloogia (Arom et al. 2005) mõiste plurilinearity sissetoomise kaudu vaatenurka selle poole, mis on tajutav sõltumata kognitiivsest protsessist. Termin plurilinearity lähtub ettekavatsetult kuulaja vaatenurgast. Siin sekkub etnoloog muu- sikateadlase asjusse, küsides: mis on teie jaoks „partii”? Partii mõiste on tõepoolest põhiline teema, mis viib konfrontatsioonini polüfoonia autohtoonse ja teadusliku kontseptsiooni vahel ning see on käesole- va arutelu keskpunktis.

Kontseptuaalsed lahknevused Polüfoonia teatud tüübis peavad aka lauljad silmas kahte teineteisele järgnevat partiid, kus „vastust” [teist partiid – Ž. P.] varieeritakse üheaegselt, samal ajal kui muusikateadlane kuuleb kahte teineteisele järgnevat partiid, millest teine on teostatud kahe selgesti määratletava ja reprodutseeritava häälega. Akad tõlgendavad neid hääli aga üksnes kui ühte ja ainsat muusikalist „vastust” sisaldava kooripartii ósêsê kaunistamist. Kõnealuse vastuse ühtsust, mille tõttu akad eitavad selle sisulist mitmesust, on siiski kerge määratleda muusikateaduslike kriteeriumide abil, sest rütm, meloodiline kontuur ja tekst on sa- mad mõlemas hääles. Aka polüfoonia teine tüüp on lähedane Lääne kontseptsioonile, kuna see on ehitatud nelja erineva partii kontrapunktina, kusjuures igal partiil on olemas nimi ja spetsiifi line muusikaline materjal. Seda polüfoonia tüüpi võrreldakse Ju|hoansi bušmanite (Namiibia) polüfooniaga (Olivier, Fürniss 1999). Uu- rimus illustreerib, kuidas kaks erinevat põhikontseptsiooni võivad viia sarnase akustilise tulemuseni. Akade jaoks on kontrapunkt lähtepunktiks – see on mitmehäälne [multipart] laulmine –, samal ajal kui Ju|hoansi jaoks on see monoodia üheaegse varieerimise tulemus. See nähtus kohustab etnomusikoloogi üle vaatama kasutusel olevaid muusikateaduslikke mõisteid. Küsimus puudutab kahte terminit – polyphony ja multipart-singing. Muusikalise analüüsi ja autohtoonse kontseptsiooni vastasseis näitab, et need terminid ei ole täiel määral kasutatavad ilma mõningaid sele- tusi lisamata.

85 What Is a Part? Polyphony between Perception and Conception

Selles mõttes võib täheldada kirjelduse kihistumist, mis oleneb uurimuse vaatenurgast ja etnograafi - lise uuringu staadiumist. On võimalik sõltumata välitöödest koostada „plurilineaarse” muusika globaal- ne klassifi katsioon, lähtudes seejuures võrdlevast muusikateaduslikust analüüsist. Samas ei saa keegi olla kindel, et polüfoonia mingi spetsiifi line liik on multipart music. Ainult siis, kui uurija teab rohkem muusikaliste tulemuste taga peituvatest kultuurilistest kontseptsioonidest, on võimalik minna polüfoo- nia detailse iseloomustuse järgmisele tasandile, s.t. määrata, kas see on või ei ole multipart music.

86 Th e Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation Anda Beitāne

Abstract There are many examples of multipart singing practices in Latvia (as well as in Lithuania, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and elsewhere) that can be examined as being more or less connected with functional harmony. This kind of multipart singing is usually called ‘harmonic polyphony / multipart singing’ or ‘homophonic polyphony / multipart singing’ in the local academic literature. In these cases it means the researchers have considered that the multipart singing concerned is based on the logic of functional harmony or that functional harmony has infl uenced its creation. It does not help very much to choose one of these terms as the right one or the better one. In either case doing so is no more than an attempt to put together two diff erent things: the Western term, which comes from so-called “Art music” theory, and musical structures that follow other “mechanisms” and rules. Does the music designated by the terms ‘harmonic’ or ‘homophonic’ include functional harmony? Does the term designate what the music makers mean? How can the analysis of the chords help to fi nd solutions concerning the terminology? What does ‘part’ mean? How can the local folk terminology help us to make terminological experimentation? From which viewpoint can we analyse the instrumentation of sound in multipart singing practices? What is the role of music theory and anthropology in this context? These are the questions I would like to discuss, using examples of multipart singing from eastern Latvia.

Introduction exactly what the singers mean when actually making multipart music. Accordingly, this might Upon joining the Study Group on Multipart Music be a good reason to review some of these terms of the International Council for Traditional Music used in discussing multipart music in the light of (ICTM) some years ago, I was very happy to use the concept of the ICTM Study Group on Multi- the term ‘multipart singing’, which I found to be part Music, whose current defi nition of multipart much more precise and corresponding better to music reads: “Multipart music is a specifi c mode the music that was the subject of my studies. But of music making and expressive behaviour based I have to admit that at that time I used this term on the intentionally distinct and coordinated par- rather as an alternative to the English term ‘po- ticipation in the performing act by sharing knowl- lyphony’, equivalent to the Latvian daudzbalsība edge and shaping values”.1 (daudz – multi, balss – voice, part), which is a di- As Ignazio Macchiarella writes in the introduc- rect translation of German Mehrstimmigkeit and tion of the book Multipart Music: A Specifi c Mode of Russian многоголосие. So, at fi rst it was merely Musical Thinking, Expressive Behaviour and Sound, a question of translation. It was only later, while preparing my paper for the symposium European Often, multipart music is considered mainly Voices III (23–26 April 2013, Vienna) and thinking (or totally) as ‘musical outcomes’ or mere ‘mu- of the instrumentation and instrumentalisation of sical textures’, i.e. as a compilation of ‘musical sound in local multipart music practices in east- objects’ […] or as overlapping between dep- ern Latvia, that I began to realise the conceptual ersonalized melodic lines or musical materials. aspects of the term. One of the conclusions I drew Based on a largely reductionist approach to was that the terms we often use to describe and music, many analyses try to explain multipart analyse these practices do not always designate music in terms of structural elements alone:

1 www.multipartmusic.eu (6 July 2015).

87 The Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation

intervals, melodic behaviours, interlocks Homophonic vocal polyphony, harmonic or among sounds, harmonies, and so forth. homophonic multipart singing or something Since we are ethnomusicologists, we believe else? that music has to be personalized; in fact to The question of “harmony” in multipart music humanize music makings is the main feature practices originally arose in my case for two rea- of our approach to music study. In such a di- sons: fi rst, because of local research traditions and rection, I would concisely propose some gen- problems of terminology, and secondly because eral items for our Study Group’s discussions, of the particular multipart music practices I am pivoted on a basic point: to study multipart working with and the fact that for a long time it music means to focus on what individuals do was self-evident to consider this material from when they sing/play together in organized ways the viewpoint of functional harmony. The third (Macchiarella 2012: 9). and most important reason comes now, refl ecting This statement not only helps us to think about on all this in the light of the concept of multipart the diff erent emphases that we make in our re- music. search work but can also be a good starting point There are many examples of multipart singing in trying to fi nd answers to the question of how to practices in Latvia (as well as in Lithuania, Rus- deal with these ‘musical outcomes’ that are a part sia, Belarus, Ukraine and elsewhere) that can be of the result of this singing and playing together, examined as being more or less connected with which is also the subject we have to analyse. This functional harmony. This kind of multipart singing question has been very relevant for me since I is usually called ‘harmonic’ polyphony / multipart have been working with multipart music. There- singing (sometimes ‘homophonic’ polyphony / fore, in this article I would like to take the op- multipart singing) in the local academic literature. portunity to discuss the terminology connected In these cases it means the researchers have con- with the term ‘multipart music’ or, more precisely, sidered that the multipart singing concerned is the terms used in the analysis of this kind of mu- based on the logic of functional harmony or that sic also (but not exclusively) when talking about functional harmony has infl uenced its creation. musical textures within the concept of multipart We can fi nd three descriptions of Latvian music. polyphony or multipart singing in the music There are several cases in diff erent research dictionaries. The fi rst, published in 1996 in Die practices in which we can see quite strong sys- Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Allgemeine En- tems of (local) terminology (more or less con- zyklopädie der Musik and written by Martin Boiko, nected with an international terminology) that states that “[d]ie jüngere Schicht der Volksmusik umfaßt auf funktioneller Harmonik basierende are already part of the educational system with Lieder und Tanzmusik” (Boiko 1996b: 1103) and their own history, and which have sometimes uses the terms homophone, auf Funktionshar- been used automatically, without any explana- monik basierende, vokale Mehrstimmigkeit (Boiko tion of what these terms actually mean and why 1996b: 1103). they have been used. The problem arises when Four years later, the article “Latvia” by Valdis it is necessary to translate these terms, and the Muktupāvels was published in The Garland Ency- researcher suddenly realises there are no equiv- clopaedia of World Music, where we see the terms alents in the other language. Some of my col- ‘two- or three-part singing’ and ‘western Lithu- leagues would be very happy if someone could anian homophony’: give them the “right” terms they need in English, but it is not always so easy. Since we are using These songs are performed mostly solo. diff erent languages the question will always be Two- or three-part singing, resembling that about translation, but we can work with this on of western Lithuanian homophony, is charac- two levels: we can try to translate the terms, and teristic for south-western Kurzeme. Singing we can try also to “translate” the concepts, which in thirds with the melody in the upper voice include the terms as well. And the most important can be heard all over Latgale, and this style thing is to fi nd how and why to use these terms in is certainly infl uenced by liturgical singing analysis. (Muktupāvels 2000: 500).

88 Anda Beitāne

The third description, also written by Boiko, their being ‘taken up’ into homophonic con- was published in The New Grove Dictionary of Mu- structions has as its consequence their ‘major- sic and Musicians in 2001: ization’. (The term ‘majorization’ – that is, the process of transforming melodies into major More recent homophonic polyphony based keys – is an equivalent of German term Ver- on functional harmony is found chiefl y and in durung and the Russian omazorivanie.) When great variety in the Catholic south-east, with comprising a modal melodic structure, the ac- a small ‘island’ of this phenomenon in the companying parts ignore the modal quality of south-west. […] Besides a type of polyphony it. The tones making up a melody become re- with strict functional diff erentiation of the interpreted as degrees of a major key (Boiko parts, there is another more reminiscent of 2000: 6). heterophony infl uenced by functional harmony. Some examples display evidence of Thus, we can see the terms ‘polyphony’ and interaction between the ostinato-like syllabic ‘multipart music/singing’ are used here as syno- drone and the harmonic parallel 3rds. […] nyms. In addition, the article also mentions such Two-part or three-part polyphony predomi- terms as ‘homophonic multi-part constructions’ nates, although the number of parts is not and ‘majorization’, obviously in an attempt to il- strictly regulated, and depends on the specifi c lustrate the process of transforming the musical experience and skills of the singers. Even in thinking in the direction of functional harmony. what is basically a two-part polyphonic song, The term ‘folk arrangement’, used at the end of divergences in the supporting part can lead to the article, can be understood as an assumption sporadic occurrences of three-part polyphony that there has been a large process of interaction (Boiko 2001: 361). between old modal melodies and their “taking up” into “homophonic constructions”: The terms used in this article concerning this topic are: ‘homophonic polyphony based on More often than in Lithuania, the East Baltic functional harmony’, ‘heterophony infl uenced refrain songs (mostly the summer and win- by functional harmony’, ‘interaction between the ter solstice songs) have been used in homo- ostinato-like syllabic drone and the harmonic par- phonic constructions in south-east Latvia. allel thirds’, ‘two-part or three-part polyphony’. Besides simple arrangements with uninter- Conversely, in the article “On the Interaction of rupted or predominating consecutive thirds, Styles in Baltic Traditional Music: Baltic Polyphony there are also more complex cases, such as and East Baltic Refrain Songs” (2000) Boiko uses in some southeast Latvian districts where the terms ‘vocal multi-part music’ and ‘homo- a specifi c form of multi-part singing with a phonic multi-part singing’ as well, although in high solo accompanying part is widespread. the title of the article and also of the sub-chapter Songs of this category are in three or four (“East Baltic refrain songs and later forms of Latvi- parts. The solo accompanying part is taken by an and Lithuanian vocal polyphony”) we still fi nd a single woman with a particularly high, pen- ‘polyphony’ / ‘vocal polyphony’: etrating voice. Other parts are performed by several singers. The high accompanying part Throughout Lithuania and in southeastern sometimes comes in after the semi-cadence, Latvia (in the areas called Latgale and Augsze- sometimes just before the cadence but never me) diverse types of homophonic multi-part at the very beginning of the melodic strophe. singing are widespread. These kinds of vocal The high accompanying part may take vari- multi-part music are based on the principles ous forms: for instance, it can be introduced in of functional harmony and are supposed to consecutive thirds to the principal part or an be of later origin. Both in eastern Latvia and octave above the lower accompanying part, eastern Lithuania there is no lack of southeast- etc. In three-part constructions the principal ern Baltic refrain songs, their melodies being part is the middle or the lower part. In four- used in homophonic multi-part constructions part songs it is one of the middle parts. The as principal parts. The East Baltic refrain songs songs of this category are performed power- are mainly modal melodies. The process of fully, at a slow tempo and often in the open air.

89 The Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation

Even among them one fi nds arrangements of ‘turnover’ (‘Überschlag’) has therefore been the East Baltic refrain songs. […] Such folk ar- taken up as a scientifi c term because of its par- rangements of summer solstice melodies are ticular clarity (Haid 2011: 156). widespread in Eastern Latvia in the parishes This might be a way to personalise specifi c near the Russian border (Boiko 2000: 6–7). types of multipart music in diff erent local practic- Coming back to the question of “harmony”, we es as opposed to designating all of them as only can conclude that the terms used by Boiko con- depersonalised harmonic or homophonic music. cerning multipart music based on the principles It also does not tell us very much about the mu- of functional harmony are ‘homophonic (vocal) sic from the textural point of view if we say, for polyphony and/or multipart singing (music)’. The example, ‘Western Lithuanian homophony’ or fi rst work in which this term was mentioned was ‘Eastern Latvian homophony’ etc. In fact, such de- his dissertation, Die Litauischen Sutartinės. Eine scriptions actually raise more questions than they Studie zur baltischen Volksmusik (Hamburg, 1996): answer. “Der späte mehrstimmige Gesang ist in Lettland, und zwar durch homophone Mehrstimmigkeit, Terminological experimentations vertreten” (Boiko 1996a: 158). In the Latvian ver- The questions I would like to discuss, using ex- sion, which was published only in 2008, we can amples of multipart singing from eastern Latvia fi nd also a short remark that “it is also called har- include: does the music designated by the terms monic polyphony [to mēdz saukt arī par harmo- ‘harmonic’ or ‘homophonic’ include functional nisko daudzbalsību]” (Boiko 2008: 186). This means harmony?; does the term designate what the he considers these two terms ‘harmonic polyph- music makers mean?; how can the analysis of ony’ and ‘homophonic polyphony’ as synonyms. the chords help to fi nd solutions concerning the There are many cases in the literature when terminology?; what does ‘part’ mean? – for exam- ethnomusicologists, writing about diff erent re- ple, is it still singing in two parts if several singers gions of the world, have used both of the above- are singing the same melodic line, making only a mentioned terms. Actually, it does not help very few sporadic three- or four-part episodes?; how much to choose one of them as the right one or can the local folk terminology help us to make the better one. In either case doing so is no more terminological experimentation?; from which than an attempt to put together two diff erent viewpoint can we analyse the instrumentation things: the Western term, which comes from so- of sound in multipart singing practices?; what is called “Art music” theory, and musical structures the role of music theory and anthropology in this that follow other “mechanisms” and rules. Even context? if the sound of multipart music practice seems The following quote by Bruno Nettl, written more or less close to Western functional harmony, over 50 years ago now, may also be helpful in try- it is good to look deeper and try to understand ing to answer the above questions, although it is whether the music is actually based on functional related to polyphony in general and to non-West- harmony. And, if this seems to be the case, maybe ern cultures: it is possible to fi nd other more precise terms that correspond better to the rules of the music. While we can usually describe and measure Here I would like to mention the suggestion by the number of pitches heard at one time and Gerlinde Haid, who writes in the second volume thus come to a rigid defi nition, there is the of European Voices and speaks about two diff er- possibility that members of cultures other ent types of multipart singing, which are identical than ours might not consider materials which with regard to the technique of harmony: we call polyphonic as polyphonic at all, or, perhaps more likely, consider as polyphonic a But one speaks of ‘two-part turnover singing’ kind of music which we consider monophonic in relation to triad melodies, in which due to (Nettl 1963: 247). the greater range there is a change of register, whereas ‘two-part singing adding thirds’ The same can be related to the question of har- has linking melodies and small ranges and mony in local multipart music practices. Clearly, contains no change of register. The expression the music makers themselves have no ideas about

90 Anda Beitāne functional harmony, and there is still the question perfi cially. It is possible to speak here about two of whether the music that researchers put on the harmonies that regularly change between each “shelf” of ‘harmonic or homophonic polyphony’ other, but the question is what the harmonic func- really includes functional harmony at all. It might tions are: is it the tonic at the beginning followed seem that it does when looking from the “out- by the subdominant, or does the song begin with side”, but it is not always so from the “inside”, at the dominant and then proceed to the tonic? One least in the eastern part of Europe. If we “focus on thing is quite clear – both functions are equal, and what individuals do when they sing/play together it does not matter how we label them. in organized ways” (Macchiarella 2012: 9), we can The next question that arises concerns the lead- see diff erent rules and more important qualities ing part and its homophonic accompaniment. Un- than the logic of Western harmony. Even if we fortunately, this is a case in which we cannot ask (as outsiders) can hear a chordal texture, it does the singers which is the leading part, because the not mean the singers are making the chords. Of transcription is made from a historical recording course, it is possible to analyse almost all musical and there is no one in the local practice who can structures from the viewpoint of Western harmo- answer this question. It can, however, be assumed ny, but this does not help to explain the music at that the leading part might be either the middle all. So, the analysis of chords can help to fi nd so- part or the lower part. Thus, in the fi rst case the lutions concerning terminology only if they really accompaniment could be the lower and upper are chords also from the viewpoint of the music parts, which are sung in octaves; in the second makers. case, it could be one of the two higher parts, the Actually, it is quite easy (maybe indeed too highest of which duplicates the leading part at easy) to use the terms ‘harmonic’ or ‘homophonic’ the octave. At the same time, we cannot exclude to designate all multipart music that in some way that both the middle part and the lower part are might be connected with functional harmony equally important, in which case it resembles Curt or, in other words, in which it is possible to hear Sachs’s concept of ‘horizontal polyphony’ where, at least something from the logic of this kind of as he writes, “[…] we hear a lawful coexistence of musical thinking. It is also possible to assume that voice parts or simultaneous melodic lines” (Sachs this music is based on the principles of functional 1962: 175) instead of “harmony or ‘vertical’ po- harmony, as has been done without question by lyphony: we hear simultaneous sounds or ‘chords’ Latvian ethnomusicologists, including myself, in a lawful sequence of tension (‘dissonance’) and until now. However, the questions start to arise relaxation (‘consonance’)” (Sachs 1962: 175). when we analyse specifi c musical examples and Thus, the question still exists of whether we consider them also from the viewpoint of func- can speak here of a horizontal or vertical way of tional harmony. musical thinking. Most likely they are just three lines: two modal melodies performed simultane- Does the music include “functional ously, of which one has been duplicated an oc- harmony”? tave higher. The analysis of the chords and their harmonic functions in this case does not make From the above descriptions of Latvian multipart sense, nor does the usage of the term ‘harmonic singing in music dictionaries, and according to multipart singing’, which in this case does not the opinion generally accepted in Latvian eth- help but, on the contrary, makes it more diffi cult nomusicology, it would appear that all forms of to understand the multipart structure of the ex- later-origin multipart singing in eastern Latvia are ample in question. homophonic and based on functional harmony, no matter the variety of their texture (Boiko 2008: 191). Thus, it should not be diffi cult to fi nd in these Does the term designate what the music forms the principles and structures of Western makers mean? functional harmony. However, very often there The answer to this question is very simple: it does are cases when this is more or less problematic. not. No-one has ever taught these singers to Thus, in the Example 1 we can fi nd the principles sing in a number of parts, let alone about such of functional harmony only if we are looking su- terms as ‘functional harmony’ and ‘homophonic

91 The Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation

Example 1. Transcription of the recording (the fi rst verse) of the singers from Salnava (Latvian Radio, 1978).

or harmonic multipart singing’. When they sing, saw, when we were singing just now, I never they do not care about harmonic functions and oversang Natālija [the fi rst-part singer and the the chords, which they simply do not know. They leader of the group – A. B.]. In 28 years, she has sing in the way they have been used to singing never complained that I have oversung her. their whole lives, and it is not so easy to get an- I’m always listening. Because my father was a swers from the singers regarding the question of musician, and he was always tuning his kokle, how they create the accompanying parts in the and I was listening (Ločmele 2015). framework of multipart singing, because they are To the question of whether the second part not used to talking or even thinking about such comes naturally, as if by itself, she answered: “Yes, things. by itself. You can’t change yourself, thinking ‘I will When in an interview with Malvīne Ločmele, sing the second part now’ if you weren’t born with one of the best second-part singers from north- it” (Ločmele 2015). Later in the interview Malvīne eastern Latvia, I asked what she does when she remembers that in her youth she learned how to sings the second part – aware that she prefers to create the second part from an old lady with a very sing the lower part rather than the melody – this strong voice. As she says, “Yes, they were teaching is the answer I received: us, these old ones” (Ločmele 2015). However, this It is like this. You should very much listen to does not mean the older singers were teaching the fi rst part. You shouldn’t take over. You specifi c parts. According to the interview, they

92 Anda Beitāne were just singing together and instructing the parts. Before singing, they say, “Let’s sing in this younger singers when it did not sound right to bolss”: in this case it may be translated as “Let’s them. In that way, the younger singers learned sing in this melody”. Thus the folk term bolss has to be creative, singing several parts, already from several meanings: it can be a song including the the very beginning. whole multipart structure, it can be a part (the In answer to the question “What is it like to sing fi rst, second, etc.), it can be a melody (the main together with others?” Malvīne answers: part in the multipart structure), and fi nally it can be a singer’s voice, which must also have specifi c It’s very diff erent. When you get into such nuances for performing each part. These several company, they can sing any part, but the meanings sometimes lead to misunderstandings sound grates upon the ears, as it were. You when talking with the singers. Thus, in the inter- can’t adapt to these parts. Then it’s better just view with Malvīne, when asked how many parts to join the fi rst part or to not sing at all. I like one song can have, she answered, “You know, it better when we are all like one. When all the when I was a shepherd, I sang in all sorts of bolsi,” parts go like they should. It’s so good if every- and began to demonstrate various melodies. thing is in harmony, it sounds so good that it There are many cases in eastern Latvian multi- just clicks. Everybody should listen (Ločmele part singing practices when two-part singing has 2015). been “enriched” by some singers with three- or Wishing to go deeper in this topic, I asked her four-part episodes. The reason for this is the wish the question again, but phrased a bit diff erently: to sing something diff erent from what the others “What is the feeling of singing together?” The an- sing. From the viewpoint of the researcher, this swer followed: can, accordingly, be assumed as three- or four- part singing, also because we know the individ- You see, I will tell you! When we sing those ual lines are very important for the singers, who songs, if you don’t fi nd the right part, it is diffi - mostly do not count the parts and are just trying cult to join. You will sit on that side, Silvija and to fi nd a way to show their individual identities. Natālija [the fi rst-part singers she likes to sing However, if we ask them how many parts they are with – A. B.] will sit here – this is already dif- singing in, the answer is only two, no matter the fi cult for me. I don’t like this. The sound just number of individual lines of the parts. Trying to doesn’t come out of me then. I need to be with understand the singers’ way of thinking, I asked Natālija and Silvija. Then it works (Ločmele Malvīne: “How do you usually divide the parts?” In 2015). answer, she named specifi c singers, of whom two These answers can help, at least in part, to de- were fi rst-part singers and two were second-part fi ne ‘harmony’ from the viewpoint of the singers. singers. Then I continued: “So, you are two sec- Thus, singing in harmony means such important ond-part singers. Do you sing the same, or does things as listening (according to the video record- each of you sing a bit diff erently?” She thought ings this is done with almost no eye contact), be- for quite some time and then just said, “I think ing close together with the “right” singers, adapt- there is a diff erence” (Ločmele 2015). Of course, I ing to the other parts, as well as such statements wanted to talk more about these diff erences, but as “the parts have to go like they should” (and obviously it was so self-evident for Malvīne that it is important to feel [to create] that within the she did not even know what to say: framework of the singing process) and “the sound I don’t know. When they oversang, Natālija re- is good if it just clicks” (like the strings of an instru- proved them at once. Look, Vaļa from Aizgalīne, ment when you are tuning them). she thinks, ‘Oh, I have a voice!’ She wants to out-sing, so she tried to out-sing, but Natālija What does ‘part’ mean? said at once, ‘You shouldn’t do like this!’ And This is a question of concept. For example, the so she adapted to us. […] A voice is a voice! singers from eastern Latvia use the same word You can yell alone in the forest, but a part bolss (in the local dialect it means ‘voice’ and also should be adapted to the others. If the fi rst a ‘part’) to designate both – the songs and the part is strong enough, the second part can be

93 The Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation

diff erent. But the second part should also lis- distinction in pitch as a criterion of polyph- ten to whether it sounds good (Ločmele 2015). ony, is it possible that some cultures might draw a line between a solo performance and Thus, from the viewpoint of the singers, a ‘part’ two or more persons singing in real unison means more than only one melodic line. If there similar to our line between monophony and are several singers performing the same part, polyphony? Again, two instruments with con- they make diff erent versions simultaneously, but trasting timbre performing in unison might this does not mean they sing diff erent parts. For in some cultures be considered equivalent them it is only two-part singing, in which the fi rst to polyphony. Elicitation of such information part is the melody and the second part is the low- from informants is bound to be extremely dif- er part, no matter the number of individual lines. fi cult. But we must be aware that the Western The best the researcher can do is to take this into distinction may not be the only one, and that account instead of simply trying to list all the lines a grasp of such distinctions in other cultures he or she hears, because this also shows the way might shed important light on basic concepts in which the singers create the parts. of music, aesthetics and cultural values (Nettl The following quote by Nettl, which points to 1963: 247–248). the diff erences between Western and non-West- ern cultures concerning the question of “what is Amongst other things, this quotation shows polyphony?” can also be helpful for answering that it is important to pay attention to the distinc- “what is a part?”: tions of multipart music practices in diff erent cultures also from the viewpoint of the music makers. Do other cultures, in their aesthetic classifi ca- When reading about diff erences in considerations tions (which may not be verbally formulated) concerning polyphony and intervals in diff erent distinguish between songs sung by men cultures, it reminds me of how it was diffi cult for only and songs sung in octaves by men and Malvīne to speak about the diff erences in the sec- women as we do between monophony and ond part. It can also be assumed that these dif- polyphony? There is some evidence that they ferences, which we as researchers can hear in this do. Take the matter of singing in octaves gen- part when it is performed by several singers, are erally. In our culture, we take it for granted not considered diff erences at all by the singers that an octave is equivalent to unison. Men themselves. and women singing together, in octaves, are Another link that can be made between the not thought to sing polyphony. In some non- quote by Nettl and eastern Latvian multipart sing- Western cultures, the same view exists. But ing practices concerns the singing of men and some cultures not only have no polyphony, women in octaves. An example from north-east- but as far we know, no singing octaves. Would ern Latvia comes to mind in which a man singing the aesthetic eff ect of octaves on a member of the drone part of a female song (there were no a non-polyphonic culture be the same as that more women to sing that part and the brother of polyphony on a Westerner? The considera- was invited to help) suddenly changed his man- tion of octaves brings up, parenthetically, the ner of singing and began to sing an octave higher, problem of identifi cation of intervals. Accord- as if in a woman’s voice. The following quote from ing to Stumpf’s theory of fusibility, many peo- the interview with the singer Anna Kaža also il- ple hear octaves as unisons, some hear fi fths as lustrates that the singers in eastern Latvia do dis- unisons, fewer, again, fourths, etc. There seem tinguish between male and female parts sung in to be some cultures, such as the Ceylonese octaves. Speaking about her voice and changes in Vedda (though they have been only partially it when she became older, she says: explored), in which singing in parallel fi fths is acceptable, but singing in octaves does not You see, I don’t have a soprano anymore. I had seem to occur. Is it possible that the eff ect is such a soprano that I sang as the nightingale! similar to our preference for parallel thirds But I had a husband, a singer as well, he sang (before the 20th century) over parallel fi fths? in a choir… When my soprano came down, Do octaves sound too ‘hollow’ to the Vedda, I didn’t have it anymore, but this [the lower but fi fths ‘rich and full’? Going now beyond voice – A. B.] was very good and strong at that

94 Anda Beitāne

Example 2. Transcription of the recording (the fi rst verse) of the singers from Rekova (Beitāne 1994).

time, and he says to me: Learn mine! You have the fi rst and main points for the study of multipart it, so just learn it! And I learned from him. So, I music. The role of music theory must therefore sing with this now (Kaža 1987). fi rst of all respect these mechanisms and strategies. Both of these examples show that the singers There is an example in north-eastern Latvia consider the male and female parts sung in oc- where the singers use the designation ‘singing taves as diff erent parts, although they are able to with a half part’ (dzīduošana ar pusbolsu) for a change these roles as well. I have to add that this is specifi c form of multipart singing. This form has a fi eld in which Latvian ethnomusicologists have been characterised by Boiko using the designa- not worked very much, maybe in part because of tion ‘multi-part singing with a high solo accom- the position that in Western cultures a man and panying part’ (Boiko 2000: 6–7, quoted above), woman singing together in octaves is equivalent as well as by myself, using the designation ‘mul- to unison, as also according to Nettl. In any case, tipart singing with a solo upper accompanying many new aspects can be found for research into part’ (Beitāne 2009, 2012). As the name suggests, the question of “part” if we turn our attention to and as according to many interviews with sing- the music makers’ way of thinking; the same is ers, the most important feature in this case is true of the repertoires, about which until now it the ‘half part’, which is the upper part and which was thought that everything was known already. is performed by the soloist. The singer Stefānija Matisāne explains the meaning of it in an inter- How can folk terminology help in view: “Why is it a half part? Because it is only half terminological experimentation? of the melody” (Matisāne 1994). This means that Local folk terminology can help very much in the half part begins later than the other parts, reviewing a terminology that corresponds to “a usually in about the middle of the verse. Another specifi c mode of music making and expressive designation used by the singers is ‘raising up’ or behaviour”2 in local music practices because it ‘singing with raising up’, which is even more im- covers the mechanisms that form the basis of this portant because it describes the mechanism of music making. The mechanisms and strategies of creating the half part. Actually, as we can see in the instrumentation of sound, in my opinion, are the transcription (Example 2), the half part does

2 www.multipartmusic.eu (6 July 2015).

95 The Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation not begin in the middle of the verse but has just often do not follow generalised rules but realise been raised up by one singer as an almost parallel their individual creativity, which does not always line to the melody. correspond to the theories of ethnomusicologists. The question here is which designation – ‘mul- As Jaap Kunst has written in a text cited by tipart singing with a solo upper accompanying many other authors, part’, ‘singing with a half part’ or ‘raising up’ – [...] we must bear in mind that in musical prac- should be used as a scientifi c term? The fi rst one, tice a number of the forms distinguished here which has been used in Latvian ethnomusicologi- merge into each other: who shall say, where cal literature until now, is correct enough to de- we should still speak of a kind of organum, scribe the type of multipart singing in question; and where we have already passed into the however, the second one in combination with the domain of monody with accompaniment; third describes the way that the singers intend it who can draw the exact borderline between as well. If the fi rst designation can be related to homophony and polyphony; who can tell many cases of multipart singing with upper ac- with certainty at which point heterorhythm companying parts, of which there are quite a vari- ends and polyrhythm begins; who can fi x the ety in eastern Latvia, the term that is derived from place where heterophony turns into polyph- the folk terminology concerning this specifi c case ony? The living practice is always richer and makes it more personalised and clear. more plastic than any scheme-building theory Conclusions (Kunst 1950: 47). Rather than conclusions, these questions lead to Thus, it is benefi cial if, alongside the theories, further questions. To what extent can we rewrite the ethnomusicologist does not lose the con- the terminology? Is it still an open fi eld, or is it al- nection with the living practice, which actually ready a closed space within which we must work? changes all the time. While discussing the ques- How near can we as ethnomusicologists approach tion of harmony with my colleague, who some- the way of thinking of the music makers? times sings with a group that attempts to recon- This is actually not so diffi cult if we base our struct some multipart music practices, including terminology not only on theories and research those from eastern Latvia, I found an interesting traditions but if we also open ourselves to fo- nuance. As she tells it: “I always thought we blend- cus more on the behaviour of the music makers. ed too much there when singing those triads, that Then, instead of using one generalised term for something kind of elusive was lost there” (Tihovs- all the forms of multipart music that seem to us to ka 2014). As we spoke further about whether be more or less connected with it, and analysing maybe it was precisely thinking about functional the depersonalised musical objects only, we can harmony that prevented this “elusive” thing to be try to understand what the music makers mean perceived and reconstructed, she answered: “Yes, as they come to these musical results. Thus, the but the question is how much of it [functional main viewpoint from which we have to analyse harmony – A. B.] is there? Actually, it’s not elusive. the ‘musical outcomes’ of multipart music is the It can even be very perceptible, if we look at the intentions of the music makers themselves, who thing from another side” (Tihovska 2014).

96 Anda Beitāne

Sources Boiko, Martin 2000. On the Interaction of Styles in Baltic Traditional Music: Baltic Polyphony and East Baltic Refrain Kaža, Anna 1987. Interview with Benedikta Mežale. Līvāni, Songs. – Tiltai. Bridges. Brücken. Humanities & Social Sciences Latvia. Archives of Latvian Folklore: Video collection, LFK 3, pp. 1–8. 007. Boiko, Martin 2001. Latvia, § II, 2: Traditional music: Ločmele, Malvīne 2015. Interview with Anda Beitāne. Polyphony. – The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Aizpurve, Latvia. April 11. Musicians. Vol. 14, ed. Stanley Sadie, London: Macmillan Matisāne, Stefānija 1994. Interview with Anda Beitāne. Publishers Limited, pp. 361–363. Rekova, Latvia. November 17. Boiko, Mārtiņš 2008. Lietuviešu sutartines un to Baltijas Tihovska, Ieva 2014. Interview with Anda Beitāne. Rīga, Latvia. konteksti [Lithuanian Sutartinės and Their Baltic Contexts]. September 10. Rīga: Musica Baltica. Haid, Gerlinde 2011. The role of folk terminology in the research of multipart singing in Austria. – European Voices II. Cultural Listening and Local Discourse in Multipart Singing Traditions in Europe. Ed. Ardian Ahmedaja, Schriften zur Volksmusik 23, Wien/Köln/Weimar: Böhlau, pp. 153–164. References Kunst, Jaap 1950. Metre, Rhythm, Multi-Part Music. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Beitāne, Anda 2009. Vēlīnās izcelsmes vokālā daudzbalsība Macchiarella, Ignazio 2012. Theorizing on Multipart latviešu tradicionālajā mūzikā [Multipart singing of late Music Making. – Multipart Music: A Specifi c Mode of Musical origin in Latvian traditional music]. Studia humanitarica, Thinking, Expressive Behaviour and Sound. Ed. Ignazio Rīga: Latvijas Universitātes Literatūras, folkloras un mākslas Macchiarella, Udine: Nota, pp. 7–22. institūts. Muktupāvels, Valdis 2000. Latvia. – The Garland Beitāne, Anda 2012. Multipart Singing in Northern Latgale: Encyclopedia of World Music. Vol. 8: Europe. Eds. Timothy Dynamics of Tradition in the Late 20th – Early 21st Century. Rice, James Porter and Chris Goertzen, New York / London: – Res Musica 4, pp. 125–143. Garland Publishing, pp. 499–508. Boiko, Martin 1996a. Die Litauischen Sutartinės. Eine Nettl, Bruno 1963. Notes on the Concept and Classifi cation Studie zur baltischen Volksmusik. Dissertation, Universität of Polyphony. – Festschrift Friedrich Blume zum 70. Geburtstag. Hamburg. Eds. Anna Amalie Abert and Wilhelm Pfannkuch, Kassel u.a.: Boiko, Martin 1996b. Lettland. II. Volksmusik. – Die Musik Bärenreiter, pp. 243–251. in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Sachs, Curt 1962. The Wellsprings of Music. New York: Da Musik. Sachteil Bd. 5, Kassel u.a.: Bärenreiter, Sp. 1102–1103. Capo Press.

97 The Question of “Harmony” in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation

„Harmoonia” küsimus kohalikus mitmehäälses muusikapraktikas: Ida-Läti terminoloogiaeksperimentide väljana

Anda Beitāne (tõlkinud Žanna Pärtlas)

Ühinedes mõned aastad tagasi ICTMi (International Council for Traditional Music) mitmehäälse muusika uurimisrühmaga (Study Group on Multipart Music), hakkasin rõõmuga kasutama terminit multipart singing (mitmehäälne laulmine), pidades seda täpsemaks ja paremini vastavaks muusikale, millest ma tahaksin rääkida. Samas pean tunnistama, et tol ajal kasutasin seda terminit pigem alternatiivina inglis- keelsele terminile polyphony ja ekvivalendina läti terminile daudzbalsība (daudz – ‘mitme-’, balss – ‘hääl’, ‘partii’), mis on saksa termini Mehrstimmigkeit ja vene termini многоголосие otsetõlge. Seega oli alguses tegemist vaid tõlkeküsimusega. Selle termini kontseptuaalseid aspekte hakkasin teadvustama hiljem, kui valmistusin ettekandeks sümpoosionil European Voices III (23.–26. aprill 2013, Viin) ning mõtisklesin kõla instrumenteerimisest ja instrumentaliseerimisest1 Ida-Läti kohalikes mitmehäälse muusika praktikates. Üks mu järeldusi oli, et terminid, mida me tihti kasutame nende praktikate kirjeldamiseks ja ana- lüüsimiseks, ei tähista täpselt seda, mida lauljad mitmehäälset muusikat esitades silmas peavad. Seega oleks see hea põhjus, et üle vaadata mõned nendest terminitest mitmehäälse muusika (multipart music) defi nitsiooni valguses, mis on antud eelmainitud uurimisrühma poolt: „Mitmehäälne muusika [multipart music] on musitseerimise ja väljendusliku käitumise [expressive behaviour] spetsiifi line viis, mis põhineb taotluslikult eristuval ja koordineeritud osalemisel esituse aktis teadmiste jagamise ja väärtuste kujun- damise kaudu.”2 Selles artiklis kasutan võimalust arutleda terminoloogia üle, mis on seotud terminiga multipart music, või täpsemini, terminite üle, mida kasutatakse seda laadi muusika analüüsimisel, rääkides muusikalisest faktuurist (kuigi mõistagi mitte ainult faktuurist) mitmehäälse muusika [multipart music] kontseptsiooni raames. Erinevates uurimispraktikates on mitmeid juhuseid, kus me näeme küllalt tugevaid (kohalikke) ter- minoloogiasüsteeme (enam-vähem seotud rahvusvahelise terminoloogiaga), millest on juba saanud hariduse osa, millel on oma ajalugu ja mida mõnikord kasutatakse automaatselt ilma seletamata, mida terminid tähendavad ja miks on neid kasutatud. Probleem tekib siis, kui on vaja neid termineid tõlkida ning uurija ootamatult teadvustab, et neil ei ole teises keeles vastavusi. Niikaua kui me kasutame eri kee- li, jääb tõlkeküsimus alati, kuid sellega võime töötada kahel tasandil: me võime üritada tõlkida termineid ja võime üritada „tõlkida” kontseptsioone, mis sisaldavad endas ka termineid. Ja kõige tähtsam on leida teid, kuidas kasutada neid termineid analüüsis, ja põhjendusi nende kasutamiseks. „Harmoonia” küsimus mitmehäälsetes muusikalistes praktikates tekib minu uurimuses kahel põhju- sel: (1) kohalikud uurimistraditsioonid ja problemaatiline terminoloogia, (2) mitmehäälsed muusikalised praktikad, millega ma tegelen, ja tõsiasi, et kaua aega oli iseenesestmõistetav käsitleda seda materjali funktsionaalharmoonia seisukohalt. (3) Kolmas ja tähtsaim põhjus on mõtiskleda sellest kõigest mitme- häälse muusika [multipart music] kontseptsiooni valguses. On palju näiteid mitmehäälsetest laulupraktikatest Lätis (ning samuti Leedus, Venemaal, Valgevenes, Ukrainas jne.), mida saaks vaadelda vähem või rohkem seotuna funktsionaalharmooniaga. Seda mitme- häälse laulmise tüüpi nimetatakse kohalikus teaduskirjanduses tavaliselt „harmooniliseks polüfooniaks / mitmehäälsuseks” või „homofooniliseks polüfooniaks / mitmehäälsuseks”. Nendel juhtudel tähendab see, et uurijate arvates põhineb mitmehäälne laulmine funktsionaalharmoonia loogikal või et funktsionaalharmoonia on mõjutanud selle loomist.

1 Mainitud sümpoosioni üheks teemaks oli „The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound” (tõlkija kommentaar). 2 „Multipart music is a specifi c mode of music making and expressive behaviour based on the intentionally distinct and coordinated participation in the performing act by sharing knowledge and shaping values.” www.multipartmusic.eu (15.01.2016).

98 Anda Beitāne

Tegelikult ei ole palju kasu sellest, kui valida üks nendest terminitest kui õigem või parem. Mõle- mal juhul oleks see vaid katse panna kokku kahte erinevat asja: Lääne terminit, mis pärineb nn. kunstmuusika teooriast, ja muusikalisi struktuure, mille „mehhanismid” ja reeglid on teistsugused. Isegi kui mitmehäälse muusika kõla tundub olevat enam-vähem lähedane Lääne funktsionaalharmoonia omale, tasub minna sügavamale ja üritada aru saada, kas muusika tõesti sisaldab funktsionaalharmooniat. Ja kui tundub, et see on nii, siis võib-olla oleks võimalik leida teisi, täpsemaid ja muusika reeglitele paremini vastavaid termineid. Need on küsimused, mida tahaksin arutada, kasutades näiteid Ida-Läti mitmehäälsest laulust: kas muusika, mida määratletakse terminitega „harmooniline” ja „homofooniline”, sisaldab funktsionaalharmooniat? Kas termin osutab sellele, mida peavad silmas muusikud? Kuidas akordide analüüs võib aidata leida lahendusi terminoloogia küsimustes? Mida tähendab „partii” [part]? Näiteks, kas laulmine on ikka kahehäälne [two-part], kui mitu lauljat esitavad sama meloodialiini, tekitades vaid mõningaid juhuslikke kolme- või neljahäälseid fragmente? Kuidas võib kohalik rahvapärane terminoloogia aidata meid terminoloogilises eksperimenteerimises? Millisest vaatenurgast me võime analüüsida kõla instru- menteerimist [instrumentation of sound] mitmehäälsetes laulupraktikates? Milline on muusikateooria ja antropoloogia roll selles kontekstis? Järelduste asemel tõusevad taas esile küsimused: mil määral me võime ümber kirjutada terminoloogiat? Kas see on avatud ala või juba suletud ruum, kus me peame töötama? Millisel määral suudame etnomusikoloogidena läheneda muusikute mõtlemisviisile? See ei ole tegelikult nii keeruline juhul, kui me ei tugine mitte ainult teooriatele ja uurimistraditsiooni- dele, vaid avame end, et keskenduda rohkem muusikute käitumisele. Selle asemel et kasutada üht üldis- tatud terminit mitmehäälsuse kõikide vormide jaoks, mis tunduvad meile sellega enam-vähem seotud, ja analüüsida üksnes impersonaalseid muusikaobjekte, võiksime pealegi üritada mõista, mida muusikud mõtlevad, kui jõuavad antud muusikaliste tulemusteni. Seega on põhiline vaatenurk, millest lähtudes tuleb analüüsida „muusikalisi tulemusi” mitmehäälses muusikas, järgmine: mida mõtlevad muusikud, kes sageli ei järgi üldistatud reegleid, kuid teadvustavad oma individuaalset loomingulisust, mis ei pruugi vastata teooriatele. Sellepärast oleks hea, kui lisaks teooriatele ei kaotaks etnomusikoloog sidet elava praktikaga, mis tegelikult kogu aeg muutub.

99 European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives Ulrich Morgenstern

Abstract The article deals with terminological issues of solo multipart instrumental music and related phenomena, based on a wide defi nition of multipart texture (Mehrstimmigkeit). The theoretical models and terminological solutions considered come not only from European ethnomusicology (folk music research) but also from historical musicology, music theory and psychoacoustics. The musical textures discussed include so-called virtual polyphony (Albert S. Bregman 1990). Special attention is paid to the drone, which is defi ned in a broad sense (according to German and Austrian research tradition from Erich Moritz von Hornbostel to Rudolf M. Brandl). Therefore I also consider pitch modifi cations (movable drone, alternating drone, harmonically regulated drone), the relation between drone and ostinato, and temporal modifi cations (discontinuous drone and drone accents). A special phenomenon is the mental drone (James R. Cowdery) that exists predominantly in the inner perception of a musician. Among the widespread techniques of (solo) multipart music are episodic chordal accents and harmonic foundation. The terminological solutions and working defi nitions and the English translations of existing German terms proposed in this article do not pretend to establish a fi xed terminology, but should open an interdisciplinary discussion.

1. Introductory remarks tipart instrumental music of medieval minstrels, Vocal multipart music is always a result of group playing “more than one voice” (Salmen 1957: 18) performance and therefore of social interaction. – in an ensemble but also as soloist musicians. In The only possible exception is throat singing. a similar way Bruno Nettl off ered a “broadest pos- All other types of vocal multipart music making sible defi nition of polyphony, that is, any music in require “the co-presence of at least two persons, which more than one pitch […] is going on at one producing deliberately diff erentiated but coordi- time” (Nettl 1963: 247). As Martin Boiko1 has men- nated sound sequences” (Macchiarella 2012: 10). tioned in his fundamental study on the concept Unlike the human voice, a huge number of mu- and terminology of the drone, Nettl admits that sical instruments off er comfortable possibilities Jaap Kunst’s term ‘multi-part music’ comes closer for producing diff erent tones simultaneously and to this defi nition than the traditional understand- therefore for multipart texture. ing of ‘polyphony’ in English-speaking musicol- Such a wide structural-phenomenological ogy (ibid., cf. Boiko 2000: 20). defi nition of multipart texture or Mehrstimmig- This wide defi nition does not ignore either the keit corresponds particularly with the German signifi cance of the cognitive dimensions of mul- research tradition with regard to instrumental tipart music or its alternative defi nitions, for in- music. Walter Wiora (1955: 319–321) made a dis- stance in Rudolf M. Brandl’s concept of Mehrstim- tinction between Mehrstimmigkeit in a narrow migkeit, to be understood not as an umbrella term sense as a “community of diff erent voices” [“Ge- but as opposed both to Heterophonie and Poly- meinschaft verschiedener Stimmen”] (ibid.: 321) phonie (Brandl 2005), or in Ignazio Macchiarella’s and in a wider sense, the latter including all pos- concept of multipart music as an essentially col- sibilities of simultaneous combination of diff erent lective activity (see above). At the same time, it tones. Not by chance this concept was fruitfully seems problematical to exclude from the study used by Walter Salmen for the analysis of the mul- of multipart music all instrumental styles based

1 Unfortunately, Boiko’s online article on the concept of drone is currently not accessible. A republication, particularly in English translation, would be most desirable.

100 Ulrich Morgenstern on the coordination of diff erent sounds by a solo- Nathalie Fernando, Susanne Fürniss, Sylvie Le ist musician. This is anything but a reduction to Bomin, Fabrice Marandola, Emmanuelle Olivier, “musical outcomes” (Macchiarella 2012: 9). A sin- Hervé Rivière, and Olivier Tourny (Arom et al. gle musician may produce multipart textures no 2007). The authors pay particular attention to the less deliberately than a vocal ensemble. Indeed, distinction between multipart music produced by the cognitive dimension of texture is of particular one or by several performers. Naturally the fi rst interest in organology, as many musical instru- aspect leads to what the authors call instruments ments are initially conceptualized, described, polyphoniques (ibid.: 1092). Unfortunately, in this produced, chosen and played as a means for pro- valuable article the German-language studies ducing solo multipart music in the most diverse mentioned above are not considered, with the textural realizations. exception of Hornbostel (1909). Musical instruments with a capacity for mul- The obvious terminological problems in the tipart texture have long attracted the attention study of multipart instrumental music cannot of comparative musicology and ethnomusicol- be explained only by the limited and rather con- ogy. It was Erich Moritz von Hornbostel who fi rst tradictory local folk terminologies at hand or by mentioned “the use of multi-tone instruments possible language barriers, but also by the lack of [mehrtönige Instrumente] for rhythmic drones” any systematic and comparative study of the very (Hornbostel 1909: 301). “Multipart instruments” phenomenon itself. Interestingly, it was histori- are to be found particularly in European folk mu- cal musicologist Willi Apel who coined the term sic (Elscheková 1997: 79f.), but also in the music of ‘polyphonic solo music’ (Apel 1953: xxi). I would the social elites of Antiquity and the Middle ages. like to suggest the broader term ‘solo multipart Multi-stringed cithers and lutes, doubled fl utes instrumental music’. and reed pipes are only the most common and In the following pages I am going to present well-known examples. selected techniques of solo multipart instrumen- Due to the initially social nature of vocal multi- tal music and related phenomena which occur in part music its terminological representation is of diff erent European folk music regions, discussing higher signifi cance than that of instrumental mu- terminological alternatives and off ering some sic. For practical reasons alone, the function of the preliminary solutions. Most of these phenomena ensemble parts becomes an issue of verbal dis- are related to drone music, one of the most wide- course and negotiation – while in an instrumental spread textures in traditional practice, and one ensemble the performance role a musician takes with the most disparate terminological represen- may be marked by the very instrument he holds in tation in ethnomusicology. Due to the fact that his hands. Solo instrumental music is more often pioneer works dealing with multipart instrumen- a result of individual creativity and therefore its tal music (Hornbostel 1909) as well as most ethno- style and techniques are less often discussed by musicological studies on scholarly terminology of the performers. multipart phenomena (Elschek 2005; Brandl 1976, In European ethnomusicology, a multipart tex- 1981, 1995, 2005; Boiko 2000) are written in Ger- ture achieved by a single musician is frequently man, I shall sometimes have to consider German mentioned in the works of Felix Hoerburger, Os- terms2 before discussing possible solutions for in- kár Elschek, Alica Elscheková, Igor’ Macijewski ternational, English-language ethnomusicology. (Ihor Macijewski), Rudolf M. Brandl, Gaila Kirdienė According to Oskár Elschek (2005: 50) we can and many others. However, a general internation- distinguish concrete techniques observable in al terminology in this fi eld is a signifi cant desid- multipart music (for example drone, imitation, eratum of contemporary research. ostinato) from the more generalized types, such as A recent systematic attempt to develop a ty- heterophony, polyphony, and homophony. Some pology of multipart techniques (under the um- multipart techniques presented in this article brella term techniques polyphoniques) has been are briefl y discussed in an overview of multipart off ered by Simha Arom, in collaboration with textures (whether solo or not) that occur in Rus-

2 German texts are given in my own translation. If necessary the original text is cited in square brackets.

101 European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives

sian instrumental folk music (Morgenstern 2015). Example 1. Karelian reedpipe tune (Ahrens 1973: There I tried to distinguish unifi ed and mixed 323). types of texture (among the latter multilayered and alternating). When dealing here with particular solo multipart phenomena in a more general perspective I include in my considerations the fruitful debates with my colleagues of the ICTM (International Council for Traditional Music) Study Group on Multipart Music at the First Seminar of ICTM, held on 19–20 September 2014 in Tallinn. In the future, and as a result of possible further discussions, a systematic model of techniques of multipart instrumental music may be developed.

2. Textures and Terminologies 2.1. Scheinpolyphonie vs. virtual multipart texture The fi rst technique to be discussed is not multipart music in a strict sense, but its monophonic “illusion” or implication, when successive intervals are perceived as or associated with simultaneous ones. The phenomenon is widely discussed in historical musicology, particularly with respect to Johann Sebastian Bach’s sonatas and partitas for solo violin and violoncello. Music psychology has off ered an explanation in the theoretical framework of auditory scene analysis (Bregman 1990). Christian Ahrens (1973) introduced Ernst Kurth’s term Scheinpolyphonie (pretended po- diff erent cognitive mechanism from Scheinpoly- lyphony) into ethnomusicology but he also uses phonie. Ahrens further distinguishes between synonymously latente and lineare Polyphonie. the “imitation of a drone” (constant or not) and Thirty years earlier Evgenii Gippius and Zinaida an “imitation of two largely independent voices” Ėval’d had pointed to the ornamentation of a Be- (Ahrens 1973: 322). As an example for the fi rst larusian bagpiper who “creates a system of ‘seem- technique he quotes a Karelian tune, played on a ing’ [mnimykh] fi fth and octave drones, quasi in single reedpipe. Here the constant grace note can addition to the basic one” (Ėval’d, Gippius 1941: be perceived as a drone. 121). Interestingly, in this description of the well- German music theorist Oliver Schwab-Felisch known bagpipe technique of closed fi ngering the (2005: 68f.) has compiled a list of the most dis- same adjective is used as in Ėval’d’s Russian trans- parate terms for the phenomenon in question, lation of Ernst Kurth’s Grundlagen des linearen as developed in German-language as well as in Kontrapunkts (Ėval’d 1931) where Scheinpolypho- international musicology over the last hundred nie appears as mnimaia polifoniia. years: According to Ahrens the concept of linear · latente Mehrstimmigkeit (latent multipart tex- Scheinpolyphonie should not to be confused with ture, Klaus Hofmann) a successive realization of chordal tones (lineare · Scheinpolyphonie (pretended or pseudo-poly- Harmonik) – typical of the Alpine Jodler and the phony, Ernst Kurth) instrumental Ländler (Ahrens 1973: 321), particu- · fi ktive Mehrstimmigkeit(fi ctitious multipart tex- larly from the late 18th century onwards. Here the ture, Klaus Hofmann) listener may easily recognize in solo performance · immanente Mehrstimmigkeit (immanent multi- an underlying harmonic progression. But this is a part texture, Hans Jelinek)

102 Ulrich Morgenstern

· compound melodic lines (Albert S. Bregman) for a drone changing after a longer melodic sec- · melodic fi ssion (Walter J. Dowling) tion. According to Brandl’s defi nition the drone is · pseudo-polyphony (David Huron) a tone, unchanged “for a longer melodic phrase” · implied polyphony (Manfred Bukofzer) [“eine längere melodische Phrase”] (Brandl 1976: · virtual polyphony (Albert S. Bregman) 97) or for a “completed, larger melodic sequence” Schwab-Felisch convincingly makes a case for [“eines abgeschlossenen, größeren melodischen the last term as the most objective one which Ablaufs”] (ibid.). Therefore, a drone is not neces- best corresponds to the “ontological status” sarily unchanged during a whole piece of music. (Schwab-Felisch 2005: 69) of the phenomenon. In doing so, he translates Bregman’s ‘virtual polyph- 2.2.1.1. Wechselbordun (movable vs. alternating ony’ with virtuelle Mehrstimmigkeit. At the same drone) time, Mehrstimmigkeit in German musicology is The term Wechselbordun was probably intro- generally a broader concept than Polyphonie. As duced by Werner Bachmann (1964: 116) in the the phenomenon Schwab-Felisch deals with in- context of the two-tone gusle (bowed lute) ac- cludes a wide range of multipart textures, I would companiment of Bosnian epic singing. However, prefer the reverse translation of virtuelle Mehrstim- the compound word was hardly in general use in migkeit to English with ‘virtual multipart texture’. the German-language musicology of that time: Schwab-Felisch’s term virtuelle Polyphonie was thus Felix Hoerburger in his fundamental study independently introduced by Brandl, problema- on instrumental folk music writes: “There is, for in- tizing the concept of what he identifi es with the stance, the changing drone” [“da gibt es z. B. den umbrella term multiple Abläufe (multiple process- wechselnden Bordun”] (Hoerburger 1966: 24). He es). Brandl uses this term in the context of Pyg- refers to Irish bagpipe music and cites a tune on my singing as well as in relation to Bach’s sonatas a Dalmatian double fl ute dvojnice, played with a (Brandl 2005: 14f.). two-tone ostinato. Brandl defi nes the Wechselbor- dun as a “mostly two or three-tone change with 2.2. The drone and its modifi cations an interval of a second or a fourth-fi fth; actually, a The “ideal type” of the drone is one continuous succession of one-step drones with the possibili- tone, unchanged during the whole performance ty of merging into an independent voice” [“meist of a musical piece. In this vernacular sense drone zwei- bis dreitöniger Wechsel im Sekund- oder music is most of all associated with the Scottish Quart-Quintabstand; eigentlich eine Aufeinander- and other bagpipes, as well as with the hurdy- folge von einstufi gen Bordunen. Er kann zur selb- gurdy. Musicology, however off ers a more com- ständigen Stimme übergehen”] (Brandl 1995: 73; plex understanding of drone music. cf. Brandl 1976: 102). This again raises the question of the relationship between drone and ostinato, 2.2.1. Pitch modifi cations of the drone to which I shall return later. As examples Brandl Studies on the history of research by Brandl (1976, (particularly in his earlier study) points to two- 1995) and particularly by Boiko (2000) clearly part singing in Armenia (Collaer), open strings on show that in European musicology a vocal or in- the hardingfele (Hardangar fi ddle; Raidar Sevåg), strumental drone is not exclusively understood as as well as to music from Macedonia, both instru- a strictly static musical element.3 Thus Hornbostel mental (Hoerburger) and vocal (Birte Traerup). It points to “modifi cations of the drone” such as the seems that most references to Wechselbordun in ‘ornamented drone’ [verzierter Bordun] and the German ethnomusicology deal with successions (successive) ‘two-tone drone’ [zweitöniger Bordun] of two tones (Brandl: ibid.). (Hornbostel 1909: 301; cf. Boiko 2000: 9). Paul Col- The existing defi nitions and concepts of laer (1960: 68) uses the term burdon simple oscillant Wechselbordun say little about the frequency – but synonymously also ostinato sur deux notes – and regularity of pitch changes. In international

3 Simha Arom (Arom et al. 2007: 1093) introduces the term bourdon multiple which does not correspond to Wechselbordun, but to a simultaneous or a successive combination of unison or the octave and also the arpeggio of the Indian plucked string instrument tanpura. Brandl in this case speaks of ‘broken chord drone‘ [gebrochener Akkordbordun] (Brandl 1976: 102).

103 European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives

Example 2. Song tune from the Banat Region. Bagpipe cimpoi (Habenicht 1974: 144).

ethnomusicology the terms ‘movable drone’ with a two-tone accompaniment. In solo instru- and ‘alternating drone’ are widespread, but, to mental music the movable drone can be easily my knowledge, not clearly defi ned. In order to achieved on double (or triple) wind instruments. come to a more precise terminology I would like Famous examples are tunes played on the tsam- to suggest a distinction between these two terms bouna (drone-less, double-chanter bagpipes) according to the temporal intensity of the pitch from Samos, Chios, and Kalymnos (for recordings changes. see Dietrich 2005). The term ‘movable drone’ is preferable when An ‘alternating drone’ can be defi ned as an ac- a drone remains unchanged for several melod- companiment continuously switching between ic phrases and only then changes its pitch (for two tones within short phrases of the main mel- a shorter or longer time). The movable drone is ody. Contrary to other techniques of multipart generally typical of ensemble playing, particular- texture, the alternating drone is not subject to ly in South-East Europe. When two zurna (oboe) harmonic progressions and does not form regular players perform together one restricts himself patterns. The alternating drone is not very wide- to a movable drone (Makedonia, Albania). In the spread in European folk music. It can be found Greek islands the laouto (lute) player frequently more in solo playing and (at best) is rarely the plays a sustained chordal drone with rare har- responsibility of a particular performer in an monic changes. In a similar way the above-men- ensemble. We can fi nd it in tempo rubato melo- tioned Bosnian guslar style combines a (vocal) dies played on the Carpathian double-chanter melody, usually performed by the epic singer, bagpipe, whereas in the tempo giusto repertoire

104 Ulrich Morgenstern

Example 3. Double fl ute dvojnice. Hoerburger (1966: 105), taken from Brömse (1937: 94).

bagpipers prefer ostinato techniques. Example Vorder grund drängen”] (Brandl 1976: 93) in a 2 shows a song melody played on a Romanian stronger way than the melody. “It should not double-chanter cimpoi, recorded by Gottfried have any intrinsic musical value (Gestalt)” [“Es Habenicht. The drone continuously switches be- soll überhaupt keinen musikalischen Eigenwert tween the tonic and the dominant. In some Hun- haben (Gestalt)”]. Precisely this lack of Gestalt garian bagpipe tunes a similar alternating drone quality may help to distinguish the drone from reveals not only a certain independence from the the ostinato. The latter is generally defi ned as a main melody but also a considerable degree of constantly repeated short melodic pattern, both improvisation (Sárosi 1967: 95). as an independent melodic motive or an accompaniment to a melody or a more complex texture. 2.2.1.2. Drone and ostinato In the context of multipart music only the second The relationship between drone and ostinato meaning is of relevance. A continuously repeated is frequently discussed in German musicology, and therefore easily recognizable melodic pat- though not always in a precise and systemat- tern has a higher Gestalt quality than an (irregular) ic way. According to Boiko, the fi rst scholar who alternating drone. In this understanding the lower expressed “the recurrent view of an organic re- voice of the dvojnice tune that Hoerburger calls a lationship between the drone and the ostinato” “changing drone” (wechselnder Bordun, s. above) is (Boiko 2000: 9) was Hornbostel, who even calls in fact an ostinato (Example 3). the ostinato “a ‘melodic’ drone” (Hornbostel 1909: Similar ostinato techniques can be observed in 301). According to Hoerburger “the splitting up the contra-chanter bagpipe tunes of the Carpathi- of the drone into an one-, two- or three-tone os- an region, as in the Slovak example (Example 4). In tinato motif is hardly more than a variant of the contrast to this ostinato, the interval of a fourth, one-tone drone” [“die Aufspaltung des Bordun in produced on the contra pipe of the Romanian ein-[sic!]4 zwei- oder mehrtöniges Ostinato-Motiv bagpiper in the rubato tune just mentioned does ist kaum mehr etwas anderes als eine Variante not form a regular pattern. des eintönigen Bordun”] (Hoerburger 1981: 130). An ostinato is most of all an element of melody. In a similar way Brandl has emphasized that “the But it has to be noted that not any regular short transition between drone and ostinato is fl uid” melodic pattern fi ts well in this concept. As I try (Brandl 1981: 25). Naturally, of all drone-related to show below (2.3) , similar phenomena might be phenomena discussed above the ostinato has regarded more in terms of the harmonic structure most in common with the alternating drone. But of a piece. what are the diff erences? As Brandl has pointed out, the drone is a “ref- 2.2.1.3. Harmonically regulated drone erence system” that “must not push itself to A specifi c drone-like technique is typical for folk the foreground” [“darf sich nicht stärker in den fi ddlers of Central, Eastern and Northern Europe.

4 I am not sure whether Hoerburger really had in mind a “one-tone ostinato”. Probably, a hanging hyphen too many was used. In this case we should understand the phrase as: “ein zwei- oder mehrtöniges Ostinato-Motiv” (“a two or three-tone ostinato motive”), which would be more logical – and more correct in terms of style and grammar.

105 European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives

Example 4. Dance tune, played on a Slovakian contra-chanter bagpipe (Garaj 1995: 191–192).

106 Ulrich Morgenstern

Example 5. Lithuanian fi ddle tune Daina maršas (Kirdienė 2000: 285).

The abundant (and sometimes continuous) use At fi rst glance the fi ddle tune in Example 5 of open strings for the accompaniment of the resembles the movable drone – due to the rare main melody is frequently mentioned in eth- switches of the lower tone from a1 to d1. Nearly nomusicological studies. Gaila Kirdienė (2012: the whole melody with the range of the Ionian 75f.) has shown that this technique is particu- pentachord is played on the E string while the larly important for solo performance. The same open A string produces a dominant drone. Only was confi rmed by Volker Derschmidt, a fi ddler when the melody requires the tonic d2 (on the A from Gunskirchen in Upper Austria. He particu- string) the fi ddler shifts to the lower string pair, larly considers these drone elements as “useful supporting the tonic by the lower octave d1 on the for dance music” and “stimulating for the danc- open D string. One possible underlying harmonic ers”.5 Derschmidt has also observed this texture structure of the tune can be described as follows. in old local musical manuscripts – as did another | D D T | D D T | Upper-Austrian fi ddler and folk music research- | T D | T S | D D T | er, Hermann Fritz, who emphasized the signifi - This is at least the typical way a local accordion cance of drone elements in Austrian fi ddling, be or guitar player would accompany the tune. How- it as homophone immanente Mehrstimmigkeit or ever in European folk music practice the subdom- as “interrupted two-part texture” [unterbrochene inant accompaniment of the fourth melodic de- Zweistimmigkeit].6 gree can frequently be replaced by the dominant In most of the fi ddle styles mentioned the seventh. This is particularly the case when musical open drone string is not played from the begin- instruments are used on which the subdominant ning to the end of a tune but from time to time is diffi cult or impossible to achieve (early accordi- carries a melodic function, as in the Lithuanian ons, balalaikas or, in our case, the fi ddle). Daina maršas (= song-march, Example 5).7 How In our example the dominant drone a1 is sus- can we discuss these multipart phenomena in the tained almost throughout the whole piece. It context of the drone? changes only when the tonic d2 is played (in the

5 Personal E-mail communication, 26.08.2013. 6 Personal E-mail communication, 26.08.2013. 7 A comparatively rare example for such a continuous drone, played by two fi ddlers simultaneously, was written down by Swabian composer and musical pedagogue Cyrill Kistler in a study of travelling fi ddlers from Knöringen published in Musikalische Tagesfragen 6 1889, see Heigl 2002: 14. In this case the fi ddle duets imitate Italian bagpipe music, extremely widespread all over Europe at that time. I have to thank Erna Ströbitzer from the Austrian Folk Song Society for calling my attention to Heigl’s article.

107 European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives scheme the beats, dominated by the tonic of the 2.2.2. Temporal modifi cations of the drone 1 melody are underlined). Thus the drone a is com- European folk music knows numerous styles patible with the harmonic structure but does not where the drone (be it constant, movable or har- always mark the harmonic progression. Only the monically regulated) is not produced continuous- important cadence D–T is confi rmed by the shift ly but with interruptions. The placement of these of the drone – in the strongest way at the end of drone elements can be regular or sporadic (Arom every line. As drone elements play a big part but et al. 2007: 1093). If sporadic drone elements do are from time to time subordinated to the har- not recur at the same sections of a pattern they monic movement of the tune I would like to off er may be considered the result of improvisation the term ‘harmonically regulated drone’ for this (Morgenstern 2015: 34). texture rather than ‘movable drone’. Other possi- In ethnomusicological literature drone el- bilities of regulating the drone are its interruption ements are sometimes referred to as ‘broken (see also 2.2.2) or its replacement by other tech- drone’ or ‘drone fragments’. Recently I used the niques of accompaniment. For instance, many term ‘episodic drone’ – as one type of ‘alternat- Russian balalaika players use a dominant drone as ing texture’ (Morgenstern 2015: 32–34). However, long as it is compatible with the harmonic func- in dependence of the temporal intensity of the tion of the tonic and the dominant and change drone elements I would like to suggest a distinc- the texture only in subdominant sections – or in tion between ‘discontinuous drone’ and ‘drone order to stress the cadence D–T at the end of a accents’. In doing so, it is important to bear in line. mind that with regard to the signifi cance of the Of course, we have to keep in mind that the drone concept for a particular style or for an indi- Lithuanian fi ddler has no possibility to maintain vidual performer it is not only the real frequency 1 the drone a when the A string has to be stopped of drone elements that matters but also the pos- to achieve the tonic of the melody. However, I sibility of their occurrence in the course of a par- would not say that the regulation of the drone is ticular tune. This is of principal importance for a due to purely melodic requirements. This would cognitive approach to drone music. not explain why so many fi ddlers in Europe (and In both types of temporal modifi cation of the in North America as well) choose tonalities (D drone we have to consider the extent to which the major or minor) and fi ngering positions with the interruptions are a means for achieving “phonic maximum possibility for drone playing. contrast” (Morgenstern 2015: 37), intensifying the Sometimes a harmonically regulated drone “textural rhythm” (Berry 1987: 201; Morgenstern can quickly change from an upper to a higher 2015: 37f.), or a result of harmonic regulation. drone and vice versa. Particularly in Scandinavian fi ddle traditions this interplay is highly developed. 2.2.2.1. Discontinuous drone With regard to the fi ddling styles of the Smolensk Arom and his coauthors defi ne the alternation region, Tat’iana Kazanskaia has coined the term between drone elements and their absence as ‘polyphonic-drone style’ (Kazanskaia 1988: 87),8 as bourdon discontinue (Arom et al. 2007: 1092f.). opposed to the monophonic ‘melodious-virtuoso Similarly Kirdienė, with reference to Kazanskaia, style’. However it is likely that the former requires off ers a distinction between “pure […] or continu- an even higher degree of virtuosity – at least if we ous drone” and “impure or discontinuous drone” understand virtuosity not only in terms of mo- (Kirdienė 2012: 76). As the opposition “pure – toric dexterity but also as the agility of thinking impure” has certain religious and moral implica- and the ability of creating quick and unexpected tions the structural terminology is preferable. In a combinations of musical elements. It is a concept narrower sense the ‘discontinuous drone’ can be of music making that may be called ‘mental vir- defi ned as a texture where drone sections consid- tuosity’ (Morgenstern 2007: 335–337). Thus the erably dominate a piece of music, with compara- harmonically regulated drone is interrelated with tively short interruptions. most sophisticated types of polyphonic texture.

8 In Russian terminology (similarly as in German) polifoniya is used in a more narrow sense, emphasizing the independence of the melodic lines.

108 Ulrich Morgenstern

2.2.2.2. Drone accents both with the process of singing and with the in- In many traditional fi ddle styles drone elements strumental drone of the bagpipes: “of course the are limited to isolated notes or very short sec- pipes, you know, is borrowed after vocal style” tions. Such episodic use of the drone against the (Heaney, in Cowdery 1990: 36). At least it can be background of homophony (or other textures) taken for granted that the Irish Uilleann pipe is a can be defi ned as ‘drone accents’. This term is comparatively recent instrument, introduced by used in analogy with ‘dynamic accents’, ‘chordal English aristocrats in the 18th century. accents’, and thus fi ts well with existing musico- Cowdery’s study is a valuable contribution logical terminology. both to cognitive ethnomusicology and to the (necessarily interlinked) study of multipart music. 2.2.3. The mental drone. Ontological aspects of Not by chance Albrecht Schneider, in his review drone music of Cowdery’s book, particularly emphasized the As I have already indicated, the signifi cance of the “concept of a mentally represented inner drone” drone concept in a traditional style does not di- (Schneider 1993: 217). From there he draws an rectly depend on its material actualization, i.e. on important conclusion, pointing to the cognitive the real frequency of drone elements. This idea is foundations of Irish traditional music: “Therefore clearly expressed in Irish folk music studies. Tomas it is, at bottom, invalid viewing Irish music as char- Ó Canainn (cf. Cowdery 1990: 36) has briefl y men- acterized purely melodically” (ibid.: 218). tioned the possibility that traditional sean-nós Of course, even for the most experienced fi eld- (old-style) singing implies an inner representation workers it will be hard to conduct interviews, un- of a continuous tone that becomes an acousti- covering the concepts of traditional performers in cal reality only at the end of a line. It was James such an illuminating way as did James R. Cowdery. R. Cowdery (1990: 36–39) who studied at length Nevertheless, it would be desirable if his discov- the fundamental concept of the nea as an “inner ery were to encourage ethnomusicologists to ex- drone”. His impressive interview with Joe Heaney plore hidden concepts of multipart music such as (Seosamh Ó hÉanaí, 1919–1984) reveals the pro- the mental drone in other local traditions. found value (“It means an awful lot”, Heaney, in Cowdery 1990: 36) of the “background music” 2.3. Harmonic foundation (ibid.): “I base myself on that note, and I can’t go I tried to distinguish above between two tempo- wrong when that note is still there. It’s very hard ral modifi cations of the drone (movable/alternat- to pitch wrong if you do that way” (ibid.: 38). ing drone) and the ostinato. In a similar way we Heaney not only felt the “nature’s accompani- have to distinguish between the harmonically ment” (ibid.) when singing himself. He was also regulated drone and a multipart texture subor- able to distinguish the presence or absence of dinated throughout to harmonic progressions. the mental drone in the performance of other In the second case the harmonic foundation can local singers of the Gaelic-speaking areas: “You appear a) as a bass line, strongly oriented on the know the fi rst time someone starts singing a roots of the alternating harmonies, b) as a chordal song, you know has he got it, or does he not” texture, c) as a combination of both. When an al- (ibid.: 37). Moreover, Heaney even analysed for- pine button accordion player performs a Ländler eign music the same way. Thus he identifi ed the he will provide a bass accompaniment, exactly mental drone in traditional music from Russia and corresponding to a harmonic pattern such as: Czechoslovakia. British Folksinger Ewan MacColl | T D | D T | or | D T | D T |. In the same way a Calabri- was obviously fascinated by Heaney’s sure judge- an Tarantella can be performed. Similarly, a bass ment and once demonstrated to him 20 records player in a traditional Central-Eastern European with folk music of diff erent countries, asking to folk music ensemble may underline the harmonic put down “who has it and who doesn’t” (ibid.: 38).9 structure of a Waltz or a Polka. Such an accompa- Of particular interest is Heaney’s historical in- niment, strictly subordinated to the immanent terpretation of the mental drone, clearly linked harmonic movement of the melody, should be

9 MacColl aimed to encourage his wife Margaret (Peggy) Seeger to write an article on Heaney’s notes. At least Cowdery does not mention a result of this initiative.

109 European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives

Example 6. Georgian bagpipe chiboni. Female dance Gandagana from Adzharia. Manana Shilakadze (1989: 36) taken from Vladimir Akhobadze (1961: 296).

distinguished from the ostinato with its intrinsic Georgia played on the drone-less double-chanter Gestalt qualities. One and the same fi gure can be bagpipe chiboni. The second shifts of the lower related to both forms. For instance, a simple alter- voice, following the implicit harmony of the main nation of a tonic and a dominant tone in regular melody, are typical for many regional styles of quarter notes can be an ostinato if it shows a cer- Georgian music both, instrumental and vocal. tain independence of the main melody. It can also Such binary alternations of harmonic complex- form a harmonic foundation if it follows its imma- es are typical of most diff erent regional styles of nent harmonic progression. European folk music, both vocal and instrumen- The harmonic foundation in European instru- tal. They appear in diff erent textures from mo- mental folk music very often has to be understood nophony (immanent harmony) to parallel shifts a result of the general trend from the drone style of entire chords. South-Russian dance songs and to harmonic concepts in the 18th/19th century. hornpipe tunes, Breton and Irish dances, fl ute Austrian musical manuscripts reveal that in the melodies of the Hungarian Csango, the typical Ländler repertoire both style strata (Stilschichten) style of the Russian gusli krylovidnie and the Seto are evident (Haid 1976). labaga kannel10 are striking examples of harmo- In Central European practice the harmonic ny-based music which is not derived from West- foundation is obviously related to the church and ern functional harmony. Double hornpipes and art music of the Baroque period. However in other drone-less double-chanter bagpipes, such as the regional instrumental styles a similar texture may chiboni, are of particular interest for comparative be of older origin. Example 6 shows a tune from studies in a historical perspective.

10 Both instruments belong to the so-called Baltic psaltery.

110 Ulrich Morgenstern

Example 7. A dance tune from the Pskov province, played on the balalaika with unison-fourth tuning (Morgen- stern 2007, Bd. 2: 370).

111 European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives

2.4. Chordal accents degree. For instance, a great deal of the terminol- European solo instrumental folk music knows ogy and analytical methods developed by music not only the episodic drone (drone accents) but historian and theorist Wallace Berry (1987) can also chordal accents against the background of be applied to studying the textures of traditional monophony or drone style. This eff ect can be Russian instrumental music in a fruitful way (Mor- achieved with harps, zithers, bowed or plucked genstern 2015). Arom and his team have shown lutes (such as the balalaika, Example 7). It is also how multipart phenomena of the most diverse typical of the Irish Uilleann pipes. geographical, social and historical origin can be These chordal elements do not necessarily have integrated in a consistent terminological frame- to be considered as representing a general chord- work. This is essentially what music anthropology al-harmonic concept – similarly to the discontinu- in a true sense is about. Discussing the terminol- ous drone, which may represent the mental pres- ogy of multipart music, ethnomusicologists can ence of a continuous drone. Chordal accents can off er new perspectives for an integration of dif- serve primarily as a means of textural contrast. ferent subdisciplines of international musicology. Thus, the minor dominant b-d1-f 1 in Example 7 is not of great importance for the local concept of the tune. Other musicians from the central Pskov Appendix province (balalaika and button-accordion players) Working defi nitions in general avoid the dominant and stress more In the following I will briefl y list some working the tonic and its relative major/minor as well as defi nitions of the multipart techniques and re- the relative major/minor of the dominant. Aleksei lated phenomena referred to above. Included Leonov, on the contrary, does not make any use are traditional musicological terms, special terms 1 1 of the tonic chord b-e -g , regardless to the fact previously introduced by other authors, newly of- that it could easily be achieved. For a conceptual fered terms, and English translations from exist- analysis of multipart instrumental music not only ing German terms. In so doing I understand this the technical possibilities for multipart texture are list less as a part of a future system than as an off er of importance but also the way in which the musi- for discussion in ethnomusicology and beyond. cian makes or does not make use of them. Virtual multipart texture 3. Instead of a conclusion Reverse translation from Schwab-Felisch’s virtuelle Mehrstimmigkeit (= Bregman’s ‘virtual po- The development of ethnomusicological ter- lyphony’, see also Brandl’s virtuelle Polyphonie). minology of multipart phenomena goes hand in hand with comparative research. In order to Movable drone come to more unifi ed terminological solutions, A tone (or series of repetitions) changing after cooperation overcoming language barriers is a longer melodic section, followed by another indispensable. But there are also disciplinary drone or a shorter tone. These changes can de- obstacles in the way. In contemporary musicol- pend on the course of the main melody, but the ogy only few scholars are able to cover both movable drone is not subject to a harmonic pro- ethnomusicology and historical musicology – as gression. in earlier times Ėval’d, Gippius and many others Alternating drone did. Some ethnomusicologists experience anxi- A continuous, but not regular succession of two ety toward concepts and terminology developed diff erent tones (or series of repetitions) within a by historical musicologists and music theorists. short melodic section (one or two motifs). However, more productive than general resent- ments against (seemingly) “ethnocentric” theory Ostinato would be a careful examination of which multi- A continuous, regular melodic movement, con- part phenomena in folk music practice can be sisting of two or more diff erent tones, as opposed adequately described and analyzed – and to what to a short melodic section (one or two motifs) of extent – using contemporary musicological terms the main melody, not subject to a harmonic pro- and methods, and which not – or only to a lesser gression.

112 Ulrich Morgenstern

Harmonically regulated drone (Morgenstern) Drone accents (Morgenstern) The drone remains unchanged as long as it is A monophonic or other drone-less texture is epi- compatible with the underlying harmonic struc- sodically enriched by short drones (one or several ture of the tune. single tones). Harmonic foundation Mental Drone (Cowdery) A lower voice is strictly subject to the harmonic A continuous drone mentally present to the per- progression of a tune. Usually it marks the roots former, from time to time materialized in the mu- of the harmonic pattern. sical outcome. Discontinuous drone Chordal accents A continuous or movable drone is interrupted A monophonic or other texture is episodically en- from time to time by silence. riched by full chords.

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Hrsg. Christoph-Hellmut Mahling, Ruth Seiberts, Tutzing: and Instrumental Folk Music, vol. II]. Eds. Igor’ V. Matsievskii, Hans Schneider, Mainzer Studien zur Musikwissenschaft 35, Evgenii V. Gippius, Moscow: Sovetskii kompozitor, pp. 78– S. 61–88. 106.] Ėval’d, Gippius 1941 = Эвальд, Зинаида Викторовна, Kirdienė, Gaila 2000. Smuikas ir smuikavimas: lietuvių Евгений Владимирович Гиппиус 1941. Замечания о etninėje kultūroje [Fiddle and fi ddling in Lithuanian Ethnic белорусской народной песне. – Белорусские народные Culture]. Vilnius: Kronta. песни. Ред. Эвальд, Зинаида, Москва/Ленинград: Гос. муз. Kirdienė, Gaila 2012. The drone styles of Lithuanian folk изд-во, стр. 110–122. [Ėval’d, Zinaida Viktorovna, Evgenii fi ddle music. – Routes & Roots: Fiddle and Dance Studies from Vladimirovich Gippius 1941. Zamechaniia o belorusskoi around the North Atlantic 4. Eds. Ian Russell, Chris Goertzen, narodnoi pesne [Remarks on the Belorussian Folk Song]. 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Types and Rhythms of Texture. Polyphonie. Bern: Drechsel).] Russian Multipart Folk Instrumental Practice as a Challenge Garaj, Bernard 1995. Gajdy a gajdošská tradícia na Slovensku to Musicological Terminology. – Multipart Music: Individuals [The bagpipe and bagpipers’ tradition in Slovakia]. Bratislava: and Educated People in Traditional Multipart Music Practices. ASCO. Eds. Pál Richter, Lujza Tari, Budapest: Research Centre for the Humanities HAS, pp. 17–43. Habenicht, Gottfried 1974. Die rumänischen Sackpfeifen. – Jahrbuch für Volksliedforschung 19, S. 117–150. Nettl, Bruno 1963. Notes on the Concept and Classifi cation of Polyphony. – Festschrift Friedrich Blume zum 70. Geburtstag. Haid, Gerlinde 1976. Bordunierende Formen im Ländler. – Eds. Anna Amalie Abert and Wilhelm Pfannkuch, Kassel et Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Volksliedwerkes 25, S. 88–99. al.: Bärenreiter, pp. 243–251. Heigl, Evi 2002. “… und surrt dabei die leere D-Saite auf Salmen, Walter 1957. 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Hg. von Walter Deutsch, Schriften zur Volksmusik 5, Wien: Schendl, S. 129–140. Schwab-Felisch, Oliver 2005. Zur Analyse virtueller Mehrstimmigkeit in einstimmigen Werken J. S. Bachs. Hornbostel, Erich Moritz von 1909. Über Mehrstimmigkeit – Zwischen Komposition und Hermeneutik. Festschrift für in der außereuropäischen Musik. – III. Kongreß der Hartmut Fladt. Hrsg. Ariane Jeßulat, Andreas Ickstadt, Martin Internationalen Musikgesellschaft, Wien, 25. bis 29. Mai 1909. Ullrich, Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, S. 67–86. Bericht vorgelegt vom Wiener Kongreßausschuß, Wien: Artaria & Co / Leipzig: Breitkopf & Haertel, S. 298–303. Shilakadze 1989 = Шилакадзе, Манана Ивановна 1989. Грузинская народная инструментальная музыка. Общ. Kazanskaia 1988 = Казанская, Татьяна Николаевна ред.: В. Петров. Москва: Музыка. [Shilakadze, Manana 1988. Традиции народного скрипичного искусства Ivanovna 1989. Gruzinskaya narodnaya instrumental’naya Смоленской области. – Народные музыкальные инстру- muzyka [Georgian Instrumental Folk Music]. Ed. V. Petrov, менты и инструментальная музыка, том II. Общ. ред.: Moscow: Muzyka.] Евгений В. Гиппиус, ред.-сост. Игорь В. Мациевский, Москва: Советский композитор, стр. 78–106. [Kazanskaia, Wiora, Walter 1955. Zwischen Einstimmigkeit und Mehr- Tat’iana Nikolayevna 1988. Traditsii narodnogo skripichnogo stimmigkeit. – Festschrift Max Schneider zum achtzigsten iskusstva Smolenskoi oblasti [Traditions of folk fi ddle art in Geburtstage. Hrsg. Walther Vetter, Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag the Smolensk province]. – Narodnye muzykal’nye instrumenty für Musik, S. 319–334. i instrumental’naya muzyka, tom II [Folk Music Instruments

114 Ulrich Morgenstern

Mitmehäälse soolo-instrumentaalmuusika traditsioonid Euroopas. Terminoloogilised probleemid ja perspektiivid

Ulrich Morgenstern (tõlkinud Žanna Pärtlas)

Mitmehäälset multipart muusikat ja eriti selle instrumentaalseid vorme puudutav etnomusikoloogiline terminoloogia on üsna ühitamatu. Seda võib seletada võimalike keelebarjääridega, kuid samuti nähtuse enda süstemaatilise ja võrdleva uurimise puudumisega. Käesolevas artiklis vaadeldakse mitmehäälse soolo-instrumentaalmuusika ja sellega seotud nähtuste terminoloogilisi küsimusi, baseerudes mitmehäälse faktuuri (Mehrstimmigkeit) laial defi nitsioonil. Muusi- kanäited pärinevad Euroopa rahvamuusika erinevatest traditsioonidest, kuigi mitmeid arutlusel olevaid mitmehäälseid tehnikaid multipart techniques (Oskár Elschek) võib leida ka teistel muusikategemise aladel. Sellega seoses käsitletakse siin teoreetilisi mudeleid ja terminoloogilisi lahendusi, mis ei pärine mitte ainult Euroopa etnomusikoloogiast (rahvamuusika uuringutest), vaid ka muusikaajaloost, muusikateooriast ja psühhoakustikast. Uurimismaterjaliks valitud mitmehäälsusega seotud tehnikad ja faktuurid katavad üksnes väikest osa Euroopa rikkalikest ja eripärastest mitmehäälse soolo-instrumentaalmuusika traditsioonidest. Ometi üritasin võtta vaatluse alla selliseid faktuuritüüpe, mida on võimalik leida rohkem kui ühest või kahest regionaalsest rahvamuusikatraditsioonist. Esimene artiklis esitletud tehnika on põhiliselt ühehäälne, kuid seda tajutakse mitmehäälse faktuu- rina. See on laialt tuntud kui nn. kujuteldav polüfoonia virtual polyphony (Albert S. Bregman 1990). Järg- nevalt vaadeldakse burdooni (laiemas tähenduses, vastavalt saksa uurimistraditsioonile alustades Erich Moritz von Hornbosteli ja lõpetades Rudolf M. Brandliga) ja mitmesuguseid selle modifi katsioone. Bur- dooni helikõrguslikke modifi katsioone võib määratleda sõltuvalt helikõrguslike nihete sagedusest. „Liikuv burdoon” movable drone kujutab endast väljapeetud heli (või helikorduste rida), mis muutub pikema meloodilise vormiosa järel ning millele järgneb teine burdoon või lühem heli. Need muutused võivad sõltuda põhimeloodia kulgemisest, kuid liikuv burdoon ei allu harmooniajärgnevusele. „Vahelduv burdoon” alternating drone on pidev, kuid mitte regulaarne kahe erineva heli (või helikorduste rea) järg- nevus lühikese meloodilise vormiosa (üks või kaks motiivi) piirides. See sarnaneb ostinato’ga, mille all on mõeldud pidevalt korduvat ja seetõttu kergesti äratuntavat meloodiamustrit. Sellele vaatamata on võimalik eristada muutuvat burdooni ja ostinato’t , lähtudes viimase kõrgemast Gestalt-kvaliteedist. Veel üks helikõrguslik modifi katsioon on „harmooniliselt reguleeritud burdoon” harmonically regulated drone. Burdoon jääb muutumatuks nii kaua, kui see sobib viisi aluseks oleva harmoonilise struktuuri- ga. Seda tuleb eristada „harmoonilisest põhjast” harmonic foundation, mille puhul allub alumine hääl rangelt viisi harmooniajärgnevusele. Burdooni ajaliste modifi katsioonide hulka kuulub „katkendlik burdoon” discontinuous drone, mis on vastandatud lühematele ja üksikutele „burdoonilistele rõhkudele” drone accents. Mitmehäälse (soolo) muusika laialt levinud tehnikaks on episoodilised „akordilised rõhud” chordal accents. Nad võivad, kuid ei pea markeerima harmooniajärgnevust. Etnomusikoloogias vähe tähelepanu pälvinud nähtus on „mõtteline burdoon” mental drone (James R. Cowdery), mis eksisteerib valdavalt muusiku sisemises ettekujutuses ja reguleerib esitusprotsessi. Terminoloogilised lahendused ja töötavad defi nitsioonid, mis pakutakse välja selles artiklis, kasuta- vad traditsioonilisi muusikateaduslikke termineid, teiste autorite poolt käibele lastud spetsiaalseid termineid, uusi termineid ja saksakeelsete terminite inglise tõlkeid. Artikkel ei sea eesmärgiks fi kseeritud terminoloogia kehtestamist, vaid interdistsiplinaarse diskussiooni algatamist. Mitmehäälse instrumentaalmuusika terminoloogiaküsimused on üks aladest, kus etnomusikoloogia võiks anda oma panuse muusikateaduse harude dialoogilisse reintegratsiooni.

115 Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music Alessandro Bratus

Abstract One of the divides between traditional and popular music is the diff erent status of the performance in the two. In the former, it is generally understood as a live event, an extemporary composition realized in the here and now, whereas in popular music the recorded performance is an object based on performative materials (the recording), which in turn can infl uence subsequent live performances. Despite this diff erence, the concept of multipart music may nevertheless be fruitful in both domains of music studies in approaching both actual and mediatized performances. After a theoretical discussion of issues related to mediation and production processes, including the temporal aspects of collaboration through recording and the spatial dimension constructed by the stereophonic mix, the paper will apply the concept of multipart music to an analysis of the main theme from Shaft by Isaac Hayes. Here the perspective provided by this conceptual tool will provide the key to unpacking its meanings and cultural signifi cance, starting from a consideration of its structural details and subsequently revealing the connections between text and context.

The discussion of whether multipart music could strict interaction and interpersonal relation- off er a reliable theoretical framework for the ships. study and the analysis of recorded popular music What makes the concept appealing from the becomes constructive when it leads to a diff erent point of view of a scholar interested in contem- and unifi ed conceptualization of some aspects of porary mass-mediated cultural production is its a track’s structural and aural organization. With re- positive ambiguity. By including in one and the spect to traditional music, for which the concept same defi nition the structural, performative and of ‘multipart music’ was fi rst elaborated, the ap- relational elements of a musical object, the ad- plication of the concept to a diff erent context of jective ‘multipart’ introduces a view on music- music production and reception requires a series making as a shared practice in which various of methodological and disciplinary caveats to be people are involved in diff erent roles, and where introduced, which will be discussed in the second the divides between who sings or plays and who section of the article. In this fi rst part, however, I is listening, or between who sets the conditions want briefl y to underline why the challenge of us- for the act of music making and who makes the ing it as part of the theoretical toolbox for popular music are blurred, in favor of a holistic approach music analysis could add a new perspective to the to a cultural practice in all its complexity. By fore- consideration of the nexus between structures grounding the activities that originate musical and the generation of meaning in the reception utterances and the social interactions involved of recorded tracks. In Macchiarella (2012: 22), mul- in making them happen, the concept provides tipart music is defi ned as: an analytical matrix to understand music as a set Any musical behavior producing at least two of relationships: between the musical elements intentional sound sequences, regulated by within a specifi c song, between the performers, specifi c rules for their overlapping, each of between the musicians and their audience. Focus- which is performed by one single person or ing on the “expressive behavior based on the in- several people in unison, who maintain a dis- tentionally distinct and coordinated participation tinctiveness of their own, within contexts of in the performing act”,1 the fi eld circumscribed

1 This quote is taken from the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM) web page with the presentation of the Study Group on Multipart Music: http://www.ictmusic.org/group/multipart-music (9 March 2016).

116 Alessandro Bratus by the expression ‘multipart music’ has the merit als do when they sing/play together in organized of linking two fundamental dimensions: musical ways” (Macchiarella 2012: 9). The hypothesis at the structures, and the social forces from which the core of my analysis is that a careful consideration former acquire meaningfulness.2 of the relational, socio-cultural network associ- Such a relational framework is also crucial for ated with the production of recorded tracks can any account of the geographically and historically shed light on the processes of meaning construc- situated technological, social and stylistic prac- tion if they are considered – at least symbolically tices that shape the category of cultural artifacts – as part of a performative event constructed on broadly defi ned by the expression ‘popular mu- a recorded artifact. The consequence of such a sic’.3 Moreover, the network defi ned by the mul- shift is that the relational perspective at the core tipart perspective promises to be a way to deal of the multipart view of music making can be with the intense debate within the international used to approach recording holistically, linking community of scholars in popular music studies, more strongly the structural features of the music where sociological, culturalist and textual ap- with its impact on audiences in terms of signifi - proaches still struggle to gain mutual recognition cation and cultural value. If multipart music can (Wall 2003: 133–136; Shuker 2001: 16–25). In what be thought of in terms of an ‘experiential Gestalt’,4 follows I will fi rst sketch the theoretical extent and then its use can help overcome the apparent the pragmatic consequences of using the con- opposition between textual and contextual ap- ceptualization of multipart music-making for an proaches still aff ecting diff erent areas of (not only analytical approach to recorded popular music, in popular) music studies. particular regarding the organization of the single parts into an overall perceptual object shaped 1. Popular music as a multipart practice by specifi c structural and aural characteristics. One of the distinctive features of popular music is Subsequently I will discuss how such an abstract the special relation it has with recording, which at paradigm can be used to address the signifi cance the same time conditions its compositional pro- of the opening theme from the fi lm Shaft, as writ- cess and commercial circulation. By saying this, I ten, performed, recorded and produced by Isaac do not mean to overshadow the relevance of live Hayes, in a context in which the musical features performance in the reception and social signifi - of tracks can be read as part of a representation of cance of this music. I would argue, rather, that in the spatial and processual relationships in which comparison with other modes of music making, the recording frames both the performer and its in popular music technological mediation plays listeners in a shared – though virtual – event. a crucial role not only as a technical means of In this respect the plasticity of the concept capturing and preserving a performance for rec- of multipart music is surely an added value, as it reational or commercial purposes, but also as the can be readily applied to diff erent musical prac- horizon of its compositional project, where a spe- tices because it is less context-specifi c than terms cifi c professional fi gure – the producer – acquires such as ‘polyphony’, ‘heterophony’ and the like. an unprecedented position of power (Hennion Developed within a community of music scholars 1989). From this point of view, popular music can in the fi eld of ethnomusicology, it is an etic term be distinguished from other types of music as a whose history is not strictly related to specifi c mu- fi eld of cultural production in which the passage sical processes. Rather, it remains available for use to the era of ‘phonographic composition’ – at the across diff erent repertoires, the common denomi- end of the 1960s – marked a profound watershed, nator being only the interest for “what individu- helping defi ne it as the sonic art most concerned

2 For a survey on the issues regarding the role of music analysis in the fi eld of popular music studies, and on the multiple perspective from which this topic has been addressed, see Middleton (1993, 2000), Covach (1997, 2001), Fink (2002), Moore (2003, 2012a), Spicer and Covach (2010), Helms and Phleps (2012), Tagg (2012). 3 A theoretical ‘systems model’ of creativity in the recording studio has been recently presented by Philip McIntyre in several publications (see for example 2008 and 2012). 4 According to George Lakoff and Mark Johnson these are “[…] ways of organizing experiences into structured wholes” that make “our experience coherent” (2003: 81).

117 Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music with ‘acoustical publication’ (Julien 2008). With re- tive authorship is the rule and not the exception spect to traditional music, for which the concept (Ahonen 2008; Furini 2010; Negus 2011). Here the of ‘multipart music’ was fi rst elaborated, such a analogy with cinema is a useful one: even though shift marks a diff erence that we must carefully common discourses on fi lms assume that the ‘au- consider before moving forward. thor’ of a particular movie is the director, even a Again, a closer look at production processes cursory glance at the opening – or closing – cred- can help us in this regard, if we consider the activ- its proves the falsity of this belief, showing how ities associated with recording in their relational many professional fi gures have contributed to nature. On the one hand, in the aural experience the fi nal cut. The director here, like the musician of sound the temporal or spatial dissociation be- (or musicians) who takes credit as being chiefl y tween the performer and his or her listeners does responsible for a record, acts as the centre of a not rule out its social signifi cance as a cultural ar- network in which the sheer number of technical tifact. As in other examples of musical practices in parameters involved are too overwhelming for a which no audience is present during the physical single individual. The fi nal result is, then, the end production of sounds, an audience is neverthe- point of an extensive collaborative eff ort in which less implied in the performative act: the director has the role of providing the initial impulse, taking the most important decisions and Individual practice is one of the rare musical coordinating the activities of his co-workers. In occasions where there is no involvement with the case of recording, this task is actually shared a co-performer or spectator, but even here between the musician (or the band) who is cred- there is generally a social goal: the preparation ited as the main authorial character, and the ar- of a performance. Recordings might seem to tistic producer, often a behind-the-scenes fi gure be another exception, but the social element working on behalf of the record company or as a is still implied: there is a need to communicate freelance. In unpacking such a relationship, it can the musical content to someone else, even if be useful to borrow from Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi for the duration of the recording the audience (1997: 6) the conceptualization of creativity as the is imaginary (Davidson 2004: 57). outcome of dynamic interactions within “a sys- A consideration of the production chain of re- tem composed of three elements: a culture that cord making off ers another way to look at those contains symbolic rules, a person who brings the ‘patterns of musical behavior’ at the core of the novelty into the domain, and a fi eld of experts defi nition of multipart music, as long as we ac- who recognize and validate the innovation”. Phil- knowledge the shift in our object of analysis lip McIntyre (2008, 2012) has developed a model from a performance realized in real time to a vir- to understand the social relationships within the tual performance resulting from the non-linear recording studio in a relational matrix. In particu- editing of pre-recorded materials (Heiser 2012). lar, he stresses the relevance of the producer in Such a move not only made it possible to imag- the fi eld of popular music; as long as we move in ine diff erent objects in terms of multipart music, a commodifi ed fi eld in which commercial and ar- but also brought the moment of reception to the tistic choices ought to proceed hand in hand, his/ forefront, centering analytical discourse on the her function is decisive as the centre of a network objectifi cation of a collective act of music-making of professionals working around studio practices. witnessed by – or, better, built to be experienced In fact, he is the character who has accumulated through – the record. the largest amount of economic, cultural and so- Focusing on reception also means recognizing cial capital in his professional life,5 so as to achieve popular music as a form of art in which collec- the best results with the fewest resources:

5 The diff erent forms of capital discussed here by McIntyre are drawn from the work of Pierre Bourdieu, as he discusses culture as a fi eld of knowledge in which diff erent confi gurations of power relationships are shaped by the amount of various kinds of personal resources. In this context economic power could have the same relevance as other aspects of knowledge that encourage the distinction and the power of a single actor in the context of the cultural production as a broader fi eld (Bourdieu 1984, 1986, 1993, 1994).

118 Alessandro Bratus

a producer’s and engineer’s ability to wield phonography. Such a shared space constructed the power within the fi eld, and therefore get on record promises to bridge the gap between things done in the studio, is dependent in the temporally and geographically dispersed lis- many instances on the accumulation of the teners of a record, making them part of a collec- cultural capital they hold as well as the main- tive body unifi ed by their experience of the same tenance of social relations within the fi eld media artifact. I will come back to the relevance (McIntyre 2008). of this idea, as well as of its consequence for processes of meaning construction, in the last part of Moving our consideration of recorded artifacts this paper, after the discussion of the case study. and their production processes towards a discussion of multipart music as an analytical perspective for popular music tracks also implies paying 2. The theme from Shaft: practicing a close attention to the moment of listening. In the multipart analytical perspective moment of listening a specifi c kind of relation- Starting from the conceptual basis outlined above, ship with the audience is brought about by the we can now focus on the theme from Shaft in or- aural experience of sound, especially after the der to show how the framework provided by the introduction of the stereophonic mix. Eff ects of concept of multipart music can off er some useful sound spatialization, such as panning, layering theoretical and practical hints for the analysis and and reverb, aff ect the proxemic space created interpretation of this song. The inextricable knot around the listener and position him in a space between shared expressive conventions and so- defi ned by the main characteristics of the ‘sound- cial formations at the core of a multipart perspec- box’.6 The relational space shaped by the record- tive is especially signifi cant in relation to genres ed track is the result of the relative positions of which have received little attention from schol- the performers and the listener within such an ars in music and music theory until recent times, aurally constructed ‘scene’. Here the audience is such as those related to dance.7 From the point of not a mere receiver of an act of communication, view of musical construction the function of these rather it is involved in the simulation of a perfor- genres separates them from other kinds of popu- mative act in which the listener is part of a larger lar music: they are aimed primarily at producing horizon in which the music is being produced; physical involvement, and all the details of their this virtual staging is, in turn, assembled from musical structure are deemed to elicit an embod- the sounds captured, manipulated and edited in ied apprehension of musical facts (Zeiner-Hen- the studio (and – literally – reproduced ‘live’ only riksen 2010). Moreover, the construction of funky in the moment when they are being read from grooves as the result of the interlocking patterns their physical support). From this point of view, described by Philip Tagg (2012: 465–466), as well the audience is given a specifi c point of hearing as their organization in sensory-motor repetitive and, consequently, a specifi c role in the act of mu- structures that can be repeated at will according sic-making, concurring with the musicians in the to the response of the dance-fl oor, calls for their enactment of a ‘performative event’ that repeats formal principle to be considered according to a itself every time a track is heard. Such a consider- ‘cumulative’ (Spicer 2004) logic, rather than the ation of listening is crucial for my discussion of the sectional logic of the ‘classic’ song derived from application of the multipart paradigm to popular the Tin Pan Alley tradition.8 music, because it links producers and receivers of What is relevant to these genres in the multi- a cultural artifact within a sort of ‘imagined per- part conception of music is, fi rst of all, the refer- formative community’ unifi ed by the means of ence to a participatory mode of music-making in

6 For a discussion of these issues, see Moylan 2002; Doyle 2005; Moore 2010; Moore, Schmidt and Dockwray 2009. In a similar vein, we could also refer to the concept of ‘aural staging’ introduced by Philip Tagg (Tagg 2012: 299ff ). 7 Notable exemptions are Tagg (1994), Hawkins (2003) and Garcia (2005). 8 As defi ned by Spicer (2004: 29): “In a cumulative form […] thematic fragments are gradually introduced and developed, only to crystallize into a full-fl edged presentation of the main theme in a climatic pay-off at the end of the piece”. In his essay, this type of form is strongly connected to the use of studio techniques (especially multitrack recording and editing) as a compositional tool, which in turns stimulates new possibilities for the formal development of a track.

119 Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music

Example 1. Basic groove of the theme from Shaft.

which not only the musicians are involved, but in the music of James Brown, Wilson Pickett, Sly and which the audience also has a role. We have al- the Family Stone etc. The connection with the fi lm ready seen how, in recorded music, the connec- further reinforces the link with a specifi c cultural tion between individual styles and their intended identity and historical situation – Black American performative contexts is embedded in the char- youth of the 1970s –, highlighting how processes acteristics of the sounds themselves – being the of meaning construction can spring up from the result of the aural mise en scène represented in interaction between text and context.11 the ‘sound-box’. In addition, the technical pecu- The fi rst issue to be addressed in considering liarities of such genres, in which iteration and the this track from a multipart perspective is the es- modular use of short rhythmic or melodic patterns tablishment of its groove, a 4-bar drum and gui- (treated as compoundable units at the origin of a tar pattern grounded in the interaction between plurality of textural and rhythmic combinations) two elements: the 16-semiquaver series on the hi- are more important than thematic development hat – which acts as the basis for all the rhythmic and harmonic sequencing, force us to expand events of the track, being the shortest rhythmical our “conception of music to include not just for- value –, and the guitar riff , whose overall sound mal structures but also processes” in the vein of is characterized by the rhythmic use of the wah black music scholarship that “has helped to open wah pedal and by a melodic content based on up a dimension of music theory that is useful for the open-chord fi fth g-d (Ex. 1). The drum pat- the study of all kinds of music” (Dudley 2008: 24). tern is played with only occasional and slight Having inherited most of its distinctive features variations – accenting some off beats with the from African music – including the organization open hi-hat to mark hypermetrical 4- and 8-bar of rhythmical and timbre distributions based on cycles – with the exception of the sung section the principle of contrast, a percussive approach in which a diff erent beat provides the rhythmic to instrumental and vocal parts, a recourse to an- background (2’41’’–3’41’’). Usually the 16 semiqua- tiphonal structures and an incorporation of phys- vers are grouped into four equal groups, with the ical bodily motion9 – Black American styles can fi rst note of each set of semiquavers accented to be good targets for testing an analysis grounded mark the downbeat. The guitar riff is made out of on the idea of multipart music. I chose to focus two types of 1-bar units. Rhythmically, both play here on the theme song from the fi lm Shaft (1971, with the regularity of the drum pattern by placing Gordon Parks) by Isaac Hayes10 because it is not a their main events on- and off -beat. In the fi rst, af- straightforward example of music made primari- ter two repetitions of the same pitch (g2) on the ly for dancing and/or listening – although it takes fi rst and second beat, the upward movement to up, for the sake of their audiovisual connotations, g3 is highlighted both by its position on the fourth the most widespread stylistic conventions from semiquaver of the beat and by the movement of

9 Comprehensive surveys on the markers of Africanness in Black American music, both from a structural and a cultural point of view, can be found in Wilson (1983) and Kubik (1999). 10 The analysis was made considering the recorded version of the theme song in the original soundtrack album (Isaac Hayes, Shaft. Enterprise ENS-2-5002, 1971) because of the higher defi nition of the instrumental parts and sound spatialization. However, minor variations in the musical substance that can be found in this source do not radically alter the cultural signifi cance of this track as it emerges from the audiovisual complex. 11 On the connection between African-American popular music and culture, some general references include Boyd (2008), Hall (2001) and Holloway (2005).

120 Alessandro Bratus

Example 2. Isaac Hayes, theme from Shaft, bars 1–8.

the wah pedal, that lets the sound of the guitar third beat. More interesting, though, is that this become gradually richer in the high frequencies convergence towards climactic moments in the in the fi nal part of the bar. The second unit of the micro-rhythmic dimension involves – considering guitar riff is interpolated with the fi rst once every only the two foundational parts of the groove – 4 bars, closing a larger hypermetrical cycle. The at least three diff erent levels of articulation. The second element is a sort of diminution of the fi rst fi rst is the 1-beat pattern of the hi-hat, which di- element, and it can be seen as the double repeti- vides the bar into four parts with the accent on tion of a 2-beat pattern in which a recurring fi gure the downbeat. The second level is represented by

(semiquaver + quaver on g2) frames a quaver on the 1-bar pattern in the melodic riff of the guitar, g3, so the eight semiquaver notes of the half-mea- which groups the preceding 1-beat pattern into sure are grouped into the uneven sequence longer unities composed by four equal cells. The 1+2+2+1+2. As in the fi rst cell, the shift from lower third level is the result of sequencing the two basic to higher pitch is highlighted by using the wah cells of the guitar riff into 4-bar phrases, according pedal, and this introduces a further perceptual to an aaab scheme. Such a temporal interlocking sign of temporal intensifi cation with respect to involves diff erent actors coming into play: at least the fi rst cell of the riff . a drummer, a guitarist, and their combined action, The interaction between the regular articula- which is essential for the fi nal result. The multipart tion of the 4/4 pattern in the hi-hat part and the logic at the core of their interaction can thus be syncopation of the guitar riff in the fi rst bars of the seen both as a compositional eff ect of a perfor- theme from Shaft shows a clear example of what mative practice based on layering short units into could be labeled as a multipart logic. Here the complex patterns, as well as putting into the fore- common metrical grid aff ords diff erent levels of ground the collaborative eff ort of music making, musical organization, all seemingly independent since any part can be connected to a single musi- of each other, and – at the same time – synchro- cian in the band. This also off ers listeners, thanks nized hyper-metrically in relation to a shared ref- among other things to the eff ect of the sound erence (Moore 2012a: 51–64).12 As in many dance design detailed below, the opportunity to under- music genres, synchronization is here not on the stand the record as an inclusive, participatory act. standard rock ‘backbeat’,13 but it happens mainly What is also relevant in the relationship be- on the fi rst and – once every four bars – on the tween the constituent parts of the groove of the

12 The synchronization between drum-kit and guitar is also supported by the technique of string muting, typical of funk and soul music. In this case, while the right hand strums on the strings – muted by the left hand – a regular 16th-note pattern (a sort of ‘implied’ underlining beat coinciding with the hi-hat pattern), the left hand lets the notes of the riff sound by pressing the fi nger on the fret-board. 13 I.e. in correspondence with the 2nd and 4th beat of the 4/4 metrical grid.

121 Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music

Figure 1. Isaac Hayes, theme from Shaft, instrumental patterns and temporal distribution (00’00’’–01’30’’).

theme from Shaft is that the establishment of ular patterns (Middleton 1983), each associated such a rhythmical background in the fi rst bars of with a specifi c instrument and, presumably, with the song is shown as the outcome of a process. a performer. In the case of Shaft, repetition is not In the fi rst seconds of the track we literally hear intended to be organized within 8-, 16-, or 32-bar the temporal negotiation between the two parts; closed sections, being rather the foundation for then, only after this moment, the track really be- a cumulative musical structure that has no clear gins. structural articulations (with the exception of the After two bars in which we hear the semiquaver main macro-formal sections described in the fol- drum pattern played on the closed hi-hat alone, lowing sentences), over which an indefi nite num- on the fi rst beat of the third bar the opening of ber of textural layers can be superimposed. A pro- the cymbals on the upbeat precedes the fi rst note cess of progressive thickening of the overall sound of the guitar riff (cell a), which starts on the sec- is repeated twice in the fi rst (00’00’’–01’44’’) and in ond beat of the third measure (Ex. 2). In bar 4 the the second instrumental section (01’44’’–02’41’’). riff is repeated, but it ends at the beginning of the Then the call-and-response between Isaac Hayes following bar, where a complementary rhythmi- and the answering Bar-Kays choir introduces a cal fi gure is proposed by the two instruments: the contrasting moment, which ends at 03’41’’ – when drums play a semiquaver-semiquaver-quaver pat- the hi-hat and guitar groove is introduced again. tern on – respectively – closed-closed and open Even though the overall concept of form can be hi-hat, while the guitar plays a quaver-semiqua- described as a set of closed sections, it would be ver-semiquaver pattern with the lowest pitch (g2) probably best viewed in terms of a tension be- on the downbeat and the higher (g3 and d3) on the tween repeated versus non-repeated elements upbeat. This incisive instrumental gesture even- – e.g. in the transition between the fi rst and the tually sets up the close correspondence between second section, when the groove remains unal- the rhythmic organization of the two instruments; tered while the other instrumental parts change from now on there will be no other disruption of abruptly –, as well as between continuous versus the regular 4/4 metrical grid, until the end of the non-continuous iterative patterns. track. The fi rst chord struck on the piano on the From the micro-formal point of view of the fi rst beat of bar 6 confi rms that the metrical or- arrangement, repetition and the introduction of ganization fi rst proposed by the hi-hat, then con- new instrumental layers seem to organize the trasted by the guitar, and fi nally regained by the track into 8-bar cycles, but this logic, too, results complementary rhythms in bar 5, acts as the ‘true’ from a dynamic opposition between two instru- point of reference for the other parts. mental groups according to their diff erent func- As the analysis of Shaft’s basic groove shows, tions. The accompanying parts, such as the bass the multipart conception of music underlines that (bar 12 – 00’22’’), guitar 2 (bar 16 – 00’30’’) and the structural organization of a track like this is – trombone (bar 28 – 00’55’’) actually tend to dis- fi rst and foremost – based on diff erent levels of rupt this regularity, beginning respectively on temporal organization characterized by the rep- the sixth (bass and trombone) and on the second etition and juxtaposition of recursive and mod- (guitar 2) bar of the cycle. On the contrary, the

122 Alessandro Bratus

Example 3. Isaac Hayes, theme from Shaft, bars 6–13.

fi rst introduction of the melodic parts tends to be One fi nal issue related to the use of the concep- placed at the beginning of the hypermetric unit, tual tool of multipart music in analyzing popular as with the trumpets (bar 22 – 00’41’’) and fl utes music regards the relational spaces constructed (bar 30 – 00’59’’), even though the latter begin in the recorded performance by the sound de- their melodic riff on the third beat of the measure. sign and the spatialization of sound sources. Two In such a structure, temporal fl ow has a stronger specifi c features of the theme from Shaft work relevance than harmony, which works as a seman- together in the aural representation of the rela- tic indicator of growing tension. The occasional tionships designed by the collective ‘author’ of dissonances between the parts – together with the track for the listeners. Through the act of lis- the increasing complexity of the texture – con- tening, the latter become part of an environment jure up a sense of anxiety that fi ts perfectly with designed to facilitate the “coordinated participa- the topic and the narrative context of the fi lm. tion in the performing act by sharing knowledge Even though the scale of g Mixolydian is clearly and shaping values”.14 First, the lyrics and their the modal centre of the song, the open octaves performative technique mimic the antiphonal on the piano alternating four bars on f (minor sev- logic between a soloist and its followers typical enth) and four bars on e (major sixth) serve more of many collective activities of Black American as gestures to enhance the sense of continuous communities, from the sacred to the profane. The fl ow, rather than functional movements gravitat- hierarchy between the two parts (call versus re- ing around a goal-directed framework (Ex. 3). sponse) is reinforced in the mix by the louder vol- Another example can be found in the trumpet ume of Hayes’s voice compared to the collective part, with the short motivic cells beginning on e reply of the falsetto choir. In this detail, the track against the background f in the piano (bar 22), fosters identifi cation on the part of its intended and on d against the background e (bar 26) (Ex. 4). audience by replicating one of the most wide-

14 Cfr. note 1.

123 Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music

Example 4. Isaac Hayes, theme from Shaft, bars 22–29.

spread behavioral rules within such a context. central part of the mix. A second point that can be At the same time the use of the choir can also be referred to a relational logic in Shaft’s theme is, in- intended, more generally, as a direct call for par- deed, the inclusive quality of the space construct- ticipation in the act of music-making addressed to ed by arranging the sound sources on the left and the listener, who occupies the same space as this right channel, as well as by their temporal distri- collective body – not by chance positioned in the bution over the track. Whereas the accompanying

124 Alessandro Bratus

Figure 2. Isaac Hayes, theme from Shaft, temporal distribution of the instrumental patterns according to stereo panning (left/centre/right are depicted in the diagram as top/center/bottom).

parts (drums, piano and bass) are in the centre of derlines its crucial role in representing a human the sound-box, other instruments are panned al- collectivity acting in a coordinated way in this ternatively on the left and on the right, so as to particular recording. construct a sound that gradually ‘embraces’ the listener. This gradual inclusion within the sound- 3. A multipart convergence for music scape constructed by the track, together with the studies? structural use of short melodic and harmonic pat- The theme from Shaft has proved to be a remark- terns that makes clear right from the start how the ably signifi cant example in testing how the basic music is constructed, can be interpreted as part of theoretical assumptions implied in the concept a strategy whose goal is to clearly expose its basic of multipart music can have a positive impact on compositional elements, at the same time using the study and analysis of a popular music track. I them to build a space where the phonographic chose that particular tune precisely for its hybrid ‘performers’ and the listeners are both included. nature: as the soundtrack for the opening credits After the fi rst electric guitar begins to play the of a Black oriented movie, we can reasonably as- main groove clearly on the left at 00’03’’, the in- sume that it aimed at including musical features troduction of the fl utes in bar 14 (00’26’’) is posi- belonging to styles that were recognized by its tioned on the opposite side of the stereo image. target audience as their own. At the same time The latter is then substituted by the second gui- it is part of a multimedia complex, in which the tar, strumming open fi fths from bar 16 onwards connotations involved in the production of mean- (again on the right), while the trumpets are placed ings triggered by sound – and the lyrics in which on the left (bar 22 – 00’41’’) and the trombones – Isaac Hayes praises the many merits of John Shaft together with a second fl ute part – on the right – lead to identifying the central visual character speaker (bar 28 – 00’55’’; b. 30 – 00’59’’). We can as the paramount model of the proud, smart and see how each part is carefully located in order to streetwise Black American male at the beginning gain its singular individuality (as can be seen in of the 1970s (Henry 2004). The social interaction their development from a metrical, hypermetrical called for by the defi nition of multipart music, and harmonic point of view), but each part is also with its corollary that the symbolic logic organ- conceived as an organic element in a global proj- izing musical performance can also be part of a ect, where the tension between individual and larger system of thought and beliefs regarding a collective identifi cation is mutually reinforced by collective social formation, can be seen at work the characteristic of the track in terms of its mu- here in processes related to audience identifi ca- sical structure and phonographical mise en scène. tion and the social uses of a cultural artifact. In Together with the antiphonal logic, which spe- this respect the connection between structure cifi cally points to an African-American audience, and culture implied in the concept is also not the concept of multipart music works here as a so far from the ‘telescoping’ proposed by Adam defi nition of the work made in the studio, as it un- Krims as a conceptual tool that allows us

125 Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music

to sort through the social relations, the built be mirrored in the features of its musical con- environment, and the urban ethos, constantly struction. The ‘otherness’ of the compositional shifting those levels as ground to fi gure, then logic underlined in the analysis of the theme from fi gure to ground, and always with the idea Shaft – the use of modular patterns, layering, open that all the shifting perspectives are retained form – has its ideal counterpart in the values most in a larger, and fully relational, picture (Krims commonly associated with the paradigm of the 2003: 151). European, Anglo-American white concept of mu- Certainly we cannot assume that the author, sical production and reception, such as the use of performers and producers of the Shaft soundtrack sectional periodic forms, melodic development, were consciously attempting to create those kind functional orchestration of the parts. This leads to of relationships between structure and society; a set of oppositions such as ‘dancing versus listen- nevertheless the success of the fi lm at the time, ing’ as the main social use of music, ‘groove-based its historical relevance and enduring heritage versus sectional’ forms, ‘participatory versus indi- (recently confi rmed in the 2000 sequel to the vidual’ modes of music-making, ‘inclusive versus fi lm in which Samuel L. Jackson plays a character exclusive’ constructions of the relational space of who is the nephew of the former John Shaft, with the recorded track, which repeatedly emerged in the original actor Richard Roundtree involved in the analysis of the track. a cameo role) provide evidence of the deep ef- From the point of view of musical construc- fect the fi lm still has today on its viewers.15 In the tion, vocal and instrumental parts participate in words of Richard Dyer, Shaft’s opening sequence the fi nal result by following the same underlying is one of the paramount expressions of the con- principles, in the fi rst place with the reference to nection between the character of the Black detec- a shared temporal grid to which they conform tive and the urban environment he lives in, above according to certain stylistic features pertain- all for its exceptional technical qualities: ing to Black contemporary styles. Such an ideal, genre-based collaborative eff ort is best exempli- No other blaxploitation credits or street se- fi ed by the transition between the fi rst and sec- quence surpasses this in terms of production ond sections of the theme from Shaft – where the values – that is city-centre location shooting, drastic change of the melodic parts against the high-tech multi-layered soundtrack and the unchanged groove demonstrates the potential precision of its matches with the visuals. Prob- plasticity of its compositional elements during the ably none even comes near […]. Nor are many performance and its readiness to take diff erent sequences a direct imitation of it. Rather, it forms in due course. Secondly, words add another stands as the now most widely remembered, level of signifi cation: they have a denotative value most technically polished variation of this that reacts with the already connoted level of mu- type of sequence (Dyer 2012: 161). sical structure. We have previously considered mu- A further argument supporting the exception- sical structure in relational terms,16 and the lyrics al nature of this sequence is also provided by a add another level of negotiation between subject reading of its musical structures informed by the and object typical of the reception of all cultural concept of multipart music, as this emphasizes works. The focus, which the concept of multipart the extent to which the idea of a community, or music implies, on the behavioral process behind the imagination of it (Anderson 1983), can be a the production of music is important because it fulcrum around which the structural and stylis- claims such a relational, interactive matrix as an tic features of such a cultural product gravitate. organic part of the cultural artifact, alongside the In such a context, the close relationship this se- existence of a common, and often implicit, level quence establishes between the Black protago- of meaning production shared by all the partici- nist and his environment in visual terms can also pants in a collective aesthetic experience. In the

15 John Singleton, Shaft, US, Paramount Pictures, 2000. The original fi lm was followed by two other feature fi lms (Gordon Parks, Shaft’s Big Score, US, MGM, 1972; John Guillermin, Shaft in Africa, US, MGM, 1973) and by a television series for CBS (1973–1974), also starring Roundtree in the role of the detective. 16 On the likely outcomes of the ‘relational turn’ in the disciplines related to music studies, see Born (2010) and Cook (2012).

126 Alessandro Bratus specifi c case of recorded popular music as a set genuine referential power of the text […]” of musical practices gravitating around mediati- (Moore 2012b).17 zation, the signifi cance of the multipart perspec- If multipart music can become a theoretical tive is even stronger for the moment of reception framework capable of including such a shift from because it extends the process of meaning pro- the musical and social to the symbolic domain of duction beyond the limits of the here and now representation, then its extent can grow dramat- of the performance. The community involved in ically and could perhaps aff ect the fi eld of music the act of producing music – since the moment studies at large. of music production is, seen from such a theoreti- As I have tried to sketch out in this preliminary cal lens, no longer restricted to the musicians, but discussion, the relevance of the concept is particu- also includes the audience that participates in the larly strong with respect to music theory, its scope performative event – can now be equated with all and aims, and it is consistent with some previous- the listeners of a given record, despite their even- ly expressed views of music as the ‘embodying’ tual non-connectedness in space and time, not to cross-domain of diff erent domains of representa- mention their remoteness from the musicians, au- tion (verbal, visual, emotional, physical/motoric, thors and producers. social) (Tagg 2012: 417–484).18 It makes it possible Obviously all the listeners of a record do not to go beyond a view of analysis as the dissection constitute a factual community, but they are peo- of an object and a process leading to a specif- ple sharing an aesthetic experience. Their com- ic interpretation, confi guring rather this fi eld of mon belonging is provided precisely by what study as the reconstruction of the complexity of unites them: a mass-distributed and reproducible cultural products and their signifi cation process- artifact that contains the same information and es. Analysis can thus be situated in some middle content in every copy. From this point of view ground between theory and practice only if it the recent turn in popular music analysis towards acknowledges its own limits, i.e. the impossibility ecological, cognitive-oriented post-structuralist of a complete reconstruction, as well as the need approaches – taking into account the plurality of to rely on an ever-expanding set of conceptual meanings associated with recorded music, con- and practical tools. Such an issue emerges with sidering listening as an active process of meaning special force when we have to deal with musical construction, as well as accounting for the plural- objects that are recorded forms of performative ity of parameters and behavior associated with events, regardless of their status as a genuine wit- its technical production (Moore 2012b; Zagorski- ness of an event – as in ethnographically oriented Thomas 2014) – confi rms the timeliness of our dis- research – or phonographic works – as in popular cussion of multipart music across the boundaries music studies. of a single musical repertoire. With regard to such In closing my paper, and thinking about the a vision of analysis, in the words of Allan Moore: possible developments of further discussion, I At the root of its underpinning is the interpre- wonder – in my position as a partial outsider to tative aesthetic off ered by Paul Ricoeur, who the fi eld and as a grateful guest at the ICTM (In- argues that the interpretation of a text can, ternational Council for Traditional Music) Study indeed must, engage with neither authorial Group for Multipart Music – if multipart music can intention nor the life experience of its original be thought of as a conceptual matrix to approach addressees: “What is indeed to be understood diff erent repertoires as cultural practices with […] is the meaning of the text itself, conceived some common features such as: in a dynamic way as the direction of thought • the reference to a performative root at the core opened up by the text […] the disclosure of of the objects witnessed in a recorded or audio- a possible way of doing things, which is the visual support. The consideration of a recorded

17 The quotation is from Ricoeur (1976: 92). 18 In particular, Tagg talks about the relevance of “concerted simultaneity” (which implies social organization) in music which, as well as “social anaphones” (composites of strands and layers of music), can be related to the idea of multipart music. What the latter idea has with respect to such defi nitions is to move the focus on to the moment of music-making, rather than seeing them from the point of view of the reception of a cultural object.

127 Tracking Relational Spaces on Record: A Multipart Perspective on the Analysis of Recorded Popular Music

artifact as a performative utterance specifi cally between diff erent actors, whose relative posi- constructed and received as an event – albeit tions and power relationships are shaped by virtual – in which performers and an audience the choices made in the long compositional are discursively engaged together, is an area process that starts with the recording in the that a multipart perspective on music making studio and ends with the mastering phase of promises to open up as a fruitful path for fu- post-production. ture research; • the presence, in real or virtual terms, of a his- This would broaden the scope of the defi nition torically positioned community that involves of multipart music towards a sort of ‘multipart both the producers and the receivers of a given paradigm’, including not only popular music, but cultural object, which is collectively performed also other relevant issues in contemporary music and made real by the media artifact. The pos- studies. Some examples are the analysis of record- sibility of using the recorded artefacts to imag- ed art music, of fi lm music as a cultural practice ine the presence of a community dispersed in that could be treated as a historical document, or time and space, connects popular music texts of the changing tradition of early music perfor- and their context of reception and informs the mance in the course of the 20th century. What all critical discussion of diff erent genres and styles these topics have in common is that they address of music; music as a kind of relational practice whose centre • the inclusion of the text and of the relational is not, paradoxically, the music itself, but a larger context in a common framework capable of picture where sounds are the catalyst for a histori- connecting the structural features of cultural cally situated set of negotiations involving social objects within a shared space where musicians relationships, technological procedures, aesthetic and audiences have a mutual role in validat- values and technical aspects. This not only calls ing their reciprocal positions, even in an indi- for a renewed consideration of the relative po- rect relationship enabled by a mass-produced sition of music within society and culture, but and reproducible product such as a recorded could also set the agenda for our future research artefact. The imagination of an environment in a convergence between diff erent branches of in which both the instances of producers and scholarly disciplines, allowing common problems receivers of a cultural product are included to emerge and overcome the dangers of narrow defi nes the record as a site for negotiation focus and specialism.

References Bourdieu, Pierre 1994. The Field of Cultural Production. – The Polity Reader in Cultural Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press, pp. 50–65. Ahonen, Laura 2008. Constructing Authorship in Popular Music. Artists, Media and Stardom. Saarbrücken: VDM. Boyd, Todd 2008. African Americans and Popular Culture. Volume III: Music and Popular Art. Westport (Connecticut) / Anderson, Benedict 1983. Imagined Communities: London: Praeger. Refl ections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. Cook, Nicholas 2012. Anatomy of the Encounter: Intercultural Analysis as Relational Musicology. – Critical Born, Georgina 2010. For a Relational Musicology: Music Musicological Refl ections: Essays in Honour of Derek B. Scott. and Interdisciplinarity, Beyond the Practice Turn. – Journal Ed. by Stan Hawkins, Farnham/Burlington: Ashgate, pp. of the Royal Musical Association 135/2, pp. 205–243. 193–208. , Pierre 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Bourdieu Covach, John 1997. We Won’t Get Fooled Again: Rock Music Judgement of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. and Musical Analysis. – Keeping Score: Music, Disciplinarity, Bourdieu, Pierre 1986. The Forms of Capital. – Handbook of Culture. Ed. by David Schwarz, Anahid Kassabian and Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. Ed. John Lawrence Siegel, Charlottesville/London: The University of G. Richardson, New York / Westport (Connecticut) / London: Virginia Press, pp. 75–89. Greenwood, pp. 241–258. Covach, John 2001. Popular Music, Unpopular Musicology. Bourdieu, Pierre 1993. The Field of Cultural Production. Essays – Rethinking Music. Ed. by Nicholas Cook and Mark Everist, on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 452–470.

128 Alessandro Bratus

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Tagg, Philip 1994. Dal ritornello al ‘rave’: Tramonta la fi gura, Wilson, Olly 1983. Black Music as an Art Form. – Black Music emerge lo sfondo. – Philip Tagg. Popular Music. Da Kojak al Research Journal 3, pp. 1–22. Rave. Analisi e interpretazioni. Ed. Roberto Agostini e Luca Zagorski-Thomas, Simon 2014. The Musicology of Record Marconi, Musica e scienze umane 11, Bologna: Clueb, p. Production. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 367–385. Zeiner-Henriksen, Hans T. 2010. Moved by the Groove: Tagg, Philip 2012. Music’s Meanings. A modern musicology for Bass Drum Sounds and Body Movements in Electronic non-musos. Larchmont: MMMSP. Dance Music. – Musical Rhythm in the Age of Digital Wall, Tim 2003. Studying Popular Music Culture. London: Reproduction. Ed. by Anne Danielsen, Farnham/Burlington: Arnold. Ashgate, pp. 121–139.

130 Alessandro Bratus

Salvestise suhestuslike ruumide jälgedel: multipart-vaatenurk levimuusika analüüsis1 Alessandro Bratus (tõlkinud Kaire Maimets)

Mõttevahetus selle üle, kas mõiste multpart music võiks pakkuda usaldusväärset teoreetilist raamistikku salvestatud levimuusika uurimiseks ja analüüsiks, muutub konstruktiivseks, kui see viib teistsuguse ja ühtsustatud arusaamani salvestise mõnedest struktuurilistest ja kuuldelistest organiseeritusaspektidest. Austusega traditsioonilise muusika vastu, mille tarbeks multipart-music-kontseptsioon kõigepealt välja arendati, nõuab selle kontseptsiooni rakendamine teistsuguses muusikaproduktsiooni ja -retseptsiooni kontekstis mõnegi metodoloogilise ja distsiplinaarse komistuskivi käsitlemist. Nende üle arutletakse artikli teises peatükis. Teksti esimeses peatükis tahan lühidalt toonitada, miks võiks katsetus kasutada seda kontseptsiooni levimuusika analüüsi teoreetilise arsenali osana lisada uue vaatenurga struktuurilise ja tähendusloomelise seose mõtestamisele salvestatud palade retseptsioonis. Haarates ühte ja samasse määratlusse muusikalise objekti struktuurilised, esituslikud ja suhteseos- likud osised, suunab omadussõna multipart vaatama muusikategemist kui jagatud praktikat, milles erinevad inimesed osalevad erisugustes rollides ning kus piirid selle vahel, kes laulab või mängib ja kes kuulab, või kes loob tingimused musitseerimistoiminguks ja kes musitseerib, on hägused, soosides nii holistlikku lähenemist ühele kultuuripraktikale kogu tema komplekssuses. Tõstes esiplaanile tegevused, millest tulenevad muusikalised väljendused, ning sotsiaalsed interaktsioonid, mis on seotud nende teokssaamisega, pakub multipart-music-kontseptsioon analüütilist maatriksit mõistmaks muusikat kui suhteseoste kogumit – muusikaliste elementide vahel mingis teatud laulus, esitajate vahel, muusikute ja nende publiku vahel. Ühtlasi näib multipart-vaatenurga kaudu defi neeritud võrgustik paljutõotava vahendina katses lahendada pingelisi vaidlusi levimuusika-uurijate rahvusvahelises kogukonnas, milles sotsioloogilised, kul- tuurilised ja tekstilised lähenemisviisid ikka veel vastastikuse tunnustamise pärast võitlevad. Järgnevas visandan kõigepealt multipart-muusikategemise kontseptsiooni kasutamise teoreetilise ulatuse ja prag- maatilise tähtsuse analüütilises lähenemises salvestatud levimuusikale, eriti mis puudutab tolle üksik- osade organiseeritust üheks terviklikuks tajuobjektiks, mida kujundavad teatud kindlad struktuurilised ja kuuldelised karakteristikud. Seejärel arutlen, kuidas kasutada seesugust abstraktset paradigmat fi lmi „Shaft” algusmuusika (looja, esitaja, salvestaja ja produtsent Isaac Hayes) tähenduslikkuse käsitlemisel kontekstis, kus lugude muusikalised omadused on tõlgendatavad kui osa ruumiliste ja protsessuaalsete suhteseoste representatsioonist, milles salvestatud muusika paigutab nii esitaja kui tema kuulajad jagatud – kuigi virtuaalse – sündmuse raamistikku. Multipart-music-kontseptsiooni paindlikkus on kahtlemata lisaväärtus: olles vähem kontekstispet- siifi line kui näiteks mõisted „polüfoonia”, „heterofoonia” jms., saab seda vabalt rakendada erinevatele muusikapraktikatele. Minu analüüsi keskne hüpotees on, et salvestatud lugude produktsiooniga seotud suhestusliku, sotsiokultuurilise võrgustiku põhjalik käsitlus võib – eeldusel, et neid peetakse (vähemalt sümboliliselt) salvestatud artefaktil loodud performatiivse sündmuse osaks – heita valgust tähendus- loomeprotsessidele. Seesuguse mõttenihke tulemusel saab multipart-vaatenurga keskmes olevat su- hestuslikku perspektiivi kasutada selleks, et läheneda salvestisele holistiliselt, ühendades muusika struktuurilised omadused tema mõjuga publikule tähenduslikkuse ja kultuurilise väärtuse mõttes.

1 Selles resümees nagu ka mõnes teises jäeti termin multipart music inglise keelest tõlkimata. See on tingitud selle termini tähenduse ambivalentsusest – ühelt poolt tähendab sõna part muusikalist partiid või häält (sel juhul sobiks tavapärane tõlge „mitmehäälsus”), teiselt poolt aga rõhutavad mitmed selle kogumiku autorid (nende hulgas Bratus) sõna part sotsiaalset tähendust ‘osa, roll’. Viimasel juhul ei väljendaks sõna „mitmehäälsus” autorite mõtet adekvaatselt, uute eestikeelsete terminite leiutamine ei ole aga toimetuse pädevuses. (Toim.)

131 ARVUSTUSED / REVIEWS

Maurizio Agamennone (ed.). Polifonie. Procedimenti, tassonomie e forme: una rifl essione “a più voci”. Venezia: il Cardo, 1996, 283 pp., fi gures, bibliography, index of names Enrique Cámara de Landa

1. Agamennone historical overview This book edited by Maurizio Agamennone in tury. Even though Adler interpreted this term as a 1996 contains the results of the seminar “Classifi - simultaneous performance of melodic lines with- cazione e analisi dei procedimenti polifonici” held out structure or organization – that is to say: the in Venice in 1995 regarding the possibilities of overlapping of diff erent voices without organiza- classifying polyphonic procedures in the realm of tion –, the term heterophony began to be used, oral tradition. The seminar was organized by the in a general way, to indicate what we could call Scuola Interculturale de Musica and the Univer- today the simultaneous variation of a melody. sità degli Study di Venezia. Although it has been Viktor Beliaev (1929 [together with S. W. Pring], 20 years since its publication, it is worth summa- 1930, 1933) wrote about the infl uence of Georgian rizing here its contents as they relate to problems songs on European polyphony. He used the terms that are still being discussed with regard to the ‘organum’, ‘diaphony’, ‘discanto’, and ‘false bor- study of the polyphony of oral tradition (a sub- done’, taken from musicology. ject that occupies a dossier in this volume of Res Vasil Stoïn (1925) studied the Bulgarian origin Musica). Agamennone’s fi rst chapter is dedicated of European diaphony. to developing a broad historical and conceptual Marius Schneider (1934) considered heteroph- overview of the proposals and theories concern- ony as a progressive stabilization of occasional ing polyphony that have appeared in the fi eld of variants. musicological studies since the establishment of Curt Sachs (1943) made a classifi cation of pro- the vergleichende Musikwissenschaft. He begins by cedures: heterophony (overlapping of variants of introducing the following defi nitions: a melody); bourdon; ostinato; parallel movement; imitation and canon. Polyphony can be defi ned as a mode of ex- Cvjetko Rihtman (1952) categorized the poly- pression based on the simultaneous combi- phonic chant in Bosnia. He recognized that oral nation of separate parts (vocal, instrumental, tradition polyphony always has a system. Besides and with voices and instruments together), defi ning roles for diaphony as an expansion of perceived and produced intentionally in their monody, he studied the emic terminology (he mutual diff erentiation, in a given formal order. documented nineteen names for the functions of The “living polyphonies”, then, are the mani- the fi rst singer and eighteen names for the func- festations of this mode of expression, detect- tions of the second). able in our time, especially in traditional cul- Paul Collaer (1981) identifi ed successive phases tures.1 (Agamennone 1996: 3) of the practice of polyphony in Sicily (where he After this fi rst statement, the author takes a had carried out research in 1955): pre-polyphonic, look at the main studies on oral traditional po- embryonic polyphony, bourdon (in the instru- lyphony, to which I would like briefl y to refer here, ment called scacciapensieri, a metal musical arc quoting some commentaries made by him on with mouth resonator), and polyphonic proce- each one. dures. Based on the similarities found in diff erent Carl Stumpf (1901) and Guido Adler (1908) used cultures, he ascribed these phases to pluri-gene- the term heterophony in the early twentieth cen- sis.

1 All the translations have been made by myself. At some points in the present review, I interpolate some critical comments.

132 Arvustused/Reviews

Nikolaj Kaufman (1958, 1959, 1963) studied the es move together with little or no rhythmic inde- procedures in diaphony. He used the expression pendence”), ‘rhythmic heterophony’ (“[…] one or ‘part-singing’. more singers consistently deviates from the oth- Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia (1962) studied ers in some way”), ‘accompanying rhythm’ (“The the musical and the social roles of some proce- singing group is divided into two or more parts, dures – like the hochetus – in Ghana. He avoided one of which accompanies the other”), ‘simple proposing historical links between distant areas polyrhythm’ (“All the parts basically conform to a that have similar procedures, something that Aga- single pulse. However, there are moments when mennone calls “descontestualizzazione culturale one of the parts will temporary deviate from the e rifondazione tassonomica” (“cultural decontex- basic pulse to create a new pulse in confl ict with tualization and taxonomic refounding”). Since it”), ‘complex polyrhythm’ (“Two or more con- Nketia uses both the expressions ‘multi-part or- fl icting pulses are heard simultaneously and more ganization’ and ‘polyphony’, Agamennone recalls or less continually throughout the song”), and some criticism made by scholars on the adoption ‘rhythmic counterpoint’ (“Two or more rhythmic of the terms of classical music, such as ‘polypho- patterns, equal to and distinct from one another, ny’. occur simultaneously within the same rhythmic In his studies of folk polyphony in Europe, Ernst framework, but without confl ict of pulse. A Bach Emsheimer (1964) noted diff erences between in- fugue is an example of this trait, although it can be strumental polyphony (characterized by a kind found in primitive music”; Lomax 1968: 52). These of secrecy in the transmission of knowledge of categories are repeated in line 14 (“Rhythmic re- competences and greater specialization) and vo- lationship within the accompanying group”). As cal polyphony (where greater social participation well as ‘no polyphony’, in line 22 (Polyphonic type) occurs). He defi ned polyphony as the “simultane- Lomax uses: ‘drone polyphony’ (“One or more ous fl ow of two or more voices characterized by tones are held or repeated while the melody fol- greater or lesser individuality.” (Emsheimer 1964: lows its own course”), ‘isolated chords’ (“Chords 44; quoted by Agamennone on p. 17.) In addition occur in a texture which is basically unison”), ‘par- to identifying ten geographical areas in which allel chords’ (“Two or more parts moving parallel polyphonic procedures are used, he described to one another at intervals other than the octave the Lithuanian sutartinės, diff erentiating between or unison”), ‘harmony’ (“Contrary motion occurs”), polyphonic parts and performative roles. and ‘counterpoint’ (“Two or more parts which are It is well known that Alan Lomax belongs to rhythmically and melodically independent”; Lo- the anthropologist-musical trend that suggests max 1968: 65). Agamennone quotes only these a homology between music and society. He de- line 22 categories. fi ned heterophony as performing simultaneous During the second half of the Twentieth Cen- variations of a melody, and polyphony as the tury, scholars expressed a growing tendency to simultaneous production of intervals diff erent replace the word ‘polyphony’ by the expression from unison and octave. In his cantometrics re- ‘multipart technique’, since it was considered a cords (Lomax 1968) he ranks polyphony based on historically more neutral defi nition, more descrip- type and length of overlaps in a piece of music. In tive and more general. Other terminology pro- line 4 of his cantometric coding book (“Basic mu- posals were ‘part-singing’, ‘multi-part music’, and sical organization of the voice part”) he uses the ‘chord-technique’. words ‘monophony’ (“Only one voice is heard at In 1972, William Malm proposed a tripartite a time”), ‘unison’, ‘heterophony’ (“Each voice sings subdivision of polyphony: ‘homophony’, ‘heter- the same melody in a slightly diff erent manner”), ophony’, and ‘disphony’ (a word indicating the and ‘polyphony’ (Lomax 1968: 44). In line 7 (“The overlapping of parts with rhythmic independ- basic musical organization of the orchestra”), the ence, something he considered as an equivalent categories ‘monophony’, ‘unison’ (three diff erent to the term ‘counterpoint’). The following year, possibilities), ‘heterophony’, and ‘polyphony’ or Kolinski (1973) used the term ‘multisonance’ and ‘polyrhythm’ are established (Lomax 1968: 46). In classifi ed its types as homophony, heterophony line 12 (“Rhythmic relationship within the singing and polyphony. In these last two proposals, we group”) he mentions: ‘rhythmic unison’ (“All voic- see the contemporary use of the same term (‘po-

133 Arvustused/Reviews lyphony’) with two opposing connotations: as harp is blowing us what to do” (he says, refer- a general category (in Malm’s statement) and as ring to counterpoint between the two hands). part category (in the case of Kolinski, who uses it He proposed a defi nition of polyphony: All vocal to indicate the overlapping of rhythmically inde- or instrumental music, multi-linear, whose parts, pendent parts, a type of multisonance). heterorhythmics, are culturally considered by tra- André Schaeff ner (1966) stated that the term ditional users as specifi c elements that constitute ‘polyphony’ had begun to be used in musicology a single musical entity.3 in 1877 (before that it had been used in physics In 1975 Irene Markoff identifi ed several types and linguistics) and that, consequently, it was of diaphony: bourdon on an intermittent sound, possible to use it, since it was not very histori- bourdon on two intermittent sounds (separated cally conditioned (or at least not so much as was by intervals of major second or minor third), in- claimed by other ethnomusicologists). termediate combinations between bourdon and Simha Arom (1985) distinguished between heterophony (zonal drone), heterophony, and the ‘multi-linearity’ (a term used as a catch-all catego- combination of imitation and bourdon. ry for overlapping musical parts) and ‘polyphony’ Hugo Zemp (1972, 1973 [with J. Schwarz], 1979, (a word used as a specifi c category indicating 1981) analyzed the polyphonic performance in a overlapping parts with rhythmic independence solo Panfl ute of the Are’Are’ people living in the between them). The author defi ned a set of multi- Salomon islands. He transcribed the literal mean- linear non-polyphonic procedures: ‘heterophony’, ing of Are’Are’ words. For example, he translated tuillage, ‘bourdon’, ‘parallelism’, ‘homophony’ (he the emic terminology of the Are’Are’ relating to took this last term from Willi Apel to indicate mon- interval (aahoa), equiheptaphonic (rapi’au), neu- ody accompanied by chords). Besides explain- tral third (hoa ni’ai), major second (hari’au), octave ing that the Pygmies of Central Africa sing in a (suri’au), melodic segment (ro’u mani’au), ostinato simultaneous, parallel heterorhythmic way, Arom (uhi ta’a po’o), sequence and transposition (haim- identifi ed the use of ostinato, imitation, melodic aaniha); he also considered the links and main di- counterpoint (vocal or instrumental, produced by rection of the segments, the number of parts in several instruments or by both hands, on a poly- the polyphonic music (polyphony in two, three, phonic instrument), rhythmic counterpoint (su- and four parts), and the hierarchy of voices. perposition of ostinati with diff erent amplitude Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1983) studied the Inuit and diff erent rhythmic settings, something we vocal game katajjait, always performed by pairs could interpret as bichrony, as I will discuss later),2 of Inuit women.4 This kind of competition, ex- hoquetus (for horns, for example). He stated that, plained Nattiez, has a social and relational func- generally, the pygmies produce a combination of tionality and it could be perceived externally as several diff erent procedures. polyphonic music. The same scholar (Simha Arom), talking about Jane Sugarman (1989) studied jointly the pro- West Africa in the above-mentioned seminar held duction of polyphony and the place occupied by in Venice, specifi ed cases in which the singer is musicians in the social order, according to sex, accompanied by a fi ddle constantly producing age and kinship. She also paid attention to pos- diff erent variations of the vocal melody. In addi- ture and proxemics. It should be recalled that tion, he defi ned heterophony as the production the tendency to observe not specifi cally musical of many microvariations of the melodic line: “The features connected with organized sound prac-

2 Maybe the use of the word ‘counterpoint’ to identify instances of overlapping parts with rhythmic independence should be reviewed, since the counterpoint can be either homorhythmic or heterorhythmic. The use of the terms ‘harmonic polyphony’ and ‘contrapuntal polyphony’ might be suggested, to indicate, respectively, the predominance of homorhythm and heterorhythm between the parts. 3 At this point in his article, Agamennone recalls that musicologists have refl ected on the space occupied by the polyphony of oral tradition in the history of Western music. During an international conference on “primitive polyphonies” celebrated in Cividale del Friuli in August 1980, the Italian musicologist Pierluigi Petrobelli affi rmed that written polyphony was an exception in the history of European music, while orality was usual. 4 Agamennone uses the expression “confronto agonistico incalzante” (“pressing agonistic confrontation”) for characterizing this performance practice.

134 Arvustused/Reviews tice brought a new challenge for scholars: to re- and was again rescued by Timothy Rice (1987) in late diff erent aspects of performance. This raises his famous tripartite perspective, drawn from a questions that we might still consider today: Is previous taxonomy published by Alan Merriam it possible or relevant to introduce elements not and Cliff ord Geertz: historical construction, so- belonging to musical language in the musical ter- cial maintenance, and individual adaptation and minology and taxonomies related to the practice experience. The diachronic perspective was also of polyphony? How do we do it? Can some simi- present among several Italian ethnomusicolo- lar initiatives undertaken in other areas of music gists and covered other areas of musical experi- research serve as a model here, such as that of ence, as I was informed by a number of scholars Regula Qureshi (1987) when she includes public (Tullia Magrini, Roberto Leydi, Diego Carpitella) feedback in her analysis of qawwali – Sufi devo- during interviews I conducted with them early in tional music – performances? the Eighties.7 In a text published in 1995, Ignazio During a colloquium held in Royaumont in Macchiarella addressed the diachronic perspec- 1990 (proceedings published in 1993), Annie Gof- tive in the fi eld of relations between classic and fre spoke about “neo-polyfonization” (i.e., the popular areas in matters of polyphony, and he did creation of new expressions of “polyphonization” this again in the book we are dealing with, as I will of monodic traditions) producing a certain “dig- mention later. Macchiarella further expanded the nifi cation” of traditional music (see Goff re 1993). scope of the features to be considered under this Regarding this point of Agamennone’s article, topic at the First Symposium of the ICTM (Interna- I remember that we can fi nd examples of such tional Council for Traditional Music) Study Group processes in diff erent places and times: in the USA on Multipart Singing held in Cagliari in 2010 (Mac- during the Forties, in Latin America (for example, chiarella 2012). the process of “polyphonization” in the folk mu- In the specifi c fi eld of terminology, Agamen- sic revival of Argentina during the second half of none recalls that Macchiarella referred to the use the 20th century), and in other places – in Italy, of the term polivocalità – poly-vocalism – among for example, from the Trio Lescano5 to Giovanna Italian scholars and that Serena Facci (1991) iden- Marini’s quartets. This phenomenon is still hap- tifi ed and analyzed the features of polyphony in pening, as we can see in diff erent regions of the Italian ethnomusicological literature. Earlier, in world (the process of the “polyphonization” of a 1978, Pietro Sassu had observed the symbolic monodic musical tradition which is happening to- values and interpersonal relationships in the po- day in the Spanish province of Soria, for example). lyphony performed in the Italian village of Prema- Goff re reminds us that this phenomenon of “neo- na, considered by him as a “pratica totalizzante” polyphonization” is related to the resemantiza- – “totalizing practice” – in which everyone can tion phenomenon.6 She considers, too, the social participate. He noted that singing normally allows and symbolic implications of polyphony. censored behaviours (for example, promiscuity).8 Roberto Leydi (1991) refers to the polyphonic Bernard Lortat-Jacob (1993) studied diff erent arrangements carried out in Italy during the musical and social aspects of polyphonic sing- process called by him the revival interno (inter- ing in Central Sardinia. He devised the image of nal revival), characterized by the task of musical a prism (in which each voice provides a partial reconstruction by insiders from their memories. acoustic image, because only the combination of This proposal reminds me that the diachronic all voices gives rise to the prism). The maximum perspective, which was present from the For- tonal fusion produces a new voice (known locally ties in the work of ethnomusicologists like the as quintina), which is an enhanced harmonic and Argentine Carlos Vega, was abandoned by cur- it is a sound ideal for the singers, that means, an rents such as functionalism and structuralism indicator of perfect performance, as Agamen-

5 They were not Italian, but Italian Mussolini granted them citizenship. 6 We could affi rm that the opposite can happen: polyphonization without major semantic transformations. 7 See Cámara de Landa 2003. 8 We should remember that this is a feature of musical performance in many cultures, regardless of texture and procedures.

135 Arvustused/Reviews none reports: “icona sonora dell’ineff abile e del western Argentina, produce a casual polyphony trascendente” (“sound icon of the ineff able and that is apparently unintentional, mobile, and transcendent”).9 inorganic. However, this refl ects an Andean aes- The 1990 Royaumont Colloques (coordinated thetic sound ideal: the overlay of diff erent musical by Marcel Peres and Michel Huglo) addressed the expressions during a festive occasion. There are issue of orality and improvisation in medieval Eu- many examples of this phenomenon (see Rappo- ropean music. In that symposium, Frieder Zamin- port 2013). er and Susanne Ziegler (see Zaminer, Ziegler Izaly Zemtsovsky (1993) coined the expression 1993) compared Caucasian expressions with or- dialogie musicale – an expression that could be gana from the Notre Dame School and provided translated as ‘musical dialogue’ or ‘musical dialo- a list of traits of the observed polyphony. On that gy’ – for the dialogic songs considered as early ex- occasion, Simha Arom (see Arom 1993) highlight- amples of music practised in group; echoes, rep- ed the relationships between features of Central etitions, antiphonal singing, tuillage, poetry sung African – ostinato with variations – and Ars Nova in contrast. He established three performative – isorhythm – polyphony. He stresses the opera- modes in verbal expression, depending on the tional effi ciency of the model, considered as a degree of integration between the vocal parts. “mental representation of the musical entity that Agamennone included in his introductory ar- is ‘embodied’ in the moment of execution”, as re- ticle the seminar study on the classifi cation and ported by Agamennone in his article in this book analysis of polyphonic procedures organized in (1996: 54). 1995 by the Intercultural School of Music and the During the 1991 European Seminar in Ethno- University Ca’ Foscari, where the texts published musicology (ESEM) meeting in Geneva, devoted in the book I am reviewing here were originally to the ethnomusicological approaches to the presented.10 One of the aspects considered by the study of polyphony, Ki Mantle Hood (1993) dis- scholars was the concept of procedure, defi ned cussed polyphonic stratifi cation in the instru- as a sequence of operations that produce musical mental music of Southeast Asia. The gamelan of expression (“how to”), or as the same performa- Bali, says Hood, presents interdependent levels of tive behaviour (“do”), in a context of the emic-etic reference and organization of the degrees of den- dialogue. They reviewed some exclusive proce- sity, but it is not a case of polyphony. dures (such as ostinato and hoquetus in Central Igor Bogdanov (1993) mentioned the simulta- Africa) which order the sound material and gen- neous execution of diff erent personal melodies erate repertoires. In other areas – they reminded over a drum beat between the Koryak-Chavchu- us – a variety of procedures exist, and polyphonic van and the Chukchi-Chavchuvan in Northeast intention is manifested in various musical expres- Russia (he mentioned the superposition of up to sions. They considered that one person alone can twenty diff erent parts on two layers of sound: produce monody or polyphony (on an instrument voice and percussion, respectively). These over- or even by the voice alone, as in the Mongolian lappings are apparently casual, but they actually diaphonic chant called xöömij, in which one per- operate according to aesthetic and musical-pro- son produces a melody by isolating the harmon- sodic-choreographic norms that balance the indi- ics of a fundamental sound issued by her/him). vidualistic instances and the group needs. I want This also happens when several people produce here to point out that we can observe a phenom- music. When people intend to produce monody, enon of this type in the Andes of South America heterophony can be generated. (Cámara de Landa 1999 [1994]): the overlapping During the Ca’ Foscari seminar, scholars con- of individual singing of the vocal traditional gen- sidered diff erent possibilities of the occurrence res baguala and copla singers and performers of of heterophony as an initial degree of polyphony the idioglotic clarinet called erkencho – all accom- (or as a texture oscillating between monody and panied by frame drums during Carnival in north- polyphony): with or without “monodic intention”;

9 The idea of considering the image made by Lortat-Jacob as an example of metaphor to describe a phenomenon of polyphony in its technical and aesthetic aspects could contribute to enriching the taxonomic task. 10 One of the goals of that meeting was the search for taxonomic categories of general application.

136 Arvustused/Reviews as unison with small diff erences (when “monodic 2. Other proposals of Polifonie intention” exists); as an alternative to real polyph- In the other articles of the book, we fi nd some af- ony; as simultaneous and systematic variation of fi rmations from scholars that could induce us to a melodic motif reference (something that we refl ect on terminology and other issues related to could call ‘polyphonic intent’); as a constitution of the study of multipart singing: complex polyphony (simultaneity); as a “refuge- Jean Molino (“Sistemi inerti e sistemi ‘pericolo- category” in cases of diffi cult evaluation, or even si’” / “Inert and ‘dangerous’ systems”) asks about as a “border region” between monody and po- the consciousness of polyphony in the Aboriginal lyphony. mind. He also clarifi es that “Human categories They also considered intentionality and con- are not given once and for all, they are built and sciousness as features which validate the system- can always be extended or revised” (Molino 1996: atics of polyphony (or other phenomena). For this 109). In addition, he explains, the categories do reason, they stated, it is important to consider not work as a totalizing perspective (all or noth- the verbalization given by those interviewed (a ing), but they are based on more fl exible pro- methodological aspect to be respected). They cesses, that specialists in cognitive psychology try also rescued the use of the word ‘polyphony’, to disarticulate. These two properties are closely distinguished between physical lines (etic) and linked: “It is precisely because the categories are structural lines (emic), and considered the case of not fully defi ned, that they change at any time unintentional heterophony produced in a struc- and, moreover, are not defi ned because they arise tural line (they advised noting how many people from the interaction between the world and the are producing a structural line, especially if heter- cognitive system of the individual.” (Molino 1996: ophony occurs). Such cognitive economy – they 109) considered – balances two opposing and danger- Might this invitation to taxonomic fl exibility ous trends: the existence of as many categories as save us from looking for words and categories of objects, and the case in which the categories are universal and univocal application? The author too broad and do not help to discriminate diff er- writes: ences (weak relevance).11 There is no universal classifi cation as a general Finally, the group gathered in Venice, Aga- value. The ideal would undoubtedly be a da- mennone recalls, stated that prototypes should tabase through which to obtain classifi cations be established as general references to separate according to diff erent parameters, in order to diff erent procedures (bourdon, parallelism, ac- proceed systematically, from the bottom to companied melody, counterpoint, etc.). In each the top, to the construction of some classes category, they noted, the specimens are placed more natural than others. The study of oral on a continuum ranging from minimum to maxi- polyphony can lead to important advances mum belonging. The boundaries between the in the fi elds of theoretical and practical clas- categories are “unfocused” and may lead to new sifi cation of human works: these unstable and subordinate categories. In Agamennone’s article undefi ned systems are “dangerous”, both for (1996: 69) an “archipelago”-type model is pro- the preconceived theories and over-simple vided, branching in all directions according to dif- theories and for the researchers who study ferent criteria, creating subcategories in some of them; but it is precisely in the danger that it them. The author concludes his historic journey appeals to all their energies to deal with them. with this workshop held in Venice and quotes a (Molino 1996: 112) phrase of Zemtsovsky (1993: 27) which invites us to seek “in all types of plurivocal tissue, the quali- Mario Baroni (“La percezione delle strutture tative diff erences, the characteristics related to contrappuntistiche” / “The perception of contra- the interpretation, and, in general, the signs that puntal structures”) writes: reveal a particular form of musical thought” (Aga- According to Huron and Fantini (1989) homo- mennone 1996: 75). rhythm makes the distinction between parts

11 These are the dangers of every taxonomy (excessive particularism versus overgeneralization).

137 Arvustused/Reviews

less noticeable. The perception of several terpoint) and proposes the category ‘polyphony parts in homorhythm can lead to the overall of consonances’: within the musical period, there perception of a group [...] According to Hu- are points of obliged combination – mainly in fi fth ron (1991), the perfect consonances favour and octave positions – that make possible the de- the perception of the group and impede the velopment of a huge number of dissonances in all distinction of the parts (“except the imper- other positions of the polyphonic structure. fect consonances”). The perception of the Giovanni Giuriati (“Le orchestre del Sud-est parts is favoured by the intervallic spaces be- asiatico: eterofonia o polifonia?” / “The orchestras tween them. In tight spaces the parties tend of South-East Asia: heterophony or polyphony?”) to merge into a single body (Dowling 1973) [...] criticizes the strict dichotomous approach and The perception of multiplicity increases with advocates a network qualifi cation system. He ob- successive entries (Huron 1990). The more serves similar the melodic contours of the parts, the the inadequacy of the classifi cation systems more they tend to merge (Huron 1991) and based on mutually exclusive binary opposi- produce the perception of unity (rather than tions. A classifi cation system that relates a net- separate parts). (Baroni 1996: 119–120) work of characteristics and relationships be- Baroni proposes other features of perception tween diff erent multi-linear musical processes infl uenced by musical parameters, and he recalls could perhaps place the peculiar processes of that Erickson (1975), studying Edgard Varèse, the heterophonic polyphony of South-East notes that similar timbres tend to merge and dis- Asia in a better position than other process- tant timbres tend to remain distinct; and that Ze- es. (Giuriati 1996: 200–201) One can perhaps natti (1969) shows that the upper voice is percep- speak, as a paradox, of heterophonic polyph- tually dominant, to the extent that the ability to ony when the variations of the same melody perceive the lower voices is not present in young are already melodically and rhythmically inde- children. pendent. (Giuriati 1996: 191) Serena Facci (“Akazehe del Burundi: saluti a incastro polifonico e cerimonialità femminile” / The author mentions successive defi nitions “The Akazehe of Burundi: polyphonic interlocking of heterophony and polyphony in the history of greetings and female ceremonial”) emphasizes ethnomusicology. Regarding the gamelan of In- the social dimension and the relevance of the cir- donesia, he writes, “[t]he special feature of the cumstances of the production of polyphony. The multi-linear music of this area is that a compre- formulas of greeting she studies, which are very hensive and elaborate polyphonic layering is built long and stereotyped, indicate the beginning of starting from a common reference model of mel- an interaction and occur in a suspension of real ody.” (Giu riati 1996: 184) I wonder if this feature is time. “A characteristic of the sung greetings is also unique to the Indonesian gamelan or if it appears the obligation of the alternation of the two roles”, in diff erent types of polyphonic procedures. Very she writes (Facci 1996: 136), also mentioning the often Western classical music is based on one existence of “heterorhythmic and polytextual su- theme – the fugue – or two – the sonata –, even perposition” (Facci 1996: 151). She also affi rms that if in these cases the ways in which they are elabo- these greetings, which refl ect social roles, are not rated are very diff erent to what happens with socially considered as games or music: instead of gamelan. Giuriati (1996: 196) explains that “[t]he competition, there is understanding and parity fi xed melody (balungan in Java, Bali’s pokok) [...] among the participants. is a reference for the improvisation of individual In his text comparing repertoires of medieval parts with diff erent rhythmic density that deviate Europe and Central Africa (“Su alcune impreviste melodically very much from it.” It may be perti- parentele fra le polifonie medievali e africane” / nent to ask whether it is necessary to consider “On some unexpected relationships between these aspects – the number of themes or patterns medieval and African polyphony”), Arom identi- present in a musical piece, for example – when we fi es procedures already described in other texts propose a taxonomic or terminological revision, (such as parallel movement, hoquetus, or coun- or if these are traits or parallel phenomena which

138 Arvustused/Reviews should not be considered, in order to avoid con- · Bourdon (one pitch / two successive sounds) ceptual dispersion. · Vocal / instrumental (homorhythmic parts / Giuriati also considers the degrees of density heterorhythmic parts) in the texture of gamelan, and he proposes three · Chordal movement distinct forms of heterophony to be considered in · Counterpoint-accompanied melody the three traditions studied: polyphonic stratifi ca- · Combination of procedures tion with diff erent simultaneous degrees of rhyth- As explained by the three authors, they be- mic density (Java), less elaborated polyphonic gan to develop this taxonomy in the fi eld of re- stratifi cation (Cambodia, intermediate case), no search initiatives promoted by Simha Arom in an stratifi cation (the parts vary heterophonically a international working group on oral polyphony recognizable melodic skeleton, which is the case called polyphonies vivantes (‘living polyphonies’). of sizhu ensembles in China). “I think it is opera- The proposal was presented at the 1995 Venetian tionally useful to restrict the defi nition of heter- seminar (whose proceedings gave rise to this vol- ophony to the processes of variation in which the ume) and discussed by the participants (whose common reference melody remains recogniz- comments and suggestions were taken into ac- 12 able.” (Giuriati 1996: 200) count by the authors). While this is only one of the In his text “Polivocalità di tradizione orale results of the seminar (and not the only one, as has nel Rinascimento italiano: ipotesi e prospettive been seen in the synthesis of the contents of the ri ricerca” (“The multivoice oral tradition in the chapters), it is an interesting taxonomic proposal, Italian Renaissance: hypotheses and research which joins others that have been developed in perspectives”) Ignazio Macchiarella studies the the fi eld of musicological studies regarding types derivation of fauxbordon from practices of oral of polyphony. tradition. He reminds us that

No direct relationship should be assumed be- 3. Concluding remarks tween today’s oral tradition and the sound Having reviewed the proposals for musical texture world of the past. Interest in the repertoires of expressed by the authors of Polifonie it is possible the groups and performers of today doesn’t to affi rm that this term – ‘polyphony’ – has expe- derive from the fact that they are a continua- rienced periods of crisis because of its association tion or a thing of the past, but from their pres- with Western classical music. This, however, has entation in vivo of processes of musical formal- not prevented the use of other terminology be- ization that, mutatis mutandi, can be extended longing to this tradition to characterize and name to other situations in other historical periods. musical features from diff erent cultures (from the (Macchiarella 1996: 228–229)13 use of the pentagram to the terminology taken The book ends with a proposal of a general from imitative counterpoint or the fugue to char- taxonomy regarding the polyphonic procedures acterize a song performed by two pygmy women of Italian traditional music. Maurizio Agamen- by Pierre Sallée 1981, for example). The consid- none, Serena Facci, and Francesco Giannattasio eration expressed by Rudolf Brandl in European (“I procedimenti polifonici nella musica tradizion- voices I (2008: 283) should be noted here: “Musi- ale italiana. Proposta di tassonomia generale” cal ethnology has adopted the basic Occidental / “Polyphonic procedures in Italian traditional musical concepts of melody, rhythm, harmony, music. Proposal for a general taxonomy”) take a multipart style (Mehrstimmigkeit) and polyphony proposal elaborated by Simha Arom in 1985 and (Polyphonie) without checking their cognitive they adapt it to the Italian situation. They use the structure on the principle of their cultural depend- following names for the categories of polyphony: ence.” He calls us to consider the intercultural dif- · Two-part polyphony / Several-part polyphony ferences (“diff erent cognitive interconnections of · Parallelism (without or with cadence in unison) psychoacoustic patterns as archetypes of music”)

12 However, recognizability is relative to the culture and, I suppose, to the competence of individual people. 13 This consideration belongs to calls for caution in intercultural and inter-temporal comparisons.

139 Arvustused/Reviews and reminds us that “each music needs a commu- dy ‘/‘monophony’). However, the term ‘monopho- nicable basis of precious knowledge” (Brandl 2008: ny’ is polysemic in the fi eld of musical description, 284), a position that would seem to invalidate the and can also be used to indicate a melody formed possibility of proposing universal taxonomies in by a single pitch, while ‘biphony’ indicates tunes this domain. using two pitches, ‘threephony’ three pitches, Questions arise when considering the main ter- and so on. Taking into account the writings of minology treated in this volume: ‘polyphony’ or “[…] an author named ‘Johannes’ [who] described ‘multipart music’? Why ‘multipart’ instead of ‘po- polyphony as dyaphonia, triphonia, tetraphonia, lyphony’? Moreover, if we consider for a moment according to the number of parts” (Frobenius et the second element of the current defi nition used al. 2001: 75), should we use these terms to indi- by the ICTM Study Group on Multipart Music14 – cate the number of parts of polyphony, or the expressive behaviour – we conclude that ethno- number of sounds of a melody? Some Spanish- musicologists should include this in their discus- speaking musicologists have adopted this ter- sions on terminology and classifi cation, since it is minology with the second meaning, while some deeply connected to the concepts people have others have criticized it and prefer to speak of about music and polyphony (concepts which vary ‘bitony’, ‘threetony’, ‘tetratony’, ‘pentatony’, ‘hexa- in diff erent cultures). Again, we cannot avoid the tony’ and ‘heptatony’. Still, no one seems to have dialogue between etic and emic perspectives. Is used the term ‘monotony’ for melodies of a sin- it still part of our task to translate the local termi- gle sound (instead, in the fourteenth century the nologies to a universal one? Is it our challenge to word ‘monophonia’ was used for music for one fi nd a terminological background to be applied to voice). any musical phenomenon? Would it be a kind of We could continue questioning ourselves multi-translator tool? Should we always consider about the terminological ambiguities that popu- the individual and social perspectives? late the fi eld of the study of musical texture: are Some other questions could be related to the ‘homophony’ and ‘heterophony’ antonyms (as opposition ‘monophony’ vs ‘polyphony’: Some- the prefi x indicates)? Certainly not. Since the word times, these two words are used as antonyms ‘homophony’ is used as a synonym of ‘homo- (i.e., indicating two opposing musical textures); rhythm’ (coincidence in the articulation of sounds however, some scholars use ‘monody’ instead by diff erent musical parts, i.e. the same rhythm of ‘monophony’, and they accept the opposition in diff erent parts), shall we use the word ‘hetero- ‘monody vs polyphony’, especially if serving the rhythm’ to indicate diff erent rhythm in one part? historicist connotations that both terms have Is it preferable to use the term ‘homophony’ as a acquired (when applied to two textures associ- synonym of ‘harmonic polyphony’, or as a ‘melody ated with creative and interpretive procedures in accompanied by chords’? One last question: shall the history of Western music). Should we accept we have to continue to accept the terminologi- the terms ‘monody’ and ‘polydy’ as antonyms? cal inconsistencies of our discipline as something This would involve extending the meaning pro- unavoidable? Maybe we need to rethink all these posed for this term by Christoph Nichelmann in problems, searching for a useful balance between 1755 (music determined by harmony), as quoted universality and relativity. by Wolf Frobenius in the article “Polyphony” of Since the publication of the volume reviewed The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians here there have been numerous discussions on (Frobenius et al. 2001: 75). oral tradition polyphony, including those of the For those who think that the term ‘monody’ is International Symposium on Traditional Polyph- contaminated with the use it has received in his- ony held in Tbilisi from 2002 to 2014 or those of torical musicology, its replacement by ‘monopho- the Study Group on Multipart Music established ny’ seems relevant (thereby they claim to resolve by the ICTM in 2009 (and one of whose activities the inconsistency raised by the synonymy ‘mono- was the seminar in Tallinn which provides the ba-

14 “Multipart music is a specifi c mode of music making and expressive behaviour based on the intentionally distinct and coordinated participation in the performing act by sharing knowledge and shaping values.” http://www.ictmusic.org/ group/multipart-music (last accessed 13/09/2016).

140 Arvustused/Reviews sis for this volume of Res Musica, as I have already many of which deserve to be taken into consid- pointed out). Many texts have been published on eration in current discussions around the study of this topic. This, however, does not detract from polyphony in oral tradition. the contents of the book edited by Agamennone,

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Peter C. Bouteneff . Arvo Pärt: Out of Silence. Yonkers (N.Y.): St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2015, 231 lk. Toomas Siitan

Tohutu tähelepanu, mis on osaks saanud Arvo sertmuusikas). Bouteneff toonitab kohe raamatu Pärdi muusikale, ei ole kuigivõrd tasakaalus seda sissejuhatuses (lk. 16–17), et kuigi konkreetset tõlgendava retseptsiooni mahuga. Tänaseni võib religioosset õpetust ja praktikat arvesse võtmata nõustuda Dohri kirjastuse väitega, millega kümne ei saa Pärdi muusikat sügavamalt mõista, hoidub aasta eest reklaamiti Hermann Coneni koostatud ta konstrueerimast nende vahele liiga otsest või Pärdi-kogumikku:1 „Kuigi Arvo Pärdi muusika on kausaalset seost ning oletab, et see muusika kõ- aastakümneid levinud üle maailma, on Pärt jää- neleb koguni otsesemalt inimestele väljaspool nud kaasaegsete heliloojate hulgas kõige tuntu- seda konkreetset religioosset traditsiooni (lk. 33). maks tundmatuks. Väga kiiresti võib jõuda tema Kindlasti pole Bouteneffi raamat tavapärane muusikani, samavõrra mõistatuslikud on aga muusikauurimus. Selle asemel et alustada kom- tema poeetika tagapõhjad.” Pärdi muusika teo- positsioonitehnikast, jõutakse siin tintinnabuli- reetiliseks käsitlemiseks on tõhus vundament loo- tehnika üksikasjadeni alles lõpuosas (alates lk. dud, selle sisulisemad tõlgendused piirduvad aga 178). Analüütilises mõttes ei sisalda see osa ka mi- sageli üldsõnaliste arutlustega spirituaalsusest, dagi uut, uus on aga selle vaatenurk: Bouteneffi sest süvitsi mõistmiseks jääb lääne kultuuriruu- jaoks on Pärdi kompositsioonitehnika intensiivse mist pärit kirjutajal tavaliselt puudu selle tradit- vaimse otsingu tulemus ning ta püüab ennekõike siooni ja tekstikorpuse tegelikust tundmisest, mis avada selle konteksti ning kujutada selleni viinud juhatas Arvo Pärdi tema tintinnabuli-stiili juurde. vaimset teekonda. Seda tõsist lünka ilmus 2015. aastal täitma Pe- Raamatu teljeks on religioonipsühholoogili- ter Bouteneffi raamat „Arvo Pärt: Out of Silence”. sed aspektid – niihästi loomingu kui ka vastuvõ- Raamatu autor on New Yorgi lähedal Yonkersis tu seisukohalt. Sissejuhatavas peatükis („Points tegutseva Püha Vladimiri Õigeusu Teoloogilise of Entry”) lahutab autor julgelt religiooni ja spi- Seminari süstemaatilise teoloogia professor ning rituaalsuse mõistestiku (lk. 28–29) ning käsitleb selle institutsiooni poolt algatatud Arvo Pärdi maailmavaatelt erinevate kuulajate reaktsioone projekti juht. Pärast Bostoni ülikoolist saadud sellele muusikale, kasutades ja uurides sealjuures muusikudiplomit (1983) õppis ta teoloogiat ja sai erisuguste (muu hulgas sotsiaalmeedia) tekstide doktorikraadi Oxfordi ülikoolist (1997). Kõrvuti sõnavara (lk. 34–35). See on üks Bouteneffi teks- ajaloolise ja kaasaegse õigeusu teoloogiaga on ti köitvamaid omadusi, et ta kasutab muusikast tema akadeemiline töö seotud teoloogia ja kul- rääkides pigem „mittemuusiku” sõnavara, omast tuuri seoste ning vaimuliku kunsti küsimustega sellesama muusika tavalisele kuulajale, kellel on – ja selle ülesande jaoks oleks vist raske ette kuju- kirjutajaga potentsiaalselt sarnane kuulamis- tada sobivamat isikut. Pärdi isiklik seotus õigeusu kogemus ja -harjumus. Bouteneff on võimeline kirikuga on üldteada, kuid tema muusika seisu- muusikat lihtsalt kuulama, ilma et püüaks seda kohalt on see seos vastuoluline: Pärdi loomingus kohandada ajalooliste stiiliraamistikega, millega ei ilmne eelistust ühegi kristliku konfessiooni suur osa Pärdi kriitikuist jääb paratamatult hätta suhtes, otseviiteid õigeusu kiriku muusikale pole ning ignoreerib seepärast tema muusikat. Lihtsas seal palju, samuti ei domineeri tema teostes or- keeles, kuid teksti kaalukust ohverdamata suudab todokssed liturgiatekstid (millel erinevalt lääne Bouteneff rääkida ka fi losoofi ast ja teoloogiast, le- kiriku omadest pole laialdast kasutustava kont- pitades akadeemilise ja mitteakadeemilise lugeja

1 Hermann Conen (Hrsg.) 2006. Arvo Pärt: Die Musik des Tintinnabuli-Stils. Köln: Dohr. http://www.dohr.de/fachbuch/ einzeltitel/isbn9783936655339.htm (26.09.16).

143 Arvustused/Reviews samuti, nagu tema sõnul lepitab Pärdi muusika alustekstidest ning võttes jutuks ka mõned isi- vastuolu kõrg- ja popkultuuri ning religioosse ja kud, kes on Pärti kas tekstide kaudu või isiklikult mittereligioosse kuulajaskonna vahel. sügavalt mõjutanud, nagu Athose munk püha Kronoloogilist telge, mis Pärdi puhul võiks Siluan (1866–1938) ja tema õpilane, arhimandriit tunduda lausa möödapääsmatu, Bouteneff väl- Sofroni (1896–1993). Erakordne pole seejuures dib. Pärdi biograafi ast pakub talle peamiselt huvi mitte ainult kirjutaja asjatundlikkus, vaid ka tema vaid kaheksa-aastane „vaikuseperiood” – tavali- oskus viidata sellele, millest on raske kõneleda. selt leiab see vaevalt käsitlemist, kuid Bouteneffi Nii saab see raamat märkamatult ka sissevaateks huvitab see kui kõige intensiivsemate otsingute idakristliku teoloogia alustesse ja sellest johtu- ja loomingulise transformatsiooni aeg. Raamatu vasse eluhoiakusse, mis on lk. 150–151 esitatud keskses peatükis „Out of Silence” käsitleb Bou- suurepärase kontsentraadina. teneff perioodi 1968–1976 pigem seesmise prot- Märksõna „vaikus” valimine raamatu juhtmo- sessina, vaimse teekonnana ning ta eelistab seda tiiviks nõuab veendumust. Pärdi helikeelt kom- nimetada üleminekuajaks (years of transition). menteerides käsitleb Bouteneff kõige tunnusli- Vaikuse või ooteaja2 negatiivse aspekti – muusi- kumat – akustilise vaikuse, pausi strukturaalset ka, loomingu puudumise asemel rõhutab Boute- tähenduslikkust ning kompositsiooni taandatust. neff selle positiivset külge – vaikuse loomingulist Liialdamata varasemas kirjanduses esitletud näi- potentsiaali – ning alustab seda peatükki pikema dete ja Pärdi-käsitluste kanooniliste tsitaatidega, tsitaadiga Pärdi intervjuust Tom Huizengale (lk. annab Bouteneff „värskemale” lugejale hästi loe- 85), milles helilooja räägib vaikusest kui „viljakast tava ja sisuka sissevaate Pärdi loomingueetikasse, pinnasest, mis otsekui ootaks meie loometegu, samas vältides klišeesid põhiteema käsitlemisel meie seemet” ning aukartusest selle ees.3 Analüü- – distantseerudes näiteks John Cage’i tekstidest. sinud helilooja loomingulise ummikseisu põhju- Pärdi muusika varasemate käsitluste suhtes posi („Music Lost to Silence”) ning protsessi, milles sitsioneerib Bouteneff ennast üsna selgelt: koge- kriisist tingitud sunnitud vaikus asendus vaimsest num lugeja saab kiiresti aru, kelle tekste ta hindab distsipliinist kasvanud teadliku vaikusega („Music ja usaldab, ning raamatu lõpupoole (lk. 177) aval- Found in Silence”), suunab autor oma lugeja sü- dab ta oma sümpaatiad ka ühemõtteliselt: need venema raamatu ühte kaalukamasse alapeatükki on Paul Hillieri ja Leopold Brauneissi süvaanalüü- „Excursus: Silence in the Tradition” (lk. 103–137). sid. Bouteneff küll väldib kriitikat ja vastandumist Pärast fi losoofi list arutelu vaikuse mitmevalent- teistele autoritele, ometi tundub (eriti Ameerika susest ja sellega seotud ontoloogilistest küsimus- lugejat silmas pidades) väga oluline tema selgesti test („Does silence exist?”, lk. 104–107) jõuab ta väljendatud distantseerumine Pärdi muusika kä- siin helilooja eluhoiaku religioossete aluste käsit- sitlemisest minimalistliku muusika kontekstis (lk. lemiseni. 100–101). Pärdi teoste tekstivalik ja -allikad,4 samuti tema Põhjalikke teoseanalüüse Bouteneffi raamatus muusikapäevikuist pärit sententsid, millega Pärt pole – teda ei huvita mitte niivõrd, kuidas nad on viimastel aastatel ise oma elu alusmõtteid on tehtud, vaid millest nad on. Pärdi muusika on esitlenud,5 annavad sellele delikaatsele ainesele rohkete teoseviidetena tekstis siiski pidevalt „ko- piisava pinnase. Seesmisele vaikusele, mis on raa- hal” ning mitme võtmeteose juurde, nagu „Cre- matu läbivaks teemaks, läheneb Bouteneff aga do” (1968) või „Adams lament” (2010), pöördub traditsiooni poolelt, lähtudes eelkõige kristlikest arutlus korduvalt tagasi. Raamatu viimases peatü-

2 Enzo Restagno 2005. Arvo Pärt ja ooteaeg. – Arvo Pärt peeglis: vestlused, esseed ja artiklid. Koost. Enzo Restagno, Tallinn: Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus, lk. 121–137. 3 Tom Huizenga 2014. The Silence And Awe Of Arvo Pärt. National Public Radio, Washington, D.C., 2.06.2014, http://www.npr. org/sections/deceptivecadence/2014/06/02/316322238/the-silence-and-awe-of-arvo-p-rt (18.08.2016). 4 Vt. In principio: The Word in Arvo Pärt’s Music. Ed. by Hedi Rosma, Kristina Kõrver, Kai Kutman, Laulasmaa: Arvo Pärt Centre, 2014. 5 Seda on Arvo Pärt teinud mitmes oma viimastel aastatel peetud tänukõnes, sh. 31. mail 2014 Püha Vladimiri Õigeusu Teoloogilises Seminaris (kõne on ära toodud Bouteneffi raamatu lisas, lk. 222–224), samuti Tartu ülikoolis aastatel 2013– 2014 toimunud seminaridel „Sõna ja muusika”, 11. detsembril 2013 (http://www.uttv.ee/naita?id=18671, alates 1:06:00) ja 12. märtsil 2014 (http://www.uttv.ee/naita?id=18896, alates 49:30).

144 Arvustused/Reviews kis „Bright Sadness” (lk. 139–195), mille keskseks tingimata uut perspektiivi, sest sageli seisab teos teemaks on duaalsuse ületamine, saab „Adams endiselt esiplaanil ning muutunud on vaid pilgu lament” koguni omamoodi teljeks ning Bouteneff teravussügavus. Bouteneffi käsitluses on aga tegu avab sügavalt ka Aadama sümboltähenduse (eriti omamoodi pööratud perspektiiviga: järjekindlalt lk. 147–148). Püha Siluani tekst, millel teos põhi- liigub tema pilk kontekstist muusika poole, avas- neb, on Pärdile olnud aastakümneid väga oluline tades seni varjul olnud tähendusi. See perspektii- ning ta kavandas pikka aega selle täies mahus vipööre muudab loogiliseks ka raamatu üllatava komponeerimist. 2010. aastal sai sellest heliloo- lõpplahenduse: kompositsioonitavasid ignoreeri- ja üks keskne teos, mille tekst haarab siiski vaid des paigutab autor siin kokkuvõtte sildi alla (Conc- umbes esimese viiendiku Siluani originaalist, see- lusio, lk. 193–195) ainsa terviklikuma teoseanalüü- pärast on väga tänuväärne, et raamatu III lisa (lk. si Pärdi tintinnabuli-stiili varaseimast suurteosest 210–219) toob ära selle teksti tervikuna. „Passio” (1982). Nii laseb Bouteneff Pärdi muusikal Muusikast kirjutajad ei tegele enam ammu es- kokku võtta selle, mida ta on teoloogina refl ek- maselt heliteoste tekstidega ning süüvivad aina teerinud, kuid mida muusika ehedalt kehastab. julgemalt nende konteksti. Ent see ei loo mitte

145 Arvustused/Reviews

Eduard Tubin – rahvushelilooja, professionaal, isiksus Eino Tubin. Ballaad. Eduard Tubina lugu. Tallinn: Eesti Teatri- ja Muusikamuuseum, 2015, 239 lk. Vardo Rumessen (koost.). Vestlused Eduard Tubinaga. Tallinn: Rahvusvaheline Eduard Tubina Ühing, 2015, 360 lk. Margus Pärtlas

Eduard Tubina 110. sünniaastapäeva tähista- et ta ei kannatanud lollusi. Perekonna seas miseks ilmus kaks uut raamatut, mille ettevalm- oli ta hoopis teistmoodi: kerge jutuga, hu- istamine jäi viimaseks tööks kahele samal aastal moorikas, tolerantne. Algul, enne kui ta sai üle meie hulgast lahkunud kolleegile – Eino Tubina oma kartusest teha keelelisi vigu, võis ta olla raamatu oma isast aitas eesti keeles välja anda läbikäimises rootslastega kaunis napisõnaline. Urve Lippus, Eduard Tubina kogutud intervjuud ja (Lk. 158–159.) vestlused koostas ja kommenteeris Vardo Rumes- „Ballaad” tõestab, et hea heliloojaraamatu sen. võib kirjutada inimene, kes ei ole ise muusik ega Eino Tubina raamat on klassikaline biograafi a, muusikateadlane. Eino Tubin on teeninud leiba milles eluloolised faktid ning teoste saamislood ajakirjanikuna ja Rootsi kaitseministeeriumi amet- ja lühiiseloomustused on koondatud imetlusväär- nikuna. Muusikaharidust tal pole – küll aga vas- selt ladusaks ja elavaks jutustuseks. Selle keskmes tuvõtlik meel muusikale, eriti oma isa muusikale, on küll Tubin kui helilooja, kuid puudutatakse ka mida ta suurepäraselt tunneb. Tõsi, konkreetsete meistri harrastusi ja meelistegevusi, suhteid pere- teoste iseloomustused usaldab ta enamasti teis- konnaliikmete ja teda ümbritsenud muusikutega, tele, tsiteerides Harri Kiisa, Vardo Rumesseni, Karl lugemisharjumusi, reise ja palju muud. Nagu au- Leichteri, Herbert Connori, Tobias Lundi jt. artik- tor ise märgib (lk. 15), on ta tuginenud peamiselt leid ja plaadiannotatsioone (Rootsi muusikatead- avaldatud allikmaterjalidele (kirjad, loengud, ar- lane Tobias Lund kirjutas Tubina teoste käsitlused tiklid) ning püüdnud neid ühendada isiklike mä- raamatu 2011. aastal ilmunud rootsikeelsele es- lestustega. Viimased pärinevad mõistagi helilooja maväljaandele);2 eestikeelses versioonis on neist elu teisest poolest (Eino sündis 1942. aastal). Kui kasutatud vaid mõningaid. Kuna raamat peab sil- Eino Tubina varasem mälestusteraamat „Teisal. mas võimalikult laia lugejaskonda, on teoste käsit- Heliloojalapse lugu” (2000)1 on kirjutatud mina- lused küllaltki napid ja üldtutvustava iseloomuga. vormis ja läbi isikliku prisma, siis „Ballaadis” võtab Samal põhjusel on omal kohal ka raamatu lisad: autor neutraalsema, pisut kõrvalt vaatava hoiaku valik helilooja mõtteavaldusi, teoste nimekiri, va- (näiteks vanematest räägib ta vormis „Tubinad”). lik plaate, trükitud noote ja kirjandust. Asjatund- Siiski annab just oma loo peategelase väga lä- jaile on küll teada eraldi väljaanded, kus nt. bib- hedane tundmine Eino Tubina raamatule erilise liograafi lised loendid on oluliselt põhjalikumad, väärtuse (mäletan, et see oli peapõhjus, miks selle kuid „Ballaadi” autori sooviks oli nähtavasti koon- raamatu toimetamine Urve Lippust köitis). Seda dada ühtede kaante vahele kõik, mis suuremate eelist oskab autor ka ära kasutada, põimides oma eelteadmisteta lugejat Tubina elu ja loomingu jutustusse detaile, mida tavalisel uurijal olnuks maailma süvenemisel aidata võiks. raske esile tuua. Olgu näiteks toodud järgmine Ka Vardo Rumessenil oli plaan kirjutada Tubi- kirjeldus: nast elulooraamat, kuid see jäi kahjuks teostama- Tubin võis isiksusena näidata väga erinevaid ta. Küll jõudis ta kokku koguda ning välja anda külgi. Koorijuht ja helilooja oli avalik isik, kes enam-vähem kõik helilooja enda poolt kirjapandu esines väärikalt ja autoriteetselt. Kõik teadsid, ja räägitu: artiklid („Rändavate vete ääres”. 2003),3

1 Eino Tubin 2000. Teisal. Heliloojalapse lugu. Tallinn: SE&JS. 2 Eino Tubin, Tobias Lund 2011. Eduard Tubin. Kungl. Musikaliska Akademiens Skriftserie nr. 123, Stockholm: Atlantis. 3 Eduard Tubin 2003. Rändavate vete ääres. Koost. Vardo Rumessen, Eesti mõttelugu 49, Tartu: Ilmamaa.

146 Arvustused/Reviews kirjad (2006)4 ja nüüd siis vestlused. Viimased Raamat on varustatud koostaja detailsete on raamatus jagatud kahte ossa: ajalehtedes ja kommentaaridega, kuid allikate publikatsioonilt ajakirjades ilmunud intervjuud (1935–1982) ning oodanuks natuke põhjalikumat ülevaadet koos- suulised raadiointervjuud ja lindistatud vestlused tamispõhimõtete kohta, samuti trükis avaldamata (1966–1982). Vestluste sisu, maht ja formaat ula- allikate praeguse asukoha andmeid. Saladuseks tub seinast seina. Mõnda eluseika (nt. Leningradi jäävad ka rootsikeelsete tekstide tõlkijate nimed. külastamist 1940. aastal koos Nikolai Goldschmid- Raamatu ulatuslikus eessõnas „Eduard Tubina ti, Artur Uritamme, Eugen Kapi ja Tuudur Vetti- kui Eesti rahvushelilooja saatusest” oponeerib kuga) või mõne teose saamislugu valgustatakse Rumessen Eino Tubinale, küll viimasele otsesõnu värvikalt ja põhjalikult, kuid leidub ka vestlusi, kus viitamata. „Ballaadi” autori arvates on Eestis Tu- Tubin ütleb ajakirjaniku jutu sekka vaid mõne rep- bina elu ja loomingut käsitletud liiga rahvusro- liigi. Näiteks loos, mis ilmus Ameerika eestlaste mantilises võtmes. Oma lugu alustab ta viitega ajalehes Vaba Eesti Sõna pärast tema kümnenda omaaegsele Metsikust Läänest rääkivale fi lmile sümfoonia kuulsaid ettekandeid Bostonis 1981. „Professionaalid” („The Professionals”, 1966), tõm- aastal, piirdub Tubina-poolne „vestlus” kolme mates paralleeli Tubina kui helilooja kreedoga: sõnaga: „üliväga”, „väga” ning „jaa” (neist esime- Professionaalina nägi end ka Eduard Tubin ise ne oli vastus küsimusele, kuidas meeldis Bostoni – nagu oma elukutset tundev ja kindlalt oma sümfooniaorkestri mäng). (Lk. 142–143.) ideaale järgiv inimene, kes keeldub ennast Lugeja, kes loodab raamatust leida helilooja alandamast ja isegi oma loomingule reklaami salajasi pihtimusi või ta teoste varjatud program- tegemast. (Lk. 11.) mide lahtiseletusi, peab ilmselt pettuma. Tubina Rumessen seevastu leiab, et „oleks väär rääki- vestluste toon on valdavalt asjalik ja kirjeldav, ehk- da Tubinast kui ainult „professionaalist”” (lk. 27). ki vahel võib see muutuda üsna emotsionaalseks Tema jaoks on määravam Tubina helitööde kun- või hoopis humoorikaks. Eri ajal ja erinevates olu- stilis-kujundlik maailm, mida ta resümeerib järg- kordades väljendatud mõtted kõlavad tihtipeale miselt: vasturääkivalt. Näiteks Rootsi eestlaste ajakirjale Kodukolle ütles Tubin 1946. aastal – ajal, mil tema Tegelikult võiks öelda, et Tubina muusi- uusi teoseid saatis märkimisväärne huvi ja edu: ka sisuks oli eesti rahva saatus koos kõigi rõõmude ja muredega, mis avaldub kõigis Mina ei võtagi oma siinolekut just mitte päris tema küpse perioodi teostes. (Lk. 28.) pagulaspõlvena, ma pean väga lugu kontak- tist teiste maade muusikaeluga ja nüüd on see Eino Tubin pooldab isa muusika rahvuslikust mõnevõrra mul võimalik – pärast viis aastat kuuluvusest ja tähendusest rääkides avatumat sõjast ja muust tingitud „kotis istumist”. (Lk. ja neutraalsemat lähenemist. Talle sümpatisee- 60.) rib Herbert Connori 1978. aastal avaldatud artikli pealkiri „Eduard Tubin – eestlane, rootslane, 1950. aastate alguseks oli toonane optimism kosmopoliit”5 ning ta ei näinud probleemi selles, kadunud. Intervjuus Endel Kalamile (1953) ütleb et tema raamatu rootsikeelne esmaväljaanne il- ta oma Rootsi-elu kohta üsna kibestunult: mus Rootsi Kuningliku Muusikaakadeemia sarjas On raske ütelda, et oleksin siin rahul. Stockhol- „Rootsi heliloojad” (Svenska tonsättare) – asjaolu, mi muusikaelu käib oma rada ja seal sees pole mis Rumessenit väga ärritas. välismaalasel kerge kohta leida. Siirduksin Diskussiooni Tubina elu ja loomingu ümber mujale, kuid ega see pole kerge, sest kas mujal võib ainult tervitada. Mõlemad ilmunud raama- on nii lahkeid peremehi, kelle juures saab „ar- tud, sealhulgas neis leiduvad helilooja enda mõt- muleiba” süüa, on väga kahtlane. (Lk. 75.) teavaldused, pakuvad selleks rohkesti ainest.

4 Eduard Tubin 2006. Kirjad I (1929–1961); Kirjad II (1962–1982). Koost. ja kommenteerinud Vardo Rumessen, Tallinn: Koolibri / Rahvusvaheline Eduard Tubina Ühing. 5 Herbert Connor 1978. Eduard Tubin – est, svensk, kosmopolit. – Svensk Tidskrift för Musikforskning 1, lk. 47–81. Eestikeelne tõlge avaldatud Rahvusvahelise Eduard Tubina Ühingu aastaraamatus nr. 8 (Tallinn: Rahvusvaheline Eduard Tubina Ühing, 2008).

147 Arvustused/Reviews

Marju Raju. Some aspects of singing development, the song creating process and favorite songs of Estonian children / Mõningaid aspekte Eesti laste laulmise arengust, ise laulude loomisest ja lemmiklauludest. Tallinn: Estonian Academy of Music and Th eatre Dissertations 6 / Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia Väitekirjad 6, 2015, 130 lk. Tiina Selke

Laulev revolutsioon, Arvo Pärt, laulupeod – need valdkonda tundmata seisab autor silmitsi mitme on märksõnad, mille kaudu tuntakse Eestit ja ees- probleemiga – see on taustsüsteemi (õppeka- timaalasi nii Euroopas kui laiemalt maailmas. Võib va, laste/õpilaste ealine areng ja suutlikkus jms.) öelda, et Eesti imago olulisteks osadeks IT kõrval tundmine. on muusika ja laulutraditsioon. Tänapäeval järjest Uurimuse „Mõningaid aspekte Eesti laste laul- vähenenud koduse laulmise tingimustes pannak- mise arengust, ise laulude loomisest ja lemmik- se lauluoskusele ja laulutraditsioonile alus eelkõi- lauludest” autor Marju Raju on valinud väga laia ge süstemaatilise tööga haridusasutustes – laste- teema, mille hõlmamine on nii lingvistilisest, aias ja koolis. muusikalisest, kultuurilisest kui hariduslikust kül- Muusikapedagoogilisi uurimusi eesti õpilaste jest väga keeruline. muusikalistest eelistustest, laulmise osast muu- Teadustöödes defi neeritakse laulmist ja laul- sikatunnis, laste omaloomingust, lauluvõimest misvõimet enamasti ebamääraselt, sageli selle ja hääleulatusest ning koorilaulu osast muusika- kaudu, milliseid eesmärke laulmine täidab inime- kasvatuses on tehtud arvukalt. Enamasti on laste se arengus ja elus. Eeldatakse, et kõik teavad, mis laulmisega seotud valdkonda käsitlenud bakalau- on laul või laulmine. Tähelepanu väärib dissertat- reuse ja magistri tasemel, muusikaõpetaja koge- siooni autori arutlus „laulu” ja „laulmise” mõistete musega uurijad. Kuidas aga vokalisatsioonist ja üle eesti keeles ja nende semantiliste nüansside kõnest kujuneb laulmine, seda pole mulle teada- avamine. Eesti keeles tähistab sõna „laul” nii te- olevalt Eestis üldse uuritud. Seega on tegemist gevust (laulmine) kui ka selle tegevuse tulemust aktuaalse teemaga, kuivõrd lapse varast sotsiali- (laul). See asjaolu avardab oluliselt lugeja arusaa- seerumist ja kõne kujunemise toetamist alusta- mist materjali uurimise keerukusest. Autor rõhu- takse tänapäeval just muusikalise tegevuse kau- tab, et laulu tähendus eesti keeles on laiem kui du beebikoolides ja väikelaste mängukoolides. ainult laulusõnade ja meloodia kombinatsioon. Beebikoolide tegevuse kõrvaltulemus (kui mitte Oluline on ühelt poolt, kuivõrd vastab meloodia otsene eesmärk) on lapse muusikaline areng ja reprodutseerimine ehk laulmisvõime, s.t. esitus laulmisoskuse kujunemine. Lääne tonaalse muusika kaanonile, teisalt antro- Viimati nimetatud asjaolu silmas pidades on poloogilis-kultuurilooline käsitlus, mille kohaselt käesolev uurimus lapse laulmise kujunemisest laulmine on vokalisatsioon, välja kasvanud kõnest tervitatav kui pilk väljastpoolt muusikapedagoo- vokaalide pikendamise kaudu (Dowling 1984).1 gikat, arvestades autori psühholoogitausta (ba- Tõepoolest, laulmist defi neerides oleme sil- kalaureusekraad psühholoogias). Selline uurimus mitsi vähemalt kahe mõnevõrra vastandliku lähe- võiks anda nii objektiivsema teemakäsitluse kui nemisega – eurotsentristlik käsitlus versus laiem uudse vaatenurga seni tehtud uuringutele. Seda kultuuriajalooline käsitlus. Selle tõestuseks on autor väikelapse muusika-arengupsühholoogia- mitmesuguste vanade rahvamuusikavormide, le toetudes teebki. Teisalt, muusikapedagoogika nagu regilaulu, runo, bõliina, psalmi, koraali, vee-

1 Walter Jay Dowling 1984. Development of musical schemata in children’s spontaneous singing. – Cognitive processes in the perception of art. Advances in Psychology 19, eds. W. Ray Crozier, Anthony J. Chapman, Amsterdam / New York / Oxford: North-Holland, pp. 145–162 (väitekirjas viidatud Stadler Elmer 2011 kaudu: Stadler Elmer, Stefanie 2011. Human Singing. Towards a developmental theory. – Psychomusicology: Music, Mind and Brain 21, pp. 13–30).

148 Arvustused/Reviews dahümni laululis-kõneline esitusviis ja nimetus vaatluse alt välja kodu kui laulmisoskust kujundav „laulu ütlema”, mitte „laulma”. Viimane esitusviisi muusikaline keskkond, kooli õppekava (kuivõrd nimetus viitab ka sellele, et laulu tähendus on pel- umbes pooled uuritavatest on kooliealised) ja galt tekst. laululoome süllaabiline aspekt. Tänapäeval, seoses maailma rahvaste kultuu- Teoreetiline taust on viimaste aastakümnete ripärandi uute vormide tundmaõppimisega on muusikapsühholoogia ja muusikalise arengu esi- laulmise mõiste veelgi laienenud. Pigem on laul/ uurijate Stefanie Stadler Elmeri, Sandra E. Trehubi, mise-mittelaul/mise kriteeriumiks saanud heli- Helga Rut Guðmundsdó ttiri jt. tööde kaudu hästi kõrguse kõrval tämber. Ülemhelilaul (ka kõrilaul), avatud. Siiski on tunda autori lingvistikast lähtu- vokaalimprovisatsioonid, beat-box – rütmipillide vat positsiooni, s.t. keel-laulmine-mudeli eelis- imitatsioon hingamise ja huultega, aga ka koos tamist, kuna teised teooriad laulmise arengust meloodiaga – on vaid mõned näited, kuivõrd jäävad uurimuses vähem kõlama. Autori orien- laulmise mõiste on laienenud kõneaparaadi-hin- teerumist teooriates ja loovat lähenemist uutele gamise kasutamisel tekkinud uudsete (muusika-) ideedele näitab ilmekalt Jaan Valsineri arengu- vormide kaudu. teooria faaside (artikkel I, lk. 318) ülekandmine Marju Raju uurib laulmise kujunemist ja sellega kõne-laulmise kujunemise protsessile. Huvitava seotud probleeme lingvistilis-sotsioloogilis-psüh- idee diskuteerimiseks pakub autor hüpoteesiga, holoogilisest aspektist. Raamat koosneb empiiri- et „kõne/sõnade olemasolu vaba liikumise tsoo- lise uurimuse ingliskeelsest analüütilisest ülevaa- nis on eelduseks, et laulmine võiks tegevusena test, selle eestikeelsest kokkuvõttest ning kolmest olla võimalik lähima arengu tsoonis (teatud mää- ingliskeelsest ja ühest eestikeelsest artiklist. Uuri- ral täiskasvanuga koos)”. misküsimused (4) on sõnastatud selgelt ja püsti- Kuivõrd autor käsitleb laulmise arengut üldi- tatud lähtuvalt ühisuurimusest, kus fookuses on se muusikalise arengu raames, siis võinuks mõni laulmisoskuse areng. Nii näiteks on I artikli uuri- muusikakasvatuse arengumudel (Keith Swanwicki misküsimus, kuidas kulgeb lapse laulmise areng & June Tillmani spiraalse arengu mudel2 või siis muusikalise ja lingvistilise arengu teooriatele Rosamund Shuter-Dysoni & Clive Gabrieli (1981)3 tuginedes. Kõige huvitavam ja põhjalikum ongi või mõni muu mudel) või Eestis 1937. aastal korral- juhtumiuuringu kaudu vaadeldav lapse keele ja datud Liidia Haas-Tuulse uuring4 ning Meeta Terri laulmisvõime kujunemist käsitlev nimetatud ar- seisukohad laulmise arengust anda laiema selgi- tikkel. Lugejana oli huvitav teada saada, millised tusvõimaluse autori uurimustulemustele, samuti probleemid tekkisid oma lapse uurimisega ja kui- võimaluse tõdeda, kas eesti laste laulmise areng das suutis uurija säilitada distantsi ning vältida kulgeb nende astmete järgi või annab laulupidu- subjektiivsust uurimisprotsessis. de fenomen ja süsteemne muusikaõpetus eesti Dissertatsiooni pealkiri annab alust eeldada, laste laulmise arengule mingid eelised. Praegu et tegemist tuleb laste laulmise arengu erinevate on uurimuses välja toodud laulmise arengu seos aspektide uuringuga, seejuures uurides laulmise (mõju) eelkõige kooli/lasteaia/laulupeo reper- arengut nii laste vokaalse omaloomingu kui muu- tuaariga. Küsimusi tekib ka ATBSSi5 testiga seoses sikaõpetuse kaudu, samuti laste muusikalise mait- (s.o. katsete pakett, osa rahvusvahelisest laulmise se kujunemise kaudu muusikalises makrokesk- uuringust, mis oli kohandatud Eesti tarbeks), mil- konnas, pidades silmas laulupidusid ja meediat. les kõigi katsealuste laulmise katset hinnatakse Veelgi enam – autor vaatleb ka esinemisjulgust/ positiivselt fraasi lõpetamisega toonikasse, kuid ärevust, lapsele suunatud kõne/kõnelaulu eripära helistiku taju areneb välja mõnedel andmetel (see on empiirilise osaga mõnevõrra nõrgemalt alles 4.–5. eluaastaks. See tähendab, et noorem seotud), laste omaloomingu karakteristikuid ja laps ei peagi suutma lõpetada fraasi toonikasse muid laulmisega seotud aspekte. Samas jäävad ja omaloomingus võivad olla meloodias helisti-

2 Keith Swanwick, June Tillman 1986. The Sequence of Musical Development: A Study of Children’s Composition. – British Journal of Music Education 3/3, pp. 305–339. 3 Rosamund Shuter-Dyson, Clive Gabriel 1981. The Psychology of Musical Ability. London et al.: Methuen. 4 Liidia Haas-Tuulse 1937. Eksperimentaalne uurimus eelkooliealiste laste musikaalsusest. Magistritöö, Tartu Ülikool. 5 AIRS (Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing) Test Battery for Singing Skills.

149 Arvustused/Reviews ku vahetused, mis kõlavad „viisipidamatusena”. märksõnad vokaalse stimulatsiooni jaoks (vt. Pigem tekitabki küsimusi uuritavate vanusevahe Guðmundsdóttir 2015).6 Praktikuna julgen väita, 2–12 eluaastat. Kahjuks ei leia dissertatsioonist et kui motivatsioon on tugev, siis algklasside laste andmeid, kui palju oli arvuliselt lasteaialapsi ja loovusel ei ole piire. palju kooliõpilasi, seetõttu jääb üldistuste tege- Edasist uurimist vajaks, eriti Eesti laulmiskesk- mine koorilaulu-laulupeo mõjust mõnevõrra kü- set muusikakasvatust silmas pidades, nii Marju sitavaks. Raju kui Annabel Coheni (2015)7 poolt välja too- Kuigi valim on väike (ja autor seda ka enesekrii- dud probleem improvisatsioonilise laulmise lak- tiliselt kinnitab, lk. 21) ega pretendeerigi laiemate kamisest alates 7. eluaastast. Samuti vajaks uuri- üldistuste tegemisele, annab see ometi võimalu- mist autori tõstatatud küsimus – kas suutmatus se määratleda mõned üldisemad suundumused oma lemmiklaulu tervikuna laulda viitab tõesti laste laulmise arenguloos. Väiksearvulist valimit lauluvõime vähenemisele eesti laste seas? korvavad erinevad andmekogumismeetodid – Kõigile neile märkustele vaatamata võib kin- nii kvantitatiivsed (ATBSS test) kui kvalitatiivsed nitada, et autor on suhtunud uurimismaterjali ja meetodid (vaatlus, juhtumiuuring) ning korralik metoodikasse kriitiliselt, tuues välja mitu aspekti, statistiline andmeanalüüs. Uurimistulemused on mis vajavad edasisi täpsustavaid uuringuid: lem- üldiselt korrektselt välja toodud artiklite kaupa miklaulu mõistet ei olnud lastele piisavalt selgi- ja osaliselt ka ühendatud valimi alusel läbiviidud tatud, mistõttu järeldused ei saagi olla adekvaat- uuringu kohta. Tulemusi illustreerivad tabelid ja sed; valim oli väike, mistõttu ei saa teha laiemaid joonised lisas, samuti meeleolu loovad fotod. üldistusi; sõna „laul” mitmene tähendus; eksper- Marju Raju uurimus tõstatab ka mitmeid küsi- tide jaoks üheselt mõistetavate kriteeriumide/ musi ja loob võimalusi edasisteks uuringuteks. defi nitsioonide loomine, hinnates helikõrguslikku Nii näiteks rääkides lapse muusikalisest aren- stabiilsust ja erinevusi kõne- ja lauluhääle vahel; gust toob autor välja kaks suunda (lk. 13): uuri- MMATools (Music Micro Analysis Tools) meetodi mused lähtuvad kas sellest, mida laps kuuleb piirangud vokalisatsiooni visualiseerimisel; ema ja (on the hearing mechanism to determine what the uurija rollikonfl ikti avamine; rahvusvaheliste võõr- prerequisites are to perceive diff erent sound stimu- keelsete testide kohandamine jpm. li), või sellest, mida laps teeb / suudab teha (on Töös püstitatud uurimisküsimused on leidnud the sound-producing mechanisms to study musical analüütilise ülevaate kokkuvõttes asjakohase ana- self-expression). Viimane seostub autori arvates lüüsi ning vastused. Autori analüüs on loogiline ja lapse mälu, keskkonna toetuse ja laulmise moti- argumenteeritud. Tuleb tõdeda, et laste laulmist vatsiooniga. Kuna autori empiiriline uuring kinni- käsitlev uurimisvaldkond on saanud juurde ühe tas, et see seos oli väga nõrk (lapsed ei julgenud teist laadi, uudse lähenemisnurgaga uurimuse, / ei osanud laulda lemmiklaulu, laulu loomine oli mis oluliselt rikastab meie teadmisi väikelapse ka nõrk), siis võib-olla ei olnud lastel eksperimen- lauluvõime kujunemisest. Marju Raju töö näitab, dis piisavalt motivatsiooni? Autor väidab ka ise, et tegemist on iseseisvalt mõtleva kriitilise uurija- et motivatsioon, meeleolu ja turvalisus on loo- ga, kes on võimeline uute teooriate valguses püs- minguliste ülesannete puhul olulised. Võib-olla titama uusi huvitavaid hüpoteese ning käsitlema peaks motivatsiooni vaatlema ikkagi eraldi te- laulmise kujunemist interdistsiplinaarsest vaate- gurina? Motivatsioon ja emotsioon võiksid olla nurgast.

6 Helga Rut Guðmundsdóttir 2015. Singing ability and singing ranges in early childhood. – Proceedings of the 4th The Changing Face of Music and Art Education and 7th Music Educators and Researchers of Young Children Conference. Playful Sounds – Personhood. 5th – 9th May 2015 Tallinn University. Eds. Gerhard Lock et al., Tallinn: Tallinn University, pp. 26–27. 7 Annabel J. Cohen 2015. The AIRS Test Battery of Singing Skills: rationale, item types, and lifespan scope. – Musicae Scientiae 19, pp. 238–264.

150 Arvustused/Reviews

Heli Reimann. Jazz in Soviet Estonia from 1944 to 1953: Meanings, Spaces and Paradoxes [Džäss Nõukogude Eestis aastatel 1944–1953: tähendused, ruumid ja paradoksid]. University of Helsinki, Academic Dissertation (E-Th esis), 2015.1 Anu Kõlar

Siinse muusikaavalikkuseni jõudis 2015. aasta lõ- der State Socialism” 4. osa, raamatu toimetajad pul portaali novaator.err.ee (18.12.15) kaudu na- on Gertrud Pickhan ja Rüdiger Ritter (Reimann pivõitu, kuid üpris üllatav teade: Heli Reimann on 2016). Viimane artikkel, kogu uurimuse kontekstis värskelt kaitsnud Helsingi Ülikoolis doktoriväite- küpseim ja kaalukaim „Four Spaces, Four Mea- kirja Eesti džässmuusika ajaloost. Ehkki mõneti nings: Narrating Jazz in Late Stalinist Estonia” on ootamatu, tekitas see elevust ja uudishimu, sest Routledge’i kirjastuse kogumikus „Jazz and Totali- tärkas lootus, et meie peaaegu olematu akadee- tarianism”, sarjas „Transnational Studies in Jazz” il- miline uurimisväli džässmuusika alal on rikas- mumas 2017. aasta algul.2 Nüüd võiks küsida, miks tunud tõsise tööga. Pool aastat hiljem, maikuus alustasin tähelepanuväärse uurimuse arvustamist 2016, tutvustas autor oma uurimuse lähtekohti, tähenärimisega. Tegelikult lihtsal põhjusel: just eesmärke ja sisu pisut põhjalikumalt ajakirjas seetõttu, et tegemist on oluliste, autoriteetsetes Muusika (Remmel 2016) ning huvi kasvas veelgi. kirjastustes publitseeritud eesti teadlase tekstide- Püüd dissertatsiooni tervikteksti leida ja sellesse ga Eesti kultuuriloost, mille leidmine ei peaks nii süveneda osutus siiski päris keerukaks. Nimelt vaevaline olema. Küllap olukord ongi paranemas, on tegemist artikliväitekirjaga, millest veebis on sest viimati nimetatud artiklikogumik on Eesti raa- hõlpsalt kättesaadav käsikirjaline ulatuslik (76 lk.) matukogudesse juba jõudnud, samuti on loode- n.-ö. raam- või katustekst (Reimann 2015). Peale tavasti (taas)tihenemas Reimanni kontaktid meie selle kuulub doktoritöösse veel viis ingliskeelset haridus- ja teadusinstitutsioonidega. artiklit, millest kaks – 2013. aastal Etnomusikolo- Järgnevalt toon välja mõned sündmused ja gian vuosikirjas ja aasta hiljem ajakirjas Popular protsessid, mille kaudu avab Heli Reimann Eesti Music publitseeritud tekstid ilmusid lühikese ot- džässiloo keerukal sõjajärgsel kümnendil, ning singu järel samuti ekraanile, kuid ülejäänud kol- selle kõrval ja järel peatun käsitluse teoreetilis- mega tekkis tõrkeid. Nii oli 2011. aastal kirjutatud tel ja metodoloogilistel lähtekohtadel. Lõpuks artikli pealkiri raamteksti järgi „Ideology and the püüan arutleda üldisemalt väitekirja struktuuri ja cultural study of Soviet Estonian jazz” (Reimann adressaadi üle. 2015: 7), tegelikult leidsin viidatud kogumikust Heli Reimann määratleb oma peamise uuri- hoopis loo tiitliga „The Ideological Context for misobjektina džässikultuuri, s.t. ajastu poliitikaga the Study of Soviet Estonian Jazz” (Reimann 2011). vastastiksuhetes oleva kompleksse nähtuse, mil- Kaks viimast artiklit polnud kaitsmise ajaks veel les sisaldub nii professionaalne kontsert- kui ka ilmunud ning needki on viidatud vigaselt: lisaks amatööride tantsumuusika, intellektuaalne ja ha- näpuvigadele pealkirjades on ebatäpsed ka ko- riduslik komponent ning ajakirjanduslik diskursus gumike üldandmed, mistõttu esitan siin õiged (Reimann 2015). Need teemad on erinevate artik- variandid. „Swing Club and the Meaning of Jazz in lite kaudu (tinglikult) moodustuvas ajaloonarra- Estonia in the late 1940s” publitseeriti käesoleval tiivis omavahel põimitud ja vahelduvalt esi- või aastal kogumikus „Meaning of Jazz in State Socia- tagaplaanil. Sealjuures saab jutustuse omamoodi lism”, mis on Peter Langi kirjastuse sarja „Jazz un- kulminatsiooniks põneva allika – 1947. aastal Uno

1 https://helda.helsinki.fi /bitstream/handle/10138/157762/jazzinso.pdf?sequence=1 (vaadatud 17.10.2016). Kaitstud 28.11.2015 Helisingi Ülikooli fi losoofi a, ajaloo, kultuuri ja kunstiuuringute osakonnas. 2 Kogumik plaaniti avaldada jaanuaris 2016 (Reimann 2015: 7). Tegelikult ilmus see käesoleval sügisel, kuid samas on bibliograafi lises kirjes publitseerimisaastaks märgitud 2017. Väljaande toimetaja on Bruce Johnson, nõuandvad toimetajad (advisory editors) on Pedro Cravinho ja Heli Reimann.

151 Arvustused/Reviews

Naissoo loodud Swing Clubi mahuka almanah- tati ümber estraadiorkestriteks. Kirjeldades amet- hi tutvustamine ja tõlgendus (Reimann 2016). likus-avalikus kultuuriruumis toimunud protsesse, Nimelt sisaldab see kõige süngemast stalinismi- avab Reimann nende mitmetised ja dünaamilised ajast (1947–1950) pärinev 225-leheküljeline do- seosed poolavalike ja privaatsete sfääridega. Jä- kument peale ülevaate svingiklubi asutamisest ja reldus, mis laiendab ühtlasi Ojakääru lausungit, tegevusest ka (põhiliselt Heldur Karmo) mõtteid on ilmne: võimu poolt mittelubatud ja/või mit- džässi esteetilisest väärtusest, ideaalidest ning tekeelatud kultuuripraktikad, sh. džäss, ei tähen- võimalustest kohandada seda nõukogude kuns- danud nende hääbumist ja unustamist (Reimann tiideoloogiaga. Tähendusi otsivale ajaloolasele – 2014; 2017). ja seda Heli Reimann kaheldamatult on – osutub Kõige üksikasjalikumalt leiab Nõukogude sot- almanahh tänuväärseks materjaliks, et portretee- siaalpoliitiline ja kultuuriline süsteem käsitlemist rida Swing Clubi tuumiku (Naissoo, Ustus Aguri, dissertatsiooni viimases artiklis (Reimann 2017). veidi hiljem liitunud Arne Oidi ja Peeter Sauli) pü- Õieti kirjutab autor just (või alles?) siin analüüsi- hendumust ning arutleda ambivalentsete ideede raamistikust, mida ta nõukogudeaegse džässi ja sõnastuste, väliste kontrollimehhanismide ja uurimisel rakendab. Seda nimetab ta kultuuriväl- enesetsensuuri üle Nõukogude Eesti kultuuris. jade mudeliks (cultural spaces of action), mis on Reimanni džässikultuuriajaloo üheks motoks tuletatud sotsioloogias kasutatavast avalikkuse ja paistab olevat Valter Ojakääru klassikaks saanud privaatsuse eristamisest.4 Reimann diferentseerib parabool sellest, et džäss polnud Nõukogude džässipraktikate aspektist nelja sotsiaalkultuu- Liidus lubatud, kuid samas ei olnud see ka keela- rilist ruumi. Esimene on avalik meedia, mida ta tud. Avades Sirbi ja Vasara teemakohaste artiklite analüüsib Sirbi ja Vasara artiklite põhjal. Ka teine põhjal neid hämaraid keelatu-lubatu alasid po- ruum on avalik, sellesse kuulusid riigi palgal olev liitilisest aspektist (Reimann 2014), jaotab autor fi lharmoonia ja raadio džäss/estraadiorkestrid, töös analüüsitava kümnendi (1944–1953) kaheks mille esituspaiku ja -taset ning repertuaari võim põhiperioodiks. Vahetult sõjale järgnenud ajal oli jälgis ning kontrollis. Kolmandat sfääri iseloomus- džäss soositud, kuna sümboliseeris nõukogude tab autor privaatse ja avaliku vahepealsena, mil- võimu silmis liitlastest võitjate ühisosa. 1946. ja les harrastajate orkestrid said toimida võrdlemisi 1948. aastal Üleliidulise Kommunistliku (bolševi- iseseisvalt, esineda tantsusaalides ja restoranides, ke) Partei Keskkomitees (ÜK(b)P KK) vastu võetud vahel ka haltuurat teha. Nende repertuaarivalik otsused, mis haarasid totalitaarse ideoloogia pih- oli piisava kavaldamisoskuse korral üsna vaba. tide vahele kogu nõukogude kunstiloomingu ja Neljas, kõige privaatsem ruum põhines muusiku- kultuurielu,3 viisid samm-sammult džässi mõiste tevahelisel sõprusel ja läbikäimisel, muusika kuu- väljajuurimiseni avalikust keelekasutusest (1950– lamisel ja selle üle arutamisel. 1953) ning tantsumuusika reformini, mis seisnes See, keda ja mida Heli Reimann ajalugu kir- fokstroti, tango jt. moodsate tantsude keelus- jutades eeskujuks võtab, millistele meetoditele tamises ja asendamises vanade peotantsudega. tugineb ja kuidas teksti konstrueerib, tundub Kommunistliku partei ladvik käsitas sel ajal džässi üldjoontes sümpaatne ja mõistetav. Mulle meel- vaenuliku imperialismi nurisünnitisena (ehkki üht dib, et ta püüab oma uurimisobjekti – džässikul- selle aspekti – muusikastiili sündi ja levikut musta- tuuri – käsitleda võimalikult paljutahulisena, luues nahaliste, s.t. rõhutud tööliste kogukonnas – võis mitme sündmuse, üksikisiku, muusikute grupi taluda), mistõttu ka senised džässorkestrid nime- või kõnekate tekstide abil omavahel põimuvate

3 1946. aasta sügisel võttis ÜK(b)P KK Moskvas vastu otsused „Ajakirjade Zvezda ja Leningrad kohta”, „Draamateatrite repertuaarist ja abinõudest selle parandamiseks” ning „Kinoﬁlmist „Suur elu””. 10. veebruaril 1948 kinnitati samas otsus „V. Muradeli ooperist „Suur sõprus””. Heli Reimann lisab neile ajalehe Pravda juhtkirjana 1949. aasta jaanuaris avaldatud „Ühest antipatriootlikust teatrikriitikute rühmast”, mis oma vaenuliku hoiakuga kosmopolitismi suhtes lisas džässivastasele võitlusele hoogu. 4 Cultural spaces of action, mille autor tõlgib eesti keelde „kultuuriväljade mudelina” (Remmel 2016), sisaldab minu silmis viidet ka tegevusele, toimimisele, praktika(te)le. Just „praktikad”, viimase aja humanitaarteadustes populaarne uurimisobjekt ja termin (vt. nt. Burke 2011), muudaks Reimanni teoreetilise raamistiku eestikeelse vaste täpsemaks, näiteks nii: „praktikate kultuuriliste ruumide mudel”. Uuritakse ju selle abil eelkõige džässmuusika ja -muusikute toimimist ja mõju kultuuriruumides. Avaliku ja privaatsfääri eristamist on nõukogude aja tõlgendamisel mälestuste kaudu kasutanud teiste seas huvitavalt Ene Kõresaar ja Kirsti Jõesalu (Kõresaar 2004; Jõesalu, Kõresaar 2011).

152 Arvustused/Reviews liinidega narratiivi. Hea on tõdeda, et autor mõ- ülejäänus on ta siinse uurimisparadigma suhtes testab džässi eri aspekte ja kihte dünaamilisena, võrdlemisi kriitiline, tõsi, toetudes enamasti teis- mitmesugustes (vastastik)suhetes nii omavahel tele kriitikutele. Ta leiab, et kohalikud ajaloolased kui ajastu vastuoluliste, ambivalentsete, kohati tajuvad end siinse ajaloo „omanikena”, keda huvi- absurdsete poliitilise ja ideoloogiliste mõjuritega. tab endiselt n.-ö. kangelaseestlaste võitluste lugu, Tunnustan ka seda, et Heli Reimann on kirjutuses mida kirjutades kannavad nad endaga kaasas pa- autorina alati selgelt ja tuntavalt kohal. See ei tä- ratamatut põlvkondade „sünnivalu” (lacrimoge- henda mitte üksnes minavormis teksti, kohatist nesis). Seetõttu võib selgem pilk ja värskem vaa- julget hinnangulisust ja söakust jääda mõnede de siinsele minevikule pärineda just väljastpoolt: autoriteetidega eriarvamusele,5 vaid privaatse ta- Seppo Zetterbergilt, Jean-Pierre Minaudierilt ja sandi avamist ja töös rakendamist. Isiklik sfäär hõl- ka autorilt (Reimannilt) endalt, kelle haridus- ja mab üsna pikki lugusid autori ja tema vanemate teadlasetee on viinud teda nii Soome kui USAsse mälust ning nõukogude elu kogemusest, aga ka (Reimann 2015: 19–21). Eeltoodud arutlus polnud eneserefl eksiooni erinevate haridusinstitutsiooni- väitekirjas mõeldud kategoorilisena, pigem ühe de ja kultuuride mõjudest valminud tekstile ning võimalusena. Seetõttu tahaksin omalt poolt sama kriitilist suhtumist oma varasemasse teadustöös- sõbralikult lisada, et Eesti muusikaloolased on se. juba paarkümmend aastat kirjutanud uurimusi, Kirjandus, mille Heli Reimann on läbi tööta- kus rahvuskeskne paatos on kõrvale jäetud ning nud, on minu silmis asjakohane. Autorid, kellele siinset kultuuriruumi vaadeldakse naabrite ja ko- ta põhiliselt toetub stalinismiaegse muusikaloo halike muude kultuuride (baltisakslased, poliitili- käsitluses – Marina Frolova-Walker, Richard Ta- ne võim jpm.) vastastikustes seostes ja mõjudes. ruskin ja Aleksei Yurchak – ongi rahvusvaheliselt Kõige üldisemalt tugineb Heli Reimanni käsit- küllap kõige tunnustatumad. Tõsi, kõik nad on lusviis n.-ö. uuele kultuuriajaloole, mille kanoo- „välisvaatlejad”, mis tekitab vähemalt minus huvi nilised autorid – Peter Burke põhiprintsiipide Venemaa enda praegusaegse muusikaloo uuri- ava jana, Gliff ord Geertz antropoloogia-lähte esin- misseisu vastu, millest on kahjuks saanud terra dajana, Jane Fulcher muusikakultuuri uurijana incognita. Ka need, keda Reimann on lugenud ning Marek Tamm historiograafi a, sh. ka eesti aja- Eesti üld- ja kultuuriloolastest – Tõnu Tannberg, lookirjutuse analüüsijana – on nimetatud ja autori Olaf Kuuli, Olaf Mertelsmann, Tiiu Kreegipuu, Eve lähenemises tajutavad. Uue kultuuriajaloo inter- Annuk jt. – on autoriteetsed uurijad. Ise mõtleksin distsiplinaarsuses rõhutab Reimann eriti Anna veel näiteks Epp Annuse ja Linda Kaljundi uudsete Swidleri teooriat, kus kultuurilise dünaamilisuse küsimusepüstituste ja värskete sissevaadete üle loojaks ja ühtlasi uurimisobjektiks on eelkõige sel- Eesti lähiminevikku. Värskus seisneb mh. ka nen- les toimivad indiviidid. Ehkki Swidleri seisukohta- de rahvusüleses lähenemisviisis. Eestis viimasel dele on heidetud ette võimu(mehhanismide) ala- ajal kasutatud mõiste „rahvusülesus” kattub ühe hindamist, näib Reimannil teda vaja olevat nimelt aspektiga Reimanni terminist „transnatsionaalne” selleks, et vältida binaarsust nõukogude kultuuri (transnational) ning tähendab, et ajalugu ei vaa- kujutamisel. Lihtsustatud must-valge lähenemise delda mitte ühe rahvuse (eestlaste) keskselt, vaid vastu Nõukogude-uuringutes võitleb autor kor- suuremas ruumis, püüdes tuvastada vastastik- duvalt, pidades oma ülesandeks näidata, kui kee- mõjutusi teiste, lähemate ja kaugemate rahvuste, rukates seostevõrgustikes tegelikult siinsed prot- kultuuride ja mõtteviisidega ning paigutada uuri- sessid toimusid. Sealjuures on ka Reimanni oma tavat kultuurinähtust laiemasse konteksti. Minu uurimisraamistik – kultuuriväljade mudel – sama silmis on selline pööre toimunud nii Eesti üldaja- eesmärgi teenistuses, laiendades ja täpsustades loos kui ka muusikaloos. Heli Reimann nimetab avaliku-privaatse dihhotoomiat. Kui pakkuda veel positiivse näitena küll 2012. aastal ilmunud Eesti analüüsiviise, mis võimaldaksid süstematiseerida ajaloo II köidet „Eesti keskaeg” (Selart 2012), ent ja lahata Nõukogude Eesti muusikakultuuri mi-

5 Näiteks on ajaloolaste hulgas rohkem neid, kes kirjutavad Nõukogude Liidust kui totalitaarsest riigist. Reimann, leides, et totalitarismi utoopilist projekti ei suudetud lõpuni realiseerida, peab mõistlikumaks kasutada mõistet totalising, mis näitab eesmärki, mitte täideviidust (Reimann 2017; 2015). Muide, mulle näib siiski, et kommunistliku partei, valitsuse ja võimu siht „luua täiesti uus, nõukogude inimene”, kes on kontrollitav ja manipuleeritav, ning sammud, mida kultuurielus selleks tehti, annavad põhjuse käsitada Nõukogude Liitu ikkagi totalitaarsena.

153 Arvustused/Reviews neviku paljukihilisust, võimu ja allutatute suhete saa olla kindel, et Sirp ja Vasar oli ainus ja kõige keerukust või kasvõi Eesti džässipraktikate mimik- adekvaatsem hääletoru džässikultuuri kohta käi- rilisust (kõverpeegel Ameerika lätetest ja nõuko- vat edastama. Arvan, et edasise töö käigus on Rei- gude kultuurist kohalikus võtmes), siis sobiksid mannil põhjust süveneda näiteks Rahvusarhiivis postkoloniaalsed uuringud. Veel teinegi lähene- asuvatesse Kunstide Valitsuse / Kultuuriministee- misviis – lai mälu-uuringute diskursus – avab uue riumi, Riikliku Filharmoonia, Heliloojate Liidu ja küsimuste ringi (džässi)kultuuri kohta, võimaldab küllap veel mõne institutsiooni dokumentides- tõlgendada ja luua tähendusi, sh. näidata aktiivse se. Nende kaudu selgub, kas Sirp ja Vasar kajas- või passiivse mäletamise ja unustamise aspektist tas kõike olulist, ja ilmselt saab veelgi täpsemaks erinevate kultuuriruumide tekkimist. džässikultuuri kirev elu avalikus ruumis. Metodoloogilisi lähtekohti on dissertatsioonis Teine probleem on põhimõttelisem ja võib-olla veel: mikroajalugu, Nõukogude-uuringud ehk seotud minu mõneti konservatiivse lähenemise- sovetoloogia (mille piirid ja teooria on ajaloo- ga ajaloole. Kui pidada akadeemilist ajalugu uuri- uurimustes üsna haralised). Autori enda metodo- ja koostatud/konstrueeritud narratiiviks, milles ta loogiakirjelduse alapeatüki alguslause on järgmi- on oma parima teadmise ja äratundmise järgi loo- ne: „Viiendas artiklis [Reimann 2017 – AK] osutan nud loogilise, (enamasti) kronoloogiale tugineva, ma allikate paljususele [source pluralism] kui uuri- sisemiselt seotud ja lõpetatud jutustuse, siis neid muse peamisele meetodile” (Reimann 2015: 53). tunnuseid siinsel artiklitest koosneval väitekirjal See määratlus jääb veidi arusaamatuks, sest minu ei ole. Käsiteldava kümne aasta vältel toimunud meelest ei saa rohked ja mitmekesised allikad ise- sündmuste, muutuste ja isikute seostatud tervik- enesest meetod olla, küll aga saab neid kasutada lik lugu tuleb suuresti kokku panna lugejal endal. vahendina kultuuriväljade analüüsimisel. Jah, mõne (teise) artikliväitekirja puhul pole see Ja lõpuks osutan kolmele küsitavusele ja/või kuigi raske – siis, kui autoril on algusest peale vi- edasist arutelu vajavale probleemile Heli Reiman- sioon väitekirja suurest plaanist, probleemidest ni väitekirjas. Esimene neist on autori postdok- ja eesmärkidest, sh. sellest, milline funktsioon on torandi staatuse ja jätkuva viljaka uurimistööga igal tekstil (tulevikus moodustuvas) tervikus. Sa- hõlpsalt lahendatav. Nimelt vajab teema edasi- muti võiks ideaalmaailmas olla uurijal esimesest arendus veelgi allikauuringuid. Praeguses tekstis artiklist alates ettekujutus peamistest teoreetilis- tugineb avaliku kultuuriruumi iseloomustamine test ja metodoloogilistest printsiipidest, millele ta ainult ühele allikaliigile: ajalehele Sirp ja Vasar tugineb. (Reimann 2014). Seetõttu võib autori üldistuste Võrreldes kirjeldatud ideaaliga kannab Heli ja järelduste osas tekkida mõningaid kahtlusi. Kü- Reimanni väitekiri kiirustamise ja isegi juhuslik- simus ei ole tegelikult kvantiteedis, vaid tollase kuse pitserit. Ajaline intervall esimese (2011) ja poliitilise kultuurilehe enda mittetäielikkuses või viimase (2017) artikli vahel on kuus aastat. Õieti kallutatuses. Tõsi, Nõukogude Liit oli ühepartei- on kena märgata, kui palju on uurija selle perioo- line, tsentraliseeritud aparaadi, sh. kontrollitud di jooksul mõtetes ja kirjutamises edasi liikunud. meediaga süsteem. Käsuliinid ja struktuurid, mis Kui kahes esimeses tekstis autor alles kompis oma pidid tagama, et kõik Moskvas vastu võetud otsu- huvide piire, püüdes saada ülevaadet džässist kui sed ja määrused jõuaksid operatiivselt „alla”, olid rahvusvahelisest akadeemilisest uurimisobjektist hästi välja töötatud. Samas on NLK(b)P KK ja Tal- (Reimann 2013) ning luua üldpilti Nõukogude linnas asunud Eestimaa Kommunistliku Partei KK võimust ja selle kultuurimudelist ja -poliitikast dokumentide võrdluses selgunud, et need ei lan- (Reimann 2011), siis alates kolmandast, Sirbi ja ge päris kokku. Kui Moskvas väljatöötatud tekstid Vasara džässiteemaliste kirjutiste põhjal kirjuta- olid üldisemat laadi, siis just partei kohalik keskko- tud artiklist (2014) on käsiteldav ajavahemik ja mitee oli institutsioon, mis vürtsitas neid spetsiifi - uurimisfookus paigas. Edasi läheb mõte ja tekst liste lisanditega, sh. näiteks väljendiga „kodanliku pidevalt täpsemaks. Ikkagi on kompaktses, üle- natsionalismi mürk” või pani nimeliselt kirja need vaatlikus ja tugevas katustekstis (2015) uurija ka isikud, keda tuli ühel või teisel moel karistada (va- ise sunnitud tõdema, et kaks esimest artiklit on hel ka tunnustada). Liiatigi oli käsuliinide ja ini- kesksest teemast üsna kaugel. Samuti paistab, meste toimimises eksimusi ja eripärasid. Seega ei et raamteksti kirjutamise ajalgi polnud veel päris

154 Arvustused/Reviews selge, kuidas artiklid järjestada: tuleb ette kohti, Tõepoolest, on täiesti ilmne, et Heli Reimanni kus artikli sisukirjeldus ei vasta raamteksti algu- väitekirja artiklid on adresseeritud eelkõige inglis- ses antud järjekorranumbritele (Reimann 2015: 7, keelsele lugejale. Loomulikult on see hea, sest või- 53, 54). Kõige selle tõttu pole distantsilt vaadates maldab viia tükikest Eesti kultuuriloo sündmustest päris selge, mis sundis Helsingi Ülikooli kaitsmi- ja protsessidest n.-ö. laia maailma, muu hulgas sega kiirustama, sest näib, et isegi väikese lisaaja näidates ameeriklastest huvilistele, kui eripära- ja -süvenemisega võinuks tulemus olla kompakt- seid ja kaugeid teid on liikunud neilt alguse saa- sem ja terviklikum. Liiatigi on Heli Reimann tõe- nud džässikultuur. Kahtlemata on dissertatsiooni poolest uurijana tähelepanuväärselt arenenud ja keele- ja sisuvalikuid määranud ka selle kaitsmine tema edasiliikumine jätkub, kui meenutada, et Helsingi Ülikoolis. Ometi võib arvata, et ka siinsed, viimased artiklid on ilmunud väga autoriteetsetes Eesti kodumaised muusikud, üliõpilased ja kul- teaduskirjastustes. tuurihuvilised tahaksid oma ajalooteadmisi täien- Viimase küsimuse tõstatan taas lihtsalt mõtisk- dada ja minevikku mitmetahulisemalt mõtestada. lusena. Nimelt: kes on väitekirja adressaat? Alus- Miks mitte – väitekiri annab selleks hea võimaluse. tama peab veidi kaugemalt. Heli Reimann peab Ainult et selles on korduvalt, kokku päris palju tä- oluliseks oma transnatsionaalset uurijapositsioo- heruumi kulunud sellele, et jutustada ümber mei- ni ja sellest perspektiivist lähtuvat ajalookirjutust le ammu tuttavaid, iseenesestmõistetavaid asju: (transnational history). See tähendab holistilisuse Eesti asend ja ajaloo põhisündmused, Nõukogu- püüdu, mis autori enda selgituse järgi hõlmab nii de okupatsiooni perioodid ja poliitiline süsteem, tema interpreedi- kui ka uurijakogemust, samuti mõisted „estraad” ja „sotsrealism”, „kommunistlik hariduskäiku ja elukohti, mis on kulgenud erine- partei” ja „heliloojate liit”, „levi- ja süvamuusika” vates ühiskondades, ning teadustööd, mille ideed jne. Lõpetuseks tahakski soovida, et Heli Reimann pärinevad mitmest uurimistraditsioonist. See või- kirjutaks oma huvitava ja olulise rahvusvahelise maldab eemalduda rahvuslusekesksest vaatest väitekirja põhjal ühe artikli, mis oleks eelkõige ja luua teksti, mis ületab ühe kultuuri piirid ja on suunatud meie enda lugejatele, täitmaks toeka mõistetav rahvusvaheliselt (Reimann 2015: 13, 14, panusega siinset peaaegu olematut džäss- ja po- 51). pulaarmuusika uurimisvälja.

Kirjandus

Burke, Peter 2011. Mis on kultuuriajalugu? Tlk. Triinu Pakk, cultural newspaper Sirp ja Vasar. – Popular Music 33/3, pp. toim. Marek Tamm, Tallinn: Tallinna Ülikooli Kirjastus. 509–529. Jõesalu, Kirsti, Ene Kõresaar 2011. Privaatne ja avalik Reimann, Heli 2015. Jazz in Soviet Estonia from 1944 to 1953: nõukogude aja mõistmises ühe keskastme juhi eluloo Meanings, Spaces and Paradoxes. University of Helsinki, näitel. – Methis. Studia humaniora Estonica 7, lk. 67−83. Academic Dissertation (E-Thesis), https://helda.helsinki.fi / Kõresaar, Ene 2004. Memory and History in Estonian bitstream/handle/10138/157762/jazzinso.pdf?sequence=1 Post-Soviet Life Stories. Private and Public, Individual and (vaadatud 17.10.2016). Collective from the Perspective of Biographical Syncretism. Reimann, Heli 2016. Swing Club and the Meaning of Jazz in Dissertationes ethnologiae Universitatis Tartuensis 1, Tartu: Estonia in the late 1940s. – Meaning of Jazz in State Socialism. Tartu University Press. Eds. Gertrud Pickhan, Rüdiger Ritter, Jazz under State Reimann, Heli 2011. The Ideological Context for the Study Socialism 4, Frankfurt a.M. u.a.: Peter Lang, pp. 193–224. of Soviet Estonian Jazz. – The Jazz Chameleon: The Refereed Reimann, Heli 2017. Four Spaces, Four Meanings: Narrating Proceedings of the 9th Nordic Jazz Conference August 19–20, Jazz in Late Stalinist Estonia. – Jazz and Totalitarianism. Ed. 2010, Helsinki, Finland. Ed. Janne Mäkelä, Helsinki: The Bruce Johnson, advisory eds. Pedro Cravinho, Heli Reimann, Finnish Jazz & Pop Archive / Turku: International Institute for Transnational Studies in Jazz, New York: Routledge, pp. Popular Culture, pp. 23–35. 69–93. Reimann, Heli 2013. Jazz Research and the Moments of Remmel, Ia 2016. Džässiuurimisest Eestis. Intervjuu Heli Change. – Etnomusikologian vuosikirja 25, pp. 8–33. Reimanniga. – Muusika 5, lk. 22–24. Reimann, Heli 2014. Late-Stalinist ideological campaigns Selart, Anti (koost.) 2012. Eesti ajalugu II. Eesti keskaeg. Tartu: and the rupture of jazz: ‘jazz-talk’ in the Soviet Estonian Ilmamaa.

155 KROONIKA

Muusikateadusliku elu kroonikat 2015/2016 Koostanud Anu Veenre, EMTSi sekretär

Eesti Muusikateaduse Selts üheksa ettekannet, mis olenevalt esinejast peeti kas eesti või inglise keeles. Päeva esimene ette- Hooaeg 2015/2016 oli EMTSile 24. tegevusaasta. kanneterühm koondus pealkirja alla „Autentsus Majandusaasta aruande lõpul, 30. septembri 2016 ja rahvuslus” („Authenticity and musical nationa- seisuga on seltsil 91liiget. lism”) ning sisaldas Mark Lawrence’i („Tormis – a Seltsi üldkoosolekul 2. novembril 2015 tehti personal tribute to Urve, the way in which she has kokkuvõte möödunud hooajast. Valimisi päeva- connected me with the work of Tormis”), Anu Kõ- korras ei olnud ning seega jätkas juhatus tööd lari („Rahvusluse ambivalentsusest nõukogude koosseisus Kerri Kotta (seltsi esimees), Allan Vur- perioodil laulupidude ja Urve Lippuse mõtesta- ma (aseesimees), Saale Konsap, Kristina Kõrver ja tud Tormise näitel”), Linda Kaljundi („Tuulest ja Anu Schaper. Revisjonikomisjoni moodustavad muinasluulest – autentsuse otsingud hilisnõuko- Eerik Jõks (esimees), Aleksandra Dolgopolova ja gude kultuuris”) ning Brigitta Davidjantsi ette- Marju Raju. kandeid („Armeenia muusikaloo kirjutuse seosest Seltsi eestvõttel toimus kaks traditsioonilist rahvuslike ideoloogiatega”). Pärastlõunal kõlasid Eesti-sisest muusikateaduslikku üritust: Leichteri muusikalist modernismi („Musical modernism”) päev ja Tartu päev. puudutavad ettekanded, nagu Andreas Waczka- Leichteri päeval, 2. novembril 2015 peeti EMTA ti „Elmar Arro’s View on Contemporary Estonian kooriklassis kaks ettekannet. Konverentsi küla- Music”, Janika Orase „Moderniseerumisega seo- lis- ja ühtlasi peaesinejaks oli Esa Lilja Helsingi tud muutused suulise kultuuri muusikute perfor- Ülikoolist, keda saab pidada üheks praeguse aja matiivsuses, kahe 19. sajandi II poole naislauliku olulisemaks rokkmuusika ja heavy metal’i uurijaks. näitel” ning Mart Humala „Lineaarsusest muusi- Tema ettekanne teemal „Harmony as means for kas”. Päeva lõpetasid muusika(elu)liste kontaktide creating form in rock music” tõi kohale palju üli- („Musical encounters”) teemalised ettekanded õpilasi ka teistest EMTA osakondadest. Päeva teise Mimi Daitzilt („Emigrant Musicians Who Settled ettekande pidas EMTA doktorant Aare Tool tee- in the USA: Germans and Austrians at the Begin- mal „Üheosaline vorm Heino Elleri, Eduard Tubina ning and Estonians at the End of World War II”) ja Eduard Oja kammermuusikas”. ja Helena Tyrväinenilt („French contacts of early Enamasti on selts igal hooajal olnud seotud Finnish musicology”). Konverentsi ettekanded on ka mõne rahvusvahelise muusikateadusliku kon- seltsi liikmetele järelkuulatavad www.muusika- verentsi korraldamisega, kuid kõnealusel hooajal teadus.ee intranetis. selliseid ei toimunud. Küll aga oli 2016. aasta Tartu Seltsi 2016. aasta kultuurilooline sügismatk toi- päeval tavapärasest laiem temaatiline haare ja vä- mus 24.–25. septembril Pihkvamaale. Arvestades liskülaliste arv. Konverents peeti 23. aprillil Heino sihtkoha eksootilisust ja organisatoorse poole eri- Elleri nimelise Tartu Muusikakooli Elleri saalis ja oli pärasid, korraldati matk seekord kahasse Germalo pühendatud professor Urve Lippuse mälestusele. Reisidega ning huvilistel tuli reisi osalustasu ise Konverentsi ettekanded esindasid valdkondi, mil- maksta (v.a. transpordikulutused). Reisi giidiks oli lega Urve Lippus muusikateadlasena ise lähemalt Ott Sandrak, kelle juhtimisel külastati Sigovo küla seotud oli, sh. muusikaloo kirjutamise ning rah- muuseumi, Irboskat (põline tšuudide ja slaavlas- vuslikkuse ja lineaarse muusikalise mõtlemisega te keskus), Mõla küla, Pihkvat (jalutuskäik krem- seotut. Nii nagu enamikku Eesti esinejaist ühen- lis, Kolmainu katedraal), Petseri kloostrit, Mirožki das kõiki konverentsi väliskülalisi Lippusega ka pi- kloostri freskokirikut ja Spaso Jelizarovski kloost- kaaegne ametialane koostöö ja sõprus. Kavas oli rit.

156 Kroonika

Aastaraamatu Res Musica 7. number Uus väitekiri muusikateaduses

Res Musica 2015. aasta ehk 7. numbrit esitleti tra- 2015. aasta detsembris kaitses muusikaakadee- ditsiooniliselt Leichteri päeval. mias edukalt oma doktoritööd Marju Raju (ju- See põhineb 2014. aasta jaanuaris Eesti Muu- hendaja prof. Jaan Ross). Ingliskeelne artikliväi- sika- ja Teatriakadeemias ning Pärnu Keskraa- tekiri kannab pealkirja „Some aspects of singing matukogus peetud seitsmenda rahvusvahelise development, the song creating process and fa- muusikateooria konverentsi valitud ettekannetel. vorite songs of Estonian children” („Mõningaid Konverentsi teemaks oli muusikaline vorm, mis aspekte Eesti laste laulmise arengust, ise laulude mitmeplaanilise nähtusena on teose muusikalise loomisest ja lemmiklauludest”) ning see sisaldab struktuuri üks raskemini tõlgendatavaid aspekte. sissejuhatavat peatükki ja nelja iseseisvat teadus- Kogumikku alustavad vormilisi erisusi ehk de- artiklit, samuti eestikeelset resümeed. Väljaanne formatsioone käsitlevad artiklid (Steven Vande on 6. väitekiri Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia Moortele, Charity Lofthouse’i ja Aare Tooli artik- Väitekirjade sarjas. lid). Järgnevas kolmes artiklis on fookuses vor- Väitekiri on ka allalaetav, http://www.ema.edu. mi kujundavad aspektid (Michael Oravitzi, Ildar ee/vaitekirjad/doktor/Marju_Raju.pdf. Res Musica Khannanovi ja Cecilia Oinase artiklid). Kogumiku käesolevas numbris ilmub ka väitekirja arvustus. lõpetavad kaks käsitlust 18. sajandi muusikast, milles keskendutakse helikõrgusliku struktuuri Loetelu EMTA muusikateaduse osakonna vara- vormiloovale rollile (David Lodewyckxi ja Stephen sematest publikatsioonidest on koos tutvustus- Slottow’ uurimused). Kogumiku koostaja on Kerri tega üleval ka kooli kodulehel (www.ema.edu.ee) Kotta. rubriigis „Publikatsioonid”. Nende muusikatead- Aastaraamatu kõigi varasemate numbritega laste publikatsioonid, kes osalevad Eesti ametlikes on võimalik tutvuda seltsi kodulehel www.muu- teadusprojektides ja/ või töötavad õppejõudude- sikateadus.ee/resmusica. Väljaanded on müügil na kõrgkoolides, saab internetist kergesti kätte ka EMTA välissuhete osakonnas ning samuti saab kas ETISe või vastavate kõrgkoolide aastaaruan- neid tellida, saates meili aadressil anu.schaper@ netest. gmail.com.

157 AUTORID/AUTHORS

ARDIAN AHMEDAJA (1965) on Viini Muusika- ja Esituskunstide Ülikooli rahvamuusikauuringute ja etnomusikoloogia osakonna vanemteadur. Tema peamised uurimisvaldkonnad on kohalikud praktikad Al- baanias ja selle naabermaades, maqam, muusika ja vähemused, religioosne ja ilmalik muusikapraktika, transkriptsioon ja analüüs, mitmehäälne muusika (multipart music). e-post: [email protected] ARDIAN AHMEDAJA (1965) is Senior Researcher at the Department of Folk Music Research and Ethno- musicology of the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna. His main research interests lie in local practices in Albania and neighbouring countries, maqam, music and minorities, religious and secular musical practice, transcription and analysis, multipart music. E-Mail: [email protected]

ANDA BEITĀNE (1969) on professor, etnomusikoloogia osakonna juhataja ning teadus- ja loometöö- prorektor Jāzeps Vītolsi nimelises Läti Muusikaakadeemias. 2006. a. kaitses ta Läti Muusikaakadeemias doktorikraadi teemal „Uuema päritoluga mitmehäälne laulmine läti traditsioonilises muusikas” ja asutas sealsamas etnomusikoloogia osakonna. Alates 1992. a. on ta teinud välitöid Lätis, Venemaal (Siberis) ja Valgevenes. Beitāne on kirjutanud monograafi a mitmehäälsest laulmisest Läti traditsioonilises muusikas ja välja andnud raamatuid, artikleid ja salvestisi kohalikest muusikapraktikatest Lätis, Siberis ja Valgeve- nes. e-post: [email protected] ANDA BEITĀNE (1969) is a Professor, Head of the Department of Ethnomusicology and Vice-Rector for Research and Creative Work at the Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music. In 2006 she received her PhD at the Latvian Academy of Music with the dissertation Multipart Singing in Latvian Traditional Music and established the Department of Ethnomusicology at the same institution. Since 1992 she has carried out fi eldwork in Latvia, Russia (Siberia) and Belarus. Beitāne is the author of a monograph on multipart singing in Latvian traditional music and has published several books, articles and recordings on local musical practices in Latvia, Siberia and Belarus. E-mail: [email protected]

ALESSANDRO BRATUS (1979) omandas doktorikraadi muusikateaduses 2009. a. Pavia Ülikoolis (Università di Pavia), kus ta töötab praegu teadurina. Tema õpetamistegevuse ja uurimistöö keskmes on olnud analüütilised lähenemised Angloameerika ja Itaalia popkultuuri muusikalistele ja multimediaalse- tele toodetele alates 1960ndatest. Tema publikatsioonide hulgas on raamatud ja artiklid teemadel, mis on seotud multimediaalsete eksperimentidega popmuusikas, vormi ja tähenduse vaheliste struktuuri- seostega ning autentsuse motiiviga kaasaegses meedias. Ta on Itaalia muusikateooria ja -analüüsi uuri- misrühma (Gruppo Analisi e Teoria Musicale, GATM) teaduskomitee liige ja selle veebiajakirja Analitica (www.gatm.it/analiticaojs) peatoimetaja. e-post: [email protected] ALESSANDRO BRATUS (1979) gained his PhD in Musicology in 2009 (Università di Pavia), where he is currently a Research Fellow. His teaching and research experiences have focused on analytical approaches to musical and multimedia products in Anglo-American and Italian popular culture from the 1960s onwards. His publications include books and articles on topics related to multimedia experimentation in popular music, structural relationships between form and meaning, and the trope of authenticity in contemporary media. He is currently serving as member of the Scientifi c Committee for the Italian study group on music theory and analysis (Gruppo Analisi e Teoria Musicale, GATM) and Chief Editor of its online journal, Analitica (www.gatm.it/analiticaojs). E-mail: [email protected]

158 SUSANNE FÜRNISS (1960) on Prantsuse Riikliku Teadusuuringute Keskuse (le Centre national de la recherche scientifi c, CNRS) vanemteadur. Tal on interdistsiplinaarne haridus muusika, etnomusikoloogia, foneetika ja etnoloogia vallas. Fürniss töötab ka Musee de l’Homme’is ja on juhendaja Université Paris Ouest-Nanterre’i doktorikoolis. e-post: [email protected] SUSANNE FÜRNISS (1960) is a Senior Researcher at the French National Centre for Scientifi c Research (le Centre national de la recherche scientifi c, CNRS). She has an interdisciplinary training in music, ethnomusicology, phonetics and ethnology. She is based in the Musee de l’Homme and is a PhD supervisor at the University Paris Ouest Nanterre. E-mail: [email protected]

IGNAZIO MACCHIARELLA (1961) on etnomusikoloogia dot sent Cagliari Ülikooli ajaloo, kultuuri- ja ter- ritoriaalse pärandi osakonnas. Ta on ICTM (International Council for Traditional Music) uurimisrühma Study Group on Multipart Music aseesimees. Tema peamised uurimisvaldkonnad on multipart music kui muusikalise mõtlemise, väljendusliku käitumise ja kõla spetsiifi line viis; muusika ja rituaali ning muusika ja religiooni suhted; suuliselt edasiantava muusika struktuuri analüüs; improvisatsioon vokaalmuusikas. Viimasel ajal on ta uurinud teadlaste ja muusikategijate vahelisi suhteid ja püüdnud sellega seoses arendada süstemaatilisele dialoogile keskenduvat lähenemist. Ta on teinud välitöid Sitsiilias, Sardiinias, Korsi- kal ja teistes Vahemere regioonides. Avaldanud üle saja töö, sh. raamatud, esseed, artiklid ja arvustused lokaalses ja rahvusvahelises erialaperioodikas. e-post: [email protected] IGNAZIO MACCHIARELLA (1961) is Associate Professor of Ethnomusicology at the Department of His- tory, Cultural and Territorial Heritages, the University of Cagliari. He is Vice-Chair of the Study Group on Multipart Music of the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM). His main interests are: multipart music as a mode of musical thinking, expressive behaviour and sound; the relationships between music and ritual and between music and religion; the analysis of oral music patterns; improvisation in vocal music. Recently he has been working on the relationship between scholars and music-makers, and also trying to develop an approach focused on a systematic dialogism. He has carried out fi eldwork in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and other Mediterranean regions. He has published more than one hundred works, including books, essays, articles and reviews in specialist national and international journals. E-mail: [email protected]

ULRICH MORGENSTERN (1964) on rahvamuusika ajaloo ja teooria professor Viini Muusika- ja Esitus- kunstide Ülikooli rahvamuusikauuringute ja etnomusikoloogia osakonnas. Ta kaitses doktorikraadi süs- temaatilises muusikateaduses ja habiliteerus rahvamuusikauuringute / võrdleva muusikateaduse alal Hamburgi Ülikoolis ja on olnud külalisprofessor Frankfurt a. M. ja Kölni Ülikoolis ning teinud välitöid Venemaal ja Valgevenes alates 1989. aastast. Tema uurimisvaldkondadeks on Euroopa rahvamuusika rõhuasetusega Venemaal ajaloolises ja kultuurilis-antropoloogilises perspektiivis, rahvamuusikauuringute teooria ja meetod, rahvamuusika sotsiaalsetes ja poliitilistes liikumistes, rahvamuusikauuringud, etnomusikoloogia ja poliitilised ideoloogiad. e-post: [email protected] ULRICH MORGENSTERN (1964) is Professor of History and Theory of Folk Music at the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna, Institute of Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology. He did his PhD in systematic musicology and his post-doctoral qualifi cation (‘habilitation’) in Folk Music Studies / Comparative Musicology at the University of Hamburg. He has been Visiting Professor at the Universities of Franfurt a.M. and Cologne and has done fi eldwork in Russia and Belarus since 1989. His areas of research are European folk music, with a special focus on Russia, from a historical, cultural-anthropological perspective; theory and method in folk music research; folk music in social and political movements; folk music research; ethnomusicology and political ideologies. E-mail: [email protected]

159 ŽANNA PÄRTLAS (1964) on Eesti Muusika- ja Teatriakadeemia vanemteadur ja õppejõud. 1983–1992 õppis ta muusikateadust Rimski-Korsakovi nimelises Peterburi Riiklikus Konservatooriumis, kus 1992. a. kaitses kandidaadiväitekirja. Alates 1992. a. elab Eestis. Tema teadustööd on enamasti seotud muusi- kaanalüütilise lähenemisega rahvamuusika uurimisele, eriti huvitab teda traditsionaalne vokaalne mit- mehäälsus. Alates 1981. a. on teinud välitöid Venemaal, Valgevenes ja Eestis (Setomaal). e-post: [email protected] ŽANNA PÄRTLAS (1964) is Senior Researcher at the Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre, Tallinn, Estonia. From 1983 to 1992 she studied musicology at the Rimski-Korsakov State Conservatory, St. Pe- tersburg, where she received her PhD in 1992. She has since lived in Estonia. Research projects centre mostly on analytical approaches to traditional music and on general theoretical questions of traditional multipart singing. Since 1981 she has undertaken fi eldwork in Russia, Belarus, and Estonia. E-mail: [email protected]

160 nr 8 / 2016

nr 8 / 2016