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Andrew Sweeney the Gravity of English in East Africa : a Picture Of Andrew Sweeney The Gravity of English in East Africa : A Picture of Globalization --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- SWEENEY Andrew. The Gravity of English in East Africa : A Picture of Globalization, sous la direction de Stéphanie Bory. - Lyon : Université Jean Moulin (Lyon 3), 2018. Mémoire soutenu le 18/5/2018. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Document diffusé sous le contrat Creative Commons « Paternité – pas d’utilisation commerciale - pas de modification » : vous êtes libre de le reproduire, de le distribuer et de le communiquer au public à condition d’en mentionner le nom de l’auteur et de ne pas le modifier, le transformer, l’adapter ni l’utiliser à des fins commerciales. The Gravity of English in East Africa: A Picture of Globalization Andrew Sweeney A Master’s Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master Arts – Lettres – Langues Mention : Langues Littératures et Civilisations Étrangères et Régionales Parcours : Études Anglophones Université Jean Moulin Lyon 3 Lyon, France April 2018 Supervising Professor: Stéphanie Bory This thesis is dedicated to my family, especially my parents, whose courage led us on many adventures that have shaped my life in countless ways. I will be forever grateful. This thesis is also dedicated to the many dear friends of various backgrounds that we have had the privilege of knowing along the way. ii Acknowledgements I would first like to express my thankfulness to my Heavenly Father, who has inspired and sustained me throughout this Master’s work. To Him be praise and honor. I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Stéphanie Bory, for agreeing to supervise my thesis work. Your consistent input and direction were timely and priceless. Thank you for your encouragement in my pursuit of such a specific topic. Thanks are also due to Professor Muriel Cassel-Piccot, for her supervision during my first year, and especially her encouragement when I first chose this topic. I am also grateful for her recommendation of conducting a field study, without which it would never have happened. I also owe thanks to Professor Manuel Jobert, whose class on spatial variation and accents was not only my very favorite Master’s course but was also particularly helpful in orienting my research. I thank my family for their love and support – always, but especially during this process. Special thanks to my mother, for giving of her time and energy to help me on a practical level. The warmest thanks go out to the dear friends who hosted me during my field study in Kenya and Tanzania. Your wisdom, experience and friendship are priceless to me, even after all these years. Thank you for allowing me get a glimpse into your world. Your input, advice and practical help with my survey were absolutely priceless; I could not have done it without you. I am also grateful to those whom I had the privilege of interviewing. Your unique background and life experiences are fascinating and were quite helpful in orienting my research and giving me an insider’s perspective. Thank you for your time and for being so open and honest. iii Abstract The purpose of this research project was to investigate the role of English, the former colonizer’s language, in East Africa (i.e. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda). The central inquiry was the extent to which English is considered by East Africans to be an indispensable language. Language policy – in government, but especially in education – is analyzed in light of this inquiry. The dissonant factors behind pro-English language policy that were discovered during research (i.e. the ways in which such policy is incongruent with the linguistic realities of a majority of the East African population) are discussed throughout the thesis. The presence of Kiswahili as a local lingua franca that is more widespread, though still in competition with English, is used as a point of reference on the tension between an actual need and an idealistic desire for English. The decision by Tanzania in 2015 to make Kiswahili the sole language of instruction in all levels of education is analyzed in contrast with the indispensability that English exhibits in education policy in neighboring Kenya and Uganda. The chances of English becoming an indigenized language in East Africa are discussed, given the growing influence of globalization and the internet. Bilingualism and an almost unanimously positive view of English are major factors behind language shift towards English and away from local languages (i.e. Kiswahili, but especially tribal languages). A three-week field study was conducted in Kenya and Tanzania, with a central objective thereof being the administration of a survey on language use and opinion. Results to this survey are discussed in light of the whole body of research. Authors’ proposals are presented and a personal proposal is made for future language policy in East Africa that would better empower the average citizen for success in society, whatever his socioeconomic status. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………...iii Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………….iv Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………………v Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 1: Background on European Colonization in East Africa …………………………….4 1.1 The Language Problem in East African Colonization …………………………………5 1.2 The Use of Kiswahili during East African Colonization ………………………………7 1.3 The Use of English during East African Colonization ……………………………….10 Chapter 2: Post-Colonization Language Policy in East Africa ……………………………….13 2.1 Around Independence (1960s-1980s): Language Policy in Government …………….13 2.2 Around Independence (1960s-1980s): Language-in-Education Policy ………………15 2.2.1 Comparing Pre- and Post-Independence Language-in-Education Policy ………15 2.2.2 Reasons for the Prevalence of English in Education ……………………………18 2.2.3 Problematic for Students: Language as a Barrier to Learning and Testing …….20 2.2.4 Problematic for Teachers: Lack of Resources and Proficiency …………………23 2.2.5 The Proximity Factor: Urban vs. Rural …………………………………………24 2.3 Since 1990: Evolution in Language Policies …………………………………………26 2.3.1 Evolution of Language Policy in Government, 1990-2015 …………………….26 2.3.2 Evolution of Language-in-Education Policy, 1990-2015 ………………………27 Chapter 3: National Development & Linguistic Realities ……………………………………29 3.1 Competing Lingua Francas: Kiswahili & English ……………………………………29 3.1.1 Lingua Franca for Nationhood ………………………………………………….29 3.1.2 The Presence and Use of Kiswahili …………………………………………….31 3.1.3 The Presence and Use of English ………………………………………………34 3.1.4 What Does It Mean to “Speak” “English”? …………………………………….36 v 3.2 Globalization …………………………………………………………………………39 3.2.1 The Influence of English in a Shrinking World …………………………………39 3.2.2 The Heritage of Tribal Languages in a Shrinking World ………………………42 3.3 Language and Social Status …………………………………………………………...44 3.3.1 Elitism …………………………………………………………………………..45 3.3.2 Marginalization: Unintentional …………………………………………………46 3.3.3 Marginalization: Ambiguous …………………………………………………...48 3.3.4 Marginalization: Intentional ……………………………………………………51 Chapter 4: The Anomaly of Kiswahili ………………………………………………………..53 4.1 The Value of Kiswahili ……………………………………………………………….53 4.1.1 Kiswahili as a Useful Lingua Franca in East Africa ……………………………53 4.1.2 Kiswahili as an African Language ……………………………………………...56 4.1.3 Other Positive Opinions of Kiswahili …………………………………………...57 4.2 The Pushback to Kiswahili ……………………………………………………………58 4.2.1 The Limitations of Kiswahili …………………………………………………...58 4.2.2 Kiswahili as Compared to Other Languages ……………………………………60 4.2.3 Negative Opinions of Kiswahili ………………………………………………...61 Chapter 5: The Indigenization Potential of English in East Africa ……………………………63 5.1 Evidence of Pro-English Language Shift ……………………………………………..63 5.1.1 Positive Opinions of English ……………………………………………………63 5.1.2 Bilingualism ……………………………………………………………………68 5.1.3 English as a Threat to Local Languages ………………………………………...70 5.1.4 Common Misconceptions of English …………………………………………...73 5.2 Hurdles to the “Africanization” of English …………………………………………...75 5.2.1 Impoverishment: Vicious Cycles and Circular Reasoning ……………………...75 vi 5.2.2 Localization: School & Work …………………………………………………..78 5.2.3 Localization: Foreign & Urban …………………………………………………79 5.2.4 Negative Opinions of English …………………………………………………..81 Chapter 6: Field Study in Kenya & Tanzania …………………………………………………83 6.1 Survey: Methodology ………………………………………………………………...83 6.1.1 Survey Design …………………………………………………………………..83 6.1.2 Survey Participants ……………………………………………………………..85 6.1.3 Survey Administration ………………………………………………………….86 6.2 Survey: Results & Discussion ………………………………………………………...86 6.2.1 Survey Results: Language Proficiency …………………………………………86 6.2.2 Survey Results: Language Opinion …………………………………………….88 6.2.3 Survey Results: Language Use – Others ………………………………………..89 6.2.4 Survey Results: Language Use – Participants ………………………………….90 6.3 Survey: Limitations & Potential Improvements ………………………………………93 Chapter 7: Language Policy for the Future ……………………………………………………96 7.1 The Need for Linguistic Reform ……………………………………………………...96 7.2 Language-In-Education Policy: Authors’ Suggestions ……………………………….98 7.2.1 Three-Language System ………………………………………………………..98 7.2.2 Bilingual System
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