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The Growth of Nationalism in the Sudan Under Anglo-Egyptian Rule (1899-1956)

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The Growth of Nationalism in the Sudan Under Anglo-Egyptian Rule (1899-1956) Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Oran Institute of Literature, Languages and Arts Doctoral Thesis in African Civilization The Growth of Nationalism in the Sudan under Anglo-Egyptian Rule (1899-1956) Submitted by Under the Supervision of Fatiha Dani Pr. Badra Lahouel Board of Examiners: President: Mrs. L. Moulfi M.C.A., University of Oran Supervisor: Mrs. B. Lahouel Prof., University of Oran Examiner: Mr. F. Borsali Prof., University of Adrar Examiner: Mr. M. Afkir M.C.A., University of Laghouat Examiner: Mrs. Bedjaoui M.C.A., University of Belabbés Examiner: Mr. K. Belmekki M.C.A., University of Oran 2012 DEDICATION You loved us all With caring eyes You took it all Without any gain Your troubled heart Feels my pain All glory to you Man of Faith All thrones belong to you Man of pain You gave me life And even more… To the Memory of my Husband Abdelkrim Khebouza I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to record a distinctive tribute to my academic supervisor, Professor Badra Lahouel, who so generously gave of her time to offer help during the various stages of my doctoral research. I am particularly grateful for her thoughtful criticisms and attention to detail which saved me from many errors and which are deeply appreciated. My special thanks go also to Professor Borsali, my principal magister thesis examiner, who taught me how to be patient in research, and to whom I owe personal and intellectual debts. I am also grateful to all the members of the jury: Dr. Moulfi, Dr. Afkir, Dr. Bedjaoui and Dr. Belmeki who gave much of their valuable time while reading, inquiring and commenting on the thesis. I also wish to express my appreciation and sincere thanks to all my colleagues, in the English and Translation Departments, whose comments and searching questions have been of the greatest help to me in preparing this research work. I have also received generous help and encouragements from Dr. K. Ghassoul, Dr. W. Boukreris, Dr. A. Mostefaoui and Dr. K. Makhloufi who so generously gave of their time to discuss various aspects of the subject. I wish to thank my dearest brother Benchaa whose moral support was a constant source of inspiration. II ABSTRACT Lord Cromer established the Condominium in 1899 after the defeat of the Khalifa and the reconquest of the Sudan. From then until the country became independent in 1956, Britain and Egypt were jointly responsible for the government of the territory which had been once Egyptian. The establishment by Britain of the ‘highly effective’ Sudan Political Service ensured, however, that control was largely in British hands. The joint responsibility could only result in tense relations between Britain and Egypt, and although when the Sudan decided on complete independence rather than some form of union with Egypt, Britain was much relieved. The latter regretted having to abandon her protégé Southern Sudanese so soon. On the whole, British administrators viewed with satisfaction their colonial enterprise in the Sudan with or without the Egyptians, their nominal co-domini. Nevertheless, if the Sudan’s independence was a source of ‘pride and anxiety’ for Britain, it was a painful thorn in the flesh of Egypt. This research traces the evolution of national and political consciousness in the Sudan under Condominium rule. It chronicles the growth of the major Sudanese political parties, their alliances and their complicated path to self- government and self-determination. There is an attempt, all throughout this research, to survey the events and indicate the major forces which have shaped Sudanese political history from the Condominium’s inception in 1899 to Sudan’s independence in 1956. III TABLE of CONTENTS Dedication………………………………………………………………………I Acknowledgements………………………………………………………..…..II Abstract……………………………………………………………………….III Contents………………………………………………………………………VI Maps and Tables………………………………………………………………V Glossary………………………………………………………………………VI Introduction………………………………………………………………….…1 Chapter One: Historical Background: the Early Relations of Britain, Egypt and the Sudan to 1896…...………………………..10 1. Egypt’s Contact with the Sudan………………………………………10 2. Britain’s Involvement in Egypt………………………………………16 3. Britain’s Penetration into the Sudan…………………………………..21 Chapter Two: The Foundations of the Anglo – Egyptian Condominium and Early Sudanese Resistance (1899-1919)……….. 41 1. The Reconquest of the Sudan and the Condominium Agreement of 1899……………………………………….42 a) The Agreement by the Co – domini………………………………….50 b) The International Reactions to the Reconquest…………………...…57 2. The Establishment of the Condominium and Early Administration (1899-1919)…………………………………….61 a) Basic Economic Development………………………………….........74 b) Education and Health Services…………………………………… ...81 IV 3. Sudanese Resistance to Condominium Rule (1899 – 1919)…………88 Chapter Three: The evolution of Political Consciousness in the Sudan (1919-1933)……………………………… 105 1. The Egyptian Nationalism and the Sudan Question (1919-1924)……………………………….107 2. The Revolt of 1924 : Challenge and Response……………………...123 3. The Sudan from the 1924 Crisis to 1933…………………………….129 4. The Separate Administration of the Southern Sudan (1920 –1933)……………………………...144 Chapter Four: Sudanese Nationalism and the Road to Independence (1934-1956)……………………………….162 1. The Development of Sudanese Nationalist Politics (1934-1945)……………………………….163 a) Neo-Mahdism …………………………………………………....173 b) The Graduates’Congress………………………………………....178 2. Nationalism and Constitutional Development (1942-1948)………...189 a) The Legislative Assembly and the Executive Council…………..199 b) The Abandonment of the Southern Policy………….……………204 3. The Path to Self-government (1948-1953)…………………………..210 4. The Transfer of Power and the Fate of the South (1953-1956)……...226 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..248 Appendixes………………………………………………………………….253 Bibliography……………………………………………………………...…296 V MAPS and TABLES MAPS 1. General map of the Sudan…………………………………………….23 2. Map of Darfur in Eastern Sudan………………………………………49 3. The Nile River and its Major Tributaries……………………………..76 4. Map of Sudan’s Agricultural Products………………………………..78 5. The Southern Sudan Big Towns………………………………..……..85 6. The Dominant Tribes in the Sudan……………………………...…….93 TABLES 1. The Revenue and Expenditure of the Sudan Government (1899 –1913)…………………………………………………..73 2. Import and export trade in the Sudan (1908-1913)…………………...79 3. The chief export market and destination of exports ………………….79 4. Exports of principal products (1908 to 1913)………………………...80 5. Ordinary Members of the Advisory Council………………………...185 6. Recommendations of the Sudanization Committee…………………201 VI GLOSSARY Ashraf descendants of the prophet Mohamed (P.B.U.H.) alim (pl. ulama) learned one, especially of Islam al Istiqlal al-Tam complete independence Ansar followers of the Mahdi Defterdar commissioner effendi formerly an honorific for a professional, an educated man; later, anyone educated emir an independent ruler or chieftain, a military commander feddan a unit of land measurement; one feddan= 1,038 acres or 0,420 hectares fellaheen (sing fellah) a peasant in Egypt imam leader; title denoting the leader of prayers in a mosque Ingleez reference to English people Jabhat al-Kifah the Internal Struggle Front al-Dakhili jallaba pedlar jihad war; religious war kababish Sudanese soldiers recruited from the Kababish tribe khalifa successor VII khalwa place of seclusion; denotes both a suffi retreat and a Quran School kuttab elementary school Maahad al-Mashiqa Institute of Islamic Sciences al-Almia Mahdi the divinely guided one, expected by many Muslims to restore Islam and to herald the end of time majlis a council, court malik King or “Sultan” Mamalouks a member of military class, originally of Turkish slaves, ruling in Egypt from about 1250 to 1517 and remaining powerful until 1811 mamur a district official mudir governor of a province mudirieh province headquarters muffatish district commissioner mufti expert in Islamic Law nebi prophet Pasha formerly, a high official of the Ottoman Empire or the modern Egyptian Kingdom: used after a name when used as a title Sayid formerly a religious title of respect, now roughly equivalent to ‘Mr’ Sharia Islamic Law VIII sheikh tribal or religious chief or high notable sirdar title of the commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Army suffi Muslim mystic tariqa a suffi order or brotherhood umda headman of a town or group of villages IX INTRODUCTION Within the context of Africa, the Sudan can be distinguished by certain features which set it apart and make it of particular interest and appeal. Its colonial history from 1899 to 1956 was unique in certain respects. The country was governed under a peculiar constitutional arrangement by Britain and Egypt known “erroneously” as the Condominium. For more than half a century – for fifty seven years, to be precise – both Britain and Egypt continued to claim their right of control over the Sudan. Although the Anglo-Egyptian Agreement of 1899 emphasized Egypt's indebtedness to Britain for its participation in the reconquest, the agreement failed to clarify the juridical relationship between the two condominium powers in Sudan or to provide a legal basis for continued British governing of the territory on behalf of the Khedive. The Agreement was signed in January 1899 by representatives of the Egyptian and British Governments with a view to organizing the future administration of the Sudan which had just been conquered by their joint forces. The conquest
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