Communications under the Seas

The Evolving Cable Network and Its Implications

edited by Bernard Finn and Daqing Yang

The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts , England © 2009 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Communications under the seas : the evolving cable network and its implications / edited by Bernard Finn and Daqing Yang. p. cm. — (Dibner Institute studies in the history of science and technology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-01286-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Cables, Submarine—History. 2. —Social aspects—History. 3. Communication, International. I. Finn, Bernard S., 1932– II. Yang, Daqing, 1964– TK5103.15.C66 2009 621.387’8409162—dc22 2008042011

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Index

Admiralty (U.K.), 187 for voice communications, 37–38, 46, “Memorandum on the Protection of 51 British Submarine Cables,” 194 vacuum tube amplifiers, 30, 37, 46, 247 Ahvenainen, Jorma, 119 Anglo-American Telegraph Company, 29t, Alcatel, 175, 280 66, 71, 82–83, 162–163, 166 Alexander, grand duke of , 124, 126 anti-trust legislation, 199 Algeria, 185 Associated Press, 169, 266 All America Cables, 33, 35, 84, 280 Atlantic Telegraph Company, 18, 66, 167 All-American Telegraph Companies, 89 AT&T. See American Telephone and Amalgamated , 99 Telegraph Company American Institute of Electrical Engi- Australia, 87–88, 90, 96–99, 101–102 neers, 22 American Telephone and Telegraph Bahnson, J. J., 236 Company (AT&T). See also Bell balata, 12 Laboratories Baldwin, Stanley, 93 cable-laying initiatives, 21, 26, 29t, Balestrini, Alberto, 67, 78n16 37–39, 41, 46, 99 Balfour, Arthur, 105n6 fiber-optic enterprises, 49, 50, 51–53 Bank of England, 93 and ITT, 84 Baochen, Shen, 233 and Postes, Télégraphes et Téléphones, Behn, Hernand, 33–35 174 Behn, Sosthenes, 33, 44n12, 84–85 radiotelephony, 30–31, 37 Bell Laboratories, 13, 17–18, 28, 36–37, research personnel and resources, 17, 22, 46, 48–49, 54 28, 36, 101 Bell Telephone Company, 104n4, 272 and Western Union, 17, 21, 104n4 Bennett, James Gordon, Jr., 20, 161, 212 amplification technology, 6 (1884), 263 magnifiers Bismarck, Herbert, 214 Heurtley, 16, 27–28 Bismarck, Otto von, 212–213, 262 Selenium, 27 Boer War, 85, 131, 190–192, 194, 195, 267 “regenerator” systems, 86–87 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 269–270 repeaters, 198 Boulanger, Georges Ernest Jean-Marie, Bell system, 37–38 178n26 Bruce repeaters, 27 , 75 cable rotary repeaters, 28 Bradford, R. B., 193 electro-optic repeaters, 47 Brand, R. H., 97 for fiber-optic cables, 45, 48–49, 52, 54 Brazil, 69, 71–73, 77n1 transistorized, 40–41, 46 Brazilian Submarine Company, 71 Index 294

Brest, , 20 Tôyô, 247 Brett, Jacob, 9, 11 Canada, 90–91, 94, 98, 99, 102 Brett, John, 9, 11, 209 Canadian Marconi Company, 97, 99 Bretton Woods agreement, 262, 268 Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Bright, Charles, 13, 93 Railways, 99 Bright, Charles Tilston, 14 capacitance effect, 11, 13, 15, 19, 28, 36, British General Post Office (British Post 217 Office; GPO), 82, 163, 170 Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 20, 285 and Anglo-American, 83 Carey, James, Communication as Culture, and AT&T, 21, 26, 37–38 227 beam service, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 100–101, Carlton, Newcomb, 34, 37, 88, 93, 103, 274 169, 174 cable-laying initiatives, 21, 26, 37–38, 46, carrier wave, 259–260 47, 95 Carty, J. J., 27 longwave service, 87–88, 97 Cecil, Robert, 215–216 tariff negotiations, 75 censorship, 61, 68, 189, 192, 195, 200 telephone service, 101 World War I, 26, 83, 163–165, 197 British Indian Company, 229 Central and South American Company, British National Committee of the 72 International Chamber of Commerce, Central Electricity Generating Board, 49 93 CFCT. See Compagnie Français des British Telecom, 50–51, 53 Câbles Télégraphiques British Telecom Research Laboratories, 49 Chamberlain, Joseph, 264 Brown relay, 16 Chamber of Deputies (France), 191 Bruce, Stanley, 90 Chefoo telegraph treaty, 74 Bruce relay, 16 Chiang Kai-shek, 246 Buchanan, James, 188, 201 Bullard, William, 84 foreign cable interests, 74, 97–98, Bülow, Bernhard von, 213 126–128, 136–137, 141–142, 191, 192 Burlingame Treaty (1868), 127 and , 141, 146, 149, 231–233, 235–237, 243 Cabinet (U.K.), Committee to Consider opening to foreign influence, 127–128 the Control of Communications . . . in Qing dynasty, 235, 283 Time of War, 189–190 Churchill, Winston, 87 Cable and Wireless, Ltd., 20, 32–33, 35, 42, CID. See Committee of Imperial Defence 81, 95, 100–103, 143, 265, 274, 279 City (London), 92, 96, 98, 102–103, 261, cable laying, 13–14, 37, 39, 51, 186 267 cable manufacturing, 13–14 Civil War (U.S.), 212, 262, 266, 271 Japanese, during World War II, 247–248 Clarendon Declaration (1868), 127 cables, private versus state-controlled, 62 Clark, Forde & Taylor, 28 cable ships, 11 Cold War, 46, 218, 268, 272 HMS Agamemnon, 18 Colonial Defence Committee, 187, 194. Great Eastern, 18 See also Committee of Imperial Long Lines, 39, 53 Defence USS Niagara, 18 Commercial Cable Company, 20, 29t, 30, Okinawa, 233, 247 33, 35, 39, 71, 84, 114n126, 130, Telconia, 195 161–163, 165–166, 170–174, 193 Index 295

Commercial Pacific Cable Company, 33, diplomacy and diplomatic communica- 73, 75, 130–132, 141, 143, 194 tion. See foreign policy, institutions of Committee of Imperial Defence (CID), Direct U.S. Cable Company, 83 87, 90–91, 100, 195. See also Colonial Donald, Robert, 87, 88 Defence Committee; Imperial Dunn, Gano, 27 Communications Advisory Committee; Dutch Telegraph Administration, 192 Imperial Communications Committee Duus, Peter, 249 Sub-Committee on Competition between “Beam” Wireless and Cable East Asian Stability Sphere Services, 199 Network, 244, “Submarine Cable Communications in 245 Time of War” (Standing Subcommit- East Asian Trunk Cable Network, 244 tee), 195 Eastern and Associated Telegraph Corporation Companies, 20, 26, 32–33, 82, 84, 85, (COMSAT), 41 86, 88–89, 93–95, 128–131, 141, 151, Compagnie Français des Câbles Télé- 194, 199 graphiques, 29t, 161–163 Eastern Extension, Australasian and China Cooke, William Fothergill, 18 Telegraph Company, 85, 129, 229 Corning Incorporated (Corning Glass Eastern Telegraph Company, 67, 73, 85, Works), 53 87, 89–90, 93, 96, 167. See also Eastern Corn Laws, 260 and Associated Telegraph Companies Council on Foreign Relations, 28 Economist, 93 Crimean War, 119, 185, 218 Edison, Thomas A., 19 Curzon, George, 215–216 Edison General Electric, 17 Eisenhower, Dwight, 201 Dagmar, princess of , 124 Electrician, 283 Danish Communist Party, 157n80 Emden (German cruiser), 196 Danish-Norwegian-British Telegraph Press Union, 87, 93 Company, 123, 124 encryption, 199–200, 201, 253n45 Danish-Russian Telegraph Company, 124 cables, 9, 11, 51, 62, 118, De Gaulle, Charles, 175 123, 185–186, 209, 229 Denison-Pender, John, 88–92, 94 , 191, 196–197 Denmark, 78n16, 118, 122–123, 124, Erlanger, Emile d’, 161 125–126. See also Great Northern Evarts, William M., 211–212 Telegraph Company Desurvire, Emmanuel, 54 Faraday, Michael, 12 Deutsche-Atlantische Telegraphengesell- Fashoda Incident, 191 schaft, 29t, 86 Federal Communications Commission, Deutsch-Österreichischer Telegraph 35, 44n9 Verein. See German-Austrian Telegraph Federal Telegraph, 33 Union fiber-optic cables, 6, 25, 41–42, 258–259 Deutsch-Südamerikanische Telegraphen- construction, 48 gesellschaft, 72 shark attacks on, 51–52 d’Humy, F. E., 18, 21 signal capacity, 48, 51, 54–55 Dibner Institute for the History of technological innovations, 45, 46–47, 53 Science and Technology, 6 technological setbacks, 49–50 digital pulse-code modulation, 45 test cables, 48–49, 51–52 Dillon, Arthur, 161, 163 fiber-optic networks, overexpansion of, 55 Index 296

Field, Cyrus, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 19, 186, 210 Goldstein, Joshua S., 273 Finn, Bernard, 28, 258 Gosplan, 115, 120, 122, 140 Fish, Hamilton, 222n32 Gotô Shimpei, 236 Fleming, Sandford, 85 Govekar, Michele, 121–122, 132–133 Foreign Ministry (Japan), 147 GPO. See British General Post Office Foreign Office (U.K.), 74–75, 138, 230 Grant, Ulysses S., 160–161, 176n14 foreign policy, institutions of, 213–218 Gray, Elisha, 17 Fox, Edward Whiting, 269 Great Depression, 25–26, 35, 36–37, 100, France. See also Chamber of Deputies 103, 199 (France); General Assembly (France); Greater Communications Network, 241 Indochina; Telegraph Administration Great Northern Telegraph Company (France) (GNTC), 66, 265, 281–282 cable strategies and initiatives, 191 China operations, 74, 126–128, 136–137 colonial interests, 185, 191 and Commercial Pacific Cable post–World War I economy, 166–167 Company, 43n3, 73 state ownership of telecommunications, and Eastern and Associated Telegraph 159 Companies, 128–131 France Câbles et Radio, 174 as extension of Danish state, 132–133 France Télécom, 175 interactions with Soviet government, Franckenstein, Georg, 215 115–116, 118–119, 120, 138–140, Franco-Prussian War, 212, 262, 263 142–144, 147–152 French Revolution, 261, 270 Japanese interests, 66, 74, 134–138, Fukuzawa Yukichi, 230 140–142, 145–152, 229–232, 234–237, 240 General Assembly (France), 161–162 origin of, 124, 229 General Electric Company, 17, 27, 34 Russian/Soviet interests and operations, General Motors Corporation, 164 125–126, 129, 134–135, 138–140 General Post Office. See British General after World War II, 152 Post Office Greene, Wilfrid, 100 German Atlantic Cable Company, 43n2 gutta-percha, 11–13, 16, 18, 19–20, 26, 28, German-Austrian Telegraph Union, 248, 249, 263 62–63, 117 Hall, Peter, 259, 272–273 cable strategies and initiatives, 72, 73, Hanaoka, Kaoru, 141 191–193, 199, 263–264 Hara Takashi, 233–234 and ITU, 62 Haushofer, Karl, 270 and Ottoman Empire, 192 Headrick, Daniel R., 106n22, 120, 128, Pacific colonies, 192–193, 195, 237 131, 148, 227–228, 248, 257, 263 rise of fascism, 148 Hearst, William Randolph, 267 World War I, 83, 163–164, 195–196, 265 Hearts Content, Newfoundland, 15, 285 World War II, 144, 147, 200 Heaviside, Oliver, 28 Gherardi, Bancroft, 27 Hecht, Jeff, 272 Gilmour, John, 93 Helmholtz, Hermann von, 15 Global Crossing, 55 Henning, Richard, 193 GN Store Nord, 152 Hertz, Heinrich, 260 GNTC. See Great Northern Telegraph Hess, Rudolf, 270 Company historical periodization, 25, 257 Index 297

Hitler, Adolf, 148, 262, 270 Innis, Harold A., 227, 249 Hobsbawm, Eric, 132, 257, 267 INTELSAT. See International Telecom- Hobson, J. A., 264 munications Satellite Organization Hoffmann-Laroche, Fritz, 164 International Convention for the Hofmann, Leopold von, 215 Protection of Submarine Cables (, Home Ministries (Japan), 147 1884), 188 Hooper, Stanford C., 44n9 International Radiotelegraph Conference Horiguchi, Masaharu, 47 (Washington, 1927), 104n1 House, Royal E., 17 International Telecommunications Satellite Hsieh, J. Jim, 47 Organization, 41, 53, 259, 268, 272 Hughes, Charles Evans, 174 International Telegraph Convention, 82, Hughes, Thomas, Network of Power, 116 137, 138, 139, 145, 167 Hugill, Peter J., 104n5 1865 (Paris), 117 Global Communications since 1844, 259, 1875 (St. Petersburg), 68, 194–195 274, 283–284 International Telegraph Union (ITU) Hunt, Bruce, 18 formation of, 62–64, 117 Japan, 74 ICAC. See Imperial Communications and private companies, 64–65, 68, 70, Advisory Committee 118 I&IC. See Imperial and International Russia, 124 Communications Limited South America, 69 Ijuin, 252n30 tariffs, 69–70, 76–77 Imperial and International Communica- United States, 117–118 tions Limited (I&IC), 81, 95–99, 100, International Telegraph Union 101, 199, 265, 279. See also Cable and conferences Wireless, Ltd. 1865 (Paris), 64, 188 Imperial Communications Advisory 1868 (Vienna), 64 Committee (ICAC), 95, 97–101. See 1871 (Rome), 64 also Committee of Imperial Defence 1875 (St. Petersburg), 68–69 Imperial Communications Committee, 1896 (Budapest), 76 87, 90–91, 100, 198 1908 (Lisbon), 76 Strategic Cables Sub-Committee, 199 International Telephone and Telegraph Imperial Diet (Japan), 240, 242 Company (ITT), 33–35, 44n12, 45, Imperial Economic Conference, Ottawa 84–85, 93, 97–98, 102, 280 (1932), 103 International Telephone Company, 239 imperialism, and limits of communication , 3, 55 technology, 227–228 Inverforth, Lord, 91–92 Imperial Wireless and Cable Conference Ireland, insecurity as landing site, 168 (1928), 32, 81, 91, 92–94 Italcable, 29t Imperial Wireless Chain, 30, 32, 265 Itô Hirobumi, 230 India, 186–187 ITT. See International Telephone and Indian Radio and Cable Company, 99 Telegraph Company Indian Radio Telegraph Company, 97, 99 ITU. See International Telegraph Union India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company, 20 J. G. White Engineering Company, 27 Indochina, 31, 191, 246 J. P. Morgan, 93 Indo-European Telegraph Company, 73, Jackson, Andrew, 210 156n52, 229 Jameson-Davis, Henry, 265 Index 298

Japan, 77n1 Lu Zhengxiang, 252n30 cable-laying operations, 135, 233–234, Lützow, Heinrich, 215 240–243, 244–248 Lyons (British delegate to Paris confer- expansionism and imperial projects, ence of 1884), 188 135–136, 146–149, 198, 232–234, 237–249 Mackay, Clarence, 88, 165–166, 169–171, foreign concessions, 66, 74, 128, 193–194 135–137, 140–142, 145–152, 229–232, Mackay, John William, 20, 130, 161–163 235, 236–237 Mackay-Bennett system, 82 “Fundamentals of National Policy,” 146 Mackay Companies, 33, 93, 280 government, 229–231 Mackinder, Halford, 260, 264, 268–271 Tokugawa shogunate, 228 Britain and the British Seas, 270–271 wireless interests and operations, 27, Democratic Ideals and Reality, 271 238–244, 248 Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 260 Japan Wireless Telegraph Company, 239 The Influence of Seapower on History, Jewett, F. B., 27 268–269 The Influence of Seapower upon the French Kao, Charles, 45, 47 Revolution, 269 Kellogg Act (1921), 172–173 Maine, USS, sinking of, 266–267 Kennan, George, 217–218 Malraux, André, 175 Kennedy, Paul, 194 Manchester liberals, 261 Kiaochow Bay, 192 Manchurian Incident, 141, 239 Kissinger, Henry, 219 Mann, Michael, 266 Kjellén, Rudolf, 270 manual retransmission, 28 Knox, T. G., 216 Marconi, Guglielmo, 30, 167, 199, 258, Kodama Gentarô, 232, 233–234 265 Koltjak, Alexander, 138 Marconi Company, 283–284 Kondratiev, Nikolai, 259, 272–273 Marconigraph, 284 Korea, 231–232, 234 Marconi Scandal, 283 Kuhn, Loeb, 34 Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph Company, Kuomintang, 141 20, 30, 32, 87–88, 91–95, 283–284 Marx, Leo, 220n8 Lambertye, count of, 162 Mautner, Martha, 218 Lamont, Thomas, 44 Maxwell, James Clerk, 260 Lanier, Jaron, 201 Maya Monteiro, baron de (Telegraph Lansing, Robert, 166 Construction and Maintenance large technical systems (LTSs), 116–122, Company representative), 78n17 127, 129, 134, 151 McKinley, William, 193 lasers, 47, 52–55 Merrill, John L., 88 League of Nations, 219 Midway, Battle of, 200 Lenway, Stefanie Ann, 121–122, 132–133 Midwinter, John, 49 Lhermite, Maurice, 173 Ministry of Communications (Japan), liberal globalism, 260–268, 270, 273 146–147, 233–234, 239–248, 282 Li Hongzhang, 127–128 Committee for Investigating Overseas Litvinov, Maxim, 138, 142 , 235 London Chamber of Commerce, 75 Research Group on East Asian Long longwave radio communications, 25, 28, Distance Telecommunications Network, 31, 258 239 Index 299

Ministry of Finance (Denmark), 132 Nürnberg (German cruiser), 196 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Denmark), 126, 133, 143, 147 official telegram traffic, status of, 161, Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs (Italy), 165–166, 170, 177n14, 181n77 265 Okamoto Keijirô, 251n22 mirror galvanometer, 15 Opium Wars, 127 MIT Lincoln Laboratory, 47 Ottoman Empire, 187, 192 Modelski, George, 272–273 monopolies, 70–71 Pacific Cable Company, 85–86, 90–92, Balestrini concession, 67, 78n16 94–95 Brazil, 73 Pacific Commercial Cable Company, 84 China, 128 Pacific Joint Purse, 131 Denmark, 124, 126, 128–129, 134, 136, Pan American Airways, 31 141, 230–231, 235 Pareja (Spanish admiral), 211 France, 159–161, 166, 171, 174 Parkin, George, 261 Great Britain, 19–20, 65, 81, 83, 87, 99, Parliament (U.K.), 87, 283 163, 235 Joint Committee . . . to Inquire into the Japan, 231 Construction of Submarine Telegraph large technical systems as, 116 Cables, 14 U.S. firms, 83–85, 103 Select Committee on Communications Monroe Doctrine, 274 with India, 187 Morgan & Co., 34 patent protection, 19 Morrill tariff, 268 Payne, David, 54 Morse, Samuel, 17, 18, 63, 229 Pender, John, 19, 32–33, 125, 127–130, Motoda Hajime, 237 150 Muirhead & Company, 27–28 Permalloy, 12–13, 16, 28, 30 Muirhead relay, 16 Pike, Robert, 258 equipment, 30, 37, 86 Pitt, William, the Elder, 269 Mu-metal, 13, 16 Pitt, William, the Younger, 269 Murray, Evelyn, 91, 94 polyethylene, 12 Ponsonby, Arthur, 216 Napoleonic Wars, 261, 273 Porthcurno, England, 285 National City Bank of New York, 93 Postal Telegraph Cable Company, 35, 84, National Geographic, 267 114n126, 130, 162–163, 193 nation-states, territorially bounded, Postes et Télégraphes. See Postes, 260–263, 266–268, 271–272, 274 Télégraphes et Téléphones Navigation Acts, 260 Postes, Télégraphes et Téléphones (PTT), Neergaard, Niels, 133 166, 168–170, 173–174 New Orleans, Battle of, 210 Post Office. See British General Post New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Office Telegraph Company, 17 Poulsen, Valdemar, 265 Nickles, David Paull, 258 Pouyer-Quertier (senator), 161–162 Nippon Telegraph and Telephone, 46–47, Preston, Paschal, 259, 272–273 49, 51, 282 Private Bank, , 123 Norman, Henry, 87 Privy Council (U.K.), Board of Trade, 66, Norman, Montague, 93, 94 74 NTT. See Nippon Telegraph and Project Oxygen, 55 Telephone Prussia, 62–63, 117 Index 300

PTT. See Postes, Télégraphes et satellite communications, 3, 4, 26, 40–41, Téléphones 46 channel capacity, 41–42 R. S. Newall, 18, 123 Early Bird, 41 Radio Act (1927), 34 INTELSAT-III, 41, 53 Radio Corporation of America (RCA), technical fallibilities, 42 30–33, 34–35, 84, 88, 93, 103, 172, 174, Satow, Ernest, 216 258, 268, 274 Scavenius, Otto, 133 Radio France, 172–175 Schønebeck, Alfred, 115–116, 118, 120, . See shortwave radio 122, 131, 139–140, 151 communications Schulten, Susan, 267 Ratzel, Friedrich, 268 Schumpeter, Joseph Alois, 272 RCA. See Radio Corporation of America Sepoy Rebellion, 186 RCA Communications, Inc., 34 Shimonoseki Treaty (1895), 232 RCA International, 34 Shinohara Noboru, 253n54 reciprocity, international, 161, 165–166, shortwave radio communications, 6–7, 176n14 87–88, 258 cable (1859), 13–14 channel capacity, 31 Reeves, Alec, 45, 47, 53–54, 272 competition with cable, 20–21, 25–26, Renard, Mr., 161 28, 30–32, 81, 86, 88–91, 167–168, 199, repeaters. See under amplification 265 technology intercontinental radiotelephony, 30–31, research laboratories and firms, 16–17, 21, 37 27, 28, 89. See also specific institutions by signal transmission research, 30 name transoceanic telegraphy, 30–31, 167 Reuters, 266 vacuum tube transmitters, 25, 30, 37 Ring, Peter Smith, 121–122, 132–133 Siemens, Werner, 12 Rogers, Walter, 167 Siemens Brothers, 20 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 103 Siemens & Halske, 123 Roosevelt, Theodore, 193, 267 signal amplification. See amplification Royal Commission on the Defence of technology British Possessions and Colonies, 187 Simplex Wire and Cable, 49 Royal Navy (U.K.), 85, 195. See also Simplicissimus, 267 Admiralty Simpon, James, 215–216, 218 Runge, Peter, 48 Singapore, 20 Runge, Wilhelm, 284 Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), 135, 232 Russia, 122–126, 128–129, 134–135, 149 siphon recorder, 15–16 Russian Revolution and Civil War, 133, Snitzer, Elias, 54 138, 149 Sobel, Robert, 44n9 Russo-Japanese War, 136, 234 Société Française des Télégraphes Rykoff, Aleksei, 140, 142 Sous-Marins, 72 South America–North America cable St. Pierre (island, near Newfoundland), 20 connections, 62, 66, 72–73, 84 Salisbury, Lord. See Cecil, Robert Soviet Union. See Union of Soviet Sardinia-Bona cable (1854), 18 Socialist Republics Sarnoff, David, 93, 201 , 66, 210–211 Index 301

Spanish-American War, 84, 131, 188–189 telegraphy Squier, George, 189, 193 price controls for, 161 Stalin, Joseph, 115, 118, 144, 149–150 regulations and conventions, 63–64, Standard Oil, 164 68–70 Standard Telecommunication Laboratories, tariffs, 61, 63–65, 67–70, 75–77, 131 45 as vehicle for peace, 211–212 Standard Telephone Laboratories (STL), telephone cables worldwide, map of, 5 48–52 Terashima Munenori, 235–236 Standard Telephones and Cables, 47–48, Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 14–15, 50, 51 19, 217 Stuart, Campbell, 94 Thomson-Houston Electric Company, 17 Submarcom, 50, 53 Tietgen, C. F., 123–128, 150 submarine cable telegraphy time assignment speech interpolation, 39 channel capacity, 38, 86, 217 time division multiplexing. See multiplex- political obstacles, 11 ing equipment private-sector financing of, 9, 11, 65 Titanic, 265 technological obstacles, 11, 12–14, 28 Tokyo Central Telegraph Office, 230 transatlantic cables laid (1873–1928), 29t Tokyo International Communications submarine cable . See also Promotion Society, 248 transatlantic telephone cables Tokyo Post and Telegraph Office, 234 channel capacity, 37–38, 41, 46 transatlantic telegraph cables, 62, 258 Key West–Havana cable (1950), 38 1858, 6, 13–15, 186, 209 Nagasaki- cable, Japan’s attempt 1865, 186 to build, 243, 246–247 1866, 186 signal requirements and limitations, 36, 38 transatlantic telephone cables Suenson, Edouard, 130, 137 Atlantis, 40t Sydney (Australian cruiser), 196 BRACAN, 40t CANTAT-1, 39, 40t Taiwan, 232–233 CANTAT-2, 40, 40t Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice de, Columbus, 40t 213 IceCan, 40t Tamura Kenjirô, 241, 242 ScotIce, 40t tangent galvanometer, 15 TAT-1, 26, 36, 38–39, 40t, 45–46, tariffs. See under telegraphy 258–259 TASI. See time assignment speech TAT-2, 39 interpolation TAT-3, 39–40, 44n15 TC&M. See Telegraph Construction and TAT-4, 39, 41 Maintenance Company TAT-5, 40–41, 40t, 44n15 Telcom, 86 TAT-6, 40t, 41, 46, 48, 56n6 TéléFrance, 173 TAT-7, 40t, 41, 46, 48, 258 Teleglobe Canada, 53 TAT-8, 42, 45, 48, 50–54, 258 telegrams, length of, 217–218 TAT-9, 53–54 Telegraph Administration (France), 64 TAT-10, 54 telegraph cables worldwide, map of, 4 TAT-11, 54 Telegraph Construction and Maintenance transpacific cables, 50, 53 Company, 12–13, 16, 20, 67, 89, 122, Hawaii 4, 50 125, 129 Trans-Pacific Cable 3, 50 Index 302

Treaty of Kangwha (1876), 231 United States Navy, 27, 30–31, 34, 36, 83, Tribolet, Leslie B., 104n1 86, 189, 258, 268, 274 Tripartite Pact, 246 United States Senate Interstate Commerce Trippe, Juan, 31 Committee, 102 Trudeau, Pierre, 215 United States War Department, 27–28 U.S. Commercial Pacific Cable Co., Uesugi, Naoshi, 49 27–28 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 115, Ussing, Alf, 140 118–120. See also under Great Northern Telegraph Company Vail, Theodore, 17, 21 . See also Admiralty Victoria, queen of England, 188, 267 (U.K.); Cabinet (U.K.); Central Electricity Generating Board; Colonial Wallerstein, Immanuel, 259, 261–262 Defence Committee; Committee of War Ministry (Japan), 232 Imperial Defence; Foreign Office War of 1812, 210 (U.K.); Parliament (U.K.); Privy War Office (U.K.), “Censorship of Cables Council (U.K.); Royal Commission on in Time of War,” 194–195 the Defence of British Possessions and wartime, cable neutrality during, 188–189. Colonies; Royal Navy (U.K.); War See also specific wars Office (U.K.) Washington Preliminary World Confer- and British hegemony, 260–265, 274 ence on Electrical Communications cable strategies and initiatives, 81–82, (1920), 172 87–88, 96, 103, 185–188, 189–190, Water Mill (high-frequency technology 194–195, 197–199, 201 laboratory), 21 domestic politics, 270 wavelength division multiplexing, 55 government intervention in cable Weber, Max, 266 industry, 20, 35, 42, 91–95, 102–103, West Coast of America Company, 72 199 Western & Brazilian Company, 71–72 and ITU, 63–64, 68, 117 Western Electric Company, 13, 16–18, protectionism, 264, 270 20–22, 27 state monopolization of cables, 19, 65 Western Telegraph Company, 72, 85, 87 United States Western Union Telegraph Company, 21, cable landing rights policy, 160–161 27–28, 29t, 30, 32–37, 82–83, 86, 88, 93, national politics, 268, 274 97, 103, 162–163, 166–174, 193, 280 post–World War I cable expansion, Western Union Technical Review, 22 167–168 West European Telegraph Union, 63 telecommunications hegemony, 272 Westinghouse Electric Company, 17 territorial expansion, 271–272 Wheatstone, Charles, 18 World War II, 200–201 White Act. See Radio Act United States Alien Property Custodian, Whittier, John Greenleaf, 210 27 Wilhelm II, kaiser, 269 United States Army Signal Corps, 27, 36, Wilson, Woodrow, 28, 83, 105n6, 198 281 Winkler, Jonathan Reed, 258 United States Commerce Department, 86 Winseck, Dwayne, 258 United States Congress, 31, 34, 67, 193 Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company, United States Department of State, 27, 83, 265 86, 166, 170, 172–173, 222n32, 280–281 Wireless World, 283 Index 303

World War I, 85–86, 259, 265, 267, 270 cable attacks, 26, 83 censorship, 26, 83, 163–165, 197 postwar cable repair, 27 postwar cable restitution, 83, 198 radio communications, 27 World War II, 35, 144, 200–201, 246, 247–248, 259, 268 Worthington-Evans, Laming, 87

Yap Island, 192, 195, 198 Young, Owen, 34

Zakovsky, Leonid, 143