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Communications Under the Seas: the Evolving Cable Network and Its Communications under the Seas The Evolving Cable Network and Its Implications edited by Bernard Finn and Daqing Yang The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England © 2009 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. For information about special quantity discounts, please email special_sales@mitpress .mit.edu This book was set in Bembo by The MIT Press. Printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Communications under the seas : the evolving cable network and its implications / edited by Bernard Finn and Daqing Yang. p. cm. — (Dibner Institute studies in the history of science and technology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-01286-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Cables, Submarine—History. 2. Telecommunication—Social aspects—History. 3. Communication, International. I. Finn, Bernard S., 1932– II. Yang, Daqing, 1964– TK5103.15.C66 2009 621.387’8409162—dc22 2008042011 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Index Admiralty (U.K.), 187 for voice communications, 37–38, 46, “Memorandum on the Protection of 51 British Submarine Cables,” 194 vacuum tube amplifiers, 30, 37, 46, 247 Ahvenainen, Jorma, 119 Anglo-American Telegraph Company, 29t, Alcatel, 175, 280 66, 71, 82–83, 162–163, 166 Alexander, grand duke of Russia, 124, 126 anti-trust legislation, 199 Algeria, 185 Associated Press, 169, 266 All America Cables, 33, 35, 84, 280 Atlantic Telegraph Company, 18, 66, 167 All-American Telegraph Companies, 89 AT&T. See American Telephone and Amalgamated Wireless, 99 Telegraph Company American Institute of Electrical Engi- Australia, 87–88, 90, 96–99, 101–102 neers, 22 American Telephone and Telegraph Bahnson, J. J., 236 Company (AT&T). See also Bell balata, 12 Laboratories Baldwin, Stanley, 93 cable-laying initiatives, 21, 26, 29t, Balestrini, Alberto, 67, 78n16 37–39, 41, 46, 99 Balfour, Arthur, 105n6 fiber-optic enterprises, 49, 50, 51–53 Bank of England, 93 and ITT, 84 Baochen, Shen, 233 and Postes, Télégraphes et Téléphones, Behn, Hernand, 33–35 174 Behn, Sosthenes, 33, 44n12, 84–85 radiotelephony, 30–31, 37 Bell Laboratories, 13, 17–18, 28, 36–37, research personnel and resources, 17, 22, 46, 48–49, 54 28, 36, 101 Bell Telephone Company, 104n4, 272 and Western Union, 17, 21, 104n4 Bennett, James Gordon, Jr., 20, 161, 212 amplification technology, 6 Berlin Conference (1884), 263 magnifiers Bismarck, Herbert, 214 Heurtley, 16, 27–28 Bismarck, Otto von, 212–213, 262 Selenium, 27 Boer War, 85, 131, 190–192, 194, 195, 267 “regenerator” systems, 86–87 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 269–270 repeaters, 198 Boulanger, Georges Ernest Jean-Marie, Bell system, 37–38 178n26 Bruce repeaters, 27 Boxer Rebellion, 75 cable rotary repeaters, 28 Bradford, R. B., 193 electro-optic repeaters, 47 Brand, R. H., 97 for fiber-optic cables, 45, 48–49, 52, 54 Brazil, 69, 71–73, 77n1 transistorized, 40–41, 46 Brazilian Submarine Company, 71 Index 294 Brest, France, 20 Tôyô, 247 Brett, Jacob, 9, 11 Canada, 90–91, 94, 98, 99, 102 Brett, John, 9, 11, 209 Canadian Marconi Company, 97, 99 Bretton Woods agreement, 262, 268 Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Bright, Charles, 13, 93 Railways, 99 Bright, Charles Tilston, 14 capacitance effect, 11, 13, 15, 19, 28, 36, British General Post Office (British Post 217 Office; GPO), 82, 163, 170 Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 20, 285 and Anglo-American, 83 Carey, James, Communication as Culture, and AT&T, 21, 26, 37–38 227 beam service, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 100–101, Carlton, Newcomb, 34, 37, 88, 93, 103, 274 169, 174 cable-laying initiatives, 21, 26, 37–38, 46, carrier wave, 259–260 47, 95 Carty, J. J., 27 longwave service, 87–88, 97 Cecil, Robert, 215–216 tariff negotiations, 75 censorship, 61, 68, 189, 192, 195, 200 telephone service, 101 World War I, 26, 83, 163–165, 197 British Indian Company, 229 Central and South American Company, British National Committee of the 72 International Chamber of Commerce, Central Electricity Generating Board, 49 93 CFCT. See Compagnie Français des British Telecom, 50–51, 53 Câbles Télégraphiques British Telecom Research Laboratories, 49 Chamberlain, Joseph, 264 Brown relay, 16 Chamber of Deputies (France), 191 Bruce, Stanley, 90 Chefoo telegraph treaty, 74 Bruce relay, 16 Chiang Kai-shek, 246 Buchanan, James, 188, 201 China Bullard, William, 84 foreign cable interests, 74, 97–98, Bülow, Bernhard von, 213 126–128, 136–137, 141–142, 191, 192 Burlingame Treaty (1868), 127 and Japan, 141, 146, 149, 231–233, 235–237, 243 Cabinet (U.K.), Committee to Consider opening to foreign influence, 127–128 the Control of Communications . in Qing dynasty, 235, 283 Time of War, 189–190 Churchill, Winston, 87 Cable and Wireless, Ltd., 20, 32–33, 35, 42, CID. See Committee of Imperial Defence 81, 95, 100–103, 143, 265, 274, 279 City (London), 92, 96, 98, 102–103, 261, cable laying, 13–14, 37, 39, 51, 186 267 cable manufacturing, 13–14 Civil War (U.S.), 212, 262, 266, 271 Japanese, during World War II, 247–248 Clarendon Declaration (1868), 127 cables, private versus state-controlled, 62 Clark, Forde & Taylor, 28 cable ships, 11 Cold War, 46, 218, 268, 272 HMS Agamemnon, 18 Colonial Defence Committee, 187, 194. Great Eastern, 18 See also Committee of Imperial Long Lines, 39, 53 Defence USS Niagara, 18 Commercial Cable Company, 20, 29t, 30, Okinawa, 233, 247 33, 35, 39, 71, 84, 114n126, 130, Telconia, 195 161–163, 165–166, 170–174, 193 Index 295 Commercial Pacific Cable Company, 33, diplomacy and diplomatic communica- 73, 75, 130–132, 141, 143, 194 tion. See foreign policy, institutions of Committee of Imperial Defence (CID), Direct U.S. Cable Company, 83 87, 90–91, 100, 195. See also Colonial Donald, Robert, 87, 88 Defence Committee; Imperial Dunn, Gano, 27 Communications Advisory Committee; Dutch Telegraph Administration, 192 Imperial Communications Committee Duus, Peter, 249 Sub-Committee on Competition between “Beam” Wireless and Cable East Asian Stability Sphere Services, 199 Telecommunications Network, 244, “Submarine Cable Communications in 245 Time of War” (Standing Subcommit- East Asian Trunk Cable Network, 244 tee), 195 Eastern and Associated Telegraph Communications Satellite Corporation Companies, 20, 26, 32–33, 82, 84, 85, (COMSAT), 41 86, 88–89, 93–95, 128–131, 141, 151, Compagnie Français des Câbles Télé- 194, 199 graphiques, 29t, 161–163 Eastern Extension, Australasian and China Cooke, William Fothergill, 18 Telegraph Company, 85, 129, 229 Corning Incorporated (Corning Glass Eastern Telegraph Company, 67, 73, 85, Works), 53 87, 89–90, 93, 96, 167. See also Eastern Corn Laws, 260 and Associated Telegraph Companies Council on Foreign Relations, 28 Economist, 93 Crimean War, 119, 185, 218 Edison, Thomas A., 19 Curzon, George, 215–216 Edison General Electric, 17 Eisenhower, Dwight, 201 Dagmar, princess of Denmark, 124 Electrician, 283 Danish Communist Party, 157n80 Emden (German cruiser), 196 Danish-Norwegian-British Telegraph Empire Press Union, 87, 93 Company, 123, 124 encryption, 199–200, 201, 253n45 Danish-Russian Telegraph Company, 124 English Channel cables, 9, 11, 51, 62, 118, De Gaulle, Charles, 175 123, 185–186, 209, 229 Denison-Pender, John, 88–92, 94 Entente Cordiale, 191, 196–197 Denmark, 78n16, 118, 122–123, 124, Erlanger, Emile d’, 161 125–126. See also Great Northern Evarts, William M., 211–212 Telegraph Company Desurvire, Emmanuel, 54 Faraday, Michael, 12 Deutsche-Atlantische Telegraphengesell- Fashoda Incident, 191 schaft, 29t, 86 Federal Communications Commission, Deutsch-Österreichischer Telegraph 35, 44n9 Verein. See German-Austrian Telegraph Federal Telegraph, 33 Union fiber-optic cables, 6, 25, 41–42, 258–259 Deutsch-Südamerikanische Telegraphen- construction, 48 gesellschaft, 72 shark attacks on, 51–52 d’Humy, F. E., 18, 21 signal capacity, 48, 51, 54–55 Dibner Institute for the History of technological innovations, 45, 46–47, 53 Science and Technology, 6 technological setbacks, 49–50 digital pulse-code modulation, 45 test cables, 48–49, 51–52 Dillon, Arthur, 161, 163 fiber-optic networks, overexpansion of, 55 Index 296 Field, Cyrus, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 19, 186, 210 Goldstein, Joshua S., 273 Finn, Bernard, 28, 258 Gosplan, 115, 120, 122, 140 Fish, Hamilton, 222n32 Gotô Shimpei, 236 Fleming, Sandford, 85 Govekar, Michele, 121–122, 132–133 Foreign Ministry (Japan), 147 GPO. See British General Post Office Foreign Office (U.K.), 74–75, 138, 230 Grant, Ulysses S., 160–161, 176n14 foreign policy, institutions of, 213–218 Gray, Elisha, 17 Fox, Edward Whiting, 269 Great Depression, 25–26, 35, 36–37, 100, France. See also Chamber of Deputies 103, 199 (France); General Assembly (France); Greater Communications Network, 241 Indochina; Telegraph Administration Great Northern Telegraph Company (France) (GNTC), 66, 265, 281–282 cable strategies and initiatives, 191 China operations, 74, 126–128, 136–137 colonial interests, 185, 191 and Commercial Pacific Cable post–World War I economy, 166–167 Company, 43n3, 73 state ownership of telecommunications, and Eastern and Associated Telegraph 159 Companies, 128–131 France Câbles et Radio, 174 as extension of Danish state, 132–133 France Télécom, 175 interactions with Soviet government, Franckenstein, Georg, 215 115–116, 118–119, 120, 138–140, Franco-Prussian War, 212, 262, 263 142–144, 147–152 French Revolution, 261, 270 Japanese interests, 66, 74, 134–138, Fukuzawa
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