A Country Study: Sudan An Nilain Mosque, at the site of the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile in Khartoum Federal Research Division Library of Congress Edited by Helen Chapin Metz Research Completed June 1991 Table of Contents Foreword Acknowledgements Preface Country Profile Country Geography Society Economy Transportation Government and Politics National Security Introduction Chapter 1 - Historical Setting (Thomas Ofcansky) Early History Cush Meroe Christian Nubia The Coming of Islam The Arabs The Decline of Christian Nubia The Rule of the Kashif The Funj The Fur The Turkiyah, 1821-85 The Mahdiyah, 1884-98 The Khalifa Reconquest of Sudan The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, 1899-1955 Britain's Southern Policy Rise of Sudanese Nationalism The Road to Independence The South and the Unity of Sudan Independent Sudan The Politics of Independence The Abbud Military Government, 1958-64 Return to Civilian Rule, 1964-69 The Nimeiri Era, 1969-85 Revolutionary Command Council The Southern Problem Political Developments National Reconciliation The Transitional Military Council Sadiq Al Mahdi and Coalition Governments Chapter 2 - The Society and its Environment (Robert O. Collins) Physical Setting Geographical Regions Soils Hydrology Climate Population Ethnicity Language Ethnic Groups The Muslim Peoples Non-Muslim Peoples Migration Regionalism and Ethnicity The Social Order Northern Arabized Communities Southern Communities Urban and National Elites Women and the Family Religious Life Islam: Tenets and Practice Islamic Movements and Religious Orders Christianity Indigenous Religions Education Girls' Education Education Reform Health Chapter 3 - The Economy (Robert O. Collins) Economic Development Foreign Aid Prices, Employment, Wages, and Unions Prices Employment Wages Unions Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries, and Forestry Land Use Land Tenure Irrigated Agriculture Rainfed Agriculture Livestock Fisheries Forestry Manufacturing Mining Energy Sources and Supply Electric Power Petroleum Use and Domestic Resources Transportation and Communications Railroads Roads Inland Waterways Civil Aviation Marine Ports and Shipping Pipelines Communications Finance Banking Islamic Banking Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments Foreign Trade Balance of Payments Chapter 4 - Government and Politics (Eric Hooglund) Institutions of Government The Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation The Presidency The Council of Ministers Parliamentary Government Constitutional Development Regional and Local Administration The Legal System The Courts Human Rights Southern and Western Sudan Southern Sudan Western Sudan Political Groups Umma Party Democratic Unionist Party The Muslim Brotherhood The Republican Brothers Secular Political Parties Sudanese People's Liberation Movement Information Media Newspapers Radio and Television Foreign Relations Egypt Libya Chad Relations with Other African States Relations with Other Arab States United States Relations with Other Countries Chapter 5 - National Security (Jean R. Tartter) The Military in National Life Development of the Armed Forces Role in Government The Armed Forces in Sudanese Society External Security Concerns Civil Warfare in the South First Civil War, 1955-72 Renewed Civil Warfare, 1983- The Sudanese People's Armed Forces Army Air Force Air Defense Command Navy Personnel Training Uniforms, Ranks, and Insignia Defense Costs Paramilitary Groups Foreign Military Assistance The Sudanese People's Liberation Army State of Internal Security Internal Security Agencies The Sudan Police Force Security Organizations The Criminal Justice System Incidence of Crime The Prison System Appendix. Tables Bibliography Glossary FOREWORD This volume is one in a continuing series of books prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program sponsored by the Department of the Army. The last two pages of this book list the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelationships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their common interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States government position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be welcomed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540-5220 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the writers of the 1982 edition of Sudan: A Country Study, edited by Harold D. Nelson. Their work provided general background for the present volume. The authors are grateful to individuals in various government agencies and private institutions who gave of their time, research materials, and expertise in the production of this book. The individuals included Ralph K. Benesch, who oversees the Country Studies Area Handbook program for the Department of the Army. The authors also wish to thank members of the Federal Research Division staff who contributed directly to the preparation of the manuscript. These people included Sandra W. Meditz, who reviewed all graphic and textual material and served as liaison with the sponsoring agency, Marilyn Majeska, who managed editing and book production, and Joshua Sinai, who contributed additional research. Also involved in preparing the text were editorial assistants Barbara Edgerton and Izella Watson; Ruth Nieland, who edited chapters; Catherine Schwartzstein, who performed the prepublication editorial review; and Joan C. Cook, who compiled the index. Malinda B. Neale and Linda Peterson of the Library of Congress Composing Unit prepared the camera-ready copy under the supervision of Peggy Pixley. Graphics were prepared by David P. Cabitto, and Tim L. Merrill reviewed map drafts. David P. Cabitto and Greenhorne and O'Mara prepared the final maps. Special thanks are owed to Marty Ittner, who prepared the illustrations on the title page of each chapter, and Wayne Horne, who did the cover art. Finally, the authors acknowledge the generosity of many individuals and public and private agencies, especially the embassy of the Republic of Sudan, who allowed their photographs to be used in this study. PREFACE This edition of Sudan: A Country Study replaces the previous edition published in 1982. Like its predecessor, the present book attempts to treat in a compact and objective manner the dominant historical, social, economic, political, and national security aspects of contemporary Sudan. Sources of information included scholarly books, journals, and monographs; official reports and documents of governments and international organizations; and foreign and domestic newspapers and periodicals. Relatively up-to-date economic data were lacking. Chapter bibliographies appear at the end of the book; brief comments on some of the more valuable sources for further reading appear at the conclusion of each chapter. Measurements are given in the metric system; a conversion table is provided to assist those who are unfamiliar with the metric system (see table 1, Appendix). The Glossary provides brief definitions of terms that may be unfamiliar to the general reader. The transliteration of Arabic words and phrases posed a particular problem. For many of the words--such as Muhammad, Muslim, Quran, and shaykh--the authors followed a modified version of the system adopted by the United States Board on Geographic Names and the Permanent Committee on Geographic Names for British Official Use, known as the BGN/PCGN system; the modification entails the omission of all diacritical markings and hyphens. In numerous instances, however, the names of persons or places are so well known by another spelling that to have used the BGN/PCGN system may have created confusion. The reader will find Khartoum for the city rather than Al Khartum (the latter form is used for the state by that name), Roseires Dan rather than Ar Rusayris, and the Mahdi rather than Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah. Place names pose another problem in the government changed the administrative divisions of Sudan in February 1991. The country was then divided into nine states, generally with names and borders similar to the historical provinces of the colonial period and early independence. Readers will thus find Bahr al Ghazal and Kurdufan, for example, referred to either as states or as provinces depending on the context. The body of the text reflects information available as of June 1991. Certain other portions of the text, however, have been updated. The Introduction discusses significant events that have occurred since