THE RISE OF THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SUDAN 1945-1989 Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this dissertation is my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. This dissertation does not include proprietary or classified information. ______________________________________ Mustafa A. Abdelwahid Certificate of Approval: ________________________________ ________________________________ James A. Nathan Jill Crystal, Chair Professor Professor Political Science Political Science _______________________________ _______________________________ Lee A. Farrow Linda Dennard Associate Professor Associate Professor History Political Science and Public Administration ______________________________________ Joe F. Pittman Interim Dean Graduate School THE RISE OF THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SUDAN 1945-1989 Mustafa A. Abdelwahid A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, AL May 10, 2008 THE RISE OF THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SUDAN 1945-1989 Mustafa A. Abdelwahid Permission is granted to Auburn University to make copies of this dissertation at its discretion, upon request of individuals or institutions and at their expense. The author reserves all publication rights. ________________________________ Signature of Author ________________________________ Date of Graduation iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT THE RISE OF THE ISLAMIC MOVEMNET IN SUDAN 1945-1989 Mustafa A. Abdelwahid Doctor of Philosophy, May 10, 2008 (M.L.I.S., University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, 2003) (B.A., University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2000) (L.L.M., Baku State University, 1993) 262 Typed Pages Directed by Jill Crystal Using a wider theoretical framework and recognizing the gaps that exist in studying political Islam, this study utilized Social Movement Theory (SMT) in examining the rise of the Islamic Movement in Sudan (1945-1989). Social Movement Theory (SMT) can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the Islamic movement in Sudan by exploring the Movement’s understudied mechanisms of contention and successful expansion, including liberal ideology toward adapting Islam to contemporary life, progressive views on the role of women in public life, organizational structure, recruitment among students, women, workers, military personnel and merchants, development of economic institutions, media utilization, and tactical consideration in the use of violence and accommodation. iv The rising influence of the Islamic Movement in Sudan was made possible by several factors that include: the liberal views of its leader Hasan al-Turabi whose charisma and liberal anti-elite views played a major role in changing the Movement from an elite-centered to a more popular political movement. The Movement’s changing views on women’s role in public life also played a significant role in enhancing its position among educated women in Sudan, the Movement’s innovative organizational structure and recruitment strategies among students, military personnel, and trade union members played a significant role in strengthening Movement presence among these groups. Also, the emergence of Islamic economic institutions such as Faisal Islamic Bank (FIB) fostered the political landscape in the country in favor of the Movement. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Jill Crystal, chair of my dissertation committee for her constant support, patience, and encouragement throughout my graduate studies. This dissertation could not have been written without her. Special thanks also to my doctoral committee-- Dr. James Nathan, Dr. Lee Farrow, Dr. Linda Dennard, and Dr. Anne Permaloff, for their invaluable feedback and advice. There are numerous academic colleagues who helped along the way. They include: Dr. William Crowther at University of North Carolina at Greensboro, his monitoring guided me through my educational journey in the United States. Special thanks to Carolyn Clark from Auburn Avenue Research Library on African American Culture and History (AARL) for her continuous assistance in editing this dissertation and to Akilah Nosakhere, Manager of the Reference Division at (AARL) for her support and for providing the needed time and space to complete this dissertation. I am also deeply indebted to my family in Sudan: my parents for their unconditional love and support, especially my mother for encouraging my academic journey from Sudan to the former Soviet Union to the United States and for supplying all necessary Arabic materials from the Sudan and Egypt. Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to my small family, my wife, Nagla and my children, Osman, Azza, and Reem, whose tremendous love and caring of support in every possible way at every stage of my research, cannot be overstated. vi Style manual of journal used: Chicago Manual Style, 15th edition Computer software used: Microsoft Word 2003 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL ISLAM AND LITRATURE REVIEW …………...........……………………………...1 • Introduction ………………………………...........………………………………..1 • Organization of the Study ………………… .........………………………………13 • Literature Review………………………….........………………………………..15 Introduction …………………………….........……………………………....15 Islam and Politics………………………….........…………………………....15 What is political Islam? ………………… ........……………………………..16 The Socio-economic and Political School …… ........………………………..21 The Cultural-Religious School………………… ........……………………....29 The Islamic Movement in Sudan: A Literature Review…. ........………….....35 CHAPTER II. METHODOLOGY………………………….........…………………......47 • Introduction………………………………………….........……………………...47 • The Modernization Explanations …………………….........…………………….48 • The Socio-economic Political Explanations...………… .........…………………..52 • The Gramscian Approach …………………………… .........…………………....54 • Toward an Alternative Approach …………………….........………………….....56 • Research Questions ………………………………….........……………………..63 CHAPTER III. SUDAN: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND………… ........……………68 • Introduction ………………………………………………….........……………..68 • Early History ………………….………………………………….........………...68 • The Funj Sultanate (1504-1820) ……………………………… .........………......70 • The Fur Sultanates (1596-1879 and 1899-1916)…………… .........………….....72 • Turco-Egyptian Rule (1821-1885) …………………………..........……………..73 • The Mahadia State (1885-1898)…..………………………… .........…………….75 • Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899-1955)………………..........……………...77 CHAPTER IV. THE LEADING IDELOGUES OF CONTEMPORRAY POLITICAL ISLAM …………………………………… ..........………80 • Historical Background…………… ..........……………………………………….80 • Hasan al-Banna …………………… ..........……………………………………...84 • Abul A'la al-Mawdudi.. ……… ..........…………………………………………..88 • Sayyid Qutb …………… ..........…………………………………………………90 viii CHAPTER V. THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SUDAN 1945-1989…….........……..95 • Introduction ……………………………………………………….........………..95 • The Early Years (1945-1954) …………………………………… ........………...96 • The Formative Years (1955-1963) ……………………………….......………...103 • The Islamic Charter Front (ICF) (1964-1968) ………………….......………….109 • The Movement and Nemeri (1969-1976) ……………………… .......………....114 • The Movement and Nemeri (1977-1984) …………………… .......…………....117 • The National Islamic Front (NIF) (1985-1989) ……………….......…………...123 CHAPTER VI. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE RISE OF THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SUDAN …………………………........…128 • Introduction ………………………………........……………………………….128 • Al-Turabi’s Intellectual Contributions ………........……………………………131 • Women ………………………………………........……………………………153 • Students……………………………………........………………………………170 • Islamic Financial Institutions……………........………………………………...184 • Organizational Structure………………… ........………………………………..196 • Military …………………………………… ........……………………………...202 • Trade Unions and Labor Movement……………........…………… …………...215 CHAPTER VII. FINDINGS AND CONCULUSIONS ……….........…………………223 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………. …………………………………........………………..229 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL ISLAM AND LITRATURE REVIEW Introduction In the early morning of June 30, 1989, the residents of Khartoum woke up to the sound of tanks roaring into the capital’s streets. A few hours later the central radio station --the only one in the country-- began to broadcast military marches. Soon General Omer Ahmed al-Bashier started to broadcast his first proclamation which explained the reason behind his military coup. He cited a long list of grievances concerning the deterioration of security in the country especially in the south and the west. In the south, as a result of military pressure from the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) the Sudanese army was forced to retreat and evacuate all major cities. For the first time since the beginning of the second civil war in Sudan in 1983, southern rebels were able to capture some of the major cities in the south such as Tourit and Kajo Kaji and to surround Juba, the capital of the south. In the west, Darfur had become a theatre for the ongoing civil war in Chad and Libyan-Chad conflict over the Aozou strip. In Khartoum, the high level of corruption, and abuse of power by upper echelon government officials had became the norm of government operation. The military coup was bloodless and peaceful and at the beginning many people were supportive of the move. Although Sadiq al-Mahadi was the democratically-elected Prime Minister, his rule had divided and destabilized the country and Sudan had been in a state of intense