Sudan

This article is about the country. For the geographical two civil wars and the War in the Darfur region. Sudan region, see Sudan (region). suffers from poor human rights most particularly deal- “North Sudan” redirects here. For the Kingdom of North ing with the issues of ethnic cleansing and slavery in the Sudan, see Bir Tawil. nation.[18] For other uses, see Sudan (disambiguation).

i as-Sūdān /suːˈdæn/ or 1 Name السودان :Sudan (Arabic /suːˈdɑːn/;[11]), officially the Republic of the Sudan[12] Jumhūrīyat as-Sūdān), is an Arab The country’s place name Sudan is a name given to a جمهورية السودان :Arabic) republic in the Nile Valley of North Africa, bordered by geographic region to the south of the Sahara, stretching Egypt to the north, the Red Sea, Eritrea and Ethiopia to from Western to eastern Central Africa. The name de- the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African or “the ,(بلاد السودان) rives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west and Libya lands of the Blacks", an expression denoting West Africa to the northwest. It is the third largest country in Africa. and northern-Central Africa.[19] The Nile River divides the country into eastern and west- ern halves.[13] Its predominant religion is Islam.[14] Sudan was home to numerous ancient civilizations, such 2 History as the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma, Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria, Meroë and others, most of which flourished Main article: History of Sudan along the Nile River. During the predynastic period Nu- bia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were identical, simulta- neously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 [15] BC. By virtue of its proximity to Egypt, the Sudan par- 2.1 Prehistoric Sudan ticipated in the wider history of the Near East inasmuch as it was Christianized by the 6th century, and Islamized in the 7th. As a result of Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan lan- guage (earliest records dating to the 9th century). Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the Arab world until 2011, when South Sudan separated into an independent country, following an independence referendum. Sudan is now the third largest country in Africa (after Algeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and also the third largest country in the Arab world (after Algeria and Saudi Arabia). Sudan is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement, as well The large mud brick temple, known as the shrek or Western Def- as an observer in the World Trade Organization.[12][16] fufa, in the ancient city of Kerma Its capital is Khartoum, the political, cultural and com- mercial centre of the nation. It is a federal presidential By the eighth millennium BC, people of a Neolithic cul- representative democratic republic. The politics of Su- ture had settled into a sedentary way of life there in dan is regulated by a parliamentary organization called fortified mud-brick villages, where they supplemented [17] the National Assembly. The Sudanese legal system is hunting and fishing on the Nile with grain gathering and based on Islamic law. cattle herding.[20] During the fifth millennium BC migra- Sudan suffers from several challenges. For much of Su- tions from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into dan’s history, the nation has suffered from rampant ethnic the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population strife and has been plagued by internal conflicts including that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing devel- oped social hierarchy over the next centuries become the

1 2 2 HISTORY

Kingdom of Kush (with the capital at Kerma) at 1700 his successor Ashurbanipal sent a large army into south- BC. ern Egypt and routed Tantamani, ending all hopes of a Anthropological and archaeological research indicate that revival of the Nubian Empire. during the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Egypt were ethnically, and culturally nearly identical, and Meroë. In early Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic king- was known as Ethiopia (a term also used earlier by the ship by 3300 BC.[15] Assyrians when encountering the Nubians). The civiliza- tion of Kush was among the first in the world to use iron smelting technology. The Nubian kingdom at Meroë per- 2.2 Kingdom of Kush sisted until the 4th century AD. After the collapse of the Kushite empire several states emerged in its former terri- Main article: Kingdom of Kush tories, among them Nubia. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state cen-

2.3 Christianity and Islam

Nubian pyramids in Meroë.

tered on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile and River Atbara. It was established after the Bronze Age Ruins of Old Dongola. collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, centered at Napata in its early phase. By the 6th century, fifty states had emerged as the politi- After King Kashta (“the Kushite”) invaded Egypt in the cal and cultural heirs of the Meroitic Kingdom. Nobatia 8th century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as Pharaohs of in the north, also known as Ballanah, had its capital at the Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt for a century before Faras; the central kingdom, Muqurra (Makuria), was cen- being defeated and driven out by the Assyrians. At the tred at Tungul (Old Dongola), about 13 kilometres (8.1 height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire miles) south of modern Dunqulah; and Alawa (Alodia), in that stretched from what is now known as South Kord- the heartland of old Meroë, which had its capital at Sawba ofan all the way to the Sinai. King Piye attempted to (Soba) (now a suburb of modern-day Khartoum). In all expand the empire into the Near East, but was thwarted three kingdoms, warrior aristocracies ruled Meroitic pop- by the Assyrian king Sargon II. The Kingdom of Kush ulations from royal courts where functionaries bore Greek is mentioned in the Bible as having saved the Israelites titles in emulation of the Byzantine court. A missionary from the wrath of the Assyrians, although disease among sent by Byzantine empress Theodora arrived in Nobatia the besiegers was the main reason for the failure to take and started preaching Christianity about 540 AD. The the city.[21] Nubian kings became Monophysite Christians. How- The war that took place between King Taharqa and the ever, Makuria was of the Melkite Christian faith, unlike Assyrian King Sennacherib was a decisive event in west- Nobatia and Alodia. ern history, with the Nubians being defeated in their at- After many attempts at military conquest failed, the Arab tempts to gain a foothold in the Near East by Assyria. commander in Egypt concluded the first in a series of reg- Sennacherib’s successor Esarhaddon went further, and in- ularly renewed treaties known as al-baqṭ (pactum) with vaded Egypt itself, deposing Taharqa and driving the Nu- the Nubians that governed relations between the two peo- bians from Egypt entirely. Taharqa fled back to his home- ples for more than 678 years. Islam progressed in the area land where he died two years later. Egypt became an As- over a long period of time through intermarriage and con- syrian colony; however, king Tantamani, after succeed- tacts with Arab merchants and settlers. Additionally, ex- ing Taharqa, made a final determined attempt to regain emption from taxation in regions under Muslim rule were Egypt. Esarhaddon died while preparing to leave the As- also a powerful incentive for conversion.[22] In 1093, a syrian capital of Nineveh in order to eject him. However, Muslim prince of Nubian royal blood ascended the throne 2.4 Turkiyah and Mahdiyah period 3

Fresco of Faras Cathedral, 10th–11th century

of Dunqulah as king. The two most important Arab tribes to emerge in Nubia were the Jaali and the Juhayna. To- day’s northern Sudanese culture often combines Nubian and Arabic elements. During the 16th century, a people called the Funj, un- der a leader named Amara Dunqus, appeared in south- ern Nubia and supplanted the remnants of the old Chris- tian kingdom of Alwa, establishing As-Saltana az-Zarqa (the Blue Sultanate), also called the Sultanate of Sennar. The Blue Sultanate eventually became the keystone of the Funj Empire. By the mid-16th century, Sennar con- trolled Al Jazirah and commanded the allegiance of vassal states and tribal districts north to the Third Cataract and south to the rainforests. The government was substan- Ismail Pasha, Sultan of Egypt & Sudan tially weakened by a series of succession arguments and coups within the royal family. In 1820, Muhammad Ali of Egypt sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan. His forces corruption and mismanagement resulted in the Orabi Re- accepted Sennar’s surrender from the last Funj sultan, volt, which threatened the Khedive’s survival. Tewfik ap- Badi VII. pealed for help to the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt in 1882. Sudan was left in the hands of the Khedi- vial government, and the mismanagement and corruption [23][24] 2.4 Turkiyah and Mahdiyah period of its officials. During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave Main articles: History of Sudan (1821–1885) and History trade had an adverse impact on the economy of north- of Mahdist Sudan ern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces.[25] In 1821, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah, the Mahdi (Guided had invaded and conquered northern Sudan. Although One), offered to the ansars (his followers) and those who technically the Wāli of Egypt under the Ottoman Sultan, surrendered to him a choice between adopting Islam or Muhammad Ali styled himself as Khedive of a virtually being killed. The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed independent Egypt. Seeking to add Sudan to his domains, traditional Sharia Islamic laws. he sent his third son Ismail (not to be confused with Ismail From his announcement of the Mahdiyya in June 1881 the Magnificent mentioned later) to conquer the country, until the fall of Khartoum in January 1885, Muham- and subsequently incorporate it into Egypt. This policy mad Ahmad led a successful military campaign against was expanded and intensified by Ibrahim's son, Ismail I, the Turco-Egyptian government of the Sudan (known under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day as the Turkiyah). Muhammad Ahmad died on 22 June Sudan was conquered. 1885, a mere six months after the conquest of Khartoum. The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements After a power struggle amongst his deputies, Abdallahi to the Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), es- ibn Muhammad, with the help primarily of the Baqqara pecially with regard to irrigation and cotton production. Arabs of western Sudan, overcame the opposition of In 1879, the Great Powers forced the removal of Ismail the others and emerged as unchallenged leader of the and established his son Tewfik I in his place. Tewfik’s Mahdiyah. After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn 4 2 HISTORY

The Flight of the Khalifa after his Defeat at the Battle of Om- durman

2.5 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Main article: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan In 1899, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement under

Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi ruler of Sudan.

Muhammad assumed the title of Khalifa (successor) of the Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointed Ansar (who were usually Baqqara) as emirs over each of the several provinces. Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa’s brutal methods to extend his rule throughout the coun- try. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded Ethiopia, penetrating as far as Gondar. In March 1889, king Yohannes IV of Ethiopia, marched on Metemma; how- ever, after Yohannes fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces The Mahdist War was fought between a radical group of Muslim withdrew. Abd ar Rahman an Nujumi, the Khalifa’s gen- dervishes, called Mahdists, who had over-run much of Sudan, eral, attempted an invasion of Egypt in 1889, but British- and the British forces led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at Tushkah. The failure of the Egyptian invasion broke the spell of the which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Ansar’s invincibility. The Belgians prevented the Mahdi’s Egypt with British consent. In reality Sudan was effec- men from conquering Equatoria, and in 1893, the Italians tively administered as a British colony. The British were repelled an Ansar attack at Akordat (in Eritrea) and keen to reverse the process, started under Muhammad Ali forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia. Pasha, of uniting the Nile Valley under Egyptian leader- In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their con- ship, and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further trol over Sudan, once more officially in the name of the uniting the two countries. Egyptian Khedive, but in actuality treating the country During World War II, Sudan was directly involved mil- as a British colony. By the early 1890s, British, French itarily in the East African Campaign. Formed in 1925, and Belgian claims had converged at the Nile headwaters. the Sudan Defence Force (SDF) played an active part in Britain feared that the other powers would take advan- responding to the early incursions (occupation by Ital- tage of Sudan’s instability to acquire territory previously ian troops of Kassala and other border areas) into the annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considera- Sudan from Italian East Africa during 1940. In 1942, tions, Britain wanted to establish control over the Nile to the SDF also played a part in the invasion of the Italian safeguard a planned irrigation dam at Aswan. colony by British and Commonwealth forces. From 1924 Lord Kitchener led military campaigns against the until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of Mahdists from 1896 to 1898. Kitchener’s campaigns cul- running Sudan as two essentially separate territories, the minated in a decisive victory in the Battle of Omdurman north (Muslim) and south (Christian). The last British on 2 September 1898. Governor-General was Sir Robert Howe. 2.6 Post-independence 5

Sudan’s flag raised at independence ceremony on 1 January 1956 by the Prime Minister Ismail al-Azhari and in presence of Camel soldier of the native forces of the British army, early 20th opposition leader Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub century

The continued British administration of Sudan fueled an [26] increasingly strident nationalist backlash in Egypt, with Sudanese government. On 1 January 1956, in a spe- Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain cial ceremony held at the People’s Palace, the Egyptian to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and and British flags were lowered and the new Sudanese flag, Sudan. With the formal end of Ottoman rule in 1914, composed of green, blue and white stripes, was raised in Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan, their place by the prime minister Ismail al-Azhari. as was his brother and successor Fuad I. They contin- Dissatisfaction culminated in a second coup d'état on 25 ued their insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state May 1969. The coup leader, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry, be- even when the Sultanate was retitled as the Kingdom of came prime minister, and the new regime abolished par- Egypt and Sudan, but the British continued to frustrate liament and outlawed all political parties. such reaches for independence. Disputes between Marxist and non-Marxist elements The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 finally heralded the be- within the ruling military coalition resulted in a briefly ginning of the march towards Sudanese independence. successful coup in July 1971, led by the Sudanese Com- Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt’s new munist Party. Several days later, anti-communist military leaders, Muhammad Naguib, whose mother was Su- elements restored Nimeiry to power. danese, and later Gamal Abdel-Nasser, believed the only In 1972, the Addis Ababa Agreement led to a cessation of way to end British domination in Sudan was for Egypt to the north-south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This officially abandon its claims of sovereignty over Sudan. led to ten years hiatus in the civil war. The British on the other hand continued their political Until the early 1970s, Sudan’s agricultural output was and financial support for the Mahdi successor Sayyid Ab- mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972, the del Rahman who, they believed, could resist the Egyptian Sudanese government became more pro-Western, and pressures for Sudanese independence. Rahman was able made plans to export food and cash crops. However, to resist the pressures, but his regime was plagued with commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing political ineptitude, which garnered him a loss of support economic problems for Sudan. At the same time, debt in northern and central Sudan. Egypt and Britain both servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agri- sensed a great political instability forming, and opted to culture, rose. In 1978, the International Monetary Fund allow the Sudanese in the north and south to have a free (IMF) negotiated a Structural Adjustment Program with vote on independence to see whether they wished for a the government. This further promoted the mechanized British withdrawal. export agriculture sector. This caused great economic problems for the pastoralists of Sudan (See Nuba Peo- 2.6 Post-independence ples). In 1976, the Ansars mounted a bloody but unsuccessful Main articles: History of Sudan (1956–1969) and History coup attempt. In July 1977, President Nimeiry met with of Sudan (1969–85) Ansar leader Sadiq al-Mahdi, opening the way for recon- A polling process was carried out resulting in compo- ciliation. Hundreds of political prisoners were released, sition of a democratic parliament and Ismail al-Azhari and in August a general amnesty was announced for all was elected first Prime Minister and led the first modern opponents of Nimeiry’s government. 6 3 GEOGRAPHY

2.7 Omar al-Bashir Sudanese in favor of Sudanese Arabs, precipitating the War in Darfur. The conflict has since been described Main article: History of Sudan (1986–present) as a genocide,[39] and the International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued two arrest warrants for al-Bashir.[40][41] Arabic-speaking nomads militias known as the Janjaweed On 30 June 1989, Colonel Omar al-Bashir led a blood- have been accused of many atrocities. less military coup.[27] The new military government sus- pended political parties and introduced an Islamic legal On 9 January 2005, the Nairobi Comprehensive Peace code on the national level.[28] Later al-Bashir carried out Agreement was signed between the Sudan People’s Lib- purges and executions in the upper ranks of the army, the eration Movement (SPLM) and the government, with the banning of associations, political parties, and indepen- objective of ending the Second Sudanese Civil War. The dent newspapers, and the imprisonment of leading po- United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) was estab- litical figures and journalists.[29] On 16 October 1993, lished under the UN Security Council Resolution 1590 al-Bashir appointed himself "President" and disbanded to support its implementation. The peace agreement led the Revolutionary Command Council. The executive to the 2011 referendum which resulted in the secession and legislative powers of the council were taken by al- of South Sudan; the region of Abyei is to hold its own Bashir.[30] referendum in the future. In the 1996 general election he was the only candidate by The Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) was the law to run for election.[31] Sudan became a single-party primary member of the Eastern Front, a coalition of rebel state under the National Congress Party (NCP).[32] Dur- groups operating in eastern Sudan. After the peace agree- ing the 1990s, Hassan al-Turabi, then Speaker of the Na- ment, their place was taken in February 2004 after the tional Assembly, reached out to Islamic fundamentalist merger of the larger Hausa and Beja Congress with the groups, even personally inviting Osama bin Laden to the smaller Rashaida Free Lions.[42] A peace agreement be- country.[33] The United States subsequently listed Sudan tween the Sudanese government and the Eastern Front as a state sponsor of terrorism.[34] The U.S bombed Su- was signed on 14 October 2006, in Asmara. dan in 1998. Later, al-Turabi’s influence waned, in favor On 5 May 2006, the Darfur Peace Agreement was of more pragmatic leaders who focused on trying to re- [43] [35] signed, aiming at ending the three-year-long conflict. cover from Sudan’s disastrous international isolation. The Chad–Sudan Conflict (2005–2007) erupted after the Sudan worked to appease its international critics by ex- Battle of Adré, which led to the declaration of war by pelling members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad and en- [44] [36] Chad. The leaders of Sudan and Chad signed an agree- couraging bin Laden to leave. ment in Saudi Arabia on 3 May 2007 to stop fighting from Before the 2000 presidential election, al-Turabi intro- the Darfur conflict along their countries’ 1,000-kilometre duced a bill to reduce the President’s powers, prompt- (600 mi) border.[45] ing al-Bashir to dissolve parliament and declare a state In July 2007 the country was hit by flooding,[46] with over of emergency. When al-Turabi urged a boycott of the 400,000 people being directly affected.[47] Since 2009, a President’s re-election campaign and signed an agree- series of ongoing conflicts between rival nomadic tribes ment with Sudan People’s Liberation Army, al-Bashir in Sudan and South Sudan have resulted in a large num- suspected they were plotting to overthrow him and the ber of casualties. The Sudan internal conflict in the early government,[37] which resulted in the jailing of Hassan [38] 2010s between the Army of Sudan and the Sudan Rev- al-Turabi that same year. olutionary Front started as a dispute over the oil-rich re- gion of Abyei in the months leading up to South Sudanese independence, though it is also related to the nominally resolved war in Darfur.

3 Geography

Main article: Geography of Sudan See also: List of cities in Sudan Sudan is situated in northern Africa, with a 853 km (530 mi) coastline bordering the Red Sea.[48] It has land Government Militia in Darfur borders with Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, South Sudan, the Central African Republic, Chad, and Libya. With an area In February 2003, the Sudan Liberation Move- of 1,886,068 km2 (728,215 sq mi), it is the third largest ment/Army (SLM/A) and Justice and Equality Move- country on the continent (after Algeria and Democratic ment (JEM) groups in Darfur took up arms, accusing Republic of the Congo) and the sixteenth largest in the the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab world. Sudan lies between latitudes 8° and 23°N. 7

their herds of sheep and camels. Nearer the River Nile, there are well-irrigated farms growing cash crops.[50] The sunshine duration is very high all over the country but es- pecially in deserts where it could soar to over 4,000 h per year. There are several dams on the Blue and White Niles. Among them are the Sennar and Roseires Dams on the Blue Nile, and the Jebel Aulia Dam on the White Nile. There is also Lake Nubia on the Sudanese-Egyptian bor- der. Rich mineral resources are available in Sudan including asbestos, chromite, cobalt, copper, gold, granite, gypsum, iron, kaolin, lead, manganese, mica, natural gas, nickel, [51] Jebel Barkal mountain in Nubia, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. petroleum, silver, tin, uranium and zinc. Desertification is a serious problem in Sudan.[52] There is also concern over soil erosion. Agricultural expan- sion, both public and private, has proceeded without conservation measures. The consequences have mani- fested themselves in the form of deforestation, soil des- iccation, and the lowering of soil fertility and the water table.[53] The nation’s wildlife is threatened by hunting. As of 2001, twenty-one mammal species and nine bird species are endangered, as well as two species of plants. En- dangered species include: the waldrapp, Northern White Rhinoceros, Tora Hartebeest, Slender-horned Gazelle, and hawksbill turtle. The Sahara oryx has become extinct in the wild.[54]

4 Government and politics Satellite image of Sudan

Main article: Politics of Sudan The terrain is generally flat plains, broken by several mountain ranges; in the west the Deriba Caldera (3,042 m Officially, the politics of Sudan takes place in the frame- or 9,980 ft), located in the Marrah Mountains, is the high- work of a federal presidential representative democratic est point in Sudan; in the east are the Red Sea Hills.[49] republic, where the President of Sudan is head of state, The Blue and White Nile rivers meet in Khartoum to form head of government and commander-in-chief of the Sudan People’s Armed Forces in a multi-party system. the River Nile, which flows northwards through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. The Blue Nile’s course through Legislative power is vested in both the government and the bicameral parliament—the National Legislature, with Sudan is nearly 800 km (497 mi) long and is joined by the Dinder and Rahad Rivers between Sennar and Khartoum. its National Assembly (lower chamber) and the Council of States (upper chamber). The judiciary is independent The White Nile within Sudan has no significant tribu- [12] taries. and obtained by the Constitutional Court. The amount of rainfall increases towards the south. The However, following the Second Sudanese Civil War central and the northern part have extremely dry desert (1983–2005) and the now-low-scale war in Darfur, Sudan areas such as the Nubian Desert to the northeast and the is widely recognized as an authoritarian state where all Bayuda Desert to the east; in the south there are swamps effective political power is obtained by President Omar and rainforest. Sudan’s rainy season lasts for about three al-Bashir and the ruling National Congress Party (NCP). months (July to September) in the north, and up to six In 1993, Sudan was transformed into an Islamic months (June to November) in the south. The dry regions authoritarian single-party state as al-Bashir abolished are plagued by sandstorms, known as haboob, which can the Revolutionary Command Council and created the completely block out the sun. In the northern and west- National Islamic Front (NIF) with a new parliament and ern semi-desert areas, people rely on the scant rainfall for government obtained solely by members of the NIF. At basic agriculture and many are nomadic, travelling with the same time, the structure of regional administration 8 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

was replaced by the creation of twenty-six states, each Supreme Court, the Court of Cassation,[72] and other na- headed by a governor, thus making Sudan a federal re- tional courts; the National Judicial Service Commission public. provides overall management for the judiciary. Executive posts are divided between the NCP, the SPLA, the Sudanese Eastern Front and factions of the Umma Party and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). 4.2 Foreign relations

According to the new 2005 constitution, the bicameral Main article: Foreign relations of Sudan National Legislature is the official Sudanese parliament Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its and is divided between two chambers—the National As- sembly, a lower house with 450 seats, and the Council of States, an upper house with 50 seats. Thus the parliament consists of 500 appointed members altogether, where all are indirectly elected by state legislatures to serve six-year terms.[12] Despite his international arrest warrant, al-Bashir was a candidate in the 2010 Sudanese presidential election, the first democratic election with multiple political par- ties participating in twenty-four years.[55] In the build- up to the vote, Sudanese pro-democracy activists say they faced intimidation by the government[56] and the International Crisis Group reported that the ruling party had gerrymandered electoral districts.[57] A few days before the vote, the main opposition candidate, Yasir Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir, wanted by the ICC for war crimes and crimes against humanity.[73] Arman from the SPLM, withdrew from the race.[58] The U.S.-based Carter Center, which helped monitor the elections, described the vote tabulation process as neighbours and much of the international community, “highly chaotic, non-transparent and vulnerable to elec- owing to what is viewed as its radical Islamic stance. For toral manipulation.”[59] Al-Bashir was declared the win- much of the 1990s, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia formed ner of the election with sixty-eight percent of the vote.[55] an ad-hoc alliance called the “Front Line States” with sup- port from the United States to check the influence of the National Islamic Front government. The Sudanese Gov- 4.1 Legal system ernment supported anti-Ugandan rebel groups such as the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). The legal system in Sudan is based on Islamic Sharia law. As the National Islamic Front regime in Khartoum grad- Islamic law is implemented in all of Sudan. The 2005 ually emerged as a real threat to the region and the world, Naivasha Agreement, ending the civil war between north the U.S. began to list Sudan on its list of State Sponsors of and south Sudan, established some protections for non- Terrorism. After the US listed Sudan as a state sponsor Muslims in Khartoum. of terrorism, the NIF decided to develop relations with Stoning remains a legal form of judicial punishment Iraq, and later Iran, the two most controversial countries in Sudan. Between 2009 and 2012, several women in the region. were sentenced to death by stoning.[60][61][62] Flogging From the mid-1990s, Sudan gradually began to moderate also remains a legal form of punishment. Between its positions as a result of increased U.S. pressure follow- 2009 and 2014, many people were sentenced to 40-100 ing the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, in Tanzania and lashes.[63][64][65][66][67][68] Sudan’s public order law allows Kenya, and the new development of oil fields previously police officers to publicly whip women who are accused in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with of public indecency.[69] Egypt over the Hala'ib Triangle. Since 2003, the foreign International Court of Justice jurisdiction is accepted, relations of Sudan had centered on the support for end- though with reservations. Under the terms of the ing the Second Sudanese Civil War and condemnation of Naivasha Agreement, Islamic law did not apply in the government support for militias in the war in Darfur. south.[70] Since the secession of South Sudan there is Sudan has extensive economic relations with China. some uncertainty as to whether Sharia law will now apply China obtains ten percent of its oil from Sudan. Accord- to the non-Muslim minorities present in Sudan, especially ing to a former Sudanese government minister, China is because of contradictory statements by al-Bashir on the Sudan’s largest supplier of arms.[74] [71] matter. On 27 December 2005, Sudan became one of the few The judicial branch of the Sudanese government consists states to recognize Moroccan sovereignty over Western of a Constitutional Court of nine justices, the National Sahara.[75] 4.5 Human rights 9

4.3 Armed Forces involved in humanitarian efforts to help internally dis- placed people. The NGOs are working in every corner of Main article: Sudan People’s Armed Forces Sudan, especially in the southern part and western parts. The Sudan People’s Armed Forces is the regular forces During the civil war, international nongovernmental or- ganizations such as the Red Cross were operating mostly in the south but based in the capital Khartoum.[82] The attention of NGOs shifted shortly after the war broke out in the western part of the Sudan known as Darfur. The most visible organization in South Sudan is the Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS) consortium.[83] Even though most of the international organizations are substantially concentrated in both South Sudan and Darfur region, some of them are working in the north- ern part as well. For example the United Nations Indus- trial Development Organization is successfully operating in Khartoum, the capital. It is mainly funded by the Eu- ropean Union and recently opened more vocational train- Sudanese Air Force Hongdu JL-8 ing. The Canadian International Development Agency is operating largely in northern Sudan.[84] of Sudan and is divided into five branches; the Sudanese Army, Sudanese Navy (including the Marine Corps), Sudanese Air Force, Border Patrol and the Internal Af- 4.5 Human rights fairs Defense Force, totalling about 200,000 troops. The military of Sudan has become a well-equipped fighting Main articles: Human rights in Sudan, Freedom of force, thanks to increasing local production of heavy and religion in Sudan and Slavery in Sudan advanced arms. These forces are under the command of the National Assembly and its strategic principles include Since 1983, a combination of civil war and famine has defending Sudan’s external borders and preserve internal taken the lives of nearly 2 million people in Sudan.[85] It is security. estimated that as many as 200,000 people had been taken [86] However, since the Darfur crisis in 2004, safe-keeping into slavery during the Second Sudanese Civil War. the central government from the armed resistance and Sudan ranks 172 of 180 countries in terms of freedom rebellion of paramilitary rebel groups such as the Sudan of the press according to Reporters Without Borders, yet People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), the Sudanese Libera- more curbs of press freedom to report official corruption tion Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement are planned.[87] (JEM) have been important priorities. While not official, the Sudanese military also uses nomad militias, the most Muslims who convert to Christianity can face the death prominent being the Janjaweed, in executing a counter- penalty for apostasy, see Persecution of Christians in Su- insurgency war.[76] Somewhere between 200,000[77] and dan and the death sentence against Mariam Yahia Ibrahim 400,000[12][78][79] people have died in the violent strug- Ishag (who actually was raised as Christian). According gles. to a 2013 UNICEF report, 88% of women in Sudan had undergone female genital mutilation.[88] Sudan’s Personal Status law on marriage has been criticized for restricting [89][90] 4.4 International organizations in Sudan women’s rights and allowing child marriage.

Several UN agents are operating in Sudan such as the 4.5.1 Darfur World Food Program (WFP); the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO); the United A letter dated 14 August 2006, from the executive direc- Nations Development Program (UNDP); the United Na- tor of Human Rights Watch found that the Sudanese gov- tions Industrial Development Organizations (UNIDO); ernment is both incapable of protecting its own citizens the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF); the United in Darfur and unwilling to do so, and that its militias are Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); the guilty of crimes against humanity. The letter added that United Nations Mine Service (UNMAS), the United Na- these human-rights abuses have existed since 2004.[91] tions Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Af- Some reports attribute part of the violations to the rebels fairs (OCHA) and the World Bank. Also present is the [80][81] as well as the government and the Janjaweed. The U.S. International Organization for Migration (IOM). State Department’s human-rights report issued in March Since Sudan has experienced civil war for many years, 2007 claims that "[a]ll parties to the conflagration com- many Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are also mitted serious abuses, including widespread killing of 10 5 STATES AND REGIONS

5 States and regions

Main articles: States of Sudan, List of Sudan’s state gov- ernors and Districts of Sudan Sudan is divided into 18 states (wilayat, sing. wilayah).

Darfur refugee camp in Chad, 2005 civilians, rape as a tool of war, systematic torture, rob- bery and recruitment of child soldiers.”[92] Over 2.8 million civilians have been displaced and the death toll is estimated at 300,000 killed.[93] Both govern- ment forces and militias allied with the government are known to attack not only civilians in Darfur, but also hu- manitarian workers. Sympathizers of rebel groups are ar- Political map of Sudan. The Hala'ib Triangle has been under bitrarily detained, as are foreign journalists, human-rights Egyptian administration since 2000. defenders, student activists and displaced people in and around Khartoum, some of whom face torture. The rebel They are further divided into 133 districts. groups have also been accused in a report issued by the U.S. government of attacking humanitarian workers and 5.1 Regional bodies and areas of conflict of killing innocent civilians.[94] According to UNICEF, in 2008, there were as many as 6,000 child soldiers in In addition to the states, there also exist regional admin- [95] Darfur. istrative bodies established by peace agreements between the central government and rebel groups. 4.6 Disputed areas and zones of conflict

• The states of South Kurdufan and Blue Nile are to hold “popular consultations” to determine their con- stitutional future within the Sudan.

• The Hala'ib triangle is disputed region between Su- dan and Egypt. It is currently under Egyptian ad- ministration.

• The Abyei Area is disputed region between Sudan and South Sudan. It is currently under Sudan rule.

• Bir Tawil is a terra nullius occurring on the border between Egypt and Sudan, claimed by neither state.

• Kafia Kingi and Radom National Park was a part of Bahr el Ghazal in 1956.[96] Sudan has recognized Central and northern states South Sudan independence according to the borders [97] Darfur for 1 January 1956. Eastern Front Abyei area • In mid-April 2012, the South Sudanese army cap- South Kurdufan and Blue Nile states tured the Heglig oil field from Sudan.

• In mid-April 2012 the Sudanese army recaptured Heglig • The Darfur Regional Authority was established 11

by the Darfur Peace Agreement to act as a co- ordinating body for the states that make up the re- gion of Darfur.

• The Eastern Sudan States Coordinating Council was established by the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement between the Sudanese Government and the rebel Eastern Front to act as a coordinating body for the three eastern states.

• The Abyei Area, located on the border between South Sudan and the Republic of the Sudan, cur- rently has a special administrative status and is gov- erned by an Abyei Area Administration. It was due to hold a referendum in 2011 on whether to join an Development in Khartoum. independent South Sudan or remain part of the Re- public of the Sudan.

in a 2006 article.[99] Over a four-year period to 2014, the Sudanese government’s budget was yearly on the or- 6 Economy der of £140M, while UKAid provided £30M to £54M per annum.[100] Because of the secession of South Sudan, Main article: Economy of Sudan which contained over 80 percent of Sudan’s oilfields, the See also: Communications in Sudan, Transport in Sudan economic forecast for Sudan in 2011 and beyond is un- and List of companies based in Sudan certain. In 2010, Sudan was considered the 17th-fastest-growing Even with the oil profits before the secession of South Sudan, Sudan still faced formidable economic problems, and its growth was still a rise from a very low level of per capita output. In any case, the economy in the Su- dan has been slowly growing over the last ten years, and according to a World Bank report the overall growth in GDP in 2010 was 5.2 percent compared to 2009 growth of 4.2 percent.[12] This growth was sustained even dur- ing the crisis in Darfur and period of southern autonomy preceding South Sudan’s independence.[101][102] While historically agriculture remains the main source of income and employment hiring of over 80 percent of Sudanese, and makes up a third of the economic sector, oil production drove most of Sudan’s post-2000 growth. Currently, the International Monetary Fund IMF is working hand in hand with Khartoum government to implement sound macroeconomic policies.This follows a turbulent period in the 1980s when debt-ridden Su- dan’s relations with the IMF and World Bank soured, culminating in its eventual suspension from the IMF.[103] The program has been in place since the early 1990s, and also work-out exchange rate and reserve of foreign exchange.[12] Since 1997, Sudan has been implement- ing the macroeconomic reforms recommended by the International Monetary Fund. In 1999, Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of 1999, recorded its first trade surplus. Increased oil production (the current production is about 520,000 Oil and gas concessions in Sudan - 2004 barrels per day (83,000 m3/d)) revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones helped sustain gross economy[98] in the world and the rapid development of domestic product (GDP) growth at 6.1 percent in 2003. the country largely from oil profits even when facing in- These gains, along with improvements to monetary pol- ternational sanctions was noted by The New York Times icy, have stabilized the exchange rate. The People’s Re- 12 7 DEMOGRAPHICS

Khartoum State and other States. The Corruptions Perception Index has indicated Sudan as one of the most corrupt nations in the world.[107] Ac- cording to the Global Hunger Index of 2013, Sudan has an GHI indicator value of 27.0 indicating that the nation has an 'Alarming Hunger Situation' and earning the na- tion the distinction of being the 5th hungriest nation in the world.[108] According to the 2013 Human Develop- Khartoum Skyline ment Index (HDI) Sudan ranked the 171st place in Hu- man Development, indicating Sudan still has one of the lowest human development in the world.[109] Almost one- public of China is a major trading partner, and owns a 40 fifth of Sudan’s population lives below the international percent share in the Greater Nile Petroleum Operating poverty line which means living on less than US$1.25 per Company.[104] The country also sells Sudan small arms, day.[110] which have been used in military operations such as the conflicts in Darfur and South Kordofan.[105] Oil was Sudan’s main export, with production increasing dramatically during the late 2000s, in the years before 7 Demographics South Sudan gained independence in July 2011. With rising oil revenues, the Sudanese economy was booming, with a growth rate of about nine percent in 2007. Sus- tained growth was expected the next year in 2008 because of not only increasing oil production, but also to the boost of hydroelectricity (annual electricity yield of 5.5 TWh) provided by the Merowe Dam. The independence of oil- rich South Sudan, however, placed most major oilfields out of the Sudanese government’s direct control. In order to export oil, South Sudan must rely on a pipeline to Port Sudan on Sudan’s Red Sea coast, as South Sudan itself is landlocked, as well as on Sudan’s superior refinery infras- tructure. The exact terms of a revenue-splitting agree- ment between Juba and Khartoum have yet to be estab- lished, but Sudan will likely receive a significant portion Sudanese Arab of Al-Manasir of the income from South Sudan’s oil sales as a fee for the use of Sudanese pipelines, refineries, and port facilities, Main article: Demographics of Sudan perhaps as much as 50 percent of the profits.[106] Agriculture production remains Sudan’s most-important In Sudan’s 2008 census, the population of Northern, sector, employing eighty percent of the workforce and Western and Eastern Sudan was recorded to be over 30 contributing thirty-nine percent of GDP, but most farms million.[111] This puts present estimates of the population remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Instability, of Sudan after the secession of South Sudan at a little over adverse weather and weak world-agricultural prices en- 30 million people. This is a significant increase over the sures that much of the population will remain at or below past two decades as the 1983 census put the total pop- the poverty line for years. ulation of Sudan, including present-day South Sudan, at The Merowe Dam, also known as Merowe Multi-Purpose 21.6 million.[112] The population of metropolitan Khar- Hydro Project or Hamdab Dam, is a large construction toum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum project in Northern Sudan, about 350 kilometres (220 North) is growing rapidly and was recorded to be 5.2 mil- mi) north of the capital, Khartoum. It is situated on the lion. River Nile, close to the Fourth Cataract where the river Despite being a refugee-generating country, Sudan also divides into multiple smaller branches with large islands hosts a refugee population. According to the World in between. Merowe is a city about 40 kilometres (25 mi) Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee downstream from the dam’s construction site. for Refugees and Immigrants, 310,500 refugees and asy- The main purpose of the dam will be the generation of lum seekers lived in Sudan in 2007. The majority of this electricity. Its dimensions make it the largest contempo- population came from Eritrea (240,400 persons), Chad rary hydropower project in Africa. The construction of (45,000), Ethiopia (49,300) and the Central African Re- the dam was finished December 2008, supplying more public (2,500).[113] The Sudanese government UN High than ninety percent of the population with electricity. Commissioner for Refugees in 2007 forcibly deported at Other gas-powered generating stations are operational in least 1,500 refugees and asylum seekers during the year. 7.2 Religion 13

Sudanese Arabs of Northern and Eastern parts descend primarily from migrants from the Arabian Peninsula and some of the pre-existing indigenous populations of Su- dan, especially the Nubian people, who also share a common history with Egypt. Additionally, a few pre- Islamic Arabian tribes existed in Sudan from earlier mi- grations into the region from Western Arabia, although most Arabs in Sudan are dated from migrations after the 12th century.[118] The vast majority of Arab tribes in Sudan migrated into the Sudan in the 12th century, intermarried with the in- digenous Nubian and other African populations and in- troduced Islam.[119] In common with much of the rest of the Arab world, the gradual process of Arabization in Sudan following these Arabian migrations after the 12th century led to the pre- dominance of the Arabic language and aspects of Arab culture, leading to the shift among a majority of Sudanese today to an Arab ethnic identity. This process was fur- thered both by the spread of Islam and an emigration to Sudan of ethnic Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, and their intermarriage with the Arabized indigenous peoples of the country. Sudan consists of numerous other non-Arabic groups, such as the Masalit, Zaghawa, Fulani, Northern Nubians, Nuba, and the Beja people.

Student from Khartoum 7.2 Religion

Sudan is a party to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.[113]

7.1 Ethnic groups

The Arab presence is estimated at 70% of the Sudanese population.[12] Others include the Arabized ethnic groups of Nubians, Zaghawa, and Copts.[114][115] Sudan has 597 groups that speak over 400 different lan- guages and dialects.[116] Sudanese Arabs are by far the largest ethnic group in Sudan. They are almost en- tirely Muslims; while the majority speak Sudanese Ara- bic, some other Arab tribes speak different Arabic di- alects like Awadia and Fadnia tribes and Bani Arak tribes who speak Najdi Arabic; and Rufa'a, Bani Hassan, Al- Ashraf, Kinanah and Rashaida who speak Hejazi Arabic. In addition, the Western province comprises various eth- nic groups, while a few Arab Bedouin of the northern Rizeigat and others who speak Sudanese Arabic share the Minaret in Port Sudan same culture and backgrounds of the Sudanese Arabs. The majority of Arabized and indigenous tribes like the Main article: Religion in Sudan Fur, Zaghawa, Masalit and some Baggara ethnic groups, Further information: Islam in Sudan and Christianity in who speak Chadian Arabic, show less cultural integration Sudan because of cultural, linguistic and genealogical variations with other Arab and Arabized tribes.[117] At the 2011 division which split off South Sudan, over 14 8 CULTURE

97% of the population in the remaining Sudan adheres to Islam.[120] Muslims are divided between two groups Sufi and Salafi (Ansar Al Sunnah) Muslim. Two popular divisions, the Ansar and the Khatmia, are associated with the opposition Umma and Democratic Unionist Parties, respectively. Significant but long-established groups of Coptic Ortho- dox and Greek Orthodox Christians exist in Khartoum and other northern cities. Ethiopian and Eritrean Or- thodox communities also exist in Khartoum and eastern Sudan, largely made up of refugees and migrants from the past few decades. The largest groups affiliated with Western Christian denominations are Roman Catholic and Anglican. Other Christian groups with smaller fol- lowings in the country include the Africa Inland Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Sudan Church of Christ, the Sudan Interior Church, Jehovah’s Witnesses, the Sudan Pentecostal Church, the Sudan Evangelical Presbyterian Church (in the North). The government’s actions against the Nuba people, traditional inhabitants of the mineral-rich Nuba Mountains, have been labeled [121] ethnic cleansing. The Arabic-speaking Rashaida came to Sudan from Arabia Religious identity plays a role in the country’s political di- about 170 years ago visions. Northern and western Muslims have dominated the country’s political and economic system since inde- speakers along the Nile in the north. The most linguisti- pendence. The NCP draws much of its support from cally diverse region in the country is the Nuba Hills area Islamists, Salafis/Wahhabis and other conservative Arab in Kordofan, inhabited by speakers of multiple language Muslims in the north. The Umma Party has tradition- families, with Darfur and other border regions being sec- ally attracted Arab followers of the Ansar sect of Sufism ond. as well as non-Arab Muslims from Darfur and Kordo- fan. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) includes both The Niger-Congo family is represented by many of the Arab and non-Arab Muslims in the north and east, espe- Kordofanian languages, and Indo-European by Domari cially those in the Khatmia Sufi sect. (Gypsy) and English. Historically, Old Nubian, Greek, and Coptic (Egyptian) were the languages of Christian Nubia, while Meroitic was the language of the Kingdom 7.3 Languages of Kush, which conquered Egypt. Sudan also has multiple regional sign languages, which See also: Languages of Sudan are not mutually intelligible. A 2009 proposal for a uni- [122] Approximately 70 languages are native to Sudan. fied Sudanese Sign Language had been worked out, but Sudanese Arabic is the most widely spoken language in was not widely known.[123] the country. It is the variety of Arabic, an Afro-Asiatic Prior to 2005, Arabic was the nation’s sole official lan- language of the Semitic branch, that is spoken throughout guage.[124] In the 2005 constitution, Sudan’s official lan- northern Sudan. The dialect has borrowed much vocab- guages became Arabic and English.[3] ulary from local Nilo-Saharan languages (Nuba, Fur, Za- gawa, (languages)). This has resulted in a variety of Ara- bic that is unique to Sudan, reflecting the way in which the country has been influenced by Nilotic, Arab, and western 8 Culture cultures. Few nomads in Sudan still have similar accents to the ones in Saudi Arabia. Other important languages Further information: Music of Sudan, List of Sudanese include Beja (AKA Bedawi) along the Red Sea, with per- writers and List of Sudanese singers haps 2 million speakers. It is the only language from the Afro-Asiatic family’s Cushitic branch that is today spoken Sudanese culture melds the behaviors, practices, and be- in the territory. liefs of about 578 ethnic groups, communicating in 145 As with South Sudan, a number of Nilo-Saharan lan- different languages, in a region microcosmic of Africa, guages are also spoken in Sudan. Fur speakers inhabit the with geographic extremes varying from sandy desert to west (Darfur), with perhaps a million speakers. There are tropical forest. Recent evidence suggests that while most likewise various Nubian languages, with over 6 million citizens of the country identify strongly with both Sudan 8.3 Clothing 15

and their religion, Arab and African supranational iden- Sudanese football teams such as Al-Hilal and El- tities are much more polarising and contested.[125] Merreikh are among the nation’s strongest teams. Other teams like Khartoum, El-Neel, Al-Nidal El-Nahud and Hay-Al Arab, are also starting to grow in popularity. 8.1 Music

Main article: Music of Sudan 8.3 Clothing Sudan has a rich and unique musical culture that has Most individual Sudanese wear either traditional or west- ern attire. A traditional garb widely worn in Sudan is the jalabiya, which is a loose-fitting, long-sleeved, collarless ankle-length garment also common to Egypt. The jal- abiya is accompanied by a large scarf worn by women, and the garment may be white, colored, striped, and made of fabric varying in thickness, depending on the season of the year and personal preferences. A similar garment common to Sudan is the thobe or thawb. Like the jalabiya, the thawb is a long, tunic-like garment, although it may have a collar, be less loose- fitting, or have shorter sleeves or length than the jalabiya. The word “thawb” means “garment” in Arabic, and the thawb itself is the traditional Arab dress for men, al- though the word may also refer to similar tunic-like gar- A Sufi dervish drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in ments worn by women. Omdurman • Sudanese Arab writer Leila Aboulela been through chronic instability and repression during the modern history of Sudan. Beginning with the imposi- • Sudanese tourists by the Meroë pyramids in various tion of strict sharia law in 1989, many of the country’s types of clothing. most prominent poets, like Mahjoub Sharif, were impris- • oned while others, like Mohammed el Amin (returned Sudanese women in Darfur to Sudan in the mid 1990s) and Mohammed Wardi (re- • Herders at the camel market on the far west side of turned to Sudan 2003), fled to Cairo. Traditional music Omdurman suffered too, with traditional Zār ceremonies being in- terrupted and drums confiscated [1]. At the same time, however, the European militaries contributed to the de- 9 Education velopment of Sudanese music by introducing new instru- ments and styles; military bands, especially the Scottish bagpipes, were renowned, and set traditional music to military march music. The march March Shulkawi No 1, is an example, set to the sounds of the Shilluk.

8.2 Sport

The most popular sports in Sudan are athletics (track and field) and football. Though not as successful as football, handball, basketball, and volleyball are also popular in Sudan. Khartoum University established in 1902 Sudanese football has a long history. Sudan was one of the four African nations – the others being Egypt, Ethiopia and South Africa – which formed African foot- Main article: Education in Sudan ball. Sudan hosted the first African Cup of Nations in 1956, and has won the African Cup Of Nations once, in Education in Sudan is free and compulsory for children 1970. Two years later, the Sudan National Football Team aged 6 to 13 years. Primary education consists of eight participated in the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. The years, followed by three years of secondary education. nation’s capital is home to the Khartoum League, which The former educational ladder 6 + 3 + 3 was changed is considered to be the oldest football league in Africa. in 1990. The primary language at all levels is Arabic. 16 12 REFERENCES

Schools are concentrated in urban areas; many in the [13] Collins, Robert O. (2008). A History of Modern Sudan. West have been damaged or destroyed by years of civil Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85820-5. war. In 2001 the World Bank estimated that primary en- [14] Davison, Roderic H. (1960). “Where is the Mid- rollment was 46 percent of eligible pupils and 21 percent dle East?". Foreign Affairs 38 (4): 665–675. of secondary students. Enrollment varies widely, falling doi:10.2307/20029452. below 20 percent in some provinces. Sudan has 19 uni- versities; instruction is primarily in Arabic. Education [15] Keita, S.O.Y. (1993). “Studies and Comments on Ancient at the secondary and university levels has been seriously Egyptian Biological Relationships”. History in Africa 20: hampered by the requirement that most males perform 129–54. doi:10.2307/3171969. JSTOR 317196. military service before completing their education.[126] [16] http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/ The literacy rate is 70.2% of total population, male: org6_e.htm 79.6%, female: 60.8%.[12] [17] http://www.parliament.gov.sd/en/

[18] , 2009 U.S Dept of State Human Rights Report: Sudan 10 Environmental issues [19] International Association for the History of Religions (1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131, West Africa 11 See also may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as- • Outline of Sudan Sūdan, ‘Land of the Blacks’, of the Arabs.

• List of heads of government of Sudan [20] “Sudan A Country Study”. Countrystudies.us.

[21] Roux, Georges (27 August 1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. Retrieved 23 12 References June 2013.

[1] “Population of capital cities and cities of 100 000 or more [22] Metz, Helen C. (1991). Sudan: a Country Study. Wash- inhabitants: latest available year, 1990–2009”. Demo- ington: GPO for the Library of Congress. pp. “The Com- graphic Yearbook 2009 – 2010. United Nations. 2011. ing of Islam”. pp. 288–289. Retrieved 12 May 2012. (Table 8) [23] Churchill, Winston (1902). “The Rebellion of the [2] “Sudan: States, Major Cities, Towns & Agglomeration – Mahdi”. The River War. Statistics & Maps on City Population”. City Population. 2011. Retrieved 12 May 2012. [24] Rudolf Carl Freiherr von Slatin; Sir Francis Reginald Wingate (1896). Fire and Sword in the Sudan. E. Arnold. [3] “2005 constitution in English”. Retrieved 31 May 2013. Retrieved 26 June 2013.

[4] Rayah, Mubarak B. (1978). Sudan civilization. Demo- [25] Domke, D. Michelle (November 1997). “ICE Case Stud- cratic Republic of the Sudan, Ministry of Culture and In- ies; Case Number: 3; Case Identifier: Sudan; Case formation. p. 64. Name: Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion?". Inventory of Conflict and Environment (via the School of [5] “Republic of the Sudan Bureau of Statistics”. cbs.gov.sd. International Service at the American University). Re- 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014. trieved 8 January 2011. [6] “Discontent over Sudan census”. News24 (Cape Town). [26] “Brief History of the Sudan”. Sudan Embassy in Lon- AFP. 21 May 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2011. don. 20 November 2008. Archived from the original on [7] “Sudan”. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 1 Oc- 20 November 2008. Retrieved 31 May 2013. tober 2014. [27] “Factbox — Sudan’s President Omar Hassan al-Bashir”. [8] “Sudan”. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 1 Oc- Reuters. 14 July 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2011. tober 2014. [28] Bekele, Yilma (12 July 2008). “Chickens Are Coming [9] “Gini Index”. World Bank. Retrieved 2 March 2011. Home To Roost!". Ethiopian Review (Addis Ababa). Re- trieved 13 January 2011. [10] “2014 Human Development Report Summary”. United Nations Development Programme. 2014. pp. 21–25. [29] Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Is- Retrieved 27 July 2014. lam. Harvard University Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0- 674-01090-1. Retrieved 23 June 2013. [11] “Sudan”. Oxford English Dictionary. 1989. Retrieved 9 July 2011. [30] Walker, Peter (14 July 2008). “Profile: Omar al-Bashir”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 13 January 2011. [12] “The World Factbook: Sudan”. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. ISSN 1553-8133. Retrieved 10 July 2011. [31] The New York Times. 16 March 1996. p. 4. 17

[32] “History of the Sudan”. HistoryWorld. n.d. Retrieved 13 [50] “Sudan — Geography & Environment”. Oxfam GB. n.d. January 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2011.

[33] Shahzad, Syed Saleem (23 February 2002). “Bin Laden [51] “Geography of Sudan”. Sudan Embassy in London. n.d. Uses Iraq To Plot New Attacks”. Asia Times Online (Hong Archived from the original on 30 September 2005. Kong). Retrieved 14 January 2011. [52] “Desertification & Desert Cultivation Studies Institute”. [34] “Families of USS Cole Victims Sue Sudan for $105 Mil- University of Khartoum. n.d. Retrieved 31 May 2013. lion”. Fox News. Associated Press. 13 March 2007. Re- trieved 14 January 2011. [53] “Soil conservation and land reclamation in the Sudan”. United Nations University. n.d. Retrieved 26 June 2010. [35] Fuller, Graham E. (2004). The Future of Political Islam. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-4039-6556-1. [54] “Sudan — Environment”. Encyclopedia of the Nations. n.d. Retrieved 13 January 2011. [36] Wright, Lawrence (8 August 2006). The Looming Tower. [55] “President Omar al-Bashir Declared Winner of Sudan Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 221–223. ISBN Poll”. BBC News. 26 April 2010. Retrieved 8 January 978-0-307-26608-8. Retrieved 23 June 2013. 2011. [37] “Profile: Sudan’s President Bashir”. BBC News. 25 [56] Hamilton, Rebecca (13 August 2010). “In Challenge November 2003. Retrieved 8 January 2011. to Sudanese Ruling Party, Student Activists Rally for [38] Ali, Wasil (12 May 2008). “Sudanese Islamist Opposition Democracy”. The Washington Post (via the Pulitzer Cen- Leader Denies Link with Darfur Rebels”. Sudan Tribune ter for Crisis Reporting). Retrieved 8 January 2010. (Paris). Retrieved 31 May 2013. [57] Mazen, Maram (31 March 2010). “Sudan’s Ruling Party [39] “ICC Prosecutor Presents Case Against Sudanese Pres- Rigged Upcoming Vote, Crisis Group Says”. Business- ident, Hassan Ahmad al Bashir, for Genocide, Crimes week (New York). Retrieved 8 January 2011. Against Humanity and War Crimes in Darfur” (Press re- [58] Butty, James (1 April 2010). “Yasir Arman’s Sudan Ex- lease). Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal pert Says Yasir Arman’s Withdrawal from Election Sig- Court. 14 July 2008. Archived from the original on 25 nificant”. Voice of America. Retrieved 8 January 2011. March 2009. [59] “Chaotic Sudan Count Open to Manipulation — Ob- [40] “Warrant issued for Sudan’s Bashir”. BBC News. 4 servers”. Reuters. 10 May 2010. Retrieved 4 June 2013. March 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2011. [60] “Sudanese woman sentenced to stoning death over adul- [41] Lynch, Colum; Hamilton, Rebecca (13 July 2010). tery claims”. “International Criminal Court Charges Sudan’s Omar Hassan al-Bashir with Genocide”. The Washington Post. [61] “Woman faces death by stoning in Sudan”. Retrieved 14 January 2011. [62] “Rights Group Protests Stoning of Women in Sudan”. [42] “UNMIS Media Monitoring Report”. United Nations Mission in Sudan. 4 January 2006. Archived from the [63] “Woman faces 40 lashes for wearing trousers”. original on 21 March 2006. [64] “Sudanese woman who married a non-Muslim sentenced [43] “Darfur Peace Agreement”. US Department of State. 8 to death”. May 2006. Archived from the original on 2 August 2006. [65] “Pregnant woman sentenced to death and 100 lashes”. [44] “Restraint Plea to Sudan and Chad”. Al Jazeera English. [66] “Sudan : Man gets 40 lashes for sharing 'rape' video”. Agence France-Presse. 27 December 2005. Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. [67] “Detainee dies in custody in Port Sudan after court- ordered flogging”. [45] “Sudan, Chad Agree To Stop Fighting”. China Daily (Bei- jing). Associated Press. 4 May 2007. [68] “Sudan: Pair accused of kissing face 40 lashes”.

[46] “UN: Situation in Sudan could deteriorate if flooding con- [69] “Shocking video: Sudanese woman flogged for getting tinues”. International Herald Tribune (Paris). Associated into car with man who isn't related to her”. Press. 6 August 2007. Archived from the original on 26 February 2008. [70] “Field Listing — Legal System”. CIA World Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. n.d. Retrieved 14 January [47] “Sudan Floods: At Least 365,000 Directly Affected, Re- 2011. sponse Ongoing” (Press release). UN Office for the Coor- dination of Humanitarian Affairs. Relief Web. 6 August [71] “Sharia law to be tightened if Sudan splits – president”. 2007. Retrieved 13 January 2011. BBC News. 19 December 2010. Retrieved 4 October 2011. [48] “Sudan geography”. Institute for Security Studies. 12 Jan- uary 2005. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. [72] http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/ sudanese-woman-sentenced-death-christian-freed-court-article-1. [49] “Sudan”. Country Studies. n.d. Retrieved 26 June 2010. 1840177 18 12 REFERENCES

[73] "The world’s enduring dictators". CBS News. May 16, [92] “Darfur Tops U.S. List of Worst Human Rights Abuses”. 2011. USA Today (Washington DC). Associated Press. 6 March 2007. Retrieved 8 January 2011. [74] Goodman, Peter S. (23 December 2004). “China Invests Heavily In Sudan’s Oil Industry — Beijing Supplies Arms [93] “Q&A: Sudan’s Darfur conflict”. BBC News. 8 February Used on Villagers”. The Washington Post. Retrieved 31 2010. May 2013. [94] “Sudan – Report 2006”. Amnesty International. [75] “Sudan supports Moroccan sovereignty over Southern Provinces”. Morocco Times (Casablanca). 26 December [95] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7796507.stm 2005. Archived from the original on 26 February 2006. [96] “Memorial of the Government of Sudan”. The Hague: Permanent Court of Arbitration. 18 December 2008. p. [76] “Sudan: National Security”. Mongabay. n.d. Retrieved xii. 14 January 2011. [97] “South Sudan ready to declare independence” (Press re- [77] “Q&A: Sudan’s Darfur Conflict”. BBC News. 23 Febru- lease). Menas Associates. 8 July 2011. Retrieved 4 June ary 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2011. 2013. [78] “Darfur Peace Talks To Resume in Abuja on Tuesday: [98] “Economy”. Government of South Sudan. 20 October AU”. People’s Daily (Beijing). Xinhua. 28 November 2009. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. 2005. Retrieved 14 January 2011. [99] (registration required) Gettleman, Jeffrey (24 October [79] “Hundreds Killed in Attacks in Eastern Chad — U.N. 2006). “War in Sudan? Not Where the Oil Wealth Agency Says Sudanese Militia Destroyed Villages”. The Flows”. The New York Times. Retrieved 24 May 2010. Washington Post. Associated Press. 11 April 2007. Re- trieved 14 January 2011. [100] DfID Sudan: “Operational Plan 2011-2015”

[80] “Sudan”. International Organization for Migration. 2 May [101] “South Sudan Gets Ready for Independence”. Al Jazeera. 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2013. 21 June 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[81] “The Sudans”. Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian International [102] Gettleman, Jeffrey (20 June 2011). “As Secession Nears, Development Agency. 29 January 2013. Retrieved 31 Sudan Steps Up Drive to Stop Rebels”. The New York May 2013. Times. Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[82] “Darfur – overview”. Unicef. n.d. Retrieved 31 May [103] Richard P. C. Brown (1992). Public Debt and Pri- 2013. vate Wealth: Debt, Capital Flight and the Imf in Sudan. Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-0-333-57543-7. [83] “South Sudan, Nuba Mountains, May 2003 – WFP deliv- ered food aid via road convoy”. World Food Programme. [104] “The “Big 4” – How oil revenues are connected to Khar- 8 May 2003. Retrieved 31 May 2013. toum”. Amnesty International USA. Retrieved 14 March 2009. [84] “EU, UNIDO set up Centre in Sudan to develop industrial skills, entrepreneurship for job creation” (Press release). [105] Herbst, Moira (14 March 2008). “Oil for China, Guns for UN Industrial Development Organization. 8 February Darfur”. Businessweek (New York). Retrieved 14 March 2011. Retrieved 4 June 2013. 2009.

[85] Staff writer (April 2001). “Sudan: Nearly 2 Million Dead [106] Trivett, Vincent (8 July 2011). “Oil-Rich South Sudan as a Result of the World’s Longest Running Civil War” Has Hours To Choose Between North Sudan, China And at the Wayback Machine (archived December 10, 2004). The U.S.”. Business Insider (New York). Retrieved 9 July U.S. Committee for Refugees. Archived 10 December 2011. 2004 on the Internet Archive. [107] Corruption Perceptions Index 2013. Full table and rank- [86] "SUDAN: CSI highlights 'slavery and manifestations of ings. Transparency International. Retrieved: 4 December racism'". IRIN. September 2001. 2013.

[87] “Sudanese Authorities Urged Not to Introduce 'Censor- [108] Welthungerhilfe, IFPRI, and Concern Worldwide: 2013 ship Bureau'" Global Hunger Index - The challenge of hunger: Building Resilience to Achieve Food and Nutrition Security. Bonn, [88] UNICEF 2013, p. 27. Washington D. C., Dublin. October 2013.

[89] http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/07/ [109] “The 2013 Human Development Report – “The Rise of time-to-let-sudans-girls-be-girls-not-brides/ the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World"". HDRO (Human Development Report Office) United Nations De- [90] http://www.trust.org/item/20131118080551-ikgwx/ velopment Programme. pp. 144–147. Retrieved 15 Jan- uary 2014. [91] “Letter to the U.N. Security Council on Sudan Sanctions and Civilian Protection in Darfur”. Human Rights Watch. [110] "Sudan:Population living below $1.25 PPP per day (%)". 15 August 2006. Retrieved 4 June 2013. undp.org. Retrieved 1 January 2014. 19

[111] Heavens, Andrew (21 May 2009). “Southerners dismiss • Churchill, Winston (1899; 2000). The River War Sudan pre-poll census count”. Reuters. Retrieved 28 May — An Historical Account of the Reconquest of the 2013. Soudan. Carroll & Graf Publishers (New York City). ISBN 978-0-7867-0751-5. [112] “Sudan – Population”. Library of Congress Country Stud- ies. • Clammer, Paul (2005). Sudan — The Bradt Travel [113] “World Refugee Survey 2008”. U.S. Committee for Guide. Bradt Travel Guides (Chalfont St. Peter); Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008. Globe Pequot Press.(Guilford, Connecticut). ISBN 978-1-84162-114-2. [114] “World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Sudan: Copts”. Minority Rights Group International. • Evans-Pritchard, Blake; Polese, Violetta (2008). 2008. Retrieved 21 December 2010. Sudan — The City Trail Guide. City Trail Publish- ing. ISBN 978-0-9559274-0-9. [115] “Copts migration”. Sudanupdate.org. • El Mahdi, Mandour. (1965). A Short History of [116] Bechtold, Peter R. (1991). “More Turbulence in Sudan”. the Sudan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19- In Voll, John. Sudan: State and Society in Crisis. Boulder, 913158-9. CA: Westview Press. p. 1. • Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2005). The Problem of Dar [117] Suliman, Osman (2010). The Darfur Conflict: Geography Fur, iUniverse (New York City). ISBN 978-0-595- or Institutions?. Taylor & Francis. p. 115. ISBN 978-0- 203-83616-3. 36502-9. • [118] Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2004). Short History Of Su- dan. iUniverse (New York City). ISBN 978-0-595- وزير خارجية السودان الاسبق حسين ابوصالح ل"الشرق" : التهديدات الامريكية للسودان كانت تصلنا في ورقة صغيرة دون ترويسة اوامضاء (in Arabic). Almshaheer.com. 31425-6. • [119] Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ire- Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2007). UN Intervention in land (1888). Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute Dar Fur, iUniverse (New York City). ISBN 978-0- of Great Britain and Ireland 17. p. 16. Retrieved 8 May 595-42979-0. 2011. • Jok, Jok Madut (2007). Sudan — Race, Reli- [120] “Sudan Overview”. UNDP Sudan. Retrieved 20 June gion and Violence. Oneworld Publications (Oxford). 2012. ISBN 978-1-85168-366-6.

[121] content.time.com • Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2001). Slavery in Maurita- nia and Sudan — The State Against Blacks, in The [122] Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Lan- Modern African State — Quest for Transformation. guages of the World, 16th ed. Dallas: SIL International. Nova Science Publishers (Huntington, New York). Online version: “Languages of Sudan” ISBN 978-1-56072-936-5. [123] Karen Andrae (2009) Language for inclusion (Sign lan- • guage in Sudan) on YouTube O'Fahey, Rex Seán; Spauling, Jay Lloyd (1974). Kingdoms of the Sudan. Methuen Publishing [124] Leclerc, Jacques. “L'aménagement linguistique dans le (London). ISBN 978-0-416-77450-4. Covers monde, “Soudan"" (in French). Trésor de la langue Sennar and Darfur. française au Québec. Retrieved 31 May 2013. • Peterson, Scott (2001). Me Against My Brother [125] “Hamilton, A. and Hudson, J. (2014) Bribery and Identity: — At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda — A Evidence from Sudan. Bath Economic Research Papers, Journalist Reports from the Battlefields of Africa. No 21/14” Routledge (London; New York City). ISBN 978- [126] “Sudan country profile” (PDF). Library of Congress Fed- 0-203-90290-5. eral Research Division. December 2004. Retrieved 31 • Prunier, Gérard (2005). Darfur — The Ambiguous May 2013. Genocide. Cornell University Press (Ithaca, New York). ISBN 978-0-8014-4450-0. 13 Bibliography • Welsby, Derek A. (2002). The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia — Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along Books the Middle Nile. British Museum Press (London). ISBN 978-0-7141-1947-2. • Brown, Richard P.C. (1992) Public Debt and Private • Zilfū, ʻIṣmat Ḥasan (translation: Clark, Peter) Wealth: debt, capital flight and the IMF in Sudan. (1980). Karari — The Sudanese Account of the Bat- Macmillan Publishers London ISBN 0-333-57543- tle of Omdurman. Frederick Warne & Co (London). 1. ISBN 978-0-7232-2677-2. 20 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

Article

• “Quo Vadis bilad as-Sudan? The Contemporary Framework for a National Interim Constitution”. Law in Africa (Cologne; 2005). Vol. 8, pp. 63–82. ISSN 1435-0963.

14 External links

• Government of Sudan website

• Sudan web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado–Boulder Libraries

• Sudan at DMOZ

• Wikimedia Atlas of Sudan • Sudan entry at The World Factbook

• Sudan profile from the BBC News • CIMIC activities in the African Union Mission in Sudan

Coordinates: 15°N 032°E / 15°N 32°E 21

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text

• Sudan Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan?oldid=638892763 Contributors: Tbc, Brion VIBBER, Koyaanis Qatsi, -- April, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Scipius, Danny, Rmhermen, SimonP, Drbug, Kadandaly, Edward, Ubiquity, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, MartinHarper, Hoshie, Matthewmayer, Mic, Ixfd64, Komap, Delirium, Pcb21, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, TUF- KAT, Notheruser, Jebba, Александър, Bogdangiusca, Silthor, Jiang, Kaihsu, CarlKenner, Tobias Conradi, Smack, Richard Avery, Nikola Smolenski, Pascal, Guaka, Dysprosia, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Munford, Imc, Gren- delkhan, Morwen, Taxman, Sabbut, Bloodshedder, Jusjih, Proteus, Trmurrell, Frazzydee, Hajor, Dmytro, Carlossuarez46, Robbot, Vardion, Ke4roh, ChrisO, PBS, Stephan Schulz, Romanm, Lowellian, Mirv, Babbage, Amgine, Pingveno, Chris5369, Sunray, Bkell, Jeroen, David Edgar, Ungvichian, Mushroom, Scythian99, Seth Ilys, Giftlite, DocWatson42, MPF, Isam, Netoholic, Wilfried Derksen, Zigger, Ich, Pe- ruvianllama, Everyking, Curps, Gamaliel, David Johnson, Nicholsr, Patrick-br, Cantus, Rick Block, Niteowlneils, Sebjarod, Pteron, Node ue, Xwu, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Edcolins, Sesel, Alanl, Gyrofrog, Pgan002, Andycjp, Dvavasour, Knutux, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, Ex ottoyuhr, Beland, JoJan, G3pro, PDH, Jossi, Noirum, 1297, Mikko Paananen, OwenBlacker, Secfan, Al-Andalus, EBB, Supadawg, PFHLai, Karl- Henner, Sam Hocevar, Jklamo, Grunners, Crazyeddie, Anirvan, Tsemii, Ukexpat, Sarcelles, Klemen Kocjancic, Deeceevoice, Adashiel, Shotwell, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Apalsola, Imroy, Meta, A-giau, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Naive cynic, Wikiacc, HeikoEvermann, Aris Katsaris, Quiensabe, Arthur Holland, Pavel Vozenilek, La gaie, Bender235, ESkog, AaronPeterson, Sundberg, Kaisershatner, Pedant, Brian0918, Aecis, *drew, MBisanz, El C, Lycurgus, Zenohockey, Szquirrel, Kwamikagami, Quartier- Latin1968, Aude, Shanes, Art LaPella, RobNS, Adambro, Bobo192, Valentino, Chtito, Shenme, Cwolfsheep, Apyule, Dungodung, Acntx, Jojit fb, Kjkolb, Darwinek, Colonel Cow, PeterisP, JohnWest, Hajenso, Larendon, Shorne, Nandodick, AppleJuggler, Pharos, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, OneGuy, Pazuzu, Alansohn, Gary, PaulHanson, Karlthegreat, Buaidh, Halsteadk, Arthena, SemperBlotto, Craigy144, Tricky, Echuck215, Mlessard, Mac Davis, Mailer diablo, YDZ, Ynhockey, Hu, Victim Of Fate, Snowolf, RPellessier, Ombudsman, Wtmitchell, TheRealFennShysa, BanyanTree, Danntm, Cburnett, Evil Monkey, Grenavitar, Sciurinæ, Abdel Qadir, Politician, BlastOButter42, Kusma, SteinbDJ, Mikenassau, Nightstallion, Blaxthos, MiguelTremblay, Michaelm, Richwales, Red dwarf, SmthManly, Natalya, Bastin, Benoni, Daveydweeb, Angr, Boothy443, Woohookitty, Ghane, Mikeetc, RHaworth, TigerShark, BillC, WadeSimMiser, Chochopk, Jeff3000, Pix- eltoo, MONGO, MrDarcy, Tabletop, Kelisi, Huhsunqu, JRHorse, Locoluis, Polar, Toussaint, Prashanthns, Cedrus-Libani, MarcoTolo, Nick1nildram, Vineviz, Dysepsion, Mandarax, SqueakBox, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Tibetibet, BD2412, Jiby742, Dpr, Fox Mccloud, Electionworld, Canderson7, Sjö, Behemoth, Wikix, Rjwilmsi, Carwil, Gamesmasterg9, Koavf, Allenc28, Kinu, Gryffindor, Fun- nyhat, SeanMack, Brighterorange, Ttwaring, Sango123, Gozar, Yamamoto Ichiro, FayssalF, Titoxd, Alejo2083, FlaBot, Naraht, EvanSeeds, Andymadigan, Dan Guan, Nihiltres, Vsion, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, ChongDae, Merhawie, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, Nick81, Terrx, Atitarev, Malhonen, McDogm, Thecurran, David Haberlah, Le Anh-Huy, Idaltu, Chobot, Bornhj, DVdm, 334a, Bgwhite, Skraz, Gwer- nol, E Pluribus Anthony, UkPaolo, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hmwordock53, Jamesmorrison, RobotE, Wester, Deeptrivia, Osomec, Jimp, StuffOfInterest, RussBot, Conscious, Briaboru, Epolk, SpuriousQ, CanadianCaesar, Takwish, Akamad, Stephenb, Lord Voldemort, Oke- dem, CambridgeBayWeather, Kimchi.sg, Varnav, Wimt, Thane, Alynna Kasmira, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, Aftermath, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Leutha, Veledan, Badagnani, Tejas81, NYScholar, Sylvain1972, Geoff NoNick, Lexicon, Irishguy, Nick, Renata3, Puttypa- pyrus, Cholmes75, CaliforniaAliBaba, Dooky, Danlaycock, Aleichem, BOT-Superzerocool, Harami2000, DeadEyeArrow, Hakeem.gadi, Sven-steffen arndt, Brokenlove, DRosenbach, Jpeob, Martinwilke1980, MEA707, Dv82matt, Ms2ger, Tigershrike, FF2010, TheSeer, Sandstein, Zello, Vpendse, Doldrums, Deville, Zzuuzz, Trilemma, The-, Coey, Barryob, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, KGasso, Krispycreme, Derek1G, Cool thing76, Rande M Sefowt, TBadger, Croat Canuck, Fram, Smurrayinchester, Scoutersig, Kevin, Bwoods, Cromag, Allens, Bluezy, Kungfuadam, Ief, RG2, Delepaak, GrinBot, Roke, Jeff Silvers, Tom Morris, Caponer, Luk, BomBom, Sardanaphalus, A bit iffy, Mb99, SmackBot, Pwt898, WilliamThweatt, Haymaker, BeteNoir, David Kernow, Zazaban, Tarret, Knowl- edgeOfSelf, Zerida, Enzymes, Unyoyega, Goldfishbutt, C.Fred, Saimdusan, Vald, Benitosuarezz, Jagged 85, Davewild, Big Adamsky, Martylunsford, Midway, Scifiintel, Stifle, EncycloPetey, Delldot, Rojomoke, Jab843, Trezatium, Frymaster, Jringer, Canthusus, Fnfd, Kin- tetsubuffalo, Aivazovsky, Timotheus Canens, Nil Einne, Swerdnaneb, MelancholieBot, Yamaguchi, Kudzu1, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Folajimi, Hmains, Betacommand, Willem Tijssen, Skizzik, Polaron, Carl.bunderson, Cs-wolves, Amatulic, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Keegan, Philosopher, Persian Poet Gal, Ghost.scream, Jprg1966, Whywhywhy, Daniel Polehn, Jaw101ie, MalafayaBot, Papa Novem- ber, SchfiftyThree, Hibernian, RayAYang, Deli nk, Akanemoto, Bazonka, Dlohcierekim’s sock, DHN-bot, Raistuumum, Soundoftoday, Colonies Chris, Cshobe, Gracenotes, Suicidalhamster, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Robogun, Glissa1, Nixeagle, MJCdetroit, Avb, Constantine.Zakrasov, EOZyo, Rrburke, Addshore, Flubbit, Bolivian Unicyclist, Edivorce, Phaedriel, Arab Hafez, Rarelibra, Khoikhoi, Krich, The-dissonance-reports, Wiz9999, Cybercobra, Jwy, Nakon, Savidan, MichaelBillington, Vpedicino, Dreadstar, Lpgeffen, Dib- ble999, Vedek Dukat, KI, RyGuy17, DMacks, Yom, Kalathalan, Jitterro, Pilotguy, Kukini, Ricky@36, Ceoil, Kadoda, FAH1223, An- gela26, SashatoBot, Esrever, Nishkid64, Rory096, Wideangle, Rklawton, Potosino, John, Sbmehta, Demicx, Lapaz, Iman.shaggag, Ulner, Michak, Heimstern, DivineIntervention, Hmbr, Gobonobo, Xakaxunknownx, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Shyamsunder, Woer$, Green Giant, JohnWittle, Darkhorse08817, IronGargoyle, Morten, The Man in Question, Stuartfanning, A. Parrot, Dekkappai, Digger3000, BillFlis, Jigsaw Jimmy, Slakr, Qsl111, Shangrilaista, TuesdayMush, Nicetomeetyou, Noah Salzman, Bronayur, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, MainBody, AxG, Michael Greiner, Kalemguzeli, Aotearoa, Ryulong, Arstchnca, Peter Horn, MTSbot, Skinsmoke, Jose77, Negrulio, Mark- Thomas, Hectorian, KJS77, Istanbuljohnm, Levineps, Serenesoulnyc, Iridescent, Keldoud, Hyyttaa, Slicedoranges, LeyteWolfer, Joseph Solis in Australia, Zrdm, Shoeofdeath, Wjejskenewr, R, Igoldste, Cbrown1023, Amakuru, Octane, Beno1000, Pinochii, Marysunshine, Jfayel, Mkapedia, Az1568, Courcelles, Linkspamremover, RNavigator, Woodshed, Thricecube, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Daniel5127, Ouishoebean, RaviC, Ioannes Pragensis, Gifuoh, JForget, CmdrObot, Awwill, Patchouli, Ale jrb, Wafulz, DanGuan, Van helsing, Flyn- ntmike, Blue-Haired Lawyer, Olaf Davis, Makeemlighter, Picaroon, Gyopi, GHe, Scheridon, N2e, Orthuberra, PeanutCheeseBar, Shan- dris, WeggeBot, Shizane, Deibid, Tom Hillstrom, Zurkhardo, Neelix, Cortaneosaurus, Karenjc, Hemlock Martinis, Equendil, Cydebot, Mblumber, Пакко, Karouri, Procrastinator supreme, Warhorus, Treybien, MC10, Mato, Gogo Dodo, Rowlandw, Flowerpotman, R-41, Jonathandore, Llort, Adolphus79, Vampiric.Media, Wikipediarules2221, Soetermans, Master son, Davinhutchins, Trident13, Tawker- bot4, Dynaflow, Clovis Sangrail, Shirulashem, Jokron, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Swooningdisaster, Optimist on the run, PetertheVenerable, Gnfnrf, Viridae, JodyB, Allamiro, Miller66, Casliber, CieloEstrellado, `Imran, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Elfred, Wikid77, Btball, ChunkySoup, Qwyrxian, RVD, EricSRodrigues154, Danlibbo, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Smile a While, A3RO, Ackees, Tellyad- dict, Yettie0711, Teef ameer, JustAGal, Undomiel, Oogieboogie, Sinn, Segfault87, Ibrahim omer, Zachary, FreeKresge, Minnesotan- Confederacy, Stevvvv4444, Dawnseeker2000, Mmortal03, AlefZet, Escarbot, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Freddiem, Santahul, Seaphoto, Hanharr, Trjames, Jj137, Whytecypress, Hopiakuta, Modernist, Credema, Chill doubt, Yellowdesk, Alphachimpbot, Storkk, Arx For- tis, Phil153, Golgofrinchian, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Leroy65X, Deflective, Husond, T L Miles, The Transhumanist, Scythian1, Robina Fox, Andonic, 100110100, Ilunga Shibinda, Rothorpe, Simon Burchell, Steveprutz, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Yosh3000, Dragonnas, Magi- 22 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

oladitis, A12n, Bennybp, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Weebiloobil, Scanlan, Jeff Dahl, Xn4, MJD86, LordCrow, Sebras, JamesBWatson, Appraiser, Csathya, Mbc362, Nyttend, Jelsa tris, Rich257, WODUP, Starsimon, Twodeel, Cmontero, Fallschirmjäger, Hgfh, Gmflash, ,Georgesk117, Am86, Bharathiya, Just James, Faro0485, Rif Winfield ,الدبوني ,Animum, Johnbibby, ArchStanton69, Imeisel, Smithgrrl DerHexer, JaGa, Mabuhelwa, Matt.smart, The Him, Xtifr, StanCan, DancingPenguin, Raoulduke47, Pauly04, Hdt83, MartinBot, NAHID, Mike6271, Bennybobw, LouisianaFan, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Lilac Soul, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Mange01, Rodrigo braz, Msl5046, Numbo3, Adewaal, Uncle Dick, Swooptyswoop, A Nobody, Icseaturtles, Rickyengland, It Is Me Here, Homer slips., Katalaveno, Abhijitsathe, Kangie, McSly, SpigotMap, AsspenguinXtreme, Ryan Postlethwaite, QueenFrstine06, Naniwako, Gurchzilla, Adrián V.M., (jarbarf), SuzanneKn, M-le-mot-dit, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Molly-in- md, Ahuskay, Malerin, Toon05, Flatterworld, Mufka, Student7, Shoessss, Largoplazo, Dubhe.sk, CatoMinor, 2help, Cometstyles, Cor- riebertus, Jehuty Strife, LozzerC, Sjwk, Nimora, Elenseel, Pranks, Gtg204y, Dzenanz, Andy Marchbanks, Henstep1313, Halmstad, Xi- ahou, Conte di Cavour, Medicineman84, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Fainites, Azome1, Wikieditor06, Wildfire634, X!, Deor, VolkovBot, CWii, Thomas.W, Jeff G., Nburden, Vlma111, BoogaLouie, Luna7, AlnoktaBOT, Dark paladin x, Wcrosbie, RomainThibaux, Kyle the bot, Bsroiaadn, Toddy1, Ryan032, Maxtremus, Nitrofest, Philip Trueman, Fsmatovu, Blendus, Keplina, TXiKiBoT, Betty459, Jordan042, Pworley, Captain Courageous, GDonato, Secret411, Wikidemon, Atelerix, Aymatth2, Lradrama, Seraphim, Cream10152, DennyColt, Martin451, JhsBot, Leafyplant, Supertask, Jackfork, HuskyHuskie, Mkpumphrey, Seb az86556, PDFbot, Onore Baka Sama, Malus Cat- ulus, Madhero88, Wenli, Pribar, Dirkbb, Taharqa, Chalybeate, Kang aluong, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Cnilep, TJMac, Insanity Incarnate, Alsudani, AlleborgoBot, Funeral, Logan, Louse, CT Cooper, Pilipinischer, Omar1808, Chabchaba, EmxBot, Airthes, SylviaStanley, Salty- Boatr, EJF, SieBot, Coffee, MuzikJunky, Tigresscrawl, Ttonyb1, Nubiatech, K. Annoyomous, Tresiden, Scarian, Luboogers25, Jack Mer- ridew, Mjkubba, Gerakibot, Jsc83, Moe47, Caltas, Luke.schenk, Yintan, Revent, Camtheonewingedangel, CsikosLo, Sockettome, Doma- leixo, Slide Maintenance, Boacinema, Til Eulenspiegel, Fricasso, AlexHammer, Keilana, FunkMonk, Exert, The Evil Spartan, Brozozo, Bakashi10, Nopetro, Monegasque, Jariola, The Nikkeler, Oxymoron83, 11844a, Spock2266, AnonGuy, Lightmouse, Wlegro, Jenkinsear, Mátyás, Gunmetal Angel, Macy, AMbot, Kudret abi, OKBot, Banna12345, Mitch1981, Maelgwnbot, Jonlandrum, Vice regent, Renee- holle, StaticGull, Thomasfhowardiii, JustBeCool, Jacob.jose, Mygerardromance, Lalahuma, Ascidian, Sinhala freedom, TubularWorld, Davidor7, Denisarona, Angelo De La Paz, Kanonkas, Troy 07, Explicit, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, RS1900, WikipedianMarlith, RockyAlley, Golden Dunner, Martarius, Beeblebrox, De728631, Jngk2007, ClueBot, Bisuketto, Sennen goroshi, GorillaWarfare, Dyn- ablu, PipepBot, Snigbrook, Kotniski, Narom, The Thing That Should Not Be, Postmortemjapan, Rodhullandemu, Kids for Kids, Rjd0060, Comescourt, Vm fan, RashersTierney, Afrique, Clerkvisit22, Drmies, Isatemple, Mild Bill Hiccup, Malikbek, RSBCSD, Joaopaulopontes, Alan283, Charlir91, Harland1, Rileyk123, P. S. Burton, Infernoaxemurderersivin, Neverquick, Lfriedl, Murygurl01, Mwanga, Eltaibzh, Solar-Wind, Speedytails24, Dwrcan, Detroiterbot, Dwannan, Excirial, Alexbot, Jpedds, Tomeasy, Taifarious1, Welshyyyyy, Wikiscribe, Sunil060902, Wangosmith, Famoniq, BadBlueBoy, Eeekster, Lantzy, Film festivus, Sun Creator, Fishtalejava32939, Cenarium, Joshua- vandyk, Jotterbot, Dn9ahx, New4325, Ember of Light, Botsjeh, Bonewah, Royalmate1, Dekisugi, Jared ferrari, Knowz, Muro Bot, Can- naya, Carriearchdale, JasonAQuest, BOTarate, Chrono1084, Grey Gundle, KellenML, Tired time, Ziyaddd, Thingg, AMC0712, Aitias, Mor8iddeath, Flower Priest, Samantha555, Mhockey, Ssccoottaa, IJA, SoxBot III, Ostinato2, DumZiBoT, BarretB, XLinkBot, Spitfire, Bilsonius, HappyKid111, Maudemiller, Codefour, DaL33T, Auxodium II, TFOWR, WikHead, Vegas949, Jd027, Noctibus, Mm40, Myst- Bot, Tom.kirk, Atticus1337, A7mdone, Timeconsumer033, Good Olfactory, Airplaneman, Gggh, Crispness, HexaChord, Jhendin, Luwilt, Klundarr, Wakablogger2, Tahirfaridtahir, Pipeclean, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, Nubia123, Moielbashir, Causteau, Vejvančický, Natand, Montgomery '39, Apoyon, Haruth, M.nelson, Afbibwei, DougsTech, It is me i think, PatrickFlaherty, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Usernamealreadyinusefatass, Elmondo21st, Jncraton, Fieldday-sunday, Cminime4, Xilar, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, Hukipoo365, Noozgroop, Taubblindheit, Shortman352003, Polemarchus, Cst17, Mnmazur, Lost on belmont, Proxima Centauri, SoSaysChappy, Funky Fantom, Awanta, Glane23, Tonygenco, Micro360, Graf von Moltke, Debresser, Favonian, Doniago, Numbo3-bot, H kinani, Deathboy52, Tide rolls, Musliman08, Lightbot, Apteva, Gail, MuZemike, Bricklayer, WikiHendrik, Alfie66, Kauajiri, Ben Ben, Middayexpress, Kur- tis, Kehancoc, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Piergiorgio Massari, 2D, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Shantamurta, MauriManya, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Smallarmssurvey, AnthonyMorland, ZRetro, EnDaLeCoMpLeX, Againme, Tempodivalse, Dickaselas, Bil- ity, KangTheMad, AnomieBOT, Blakerignew, Archon 2488, 1exec1, YeshuaDavid, Sertion, Jim1138, IRP, Tavrian, Tucoxn, Cptnono, СЛУЖБА, Xufanc, AdjustShift, LlywelynII, Yachtsman1, Wikiamante, Jo3sampl, Murhamada, Bosonic dressing, Bluerasberry, Good- timber, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Khemikals, Alawadhi3000, Adrianturcato, Citation bot, George kash, Brightgalrs, Eumolpo, Julia Keyser, ArthurBot, Taikah, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Yokelo, Xqbot, Antime, TinucherianBot II, S h i v a (Visnu), Viola v, Llyntegid, Rivin19, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Edinboy93, Demonteddybear, Anna Frodesiak, FuturePrefect, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Julle, Ubcule, Mussapedia, Anonymous from the 21st century, J04n, GrouchoBot, Frosted14, Alumnum, Eyob07, 212district, Shirik, Sharveet, Ribot- BOT, Yusuf Fadl Hasan, Spesh531, The Wiki ghost, Sophus Bie, Tokiohotelover, Cyfraw, GhalyBot, Kenndo, Chongkian, Shadowjams, Anita2009, PM800, Samwb123, SD5, ,A.amitkumar, Thewikipopo, AdamSW, Ayanonme, Hoi jeon moo sool, Amethys- tus, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Deatassassin, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, WikiTrenches, Dococe, Rckrone, Recognizance, Alarics, Aryoerg, TownDown, Routerone, HJ Mitchell, Oakshield, A Werewolf, VoodooIsland, Bambuway, Evalowyn, Aordictator, A little insignificant, Citation bot 1, Hassanbashier, Abs9106, Intelligentsium, JerryCMancuso, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Ddavi13, Vladmirfish, Supreme De- liciousness, Misaligned, A8UDI, Joshblue14, Jschnur, Fatihnafiagraz, Quigox, Jaguar, Philly boy92, SpaceFlight89, Remisc, Fixer88, Michaelmozzie, Hassanik, TedderBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Yelknirb10, Dac04, Rickstaboh, Reconsider the static, FoxBot, Tobe- Bot, Lafontas, Shazzy09, Kingky, Jonkerz, GRUM75, AlbrechtH, Aligherio, Xanderliptak, Hancock10, Mrafox, Capt. James T. Kirk, -Dewar210, Aiken drum, Davish Krail, Gold Five, BeccaMC, BbOoNnNnIiEe, Breakingspell, Diannaa, Sil ,شرف الدين ,Theo10011 verbladeGR, Kikutarou, Underlying lk, Sungjin13, IRISZOOM, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Greatsudan, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Omerx, Schlacks15, Fastardul, Mustafax444, KeepingPace, RjwilmsiBot, Neifion, Alirie, Ripchip Bot, CrimeCentral, Oliverparish, Rc- tycoplay, Salvio giuliano, Kiko4564, Slon02, Bajow24, Mace123, Aderaciek, ILOVEBLOWJOBS, DASHBot, DoRD, Marknutley, Gior- giogp2, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, JCRules, Avenue X at Cicero, Immunize, Look2See1, Distal24, Rac- -RenamedUser01302013, CR1PKILL3R, Ex ,باسم المصرى ,erx11, Britannic124, RA0808, Zakeria6760, Mesgul82, Marcos canbeiro tracarecoupon, Solarra, Mtmyou3, Wikipelli, K6ka, P. S. F. Freitas, AsceticRose, Darkfight, Tsujimasen, HiW-Bot, Arab4Ever, Ashmare, John Cline, Daonguyen95, Lokang75, Josve05a, Traxs7, Shuipzv3, JohnCengiz77, Ed veg, Inhakito, Ben Dawid, Samismas, LordMaster96, Fadila Farouk, Sudan365, Iwanttoeditthissh, Zakeria12345, A930913, Ebrambot, H3llBot, Netknowle, Ives.christopher, MAINEiac4434, SporkBot, Gz33, NGPriest, Gev-Weasley, Sross (Public Policy), Camo673, Rastaquouere, Quite vivid blur, Hassan HAMM, Orange Suede Sofa, Hazard-Bot, ChuispastonBot, GermanJoe, HandsomeFella, Rana97, Peter Karlsen, Racisttowhiteandblackninja234, E015795, Mehdi, DASHBotAV, Muskydusky, 28bot, Whoop whoop pull up, Joberg77, Jxraynor, Iloveapphysics, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Kingroyos, Jackcoleman, Cinimod1212, Erik Lönnrot, Jack Greenmaven, Serasuna, Nicolay Sidorov, Baxe999, MelbourneStar, Ecad93, , Ste- fanVK, Zeldafan3242, Chrisminter, Bulldog73, Paterimon, Kman665, PovertyEradication, Johnno91, OleGreg, PedR, Vulpesinculta51, Everest700, Frietjes, Delusion23, Magicoast, Reedman72, Djodjo666, Srothen84, Bloodfreez, O.Koslowski, Scottydodgy, Insitutefore- conomicsandpeace, Conservikid, Tiller22, Gohiba, Widr, Hatsios, Masharmakuir, Delivernews, Anupmehra, Cowik, Proudemon333, 15.2 Images 23

Neogeolegend, North Atlanticist Usonian, IgnorantArmies, Mightymights, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mostaphaosta00, Acedepopo, VitoPisani, Kemb26, Calabe1992, Prince jasim ali, Lowercase sigmabot, Levekks, BG19bot, Krenair, Pollito con Papas, Sematz, Itinaina, CityOf- Silver, Northamerica1000, QeshemB, Fay.farstad, Cyberpower678, HIDECCHI001, Wiki13, Jweaver28, Frze, AvocatoBot, Spieren, Flo- rencecapital, Samasimsudsud, Muhammad Daffa Rambe, Yucky30040, Newlifeline46635, 84737djj9, Huhu3938348, Jasmin.khan1974, ,MrPenguin20, Amolbot, Khalisa, Mohammedzain ,أبو الحارث بن قيس عيلان ,NelsonSudan, Mabil, Mark Arsten, Midnight Green DPL bot, Chetanaik, MrBill3, Sudanafoog, Ecrbrown, JacksonShell18, Magdi Tayyib, M7MD.SU, Alkazzarstar, Nailbolt, Dertogada, Conifer, Breeno12301, Dreambeaver, Sudanese1001, MrFataya, BattyBot, Factsearch, EriksonV, Sudan56, Yo Mama3, AP2B1R, Pratyya Ghosh, RVPBergkamp10, Mrt3366, Broseph16, Cyberbot II, Simone67, ChrisGualtieri, Gdfusion, Wcao9311, Bajsair97, IceBrother- hood, Govlum, EmperorOfSiberia, Sudaniyaejehe, ABCDEFG55, Charles Essie, Mogism, Datu Dong, Suda12, Fouadmoabi, Boy Like a Star, Samasimsud75, Graphium, Wahash, Akram gayoum, Google9999, Elevatorrailfan, Hillbillyholiday, Ramy Ramo, Prophetix, Skrbek, CsDix, Lemnaminor, Samwise9302, Eyesnore, Sosthenes12, Wadalbalad, The Anonybot, Cryx88, Soffredo, Jboccagno, EvergreenFir, Dustin V. S., 14chan14, Janus Prudentibus, P.ierardi224, Babitaarora, Shiningroad, Aaaayyyyoooo12, LisaJFA, Jianhui67, Davidcory123, Ben Tuckett, Blondeguynative, Ithinkicahn, Nbaokc25, Truefactsonlyplease, Butimkarl, Andajara120000, Turkeyman1084, Asmadyare, Monkbot, Poepkop, Hjalnobel, Kieranmcdermott1, Lor, Joci Bach, DissidentAggressor, Cortana2552x117, Johnparker45, Hkarouri, Sen- nari89, C759, Unma.af, Grayk09, Sadam diego, Trucet, Truthfinder1011, Balsus100, Sarquisthethird, Omeralshekh, Judea613, Nomoiman, Aloplaopap, Arenthor, Dimension Bid (M) Sdn Bhd, Juhaszpatak, Murwan Abdalmajid and Anonymous: 2330

15.2 Images • File:Africa_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_ projection%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martin23230 • File:African_Union_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/African_Union_ %28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape Original artist: Heraldry • File:Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan_camel_soldier_of_the_British_army.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/ 33/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan_camel_soldier_of_the_British_army.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] via http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ pp/pphome.html and searchword “Sudan” Original artist: Carpenter, Frank G. (Frank George), 1855-1924, photographer. • File:Battle_of_Omdurman-1.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Battle_of_Omdurman-1.JPG Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.magnoliabox.com/art/110407/The_Flight_of_the_Khalifa_after_his_Defeat_at_the_ Battle_of Original artist: Robert Talbot Kelly • File:Church_of_the_Granite_Columns_2007-10-03_02.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Church_ of_the_Granite_Columns_2007-10-03_02.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Darfur_refugee_camp_in_Chad.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Darfur_refugee_camp_in_ Chad.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Camp Original artist: Mark Knobil from Pittsburgh, usa • File:Drummer_at_Hamed_el-Nil_Mosque_(8625532075).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/ Drummer_at_Hamed_el-Nil_Mosque_%288625532075%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Drummer at Hamed el-Nil Mosque Original artist: David Stanley from Nanaimo, Canada • File:Eisa_shikawi.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b3/Eisa_shikawi.JPG License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: David Haberlah Original artist: David Haberlah ([email protected]) • File:Emblem_of_Sudan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Emblem_of_Sudan.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_ League.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jeff Dahl • File:Flag_of_Djibouti.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flag_of_Djibouti.svg License: CC0 Contrib- utors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art • File:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: user: • File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Origi- nal artist: • File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: the actual flag Original artist: Unknown • File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: see below Original artist: see upload history • File:Flag_of_Sudan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: www.vexilla-mundi.com Original artist: Vzb83 24 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art website Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gebel_Barkal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Gebel_Barkal.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: LassiHU • File:Gnome-globe.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg License: LGPL Contributors: http://ftp.gnome.org/pub/GNOME/sources/gnome-themes-extras/0.9/gnome-themes-extras-0.9.0.tar.gz Original artist: David Vignoni • File:Government_Militia_in_Darfur.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Government_Militia_in_ Darfur.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfRgMTQB4JU Original artist: Henry Ridgwell • File:Indianocean.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Indianocean.PNG License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ismail_Pacha.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Ismail_Pacha.JPG License: Public domain Con- tributors: [1] Original artist: Unknown • File:KhartoumSkyline.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/KhartoumSkyline.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=398255&page=312 Original artist: Mutaz Photgraphy (Mutaz El- neel) • File:Map_of_Sudan_(New).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Map_of_Sudan_%28New%29.jpg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Muhammad Daffa Rambe • File:Middle_East_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Middle_East_ %28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape Original artist: TownDown • File:Minaret_S.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Minaret_S.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: unknown camera Original artist: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Ryj • File:Muhammad_Ahmad_al-Mahdi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Muhammad_Ahmad_ al-Mahdi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Office-book.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project • File:Omar_al-Bashir,_12th_AU_Summit,_090131-N-0506A-342.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/ 2b/Omar_al-Bashir%2C_12th_AU_Summit%2C_090131-N-0506A-342.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: DefenseImagery.mil, VIRIN 090131-N-0506A-342 Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jesse B. Awalt/Released • File:Political_Regions_of_Sudan,_July_2010.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Political_Regions_ of_Sudan%2C_July_2010.svg License: CC0 Contributors: File:Political_Regions_of_Sudan,_July_2006.svg - removed South Sudan using notepad Original artist: Node ue • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Rashaida_family.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Rashaida_family.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong • File:Steady2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Steady2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomchen1989 • File:Strato_en_Ĥartumo_(Sudano)_003.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Strato_en_%C4% A4artumo_%28Sudano%29_003.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 cz Contributors: Own work Original artist: Petr Adam Dohnálek • File:Sudan.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Sudan.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http:// www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/national_anthems.htm#S Original artist: US NAVY BAND • File:Sudan_(orthographic_projection)_highlighted.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Sudan_ %28orthographic_projection%29_highlighted.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: modified File:Sudan_(orthographic_projection) .svg Original artist: Dinamik • File:Sudan_-_Location_Map_(2011)_-_SDN_-_UNOCHA.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/ Sudan_-_Location_Map_%282011%29_-_SDN_-_UNOCHA.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Sudan Locator Map (ReliefWeb) Original artist: UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) • File:Sudan_-_smiling_lady.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Sudan_-_smiling_lady.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Sudan n004 Original artist: Steve Evans from India and USA • File:Sudan_Farras_fresco_of_cathedral_22dez2005.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Sudan_ Farras_fresco_of_cathedral_22dez2005.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.flickr.com Original artist: Unknown • File:Sudan_Khartoum_Gordon_College_1936.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Sudan_Khartoum_ Gordon_College_1936.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] via http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/pphome.html and searchword “Sudan” Original artist: Matson Photo Service, photographer. (G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Collection) 15.3 Content license 25

• File:Sudan_Map_Oelgas.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Sudan_Map_Oelgas.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_ 2001.JPG License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: taken from en.wikipedia.org, there under CC 1.0, with descripton: Aerial view of the Nubian pyramids at Meroe Image owner: Francis Geius - Mission SFDAS 2001 Original artist: Photographer: B N Chagny • File:Sudan_independence.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Sudan_independence.png License: CC0 Contributors: http://www.sudanforum.net/showthread.php?t=56503 Original artist: Sudan Films Unit (former unit during British coloniza- tion) • File:Sudan_sat.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Sudan_sat.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Sudanese_Air_Force_Hongdu_JL-8.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Sudanese_Air_Force_ Hongdu_JL-8.jpeg License: GFDL Contributors: http://spotters.net.ua/file/?id=73610&size=large Original artist: Eduard Onyshchenko • File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:The_war_in_the_Soudan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/The_war_in_the_Soudan.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: [1] via http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/pphome.html and searchword “Sudan” Original artist: Created and “copyright 1897 by The Strobridge Lith Co, Cincinnati & New York.” • File:Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/waltercallens/3486244425/ Original artist: walter callens • File:Wiki_letter_w.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen • File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by Simon. • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky • File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

15.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0