The Role of Indigenous Languages in Southern Sudan: Educational Language Policy and Planning H. Wani Rondyang A thesis submitted to the Institute of Education, University of London, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2007 Abstract This thesis aims to questions the language policy of Sudan's central government since independence in 1956. An investigation of the root causes of educational problems, which are seemingly linked to the current language policy, is examined throughout the thesis from Chapter 1 through 9. In specific terms, Chapter 1 foregrounds the discussion of the methods and methodology for this research purposely because the study is based, among other things, on the analysis of historical documents pertaining to events and processes of sociolinguistic significance for this study. The factors and sociolinguistic conditions behind the central government's Arabicisation policy which discourages multilingual development, relate the historical analysis in Chapter 3 to the actual language situation in the country described in Chapter 4. However, both chapters are viewed in the context of theoretical understanding of language situation within multilingualism in Chapter 2. The thesis argues that an accommodating language policy would accord a role for the indigenous Sudanese languages. By extension, it would encourage the development and promotion of those languages and cultures in an essentially linguistically and culturally diverse and multilingual country. Recommendations for such an alternative educational language policy are based on the historical and sociolinguistic findings in chapters 3 and 4 as well as in the subsequent discussions on language policy and planning proper in Chapters 5, where theoretical frameworks for examining such issues are explained, and Chapters 6 through 8, where Sudan's post-independence language policy is discussed. In the latter chapters, there is a focus on implications for language use language as a national resource for social and cultural development, both of which are examined in the light of historical and sociolinguistic information in the preceding chapters. Chapter 9 concludes the thesis by proposing an alternative educational language policy that would give a role to the nation's indigenous languages. Acknowledgements First and foremost, I am grateful to my supervisors, Euan Reid and David Block, for their tireless tutoring and advice, as well as for their encouragement and patience with me. Euan Reid with whom we started this research often gave me whole-hearted advice and anecdotes from an experienced academic as well as family man whenever the going got tough. I will treasure them. Many thanks also to Jan Blommaert for suggesting useful insights that have contributed to the final shape of this dissertation. Several good people and organisations lent me a helping hand in the course of this study. I am thankful to the Sudanese participants in this study's interviews. Their views and perceptions of the language situation in Sudan are at the heart of this thesis. I am also grateful to Council for Assisting Refugee Academics (CARA) and Institute of Education Student Welfare Office for their financial support. CARA enticed me to do this research when they offered the payment of part-time course fee. The Student Welfare Office contributed financial assistance toward the fieldwork in the UK, Kenya and Uganda. My heartfelt thanks also go to my dear cousin Ben Lodu who took off time from his family and business in Mombasa to help me find my way through Nairobi during the fieldwork. Without his assistance it would have been extremely difficult for me to find my way out to the interview venues let alone getting there on time. In this sense he saved me time and money. Both were in short supply to me in the course of this research. The last few years of this study were trying, but prods and empathy from close friends, notably Dr Luka Tombekana Monoja helped in keeping me going. It is time I give them my heartfelt thanks for sharing my tribulations. Finally, my wife Rita and our son Lodu-Kirimin Rondyang deserve my deepest gratitude for sharing my resolve to complete this thesis. However, they had to get used to my absence from home and family most of the evenings and weekends, as well as to my minimum contribution to the well-being of the family. I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis is my own. The word count (excluding bibliography and appendices) is 96,413. H. Wani Rondyang Dedication This thesis is dedicated to the struggle for survival of the marginalised Sudanese languages threatened with extinction Table of Contents Introduction to the thesis 1 Chapter 1 Research, Design, Methodology and Methods 1.1 Introduction 5 1.2 Rationale for Research Design, Methodology and Methods 5 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Research 6 1.4 Theoretical Basis: Principles and Values of Qualitative 8 Methodology 1.5 How Research Contexts Motivate Choice of Methods 11 1.5.1 The Interview Method 14 1.5.2 The Historical Analysis Method 15 1.6 Report on Pilot Study 16 1.7 Fieldwork and Constraints of the Interview Method 17 1.7.1 Making Contact and Accessing Participants 18 1.7.2 Constraints of Making Contact and Accessing Participants 19 1.7.3 Actual Interviewing and its Problems 21 1.8 Research Techniques: Transcribing, Organizing and Analyzing 22 Interview Data 1.8.1 Transcribing Interviews 22 1.8.2 Organizing and Analyzing Interview Data 23 1.9 Identifying, Obtaining and Evaluating Documentary Evidence 23 1.10 Procedural Issues 24 1.11 Conclusion 25 Chapter 2 Multilingualism as Context for Describing Language Situation 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Sociolinguistic Study of Language Situation in Multilingual 27 Contexts 2.2.1 Definition of Language Situation 27 2.2.2 Types of Language Situation in Multilingual Contexts 28 2.3 Definition of Multilingualism in Post-Colonial Contexts 31 2.4 Factors which Shape Societal Multilingualism 34 2.5 Explanation of Relevant Sociolinguistic Concepts 39 2.5.1 Nation, State, Nation-State 40 2.5.2 Locating Sudan's Status within the Definition 44 2.5.3 Defining Mother Tongue in Multilingual Situations 46 2.5.3.1 Viewing Mother Tongue from Language Rights Perspective 48 2.5.4 Diglossia as a Sign of Power Relations in Multilingual Situations 52 2.6 Conclusion 54 Chapter 3 Analysis of Historical and Socio-Political Developments in the Sudan's Language Situation 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 A Country Overview and Analysis of Historical, and Socio- 56 Political Developments 3.3 Factors in Ethno-linguistic Composition and Distribution in Sudan 59 3.4 Ethno-linguistic Groups in Northern Sudan 62 3.5 Ethno-linguistic Groups in Southern Sudan 65 3.6 Historical and Socio-Political Developments in Southern Sudan 66 3.6.1 Characteristic Features of Southern Sudan 66 3.7 Colonial Education Policy Debate: implications for Language 71 Situation in Southern Sudan 3.7.1 Reversal of the Southern Sudan Policy: Effects on Language 74 Situation 3.7.2 Political and Administrative Developments and Language 76 Situation in Southern Sudan 3.7.3 Southern Administrative and Language Policies as Major 77 Developments 3.8 Conclusion 79 Chapter 4 Describing the Current Language Situation in Sudan 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Linguistic Diversity as a Feature of Sudan's Language Situation 81 4.2.1 The Nature and Extent of Sudan's Linguistic Diversity 82 4.3 Ethno-linguistic Dimension of the Language Situation 85 4.4 Post-Independence Language Survey 86 4.4.1 Findings of the Language Survey 87 4.5 Description of the Current Language Situation in Southern Sudan 88 4.5.1 Distribution of Southern Sudan Indigenous Languages 89 4.5.2 Characteristics of Southern Sudan Linguistic Diversity 91 4.6 Status and Functions of the Southern Sudan Indigenous Languages 94 4.6.1 Pioneering Linguistic Research and determination of Linguistic 95 Diversity in Southern Sudan 4.6.2 Status and Role of the Southern Sudan Indigenous Language 97 4.7 Position and Status ofLWC and Lingua Franca in Southern Sudan 99 4.7.1 Position and Status of English and Arabic in southern Sudan 100 4.7.2 Position, Status and Role of Juba Arabic 104 4.7.3 Position and Role of Swahili in Southern Sudan 107 4.8 Conclusion 107 Chapter 5 Conceptual Frameworks and approaches to Language Policy and Planning 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Context and Definition of Language Policy and Planning 110 5.2.1 Context of Language Policy 110 5.2.2 Definitions of Language Policy and Planning 110 5.2.3 Situation Specific Definitions of Language Policy and Planning 113 5.3 Policy or Planning Prioritizing 114 5.4 Conceptual Frameworks for Language Planning 118 5.4.1 Adapting Language Planning Frameworks to Multilingual 119 Situation 5.5 A Post-Colonial Model of Language Policy and Planning 121 5.6 Conceptualizing Language Planning from Critical Language Policy 125 Perspectives 5.6.1 Explanation of Critical Ideological Basis and Relevant Concepts 127 5.6.2 Critical Language Policy Concepts 129 5.6.1.1 Historical-Structural Approach to Language Policy and Planning 129 5.6.1.2 Colonization and Governmentality 131 5.6.1.3 The Dependency Perspective 133 5.6.1.4 Linguicism and Linguistic Imperialism 135 5.7 Conclusion 137 Chapter 6 Post-Independence Language Policies in Sudan from Status Language Planning Perspective 6.1 Introduction 139 6.2 Rationale for the Post-Independence Language Policies 140 6.3 Factors which Influenced the Central Government's Language 143 Policy 6.4 The Nature of Status Language Planning 145 6.5 Legitimizing Arabicisation: Language Policies