Part 2:
Case Studies: “Sudan: Colonial Experience”
Nov. 19-23 Independent Sudan
‘Umma’ known as political organization of ‘Islamic Ansar movement’ (followers of the prophet – in this case of 19th c. Mahdi): - supporters followed strict teachings of the Mahdi
- although Ansar found throughout Sudan, most lived in rural areas of western Darfur, Kordofan, and along White Nile
- notably where Mahdi family and other Umma leaders had extensive estates Economics, Labour and ‘Neo-Mahdism’
[al-Karani]:
“With a growing body of supporters in the west, and with westerners providing most of the labour for his estates at Aba Island and its surrounds, Abd al-Rahman had the influence and the money to further his ambitions.
During the late 1930s he courted the emerging Intelligentsia and at the end of the Second World War founded Sudan's first political party, the Umma Party.” Independent Sudan
Umma Party established in February 1945: - aim: independence from the Condominium Reign
- claimed to be ‘nationalist’; support exclusively from Western regions, area of White Nile where Mahdi family, other Umma leaders had estates
- championed cause until it became basis for Sudanese consensus in 1955
- Independence: January 1, 1956 Umma Party Delegation in Cairo, Egypt (n.d. but Abd al-Rahman present, so pre-1959) Independent Sudan
Abd al-Rahman's death (1959) did not end influence of movement :
- since Sudan independence, Umma Party experienced alternating periods prominence, persecution
- 1970 grandson Abd al-Rahman, Sadiq al Mahdi, became political head of Umma and spiritual leader of ‘Ansar’ Independent Sudan
Meanwhile, not all of Sudan accepted ‘Independence’ under existing power structure:
- August 18, 1955: military unit composed of Southerners, mutinied
-rather than surrender to Sudanese government authorities (soon to be independent), mutineers disappeared -- with their weapons!
- effective beginning of First Civil War in Sudan Independent Sudan
By late 1960s: about 500,000 people had died in civil war - several hundred thousand more Southerners hid in forests or escaped to refugee camps in neighboring countries.
- by 1969, Southern ‘rebels’ developed foreign contacts to obtain weapons, supplies
- army officers’ coup d'état: decline of hostilities Independent Sudan
Excerpt from:
‘Sudan: History of a Broken Land’
[Additional Readings: 23:35 – 34:00min] Independent Sudan
Initial Goal under Colonel Jaafar Muhamed al-Numeiry: destroy religious sectarianism - embodied in ‘Ansar’ (Mahdists)
- 1970: Aba Island air-bombed ‘massacre’
- Mahdist property confiscated
- leaders of Muslim Brotherhood fled to Egypt Independent Sudan
Numeiry began return to ‘Islamic Roots’: in search of Saudi Arabian financial support - made the hajj 1971
- began reconciliation with Muslim Brotherhood
- spoke of new ‘Islamic Phase’ with King Faysal: promised to institute Islamic State
- largely rejected by others in Khartoum (‘aid’ money not forthcoming) Independent Sudan
Warburg [“Sharia in Sudan”, Additional Readings]: suggests Numeiry’s ‘return to Islam’ more complicated:
- acknowledges political expediency in terms of accessing much-needed Middle Eastern financing
- and of larger ‘Islamic revivalism’ in Egypt, rise of Muslim Brotherhood, so…
- reconciliation with Ansar, Muslim Brotherhood (Sudan) appropriate Independent Sudan
But also argues for deeper roots, larger ambitions:
- early 1970s, Numeiry developed close spiritual association with sufi order that believed in ‘second coming’ of The Mahdi (who would be ‘one of theirs’)
References novel by Sudanese author Francis M. Deng, suggesting Numeiry’s understanding of his position: Independent Sudan
[from Seeds of Redemption (1986)]:
…the (fictional) President has had an encounter with God in which he was told to reform his ways and return to the path of the ‘True Believer’.
The next morning he called his spiritual advisor who responded: “… by revealing Himself, it is clear that God has chosen you to be the leader of this country. You are President, but you are also the Imam of God. He will change you as he desires. I am but a tool of His will. The power to transform you has already descended from God‘”… Independent Sudan
Numeiry’s new-found Islamic ‘path’ viewed by others in Khartoum as unworkable for the South:
Addis Abba Accord 1972 laid basis for Permanent Constitution 1973: - autonomy for the Southern region - equality of ‘citizens’ regardless of race, colour or religion (‘allowed for’ religion, did not favour Islam) - ‘southern’ cultural identity acknowledged - Southern Regional Assembly, right to elect members, President Independent Sudan
1983: Numeiry rejected political, economic advice – returned to position early 1970s - dramatic implementation of Sharia: - poured thousands of bottles alcoholic beverages into the Nile - publically punished thieves, adulterers (cutting off hands, stoning)
Also claimed title of ‘Imam’ of Sudan [think of novel…] - following year, insisted all Officers declare loyalty to him, personally, as imam of umma [bay’a] Independent Sudan
[from Warburg]
“In one of his last interviews, Numayri claimed that as the imam of Sudan, to whom total obedience was dictated by Islam, it was he alone who could interpret laws and decide whether they were in line with the sharia”
- behaviour reflecting in part Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran (Shi’a belief in role of Iman) and Mahdist beliefs Independent Sudan
1984: followed Sharia with implementation Islamic Economy
- abolished interest on domestic economic transactions
- replaced income and other ‘secular’ taxes with zakat [the Islamic tax all Muslims with a minimum amount of capital must pay to support the poor/er in the community]
Economy just beginning to recover – collapsed quickly! Independent Sudan
Sadiq al-Mahdi (Ansar): - in spite of ‘expedient political reconciliation’ with Numeiry, rejected ‘September Laws’ as “un-Islamic”:
- manner sharia introduced (no consultation) - manner implemented (‘cutting hands of thieves in regime of tyranny, discrimination like throwing man with hands tied into water and saying ‘don’t drown’’) - should not be applied to non-Muslims
(Later critical of understanding ‘Islamic economy’ and legal decisions) Independent Sudan
Numeiry deposed 1985: insistence on Islamic Law and Economy played pivotal role
- Sadiq al-Mahdi elected Prime Minister (1986) - ‘coalition’ established 1985-8: included Sadiq al-Mahdi (Ansar) and Hassan al-Turabi (National Islamic Front, formerly Muslim Brotherhood)
Both believed strongly in Islamic state in which South would become increasingly invested Independent Sudan
As early as 1966, Sadiq al-Mahdi said to have asserted:
" ... the failure of Islam in the southern Sudan would be the failure of Sudanese Muslims to the international Islamic cause.
Islam has a holy mission in Africa and southern Sudan is the beginning of that mission.”
[Warburg] Independent Sudan
Al-Turabi (1985): emphasized commitment to - ‘rapid Islamization’ of south
- application Sharia: ‘flexible’ enough for non-Muslims while providing Muslims with ‘religious/political necessity’
- belief that criticisms of, fears raised against Sharia – nothing but provocation from the West meant to undermine the State Independent Sudan
Seemed to be little understanding of concerns of South: - Addis Ababa Accord (1972) brought ceasefire
- but Constitution (1973) largely opposed because: - Article 9: ‘Islamic Law and Custom shall be the basis for all legislation’ - Arabic shall be the ‘official language’ of Sudan
This in spite of assurances (Accord) that South could legislate itself according to its religions and customs; English would be the normal ‘administrative’ language Independent Sudan
Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement (1971): - principal opposition to Constitution
- dissatisfaction with Numeiry’s regime among religious groups, students, workers allowed for growing power in south (mid-to-late 1970s)
- addressed this by suspending Southern Assembly (1981), creating ‘regions’ in south (1983)
- rejected by SPLM: mutinies in several army barracks Independent Sudan
Implementation of Sharia (Sept. 1983):
- resented by many, including secular and conservative Muslims
- in South: ignited resurrection of Civil War (called Sudan’s ‘Second Civil War’)
- garrison 500 troops resisted rotation to North: officer John Garung sent to ‘quell rebellion’ Independent Sudan
John Garang (1945 -2005): - Southerner born into Christian family
- studied in US and Tanzania
- returned to take military, advanced economics degrees (PhD from Iowa)
- fought in civil war (for South); absorbed into Sudanese military 1972 Independent Sudan
Garang supported (instead of quelling) mutiny: -encouraged other garrisons to mutiny
- took ‘followers’ into Ethiopia for training:formation of Sudanese People’s Liberation Army
- led rebellion against Khartoum government
Country in full Civil War at time of Numeiry’s deposition, Sadiq al-Mahdi’s election, decision to implement Sharia, retain policy of Islamizing the South put into play! Independent Sudan
1986: Soudanese People’s Liberation Army (John Garung leader)
- estimated with12,500 soldiers - organized in twelve battalions - equipped with small arms, mortars (international supplies; backed by Ethiopia)
Strength underestimated by Government – Islamic Legal Codes fuelling fire and recruitment! SPLA Zone of Control Independent Sudan
Sadiq al-Mahdi: had strong vision for role Islam between North and South [Warburg]
“[he]…rejected the notion of the separation of church and state claiming that it could not be applied in a Muslim society. Sadiq agreed, however, with most southern grievances against Islamic laws, which would turn them into second-class citizens in their own country. Therefore, purely religious laws such as the prohibiting of alcoholic beverages or eating pork, should be imposed only on Muslims. … Independent Sudan
Taxes should be levied on all citizens according to one nonreligious law, decreed by the state. Zakat should be imposed on Muslims only, while discriminatory taxes such as the jizia (a poll tax levied on non-Muslims) should be abolished. Because the majority of Sudanese were Muslims, however, Sadiq insisted that Islam be declared the state religion and the sharia the major source of legislation.
He viewed the future of the South as fully Arabized and Islamized.” Independent Sudan
War escalated:
- clear that coalition Umma/Ansar-NIF government not viable
- lack confidence: military coup d'état 1989
- brought to power Brigadier Omar al-Bashir Independent Sudan
New Regime 1989: Omar Bashir - returned power to National Islamic Front and al-Turabi
- al-Turabi also major figure in pan-Arabic Islamic fundamentalist resurgence
-no hope for reconciliation with SPLM/SPLA Independent Sudan
Decade 1989 – 1999: Sudan attractive to ‘Islamicists’, (said to be) supporting terrorists:
1995: - UN imposed sanctions against Sudan, isolating country and people
1998: - United States launched cruise missiles destroying pharmaceutical manufacturing facility in Khartoum -- allegedly manufacturing chemical weapons
- US. claimed Sudanese factory financed by non other than infamous (now ‘late’) Osama bin Laden. Independent Sudan
Decade 1989 - 1999: devastating Civil War continued
- more than 1.5 million Sudanese died
- some 13,000 children said to have been taken into slavery
- slave trading, raiding ‘revived’ on pre-colonial scale
- government implicated as ‘backer’ of Modern Slave-Trade business (including provision arms, ‘blind eye’ to conditions of slavery etc.) Independent Sudan
On the other side of the question: how ‘Arab’, how ‘white’ was the North?
- [reference discussion Nov. 19]: descendants of freed-slaves now assimilated
- southerners seeking advantages of northern economy
- southerners seeking ‘safety’ from war
All became part of ‘northern’ society, especially in capital of Khartoum Street scene, Khartoum (n.d.): man reading paper literate in Arabic, both males dressed in ‘Arab, Muslim’ clothing; Women clearly dressed in ‘modest’ Muslim clothing (one in ‘veil’, other in long dress, headscarf). All ‘black’ (not ‘Arab’) with ‘African’ features. Distinctions ‘North-White-Arab vs South-Black-African’ not realistic