TOXICOLOGY IN ANTIQUITY Other published books in the History of Toxicology and Environmental Health series Wexler, History of Toxicology and Environmental Health: Toxicology in Antiquity, Volume I, May 2014, 978-0-12-800045-8 Wexler, History of Toxicology and Environmental Health: Toxicology in Antiquity, Volume II, September 2014, 978-0-12-801506-3 Wexler, Toxicology in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, March 2017, 978-0-12-809554-6 Bobst, History of Risk Assessment in Toxicology, October 2017, 978-0-12-809532-4 Balls, et al., The History of Alternative Test Methods in Toxicology, October 2018, 978-0-12-813697-3 TOXICOLOGY IN ANTIQUITY SECOND EDITION Edited by PHILIP WEXLER Retired, National Library of Medicine’s (NLM) Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program, Bethesda, MD, USA Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright r 2019 Elsevier Inc. 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This page intentionally left blank Contents List of Contributors xv Foreword xvii Preface to the Series and Volumes 1 and 2 xix Preface xxi 1. The Prehistory of Poison Arrows 1 VALENTINA BORGIA 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 What do Historical and Ethnographic Documents Tell Us? 3 1.3 What is the Current State of Research? 5 1.4 Conclusions 8 References 9 Further Reading 10 2. Beetle and Plant Arrow Poisons of the San People of Southern Africa 11 CAROLINE S. CHABOO, ROBERT K. HITCHCOCK, JUSTIN BRADFIELD AND LYN WADLEY 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Materials and Methods 15 2.3 Results 17 2.4 Discussion 47 2.5 Conclusions 53 Acknowledgments 54 References 54 Further Reading 70 3. Toxicology in Ancient Egypt 73 GONZALO SANCHEZ AND W. BENSON HARER, JR 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Snakes as Described in the Brooklyn Papyrus 74 3.3 Scorpions 79 3.4 Tetanus 79 3.5 Plant and Mineral Toxins 79 References 81 vii viii CONTENTS 4. The Death of Cleopatra: Suicide by Snakebite or Poisoned by Her Enemies? 83 GREGORY TSOUCALAS AND MARKOS SGANTZOS 4.1 Cleopatra’s Ancestry and Historical Background of the Era 83 4.2 Cleopatra’s Reign. Her Downfall and Her Death 87 4.3 Epilogue 91 References 92 5. Kohl Use in Antiquity: Effects on the Eye 93 ZAFAR A. MAHMOOD, IQBAL AZHAR AND S.W. AHMED 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Protective Effect Against UV Radiation 97 5.3 Antimicrobial Action and Biomedical Importance 98 References 101 6. Nicander, Theˆriaka, and Alexipharmaka: Venoms, Poisons, and Literature 105 ALAIN TOUWAIDE 6.1 The Theˆriaka 106 6.2 The Alexipharmaka 109 6.3 The Nicandrean Question 111 6.4 Ancient Toxicology 112 6.5 Venoms, Poisons, and Art 113 Reference 115 7. The Case Against Socrates and His Execution 117 OKAN ARIHAN, SEDA K. ARIHAN AND ALAIN TOUWAIDE 7.1 Introduction 118 7.2 Historical Literature 119 7.3 Hemlock in Ancient Scientific Literature 121 7.4 Modern Pharmacological Analysis 125 7.5 Toward a Renewed Interpretation 126 7.6 Conclusion 127 References 127 8. Murder, Execution, and Suicide in Ancient Greece and Rome 131 ALAIN TOUWAIDE Further Reading 138 CONTENTS ix 9. The Oracle at Delphi: The Pythia and the Pneuma, Intoxicating Gas Finds, and Hypotheses 141 JELLE Z. DE BOER References 148 Further Reading 149 10. Alexander the Great: A Questionable Death 151 ADRIENNE MAYOR 10.1 Alexander’s Last Days 152 10.2 Modern Theories of Natural Causes 154 10.3 Modern Theories of Poisoning 155 10.4 The Styx River Poison Plot 156 References 159 11. Mithridates of Pontus and His Universal Antidote 161 ADRIENNE MAYOR 11.1 Influences 162 11.2 Pharmacological and Toxic Riches 164 11.3 Avoiding Assassination by Poison 165 11.4 The Secret Antidote 167 11.5 Mithridatium’s Legacy 169 References 173 12. Theriaca Magna: The Glorious Cure-All Remedy 175 MARIANNA KARAMANOU AND GEORGE ANDROUTSOS 12.1 Introduction 175 12.2 Theriac in Antiquity 176 12.3 Theriac in the Medieval Period 179 12.4 Theriac in the Renaissance 181 12.5 Conclusion 182 References 183 13. The Gates to Hell in Antiquity and their Relation to Geogenic CO2 Emissions 185 HARDY PFANZ, GALIP YU¨ CE, WALTER D’ALESSANDRO, BENNY PFANZ, YIANNIS MANETAS, GEORGE PAPATHEODOROU AND ANTONIO RASCHI 13.1 Introduction 186 13.2 Why Enter the Realm of the Shadows? 188 13.3 The Geologic Background 190 13.4 The Physicochemical Properties of CO2 194 13.5 The Biological, Medical, and Physiological Background 197 13.6 The Known Sites of the Ancient Gates to Hell 199 x CONTENTS 13.7 Gates of Hell—Magna Graecia—Asia Minor—Greece (Hellas)—A Synopsis 212 13.8 The Historical Relevance 213 Acknowledgments 214 References 215 Further Reading 219 14. Lead Poisoning and the Downfall of Rome: Reality or Myth? 221 LOUISE CILLIERS AND FRANCOIS RETIEF 14.1 The Lead Industry in Ancient Rome 222 14.2 The Effect of Lead on Humans 224 14.3 Clinical Picture of Lead Toxicity (Retief and Cilliers, 2000) 224 14.4 Archeological Determination of Lead Toxicity 224 14.5 Occurrence of Lead Toxicity 225 14.6 Discussion 227 References 229 Further Reading 229 15. Poisons, Poisoners, and Poisoning in Ancient Rome 231 LOUISE CILLIERS AND FRANCOIS RETIEF 15.1 Sources 232 15.2 Poisons 232 15.3 Poisons Used 234 15.4 Incidents of Poisoning During the Roman Republic 236 15.5 Poisoners and Incidents of Poisoning During the Empire 237 15.6 Conclusion 241 References 241 16. Chemical and Biological Warfare in Antiquity 243 ADRIENNE MAYOR 16.1 The Concept of Toxic Weaponry in Greco-Roman and Indian Mythology 244 16.2 Poisons From Plants in Historical Warfare 245 16.3 Snake Venom Arrows 246 16.4 Plague and Contagion 248 16.5 Poisoning Water Sources and Food Supplies 249 16.6 Venomous Insects, Snakes, and Scorpions 250 16.7 Aerosol and Incendiary Weapons 251 16.8 Practical Issues and Ethical Qualms 252 References 254 17. Asclepius and the Snake as Toxicological Symbols in Ancient Greece and Rome 257 GREGORY TSOUCALAS AND GEORGE ANDROUTSOS References 264 CONTENTS xi 18. Anthropogenic Air Pollution in Ancient Times 267 LA´ SZLO´ MAKRA 18.1 Pollution of the Environment in Ancient Times 268 18.2 Lead in Ancient Times 273 18.3 Copper in Ancient Times 280 18.4 Environmental Awareness in Ancient Israel 283 Acknowledgments 285 References 285 19. Poisoning in Ancient Rome: Images and Rules 289 EVELYN HO¨ BENREICH AND GIUNIO RIZZELLI 19.1 Veneficium and Legal Terminology 289 19.2 Perpetrators, Trials, Stereotypes 291 19.3 Training for the Courts 293 19.4 Jurists and the Interpretation of Laws 295 Further Reading 299 20. “Gleaming and Deadly White”: Toxic Cosmetics in the Roman World 301 SUSAN STEWART 20.1 A Fair Complexion 304 20.2 Rouge 307 20.3 Eye Make-Up 308 20.4 Hair Removers 309 References 310 Further Reading 311 21. Cherchez la Femme: Three Infamous Poisoners of Ancient Rome 313 LOUISE CILLIERS 21.1 Stereotypes 314 21.2 Sources 314 21.3 Incidents of Poisoning in Which the Three Infamous Women Were Involved: Locusta 315 21.4 Martina 318 21.5 Canidia 321 21.6 Identification of Poisons 322 21.7 A Forensic Investigation 323 21.8 Conclusion 325 References 325 Further Reading 325 xii CONTENTS 22.