Chemonics International, Inc.

1717 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20006

Phone: 202.955.3300

Fax: 202.955.3400 www.chemonics.com

BEE POLLINATION IN OIL PALM

A MANUAL FOR OIL PALM FARMERS IN NIGERIA

APRIL 2017

This Publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development

Prepared by MARKETS II Project

AID-620-C-12-00001

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Bee Pollination in Oil Palm- A manual for Oil Palm farmers in Nigeria

Developed for use by MARKETS II Project

APRIL 2017

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Foreward

This manual is designed to help oil Palm farmers work more efficiently and make more strategic decisions concerning Oil Palm crop production. The fact that bees are important in the pollination of many species of plants is not new, but the fact that honeybees are becoming indispensable in our agricultural economy may be considered as relatively new. Value of the bees in pollination exceeds by ten to twenty times their value in the production of honey and other products.

The manual benefitted from the input and insights of participants in a package of practice development workshop in Calabar, Nigeria, hosted and facilitated by staff from MARKETS II Project. Special appreciation also goes to the team who participated in the manual development process – including:Bassey Archibong, Abiodun Amoo, David Musa,Nsiak Akpan Lawrence,Martin Atori,Ekpe Inyang,Joy Ekara,Nnadimele Roseline,EjirogheneAgbigbe,SholuadeAdejoke,Chuks Izuh,Okerenwogba Ruth Blessing Essien,Osagie Omoregie,Chief Akpet Nyambi,Johnson Oluwaseun,Bobade Bayo,Shado Evans,Glory Odu-Oji,Kings;ey Ojeah

A wide range of stakeholders participated in the development of this curriculum, but special acknowledgement is due Bargong Farms Limited on their contribution in designing and producing photographs and materials included in the development of this BeePollination Manual. The manual development process was spearheaded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded MARKETS II project.

Compiled by – Abiodun Amoo

Edited by – Bassey Archibong

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INTRODUCTION

What is Pollination? Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma. Once the pollen gets into contact with the stigma fertilization occurs.

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Pollination is an important production in plants. Flowering plants require pollination to produce seed or fruit. Pollen is a vital food for the brood of the honeybee. The bee needs it in the hive, but the flower also needs the bee to fertilize it. The bright colour and sweet odour of the flower combine to attract insects. The honeybee, which has a powerful sense of smell and a keen sense of sight, is easily attracted to the flower. In the process of gathering both nectar and pollen, it incidentally transfers some pollen from the flower's male organs, the anthers, to its female organ, the stigma. The pollen germinates, and penetrates to the plant's ovaries, where the seeds are formed.

Why Pollination Honeybees render to mankind several services including pollination of crops. In most part of the world, some beekeepers move their hives over several kilometers away and make considerable charges for pollination service. Farmers need the honeybees. It is important for the farmer to ensure that he has sufficient population of bees on his farm for adequate pollination. By doing so, the farmer will enjoy better crop yields in addition to honey, wax and other products

Note: Pollination is NOT a random activity and CANNOT be left to assumption (biotic agents). It must be approached as a critical indispensable component of modern agriculture if the farmers want to gain food security within a short period.

Uses of Bee for Pollination The honey bee has a powerful sense of smell and a keen sense of sight. It is easily attracted to the flower. Pollen is a vital food for the brood of the honeybee. The bee needs it in the hive, but the flower also needs the bee to fertilize it. The bright color and sweet smell of the flower combine to attract bees and other insect. In the process of gathering both nectar and pollen, it incidentally transfers some pollen from the flower's male organs, the anthers, to its female organ, the stigma. The pollen penetrates to the plant's ovaries, where the seeds are formed

The honeybee is the only insect that can successfully be moved from farm to farm. It is estimated that five average colonies (about 50 000 bees each) can work a two-hectare plantation. This is achieved by moving colonies and siting them close to the farm.

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The challenges and opportunities in Beekeeping & pollination service delivery in Nigerian are both a function of mind set and poor training. Being a new agricultural ‘and chiefly animal husbandry activity, potential farmer/beekeepers require substantial amounts of encouragement to back mentoring and strengthening of capacity.

Pollination Process

Bees are attracted to the vertically oriented sterile stamen, sometimes resembling a petal, as in the flower of oil Palm, and use it for landing. The dorsal part of the thorax of the honey bee brushes against the style, thereby smearing the style with pollen grains as the bees probes and descends toward the base of the staminodes, after landing on the inner surface of a sterile stamen, sometimes resembling a petal, as in the flower of an oil Palm. The fact that style pollination generally results in more fruit set than stigma pollination makes the honey bee efficient pollinating candidates.

Note: The honey Bee starts its foraging activity between 5:00 and 5:15 a.m. Flight usually depends on the weather and temperature. The honeybee will not leave the hive if the temperature is below 14°C or if the wind speed is above 30 kilometers per hour. To be effective, therefore, pollination should

USAID MARKETS II 7 take place in warm, clear weather.

Note: Too much heat has the same adverse effect as too much cold. If the weather is hot, dry and windy, the flower's stigma may dry out, so that pollen deposited does not germinate. Pollen may also not be available in conditions of continuous rainfall, since flowers are usually scarce during the rainy season.

Note: Areas of frequent rainfall offer few flowers for bee activity.

Anatomy of the Oil Palm Flower (Physical Structure) Oil palm is a long-lived single stemmed palm which bears, like the majority of palm species, a single vegetative shoot apical meristem maintained throughout the lifetime of the plant. Under favourable climatic conditions, this meristem is continuously active, producing a new leaf primordium approximately every 2 weeks in mature palms.

The leaf takes 2–3 years to develop from initiation to the time when leaflets unfold in the centre of the palm crown. The flowering (the complete flower head of a plant including stems, stalks, bracts, and flowers) are formed throughout the year in the axils of their under, opposite or beneath the leaves. Oil Palm specie is monoecious, producing separate male and female flowers on the same palm in alternation, although mixed sex flowers are occasionally observed. Whereas the male flowers bears individual staminate flowers, the female flowers produces floral triads consisting of a pistillate flower flanked by two accompanying staminate flowers.

The latter develop up to, and including, the appearance of four microspores in the pollen sac, after which no further development occurs and the natural detachment of parts of a plant, typically

USAID MARKETS II 8 dead leaves and ripe fruit takes place before the pistillate flower reaches maturity. In the non- reproductive part of the flower, and structure that forms an envelope surrounding the sexual organs, consisting of the calyx (sepals) and the corolla (petals) of oil palm flowers, sepals and petals are of a similar petaloid appearance, particularly in the pistillate flower.

The reproductive organs of staminate flowers are composed of six stamens with connate filaments surrounding a pistillode, whereas pistillate flowers display rudimentary stamen and a gynoecium of three carpels.

Anatomy of Oil Palm Flower

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Anatomy of the Bee

Honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Like all insects, the honeybee has three main parts: head, thorax and abdomen.

1. THE HEAD

Triangular in shape, the head has five eyes, a pair of antennae, and mouth parts consisting, among other organs, of two mandibles, the proboscis, etc. a) The eyes: Bee eyes consists of a pair of compound eyes and three small simple eyes, called the ocelli. The compound eyes are composed of several thousands of simple light-sensitive cells, called ommatidia, which enable the bee to distinguish light and color and to detect directional information from the sun's ultraviolet rays. Depending on the work they do, some bees eyes (example the drone) are larger than those of others (the worker or the queen bee. They assist Bee(drone) to locate the queen as he pursues her during the mating flight. b) The antennae are a pair of sensitive receptors whose base is situated in the small socket-like membranous areas of the head wall. They move freely in every direction. The antennae's functions are to feel or touch and to smell, and thus to guide the bee outside and inside the hive, to differentiate floral and pheromone odors, and to locate hive intruders. USAID MARKETS II 10 c) The mandibles are a pair of jaws suspended from the head and parts of the bee's mouth. The insect uses them to chew wood when redesigning the hive entrance, to chew pollen and to work wax for comb-building. They also permit any activity requiring a pair of grasping instruments.

d) The proboscis: Unlike the proboscis of all other sucking insects, that of the honeybee is not a permanent functional organ; it is improvised temporarily by assembling parts of the maxillae and the labium to produce a unique tube for drawing up liquids such as sweet juices, nectar, water and honey. The insect releases it when needed for use, then withdraws and folds it back beneath the head when it is not needed.

2. THE THORAX

The armor-plated mid-section of an insect, the thorax, supports two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs, and carries the locomotors, or "engine", and the muscles that control the movement of the head, the abdomen and the wings. a) The legs: Each pair of legs differs in size and shape from the other two pairs and is jointed into six segments, with a pair of claws at the tip which help the insect to cling to surfaces. The leg can be flexed at any of the six joints. Its primary function is to help the bee to walk and run, but various parts also serve special purposes other than locomotion. For example, the brushes on the inner surface of the fifth segment, (the tarsus) of the two front legs are used for sweeping pollen and other particles from the head, eyes and mouth parts. The same tarsi of the mid-legs serve as brushes for cleaning the thorax, while the spines found at the end of the fourth sections (tibiae) are used for removing the pellets of pollen and for cleaning the wings. Two important parts to note on the legs are the antenna cleaners on the front legs and the pollen baskets on the hind legs. i) The antenna cleaner, located on the inner margin of the tibia of the forelegs, consists of a deeply- cut semi-circular notch, equipped with a comb-like row of small spines. All three castes - drone, queen, and worker -- have this cleaning apparatus. ii) Pollen baskets: The tibiae of the hind legs of the worker bee carry a special apparatus, called the corbiculae, or pollen baskets, which enables her to carry pollen into the hive. These pollen baskets, concave in shape, are surrounded with several long hairs which bind the contents into an almost solid mass, allowing the worker to carry the load safely home. b) The wings of the honeybee, like those of most insects, are thin, flat and two-layered. The front pair is much longer than the rear. The worker's wings are used both for flight and for ventilating the hive, while the drone and the queen use theirs for flight only.

3. THE ABDOMEN

Like the thorax, the abdomen is armor-plated. It contains such vital parts as the heart, the honey sac, the stomach, the intestines, the reproductive organ, and the sting. As seen from the outside, only six segments can be observed, but the adult honeybee has nine, while the larva has ten.

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4. INTERNAL ORGAN

The interest of the beekeeper is usually focused on those parts of the bee which make it capable of producing honey and wax and performing other duties necessary for its survival. Among these are the hypo pharyngeal gland, the wax gland, the scent or pheromone glands, the queen's pheromone glands, and the sting with the passion gland.

a) The hypo pharyngeal gland is located in the head of the worker bee, in front of the brain. It starts to mature three days after the bee's emergence, and develops only when the insect secretes royal jelly to feed the young larvae and the queen.

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Internal Organ of a Bee b) The wax gland, located in the lower part of the young worker's abdomen, releases wax between a series of four overlapping plates, called sterna, below the abdomen. The worker begins to secrete wax 12 days after emerging; six days later, the gland degenerates and the worker stops comb-building. c) Scent glands: The worker bee produces three main scents. The gland beneath the sting produces a special pheromone consisting mainly of isopental acetate, which it sprays around the spot of the sting. The smell stimulates other workers to pursue and sting the victim. A second alarm pheromone, released by glands at the base of the mandibles, has the same function. A third gland, located near the rear of the abdomen, produces a pheromone which, when released by scout bees, attracts swarms of other bees to move toward them. d) Queen's pheromone glands: In the queen bee's mandibles are located special glands which produce and release pheromones called the queen substances, which enable her to identify members of the colony, to inhibit ovary development in worker bees, to prevent the workers from building queen cells, to help a swarm or colony to move as a cohesive unit, and to attract drones during mating flights. The absence of the queen substance (e.g. when the queen dies) produces opposite responses, i.e. worker bees begin to develop ovaries and to build queen cells, and a swarm searching for accommodation will not cluster but will divide into smaller groups that cannot support the normal life of a bee colony. e) The sting of the worker bee is designed to perforate the skin of her enemies and to pump poison into the wound. It has about ten barbs, so that when it is thrust into flesh, the bee cannot pull it back again. It breaks off with the poison sac always attached to it, enabling more poison to

USAID MARKETS II 13 penetrate for as long as it remains in the flesh. The bee's sting is lodged in a special sheath and is released only when the need arises. The sting of the queen bee is longer than that of the worker. It is used only to fight and kill rival queens in the hive. The drone has no sting and is totally defenseless.

Stingless Bees (Melliponea beachei)

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Bee on a flower

Oil Palm Flower

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Sample of Honey

CHARACTERISTICS OF HONEY BEE AS POLLINATOR  Availability And Accessibility  All Year-Around Activity  Constancy To A Certain Plant  Nutritional Demands  External Hair Cover  Ability To Be Active In A Wide Range of Conditions  Large Colony Population  High Visiting Frequency

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Honey Bee Pollinating oil palm flower

BENEFITS FROM OPTIMUM POLLINATION  Increased Quality  Increased Quantity  Reduces abortion of the flower  Increased Size And Weight  Increased Seed Oil Contents  Increased Storage Period  Decrease Growing Period  Control Pests  Increased Harvest Uniformity

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 Decreased damaging immune response by the body to a substance

 Oil Palm tree showing ripe fruits

Oil Palm friuts

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Harvested Oil Palm bunches in large quantity

Oil Pam Plantation

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TIMING BEE INTRODUCTION

Oil Palm Flower

Hives should be introduced at 10% blooming and withdrawn at 90% blooming

POLLINATION WINDOW

Since the Oil palm is a plant that flowers all year round, it is advised that the oil palm farmer should also engaged in bee farming to avoid moving in and out of the hives with its attendants problems.

However for farmers, who are not involved in Bee farming, Beehives should be introduced when the palms start flowering at about 10%.

Flowering is all year round, but viability is at peak for 2 weeks

During flowering season; –October - November

Splitting of colonies

• Pick a hive with strong and active colony

• Pick another hive that is empty and bait it

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• From existing colonies transfer some closed brood comb and honey brood to the new hive and replace vacant spaces with baited top bar. Move daughter colony 5m or more away from the mother colony

POLLINATION SERVICE DELIVERY PROTOCOL I. Establish Oil Palm crop flowering status (reward or advertisement)

ii. Determine size of plot of Oil Palm farm (9m x 9m)

iii. Asses hectare, proximity and location of competing flora

Note: Some flowers can distract the bees from the target crop in this case the Oil Palm crop

iv. Determine chemical spraying timetable to avoid toxic exposure

Note: The farmer should also contact the Spray Service Provide before any service is carried out on the farm to Sensitize extension agents and service providers on the:

• Safe use of chemicals • Effective use of Good Agricultural Practices • Use of organic bee friendly chemicals • Planning, proper spacing • Strict adherence to approved chemicals • Use of bee tolerant chemicals • Enlighten farmers that farming is business • Demonstration plots to highlight cost and benefits

v. Sensitize Bee farmers/pollinators to know that whatever activity they are doing on bee farming and pollination has high prospects (African Union –International Bureau of Animal Resources [AU-IBAR])

Vi. Determine Forage Range/Plot Size

Vii. Ensure that Small /weak colonies should be introduced

viii. Stingless bees could also be used as their forage range is just about 500m

ix. Use small colonies because they less defensive

X. Accurately schedule delivery and evacuation of bees for pollination

Transportation of colonies- How to move bees

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The beekeeper must study carefully the temperament of his bees, and keep a record of the seasons when they are friendly or aggressive in his locality, because during certain periods of the year, bees can be transported easily without precautionary measures against aggression and stinging.

A motorized truck is an indispensable tool for the professional beekeeper. Bees cannot be moved by head-load. The top-bar hive cannot be transported over long distances on poor roads or tracks, and therefore hives that are to be transported frequently must be fitted with movable frames.

1. The hives should have a ventilation hole about two centimeters in diameter, covered with mosquito mesh. Their bottom board should be coated with termite-repellent paint. 2. The hives should be light enough to be loaded and unloaded easily. Combs with capped honey should be removed to reduce weight, while uncapped combs should be retained in the hive. Before loading, hives should be inspected and all unwanted openings sealed with wood and wax, since they can create problems if the bees come through them and cluster outside the hive. However, bees tend to cluster quietly in moving vehicles and rarely attempt to fly away or cause any harm until movement stops. 3. Hives should be loaded in the evening, when most of the bees have returned from foraging. In general, bees are less troublesome riding at night. The bees clustered at the entrance are smoked to drive them into the hive. The entrance is then sealed, and the ventilation hole is opened to allow air to circulate through the hive. Hives can be stacked one above another. 4. The Bees should be packed closely and neatly, and secured with a rope. The journey and the reinstallation of the hives should take place at night: hives should be unloaded and installed before sunrise, because the bees will be ready to leave shortly after that time. 5. To assist in the night work, a flashlight with a red bulb, or covered with red cellophane, is a useful tool, because bees cannot detect red light and are therefore not disturbed by it. 6. During transportation care must be taken to ensure minimal disturbance and braking of the comb. 7. Minimal feeding should be done during long distance transportation with recommended feed mixture of 70% water and 30% honey sprinkled on the wire cage top. Feeding on a mixture of 50% honey and 50% water, the container should be hanged slightly opposite the entrance of the hive. The feed mixture could be served on small flat plates but this could be messed up. Feeding jars with perforated with pins holes is most preferred be used.

8. Place oil in small container where the pivot will be placed to avoid ant infestation.

9. Avoid insect infested area when installing hives other cultural practice is recommended to ensure minimal use of pesticide & herbicides. Use Bee friendly pesticide (organic pesticide e.g. neem extract).

Importance of feeding Bees  Weight gain  Keep their attention in a particular area for a long time.

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Feeding of Bee Colony with Honey

Sample of Honey in a bottle

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Contractual commitment of oil Palm farmer and bee keeper At this time they should agree on a number of points, and it is often advisable for the agreement to be written down in a simple contract. Among the things they should agree on, these are possibly the most important:

1. The number and the strength of the colonies to be provided. Rented colonies should be queen-right, with at least four brood combs;

2. The dates of delivery and removal of the colonies;

3. The distribution of the hives on the farm;

4. The fee and schedule of payments. This is negotiable and depends on a number of factors, including proximity and transport costs, the quantity and quality of honey produced from the crop, and the risks, if any, involved in the operation. Due to the fact that he can expect two different benefits from the operation, the beekeeper should be prepared to charge moderate prices;

5. Ownership of the honey produced. Normally, the honey belongs to the beekeeper. If not, his fee is likely to be higher;

6. The right of the grower to verify that the colonies are up to strength. However, the grower should never attempt to open hives without the consent of the beekeeper. Colonies can be simply inspected by counting the number of returning foragers: on a warm, bright day during the flowering period, 100 bees returning to the hive within one minute are usually regarded as very good;

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7. Restrictions on the use of insecticides or pesticides toxic to bees, not only during the rental period but for a specified period before it begin. This is important because the farmer owes it not only to the beekeeper but also to himself to be sure that the colonies are strong, and therefore that he does not kill bees by the wrong use of pesticides;

8. Precautions to be taken against bush fires

9. Liability for random stinging by bees, for vandalism, for livestock damage, and for theft of hives

Delivery Protocol includes: • Select strong but gentle colony for pollination purpose

• Observe colony for suitability purpose

• Strong defensive

• Weak defensive

• Strong gentle

• Sick colonies

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2. Select Strong but gentle colony

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3. Ensure sufficient open brood (larvae) & closed brood (pupae)

SERVICE DELIVERY PROTOCOL FOR MOVEABLE TOP BAR TECHNOLOGY) Livestock delivery sequence

1. Fortify combs against breakage

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2. Provide feeding for 1st day at new location

3. Load hive into carrier case

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4. Engage reliable transport; vehicle or strong human delivery agents

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5. Position bee hive strategically on target crop plot. Monitoring is necessary

6. Withdraw bees after 90% drop in bloom and return to apiary

EFFECTIVE POLLINATION REQUIRES PLANNING AND EFFICIENT COORDINATION USAID MARKETS II 30

Challenges of pollination service delivery Size of plots

-Most small holder oil Palm farm plots in Africa are small (below 1 hectare). Foraging range of Bees is superior to these plots

Foraging resource

-Insufficient foraging resource if plot too small.

Payment for Service delivery

-Patronage still slow & low

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BIO SECURITY

In order to avoid vandalization and bush burning of hives, it is advised that security should be provided for the hives.

 Community should be introduced into Bee keeping for proper protection of the hives.  Government should enact on regulations against grazing in farmlands  Fire tracing  Discourage bush burning

Economic impact

• Increase in yield per home as it relates to income. (Case study of an increase in yield of 100%)

Illustration:

Yield of oil Palm = 4 tons/ha before pollination

Yield after pollination is 100% = 100/100 *4000 =4000kg

Relate weight to cash

Estimated price/ton = N 4,285.71

For 700kg = N4.285*700 =N2, 999.50

Total income = N2, 999.50

• Value could be added through

1. Quality of seed, 2. Uniformity of seeds, 3. Reduced production cost, 4. Increase in quatity.

These improved values are achieved through consistent visitation of bees to the flower. Bees visits about 300-600 flowers and they carry 7 times their body weight with nectare and can still fly.

NOTE: Reduction in use of insecticides will result in good yield

Advantages/ Factors of Aggressive Pollination

• 100% greater in nut set

• 100% greater in number of bunches

• 100% greater in weight of bunches

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• 100% greater in number of nuts

• 100% less in overhead

• Carrying capacity i.e. the number of bees that can effectively pollinate the crops determine uniform ripening and probability that your overhead cost will reduce

Adverse natural factors and pests Natural conditions

The amount of annual rainfall and the temperature of an area exert a great influence on the life and work output of the honeybee. The insect has been called a "summer bird", for it performs most energetically at relatively high temperatures, up to 35°C. Its activity slows when the temperature drops below 20°C, and bees will not move at all below 8°C. Fortunately, such low temperatures are rare in Africa.

At low temperatures, comb building ceases. Bees remain indoors and cluster to generate heat to keep themselves warm. To fan themselves or to cluster, they need fuel to burn; honey fuel allows them to perform these functions. Therefore, if one of these two activities is allowed to continue for long, field bees will not fetch food and other necessities of life, and the colony will have to depend on honey stored in the comb cells. The same phenomenon occurs during rainfall or the rainy season. Indeed, honey stored is for consumption during bad weather such as the chilly rainy season. If bees are confined because of unfavorable weather, an average colony may consume as much as 1.4 kg of honey in a day. Should this continue, whole stores of honey may be completely depleted and the colony will face famine on the other hand, temperatures above 37°C are equally unfavorable for the honeybee. At very high temperatures, combs begin to melt and most of the bees in the hive will move out and fan themselves and the brood nest frantically. At such temperatures, bees will spend all their time fetching water to cool the hive, and nectar collection will cease completely.

It was previously mentioned that the equatorial evergreen rain-forest area does not support any reasonable beekeeping activity. In the dense forest regions of Africa, the annual rainfall may range from 1 500 to as much as 10 000 mm, and the peak rainy season occurs from mid-June through July. It is at this period that most bee colonies swarm, and they therefore have to solve their accommodation problems promptly: if suitable hollows are not available, the swarm will hang in the open and drown. The problem of the swarm does not end there. A young virgin queen leading a secondary swarm must make her mating flight. A temperature of about 21°C is required for the drone to leave the hive, while the queen bee flies out at about 24°C. If the rain continues for a long time and low temperatures persist, the queen's nuptial flight will be delayed. After a week, the workers will become angry and may kill her or, if she is allowed to live, she will begin to lay unfertilized eggs. Once she starts egg-laying, the nuptial flight cannot take place and that will spell the doom of the entire colony.

Other problems are also encountered by the honeybee in the dense tropical forest:

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 Some trees are so tall that worker bees will not visit them for any reason.  Tall trees in the equatorial forest have few or no flowers, so that nectar and pollen are scarce.  The sun's rays cannot reach the forest floor, the thick undergrowth prevents the free flow of air, and the temperatures are too low to induce worker bees to fly out to procure the commodities essential for the colony.  High humidity levels promote serious fungal diseases in the insect.  High moisture content in the nectar prevents honey from curing well.  Ants, reptiles, birds and other hive predators are present in the forest in large numbers.

It should be noted that the absence of honeybee, from the forest in adequate numbers hampers adequate pollination, and this affects crop yields. This explains why some fruit crops (e.g. mango and orange) cannot perform well in dense forests; even though the plants grow taller and larger, they always bear less fruit than might otherwise be expected.

The savannah and semi-arid regions occupy over 50% of Africa's total area. These regions ideally could support large-scale commercial beekeeping, because their climatic conditions favor the honeybee. Almost every shrub and tree found in the region produces flowers.

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Human activities

The honey-hunter

Honey-hunters using outdated, barbaric methods are a terrible danger to the bees. Not only do they deliberately kill many of them, but as they cut down trees to take the colonies' combs, they destroy the tree hollows that are the bees' natural home. The colonies are thus forced to hang outdoors, exposed to all their natural enemies. And if the bees are destroyed, they cannot fertilize flowering crops, and this again contributes to famine conditions.

For all these reasons, the activities of the traditional honey-tapper, the main present supplier of honey in most African countries, should be very strictly controlled. Governments should not only regulate honey-hunting and enforce the regulations once made, but should also make serious efforts to instruct honey-tappers in the newer, more efficient ways of honey-hunting, as well as to encourage them to keep bees themselves.

Bush-burning

One of the greatest problems in the savannah and the transitional forest zones is bush-burning. This practice is rampant during the dry season (generally from November to March). Some obvious reasons for bush-burning are (i) to clear the land for farming (ii) and to clear the bush and make hunting easy. The honeybee population suffers greatly from such fires' in a wild fire that consumes an area of 250 square kilometers, with only one colony for every 10 hectares; about 125 million bees could be destroyed

The beekeeper must guard his hives against bush fires. Before the dry season, he should make a fire belt around the apiary and visit it as frequently as possible, removing any fallen wood or leaves which could spread a fire on the site.

Bee-burning

Where water is scarce during the dry season, the honeybee makes life difficult for man. The streams disappear, and it becomes necessary to travel several miles to fetch a head-load of water for domestic purposes. At the same time, the temperature is high, and the harmattan wind drains all moisture from the honeycomb. There are larvae to feed, and this requires water, but the honeybee can only travel three kilometers. If she cannot find water in the streams, then that bucketful of water which the villager has collected must be snatched away. The bees will lay claim to-it in large numbers. Returning from the farm late in the evening, the exhausted, thirsty farmer finds that his only bucket of water has been drained by the bees. What is more, the bees harass the women pounding grain. In extreme cases, they try to suck human sweat and this result in a scuffle.

Bees must be watered in the same manner as birds are watered on a poultry farm. The surest way to prevent bee-burning is to provide a regular water supply for bees as well as for human consumption in the dry season

Poisoning bees

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As the honeybee visits plants during her search for nectar or pollen, she flies from one plant and flower to another. Sometimes the insect unknowingly lands on a poisonous plant or contacts a poisonous pesticide which the farmer has sprayed to protect his crops. Pollen collectors may carry this poisoned pollen into the hive and store it for future use by the bee brood. As long as the poisonous pollen remains in the cells, it poses a dangerous threat. It may kill both adults and brood, either by contact or by ingestion. This intensive hazard of pesticide poisoning sometimes overshadows all other problems, for example when an entire orchard is sprayed by aircraft. Beekeepers are strongly advised to keep their hives away from sprayed fields.

Natural enemies and pests

Ants

The greatest natural enemies of the honeybee are all types of ants: driver, tailor, black, red, brown, large or small, all are dangerous to the hive. They eat sweets such as nectar, honey, sugar and the bee's body. They like to live in hollows like the bee, and the same empty beehive produced by man for bees can also be a good home for them. The hive must therefore be protected from ants.

All four wires or the legs of the hive should be protected by insect repellents. The part of the suspension wire nearest to the branch on which the wire hangs should be coated with thick grease. The legs of the hive stands can also be protected with grease, but the best insect repellent to use with hive stands is dirty engine oil, each leg of the stand being placed in a shallow container full of the oil. Spreading wood ash or charcoal ash around the stand will also keep ants away.

A newly installed beehive should be visited frequently to check whether it has been colonized by bees or ants. Destroy every ant found in the hive.

Wax moths (Galleria mellonella and Achroia grisella)

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The wax moth is the bee's second worst enemy. There are two types: greater and lesser wax moths. They attack colonies during the warm periods of the year. Strong colonies are able to repel them, but weak ones are susceptible to attack. The moth itself does no harm to adult bees but does harm the larvae. The female, which is slightly smaller than the honeybee, enters the hive freely and lays her eggs in the combs. The eggs hatch in three days, and the emerged larvae begin to eat the wax, tunneling through and destroying the comb cells, and spinning web-like cocoons about themselves for protection against the bees. They are capable of destroying all the combs in a hive. The bees may leave the hive and cluster on a support near the apiary. If the beekeeper's attention is drawn to this, he can sometimes prevent the colony from absconding by cleaning all the destroyed combs and removing all the larvae of the wax moth. The bees may return to the hive and start all over again. When the wax-moth reaches its pupal stage, it digs hollows in wood for its cocoon and by doing so damages or destroys the inner surface of the hive and the top-bars. Weak colonies can be protected against wax moth by making them strong, for example by uniting two or three colonies. The moth usually enters a hive to lay her eggs when a colony swarms. When strong colonies swarm, most of the bees leave the hive, and the few which remain may not be able to cover all the combs. Unguarded combs should be removed, stored and replaced later as the colony increases in size.

The entrance of a weak colony should be reduced to enable the few "security officers" to guard it effectively. Other holes which can serve as entrances to the hive will surely be used not only by the moth but by other hive predators as well. Such entrances should be sealed off as soon as they are discovered.

Lizards

Lizards, reptiles measuring about 25 cm from head to tail, are mostly found in backyard gardens, in villages and the outskirts of the city. The activity of the "home lizard" may cause great concern to the beekeeper. It sometimes stays very close to the hive or accommodates itself comfortably between the lid and the hive body, if it can find an entrance. From that convenient spot, it may feed

USAID MARKETS II 37 indefinitely on the bees. Even lizards not living near the hive will feed on the bees once they can locate the apiary. Although they prefer dead bees, they will eat live ones as well. A worker bee, acting as a scavenger, will pounce on an old, lazy or sick bee and try to tear the victim's wings, breaking them into pieces. While this action is in progress, the lizard will rush in and lick both of them up with its sticky tongue.

A serious lizard problem may lead to absconding. The simplest and most practical protective measure Beehives are installed on a platform, with metal cones nailed on the legs about 70 cm above the ground, to prevent lizards from reaching the hives.

Toads

Toads use the same methods as lizards, and will remain in the apiary if they can get bees to eat. The toad generally consumes only weak and dead bees, but if it can reach the hive, it will eat live bees as well. The toad does not pose as many problems as the lizard because it cannot climb.

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The best means of protecting hives against toads is therefore to install them at least 60 cm above the ground.

Snakes

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Some snakes are known to eat bees. They do not cause much damage to the colony, but the beekeeper should always be careful to avoid being bitten by a poisonous snake near the hive.

The praying mantis

The praying mantis also eats bees, but this insect cannot cause any great damage to a colony.

The spider

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The spider constructs webs around in the apiary or in an empty hive. Once the web catches bees, the spider will eat them. All webs found in or near the apiary should be destroyed.

The hive should be cleaned and all webs found within it removed. Otherwise, the scout bees will be caught and eaten, and no swarm will ever take possession of the empty hive.

The Alpine swift

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This bird is well known for eating bees. The birds arrive in December and stay on for several weeks, usually causing considerable losses.

Measures against spreading bee diseases The beekeeper and the honeybee are the two main agents that spread diseases among bees and between colonies and apiaries. Dead larvae, spores and dried scales transported for removal by the worker are sometimes dragged along the combs before they are disposed overboard. The beekeeper removes combs from a weaker colony and exchanges them with combs from a stronger colony. Sick and weak colonies are united. This transfer of bees and combs sometimes takes place from one apiary to another, thereby spreading diseases.

Further, honey contaminated with spores and parasites may be fed to a healthy colony, or the beekeeper may drop such contaminated honey-combs and bee products where they will be robbed by bees. Drones and workers straying into other colonies are also guilty of spreading diseases. The beekeeper must watch these thieves carefully and act in the interest of his own business. The following points are worth noting when there is an outbreak of disease:

1. The apiary must be kept clean. Honeycombs, wax, propolis and other hive products must not be thrown away near the apiary.

2. The beekeeper must not transfer infected combs from hive to hive or from apiary to apiary. Combs must be exchanged with great care.

3. Old hive parts, as well as used apiary equipment bought or acquired from doubtful sources, must be disinfected.

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4. Unknown swarms should never be accepted when there is an outbreak of a bee disease. The beekeeper should set up a quarantine apiary four kilometers away from the nearest apiary, and make sure the swarm is disease-free before transporting it to the apiary.

5. Bees should never be fed with honey from a doubtful source.

6. If a colony dies of unknown causes, the hive should be closed pending an examination of a sample comb. The remaining stores in the hive should be protected from robber bees.

7. Robbing must be prevented. Place syrup or food for a colony inside the hive or in a properly designed feeder to prevent robbing.

8. Brood combs should be regularly inspected for signs of disease.

9. Hives should be spaced reasonably far apart. The beekeeper should try to arrange his hives so that it will be easy for every bee in the apiary to find its way into its own colony. This will help minimize drifting

7. Record changes in yield

Keep record

• Take only colonies that have brood so that the honey bee workers will be forced to go out to get pollen to feed their young ones

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• Target arrival dates

• Placement of hives should be done gently

• When you have a small farm and the colony available is strong and active you split the colony and use the daughter colony for the farm

Before and after introduction of the pollinators, record should be kept showing:

 Hectarage of the farm  Yield per hectare (number of branches)  Weight of loosed fruits  Standard agreement between the farmer and the pollinator, showing span of pollination  Yield per hectare after pollination  Weight of fruits after pollination  Differences Observed  Percentage increase in yield  Appropriate Dates and days of harvesting should be taken into consideration

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