ISSN 1810-0775

Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

Second edition )$2'LYHUVLÀFDWLRQERRNOHW Diversification booklet number 1 Second edition

Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

Martin Hilmi, Nicola Bradbear and Danilo Mejia

Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome 2011 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO.

ISBN 978-92-5-107062-8

All rights reserved. FAO encourages reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Non-commercial uses will be authorized free of charge, upon request. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes, including educational purposes, may incur fees. Applications for permission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright materials, and all queries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail to [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.

© FAO 2012 ■ Preface vii

■ Acknowledgements ix

■ Introduction 1 ■ Bees and traditional knowledge: Honey hunting vs. beekeeping 2 ■ Beekeeping as a business enterprise and market potential 4 ■ Purpose of the booklet 7

■ Benefits of the livelihood activity 9 ■ Beekeeping at household level 9 ■ Enhancing local skills, knowledge and traditions 10

■ Integration into the farming system 10 of contents Table ■ Dietary contribution 11 ■ Traditional medicinal value 13 ■ On farm processing 13 ■ Improved income 15 ■ Social benefits 16 ■ Environmental benefits 17

■ The feasibility of the livelihood activity 19 ■ Starting the business 19 ■ Market research: What products? 19 ■ How much to produce? 20 ■ What equipment? 20 ■ Credit 21 ■ Costs and profits 21 ■ Evaluation of the livelihood activity 22 ■ The livelihood activity 23 ■ The bees 25 ■ Hives 28 ■ Equipment 33 ■ Management 36 ■ Harvesting 38 ■ Standards, quality and certification 39

■ Sustainable strategies for the livelihood activity 43 ■ Access to markets 44 ■ Bee products 45 ■ Marketing channels: local networks 51 ■ Marketing strategies 52 ■ Products: value adding 53 ■ Packaging 54 ■ Producer organization 55 ■ Sustainable business enterprise 56

■ Support services to promote beekeeping 57 ■ Access to support services 57 ■ Technical training, equipment and information dissemination 57 ■ Business skills training 58 ■ Market information 58 ■ Transport 59 ■ Organizational options 59 ■ Quality 60 ■ Supporting women in beekeeping 60 ■ Building trust and linkages 61 ■ Institutional role 61 ■ Role of the advisor 62

Table of contents ■ ■ ■

Sources offurther informationandsupport Selected further reading ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Challenges

oe olcincnrsadpoue raiain 65 Public policy Honey collectioncentresandproducerorganizations Gender Local skilledtrainers Packaging 63 Processing Quality andstandardsinlocalinternationalmarkets Supply chainandmarketlinkages Bee species,parasitesanddiseases 71 67 65 65 65 64 64 63 63 63

Table of contents Preface

The purpose of the FAO Diversification booklets is to raise awareness and provide decision support information about opportunities at farm and local community level to increase the incomes of small-scale farmers.

Each booklet focuses on a farm or non-farm enterprise that can be integrated into small farms to increase incomes and enhance livelihoods. The enterprises profiled in the FAO Diversification booklets are suitable for smallholder farmers in terms of resource requirements, additional costs, exposure to risk and complexity. The products or services generated by the enterprises are suitable for meeting demand on a growing, or already strong, local market and are not dependent on an export market. However in this particular case import and export markets for bee products will be considered, in particular honey and wax, as they influence local markets.

The main target audience for these booklets are people and organizations that provide advisory, business and technical support services to resource- poor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-income countries. It is hoped that enough information is given to help these support service providers to consider new income-generating opportunities and how these might enable small-scale farmers to take action. What are the potential benefits? What are farmer requirements and constraints? What are critical ‘success factors’? Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

The FAO Diversification booklets are also targeted to policy-makers and programme managers in government and non-governmental organizations. What actions might policy-makers take to create enabling environments for small-scale farmers to diversify into new income-generating activities?

The FAO Diversification booklets are not intended to be technical ‘how to do it’ guidelines. Readers will need to seek more information or technical support, so as to provide farmer advisory and support activities relating to the introduction of new income-generating activities. To assist in this respect,

vii each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support and website addresses.

A CD has been prepared with a full series of FAO Diversification booklets and FAO technical guides, together with complementary guides on market research, financing, business planning, etc. Copies of the CD are available on request from FAO. FAO Diversification booklets can also be downloaded from the FAO Internet site.

If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you.Tell your colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions about possible changes for enhancing our next edition or regarding relevant topics for other booklets. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can provide better services to you.

viii Acknowledgements

This booklet considerably updates the first edition of the FAO Diversification booklet No1 Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods written by Nicola Bradbear in 2003, but has used minor parts of the original text within this second edition. Moreover this second edition of the FAO Diversification booklet in the section on The livelihood activity has sourced from FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome pp. 32- 42 and FAO.2006.Value-added products from beekeeping, by R. Krell, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 124, Rome and Curtis, G. 1982. Small scale beekeeping. Appropriate technologies for beekeeping, Peace Corps, Washington D.C.

Gratitude is owed to Doyle Baker, Senior Technical Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division, (AGS), FAO, who provided for a detailed technical review on a previous draft version of this booklet.

Acknowledgements for the series Gratitude is owed to Doyle Baker, Senior Technical Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division (AGS), FAO, for his vision, encouragement and constant support in the development of the FAO Diversification booklet series. Martin Hilmi managed the development, production and post-production of the series and provided technical support and inputs. Michael Breece undertook the design and layout of the booklets and desktop publishing. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

ix Introduction

In nearly all countries of the world knowledge required for such an bees and their products are not only enterprise are found within local well known and have wide consumer traditions. As a business enterprise it preference, but provide sustainable offers not only diverse products, for livelihoods to many small-scale example honey and wax among others, farmers and other rural and non-rural which can be sold in local markets people. Bees offer a large potential and become an important source of with minimal investments. As an regular income for farm families, agricultural enterprise beekeeping but can also provide complementary does not require land ownership or services, such as crop pollination. rental, it can be started with equipment Moreover bee products improve farm and tools that can be sourced locally family nutrition and can provide for and in many instances skills and traditional health care remedies. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

FIGURE 1 Vendors selling raw honey in a variety of recycled bottles at a market (Photo: FAO/ 24722_0506/G.Napolitano)

1 BOX 1 Beekeeping and livelihoods

Beekeeping tends to be perceived as ‘a hobby’, or as ‘a sideline activity’. These descriptions may often be true, but a resilient livelihood – one that keeps people out of poverty – is one that has access to a range of options. In this case, apiculture and related trades can be sources of valuable strength to countless numbers of rural people’s livelihoods. Rather than just a ‘hobby’, beekeeping may be seen as an important occupation and part of rural life worldwide. In rural communities where access to income is limited, small-scale beekeeping can contribute significantly to livelihood security. Apiculture and related trades tends to be underplayed in both policy and planning. One reason may be the focus of rural development, wherein crop production and livestock rearing are taken to be dominant activities in rural areas. This perspective can render invisible the part beekeeping occupies in social life, culture, and local economies.

Source: FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome

■ Bees and traditional knowledge: marketed and is usually either thrown Honey hunting vs. beekeeping away or used as burning fuel. Honey hunters can be found in many Along side honey hunting, countries and are commonly involved traditional forms of beekeeping have in subsistence farming. They hunt for also developed over the centuries. honey in the wild as a way to diversify In this type of beekeeping the small- their food supply as well as to sell scale farmer provides protection honey. However fire and smoke that for the bee colony in exchange are used to rid the bees from their for periodic harvests of honey and nests can destroy the entire colony, but wax. This protection may be as can also ignite wild fires. This type of simple as providing a hole in a wall practice also affects the surrounding (see Figure 3), a clay pot or a basket environment as pollination services attached to a tree branch so that bees are no longer available. This puts in can colonize it. This enables to harvest jeopardy the honey hunter’s livelihood honey without destroying the colony as well as making crops and other and risking the important pollination plants in the area more vulnerable. services that bees can provide. The Moreover the honey and wax obtained brood taken from wild colonies of bees from such a practice are of low quality. is sometimes eaten by children as a For example honey can be sold with protein supplement, but is not available parts of honey comb in it, ash and on a constant basis, so contributes little brood. Wax from the honey comb is not to their diets and protein intake.

2 FIGURE 2 Farmer fells a tree to get at a beehive in its interior (Photo: FAO/19138/M. Marzot) Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

FIGURE 3 Removing honeycombs from a hole in a wall (Photo: FAO/19145/M.Marzot)

3 More advanced forms of beekeeping of honey products, on a regular basis involve using purposely made hives and enables small-scale farmers to (see Figure 4). This not only allows manage and control the bee colony, for ownership of the bee colony and like any other agricultural enterprise. its products, but importantly makes It enables more proficient and it easier to harvest bee products as efficient management and commonly bees can be kept closer to the farm allows for higher yields and more household and /or can be moved regular supply of bee products for the with greater ease, for example to market. provide pollination services for fruit crops (see FAO Diversification ■ Beekeeping as a business booklet No. 16 Fruit products for enterprise and market potential profit). This, unlike, honey hunting Beekeeping is a lucrative trade provides far more reliable sources even using simple management

FIGURE 4 Beekeeping: increased populations of honeybees are required for optimal pollination of food crops and for the production of increased quantities of honey (Photo: FAO/21761/R. Messori)

4 techniques, but needs to consider with little need for tendering. Bees local culture and economy for it to provide for a plethora of products be successful. Beekeeping as an (honey, wax, pollen, royal jelly, enterprise fits in very well with small- propolis, venom, etc.) and are well scale farmers’ livelihoods. It is not known in many local markets. This invasive; bees work along the natural provides a portfolio of products patterns of local agro-ecological that a small-scale farmer can sell zones and provide positive impacts from a single farm enterprise. These to the fauna and flora found within. It products can also, with minimal is an enterprise that can provide for processing, be ‘transformed’ into employment, income and economic value added products, for example security for the farm family and wax can be processed into candles, others in rural areas. It requires and honey can be made into mead little start–up investments, does (honey beer) (see FAO Diversification not require complex technologies booklet No. 21 Traditional fermented and techniques to start with and food and beverages for improved bees usually look after themselves, livelihoods).

CASE STUDY 1 Beekeeping as a business in Kenya

David Mutai back in 1997 made his first simple bee hive. The idea to become a beekeeper came to him from his local school. He placed his first hive in a forest near a river bank and was able to harvest up to 20 kilos of honey per year which he used as food.

In 2002, David and other local youths came together to form Segemiat beekeeping self- help group. In 2003 the new group of enthusiastic beekeepers had their first contact with the Baraka Agricultural College/Self Help Development International beekeeping outreach project through the local Ministry of Agriculture extension worker. A local Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods carpenter was trained on how to make improved Kenya Top Bar Hives. After training, the group collectively purchased a tree which they sawed up to make 31 beehives. In 2004 another tree was purchased and 45 more group hives were made. Making their own hives was much cheaper than purchasing expensive factory beehives and made the group self-reliant. In addition to hive making the group also received practical on- site training on beekeeping skills. Also members were trained in honey processing, business, leadership and how to train others through a Training of Trainers (ToT) modality.

Source: Adapted from Apiconsult. 2005. A beekeeping case study, the story of David Mutai (Available at http://www.apiconsult.com/beekeeping-case-study.htm)

5 BOX 2 Ten excellent reasons for beekeeping

1. Pollination Bees pollinate flowering plants and thereby maintain the ecosystem. Bees pollinate cultivated crops. 2. Honey People everywhere know and like honey, a valuable energetic and healthy food and income source. 3. Beeswax and other products Beeswax, propolis, pollen and royal jelly. These products have many uses, and can be used to create income. 4. Few resources are needed Beekeeping is feasible even for people with minimal resources. Bees are obtained from the wild. Equipment and tools can be made locally. Bees do not need the beekeeper to feed them. 5. Land ownership not essential Hives can be placed anywhere convenient, and so beekeeping does not use up valuable land. Bees collect nectar and pollen wherever they can find it, so wild, cultivated and wasteland areas all have value for beekeeping. 6. Nectar and pollen are otherwise not harvested Nectar and pollen are not used by other livestock: only bees harvest these resources, so there is no competition with other crops. Without bees these valuable resources could not be harvested. 7. Different sectors and trades benefit from a strong beekeeping industry Other local traders benefit by making hives and equipment, and from using and selling the products. 8. Beekeeping encourages ecological awareness Beekeepers have a financial reason to conserve the environment: ensuring that flowers are available and bees are protected. 9. Everybody can be a beekeeper Bees can be kept by people of all ages. Bees do not need daily care and beekeeping can be done when other work allows. 10. Beekeeping is benign and environmentally friendly Beekeeping generates income without destroying habitat. Encouraging beekeeping encourages the maintenance of biodiversity.

Source: FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome

6 ■ Purpose of the booklet business for small-scale farmers in The booklet’s aim is to create their agricultural endeavours and awareness and promote beekeeping how this can support their livelihoods as a viable diversification enterprise in rural and remote areas. The booklet for small-scale farmers. Its main is intended for all those working in objective is to demonstrate how rural development projects in public, beekeeping can become an important private and donor organizations. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

7 Benefits of the livelihood activity

■ Beekeeping at household level travel far to tender the enterprise and In many countries beekeeping is a it can be a ready source of cash in family undertaking, where men provide times of need, as bee products can be for harvesting, while women and sold to neighbours or in local markets. children tend to honey extraction and This enables women to be part of an processing. However this is not always economic activity, which can provide the case as women, in particular, can them with income and an independence successfully use beekeeping as a that can support them in difficult times. livelihood enterprise. It can be located It is also a flexible activity, where there in and around the farm household; it is no need for constant tendering, for does not require excessive labour and example as with livestock and crops, time to manage, as bees do the majority and hence allows women to follow of the work. Women do not have to other matters on farm as well. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

FIGURE 5 Small-scale farmers checking their hives in proximity of the farm homestead (Photo: FAO/ 23504/L. Miuccio)

9 Honey, like other bee products, has Importantly this will not deviate a good energetic, tasty and nutritional from the use of acquired techniques value and contributes to the overall and equipment in the locality, but health of the farm family. In many enhance them and improve them, thus societies bee products are used in making up-take far easier and far more traditional medicines and are an successful. integral part of traditional health care. Bees can also contribute to the ■ Integration into the farming pollination of home gardens (see system FAO Diversification booklet No. 2 Beekeeping fits in very well to small- Livelihoods grow in gardens) as well scale farming systems. Beekeeping as of other crops the farmer grows does not require land to be owned increasing food security for the farm and/or rented and soil fertility is not family. an issue to consider. Feed is also not Bees do not require feeding, and an issue as they forage on otherwise only need a source of clean and potable unused resources: nectar and pollen. water. Commonly they can forage in In other words beekeeping does wild, cultivated and even land mined not compete for other resources areas as well as in arid areas. During needed by livestock and crops. civil strife and war situations bees Bees complement crops with their are one of the few enterprises that pollination of farmed crops and this can provide farm families with much in turn can increase crop yields. needed food and income. Some crops, for example that benefit from pollination services are sisal, ■ Enhancing local skills, knowledge cashew, papaya, coconut, oil palm, and traditions citrus, sunflowers and clover. Some In many rural communities and not of these also provide to be good only, various forms of beekeeping have nectar sources for bees. Many of the been in practice for many years. By inputs required for beekeeping can be introducing beekeeping as a business sourced and made locally and do not and building on pre-existent skills will impinge on other farm activities and improve the knowledge and capacity of required investments. Products that small-scale farmers. This will enhance derive from a beekeeping enterprise local traditions in beekeeping, while use little or any farm inputs, apart developing such an enterprise to the from labour in harvest and processing benefit of many in the local community. periods.

10 CASE STUDY 2 Improved beekeeping in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a leading honey producer in Africa and one of the ten largest honey producing countries in the world. Despite the favourable agro-ecology for honey production and the number of bee colonies the country is endowed with, the level of honey production and productivity in the country is still low. The annual average honey production per hive is as low as six to seven kilos. One of the prominent factors for this low honey productivity is the traditional hive and the lack of improved beekeeping management techniques. With the aim of enhancing the level of honey production both in quantity and quality, the Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) project introduced a participatory market oriented value chain development approach in Fogera and with a group of stakeholders worked on improving production, input supply and marketing. The project partners trained beekeepers on colony splitting, hive making and seasonal bee colony management practices. In addition, the project facilitated the establishment of a beekeeping input supply shop and advised beehive producers (carpenters) on the proper design of top-bar and frame-type hives.

The adoption rate of improved beekeeping has been improved substantially after skill development trainings took place and appropriate beehives were produced in the district. The number of improved beehives adopted in the district increased from 200 in 2006 to 882 in 2009, following the 2007 and 2009 beekeeping training through technical and financial support of the IPMS project. Through the beekeeping technology transformation, the average annual honey productivity per hive increased from 7 to 13 kilos. This was achieved by changing the hives from traditional to top-bar hives and frame hives. In addition to what has been achieved in enhancing the level of honey production, the technology transformation also improved honey quality substantially.

Source: Gebey, T., Berhe, K., and Hoekstra, D. 2010. Beekeeping development using value chain approach in Fogera district: experiences from IPMS project interventions, ILRI, Addis Ababa

■ Dietary contribution mental efficiency (FAO, 2006a). Bee products provide for improved Honey also is said to improve food nutrition and consequently better assimilation (FAO, 2006a). It is Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods health for farm families and others in commonly indicated as a ‘lifesaver’ for local communities. Honey is a useful people in critical health (CTA, 2005b). source of high-carbohydrate food, and Pollen also contributes to nutrition; commonly contains a rich diversity however pollen that is consumed needs of minerals, vitamins and others, to derive from different plant sources adding nutritional variety to human to provide various nutrients to humans. diets (FAO, 2009). Honey provides Pollen contains a range of constituents: for improved physical performance, 30 percent protein, including all amino resistance to fatigue and improved acids, a full spectrum of vitamins

11 and minerals, lipids, trace elements, have not been confirmed by scientific etc. (FAO, 2009) Propoils is mainly evidence. consumed for its medicinal value, while Bee brood and adult bees are royal jelly is claimed to provide, very consumed in many countries and in much like honey, increased physical some are considered as a treat. Brood resistance and improved intellectual and adult bees contain reasonable performance. However these properties amounts of protein (FAO, 2006a).

TABLE 1 Components of various bee products

Components and weight in % Product Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Honey 17 - 21 0.4 0 79 - 83 0.1 Pollen 25 => 11 22 5 31 3 Bee bread 20 => 14 20 3 24 - 35 3

Royal jelly 67 11 6 9 1 ‘ => ‘ refers to the moisture content after drying

Source: CTA. 2005. Bee products; properties, processing and marketing, Agrodok No. 42, Wageningen, the Netherlands

FIGURE 6 A child being fed honey (Photo: FAO/19179/M.Marzot)

12 ■ Traditional medicinal value and can be used for arthritis and There is a considerable history nasal inflammations (FAO, 2009). of bees and bee products having Propolis is well known to have medicinal properties. Honey, pollen, medicinal value and this has also propolis, wax, royal jelly and venom been proven scientifically. It has are seen by many to have curative bactericidal, fungicidal and antiviral properties, even though others effects. In sub-Saharan Africa, suggest the contrary as a result of a for example, it is used in herbal lack of critical scientific scrutiny on medicines (FAO, 2006a). Pollen, bee products (FAO, 2009). even though not being recognized Honey is primarily seen in as a medicinal drug, is used in traditional medical systems as having traditional medicine, for such curative properties. This derives aspects as prostate problems. In from the fact that honey made from terms of royal jelly claims are made a particular medicinal plant (see on its positive effects on human FAO Diversification booklet No. 17 beings, however, opinions differ Health and wealth from medicinal and some argue that there is no aromatic plants) is traditionally scientific evidence to support such assumed to transfer the properties a case (FAO, 2009). Still claims are to the honey. However these claims made of the use of bee venom and are not supported by orthodox its positive effects on rheumatoid scientific evidence (FAO,2006a). In arthritis and tendon, strain and terms of honey, scientific evidence muscle injuries, however also here sees honey as more of a food than a there are people who claim there is medicine, the benefits deriving more lack of scientific evidence to support from nutritional effects. However, such affirmations. for example on topical applications Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods honey has demonstrated accelerated ■ On farm processing wound healings in animals (FAO, Beekeeping and its products, by 2006a). Moreover common bacteria, there very nature, require on farm Streptococcus pyogenes, that cause processing prior to being sold. sore throats, can be inhibited from This provides for opportunities in growth with the use of honey (FAO, learning new skills and subsequent 2009). capacity building in small-scale In terms of beeswax claims are farmers in terms of primary made that it has antibiotic properties processing (see FAO Diversification

13 booklet No. 4 Value from village soap and so forth. This importantly processing), for example cutting demonstrates to small-scale farmers honey comb, extracting honey that on farm processing, pending on and filtering. This is a first step in market demand, can be an important setting up a processing enterprise on source of value-added and increased farm. Moreover with some minimal income. training small-scale farmers can Processing is not only important learn valued-added processing for higher incomes, but also for methods for bee products, referred food security and availability. Bee to as secondary processing (see products that have been appropriately FAO Diversification booklet No. processed are available year round 5 Processing for prosperity). This for farm family consumption, but can produce such value-added also for consumption by customers products as honey sweets, honey in local communities

FIGURE 7 A selection of products made from honey and beeswax (Photo: FAO/19181/M/Marzot)

14 ■ Improved income example, beeswax can make candles; Many bee products have a good honey can be added into soap and so value on local markets and are easily forth. This means more income for tradable. Honey for example, requires the farm family derived from selling few inputs, and has a good cash value value-added products, a source of related to bulk and weight. Honey regular income over the year as is also easy to transport to distant well as targeting non-agricultural markets, such as export markets. markets with some of the value-added Honey, if appropriately extracted products. and processed can become a non- In some countries there are charges perishable, providing sales of the made for pollination services carried product well beyond the main harvest out by bees on commercial crops. This times. This can provide a more has a value for the commercial crops constant and regular income for the as not only it increases yields, but also farm family. increases quality of the crops. This Moreover many bee products with means that there is potential to charge minimal processing can be made fees for pollination services carried into value-added products that may out by small-scale farmers’ bees in not be related to agriculture. For their local areas. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

FIGURE 8 Pots of honey on sale at a roadside market in Niger (Photo: FAO/15409/R. Faidutti)

15 ■ Social benefits by farmers for younger people in Bees provide benefits to many within the community. In some instances rural communities. This ranges from farmers visit local schools and give improved crop yields as a result of practical demonstrations to students. pollination, to improved food and Beekeeping can also create nutrition, an assured supply for social benefits as for example when traditional medicine and improved small-scale farmers join together to community health. In many cultures form an association, either formal bee products are valued in festivities or informal. This collaborative and ceremonies, such as births work, which fits in very well with and marriages (FAO, 2009). This beekeeping, especially during reinforces social ties and traditions. honey harvest time, can create Once more advanced beekeeping scope for working together within methods have been understood a community and the people and practised for sometime it is involved can see and experience not uncommon to find training in the advantages and benefits of beekeeping methods conducted collaboration and social harmony.

FIGURE 9 A women’s group assembles beehives as part of an effort to provide a new source of income for the village (Photo:FAO/20894)

16 BOX 3 The bee as an environmental monitoring indicator

A viable and practical biological indicator is the bee as it can indicate environment degradation based on several factors:

• a bee has a body that is covered in hairs, which makes it particularly suitable to hold materials and substances they come in contact with; • a bee is highly sensitive to most plant protection products; • bees have high mortality rates when in contact with pesticides; • toxic and pollutant residues can be found in bee products and in their bodies; • A bee can fly over wide areas and thus provide environmental monitoring for such areas.

BOX 4 Flowering plants and bees

If we look at the many colourful and different looking flowers, we should not forget that they have developed as an adaptation for the bees and other pollinators, and not to please humans! Bees and most flowering plants have developed a complex interdependence during millions of years. An estimated 80 percent of flowering plants are entomophilous i.e. depending more or less on insect pollination to be able to reproduce, and it is estimated that half of the pollinators of tropical plants are bees.

The efficiency of honeybees is a result of their great numbers, their physique and their behaviour of foraging on only one plant species at one time. The bees have to find their food in flowers. Bees have to learn where in a flower the nectar is to be found. To guide the bees, many plants have bee-tracks, which are lines of colour leading the bee towards the nectar. These can sometimes be seen by humans, but some are in the ultra-violet part of the spectrum and visible only to bees, but not humans. In this way, the plant also guides the visiting bee to pass the anthers or stigma in the right way. Bees have no problems in finding the nectar in flat, open flowers, but in flowers that are more complex, they have to learn it by trial and error. After some visits to and

in the same type of flower, the bee has learned where the nectar is, and learns this for Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods the next visit.

Source: FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome

■ Environmental benefits Their role is not readily recognized, Bees provide numerous benefits to even though bees are needed for the the natural environment and have pollination of many cultivated crops a critical role in its sustainability. and for maintaining biodiversity

17 in ‘islands’ of non-cultivated areas can make between 7 to 14 trips a day. (FAO, 2009). Usually a honeybee A colony with 25 000 forager bees, can visit between 50 to1 000 flowers each making 10 trips a day, is able to in one trip, which takes between 30 pollinate 250 million flowers ( FAO, minutes to 4 hours. In Europe, a bee 2009).

18 The feasibility of the livelihood activity

■ Starting the business Small-scale farmers will need to In promoting beekeeping as a estimate and consider such aspects business in rural areas the initial as market demand, where and how step is to ascertain if beekeeping is they can sell their bee products, the being practiced at all in the local area scale of production required, the of interest. If beekeeping is being equipment that is required, credit, practised it is advisable to consult the overall costs of the enterprise and with local small-scale farmers and potential profits that can derive from others so as to ascertain if they the activity. already understand beekeeping as a business, how such a business ■ Market research: What is managed and marketed. By products? ascertaining local knowledge and Market research is required so capacity it will be easier to build small-scale farmers can find out improved skills and capacity on what what demand there is in their locality is already common knowledge in the for bee products. Usually the most local area. demanded bee product is honey, More then often beekeeping as a followed by wax. In more developed business is started without adequate and sophisticated markets such information about the feasibility bee products as pollen, propolis, of such an enterprise. Numerous royal jelly and bee venom are more times beekeeping enterprises are in demand as well as pollination started with to many hives and /or services. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods expanded to a size that produce is In terms of local markets such left in storage and not sold. To avert aspects as how many kilos of honey, such occurrences it is advisable to for example, are demanded, what conduct a feasibility study of the quality is demanded, what prices potential of beekeeping as a business can be charged and when, where in the local area. Such a study is and how can the honey be sold, need not overly complex for small-scale to be ascertained. If for example, farmers to handle, but they will need the small-scale farmer also decides and require support from the advisor. to set up a small-scale on-farm

19 processing enterprise, for example forage and the required nectar and to make candles, he or she will need pollen flow, where the hives will to research the local market also to need to be located and if the areas are find out, if there is a demand for accessible for bee foraging, water candles, what prices can be charged sources that are accessible and can and what quantities are in demand. be used, the number of bee colonies Small-scale farmers will also need and hives that will be needed, the to find out about any competitors average production per hive, for there may be in markets. This will example of honey, the risks of lower entail finding out what prices they production levels as a result of, for sell their bee products for, where example, the lack of nectar sources do they sell, what quantities do they for certain periods, bee diseases and supply to market and so forth. so forth. It may also be viable to research Estimates will also have to the market for pollination services be made of what labour will be that may be required in a local area. needed, when it is most needed, for However this will depend on how example during harvest time, and its developed such a market is in a availability. local area and if there is a business Estimates will have to be made viability in starting such a market. of where processing will take Importantly small-scale farmers place after harvest: if this will be will need to understand if there conducted in a room in the farm are any marketing constraints that household and/or a small building can inhibit them from selling bee will need to be used/built. products. For example lack of roads and transport can hinder access to ■ What equipment? local markets. Once the level of production has been estimated, the small-scale ■ How much to produce? farmer will need to consider what Once market demand has been equipment is required and if it estimated, the small-scale farmer can be made locally or if it needs needs to estimate what level of to be bought. In the case of local production will be required to be production, estimates will be needed able to supply markets. This will of where the materials can be involve estimating where bees can sourced from, for example, wood to

20 make hives, if there is access to such business. When bee enterprises a resource and what are the costs. become commercial and supplies In the case of buying equipment are sent to market on a regular basis the small-scale farmer will need to more money is required to invest estimate prices, which suppliers are in the business, but also to cover accessible and reliable and what such aspects as working capital and type of equipment is needed and if it money to cover marketing costs. can be supplied. Estimates will also This implies that estimates need have to be made for what packaging to be made about what sources of is needed. For example for selling credit are available, for example honey recycled bottles may be an savings, micro-credit organizations, option or glass jars with lids may etc., credit availability in the local be needed, depending on market area, access to it as well as such demand. aspects as interest rates and payback In the case of a small-scale on periods. farm processing operation estimates will need to be made of what ■ Costs and profits equipment needs to be purchased. Once estimates have been made for This will be based on what products marketing, production, equipment are in demand, for example candles, and credit the small-scale farmer honey soap and so forth. There is also needs to ascertain the costs the need to understand the quantities involved. This will need to look at of water that will be needed for the such aspects as start-up or business processing operation, where it can expansion costs, equipment costs be supplied from and its quality. and their depreciation overtime, In the case of machine powered production and marketing costs and equipment, power sources and their so forth. Once the total costs have Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods availability and accessibility will been estimated they will need to need to be estimated. be compared to market prices that can be obtained for bee products ■ Credit in the market. This will provide Investing in beekeeping as a an estimate of how profitable the business is usually not honours in enterprise may be and what can terms of costs, but this depends be expected in terms of returns of on the scale of operation of the money invested in such a business.

21 BOX 5 The major and minor costs in beekeeping

The major costs in beekeeping are: • Processing building ( if needed) • Hives • Processing equipment (honey extractor/separator) • Tables

Minor cost items: • Protective clothing • Smoker • Trays • Tools

■ Evaluation of the livelihood may also be other factors to consider, activity such as local culture and social The final evaluation if to proceed habits. with such an enterprise or expand The final decision whether to start operations of the current enterprise the enterprise or not must be left in the will mainly be based on profit decision-making realm of the small- projections. Importantly though other scale farmer and his or her family. factors will come in to play, such Advisers should not take the decision as, for example, the time needed to for the farmer and/or influence such tender the new enterprise, who will a decision. Advisers need to provide be responsible in the farm family, and support and information during the will the enterprise overall generate feasibility study, but need to allow enough benefits to be worth its while any final decision to be made by the for the farm family. Moreover there farmer and his or her family.

22 The livelihood activity1

For thousands of years it has been and careful treatment will provide for known that obtaining a honey crop healthy bees, quality bee products is made much easier and more and good yields. convenient than honey hunting if There are many different routes bees are encouraged to nest inside to successful beekeeping that suit a man-made hive. The hive makes different situations. At one extreme is ownership of the colony very clear, the placement of an empty hive and it can be kept near to home, and at some future point if it has been harvesting the honey is easier. colonised by bees, cropping of honey Depending on the type of hive, and – with no other interference by the the species and race of bees, it is also beekeeper. At the other end of the scale possible to manage the colony. is beekeeping involving expensive Beekeeping is a fairly easy hives, the provision of selectively activity to start. Importantly novice bred or instrumentally inseminated beekeepers are advised to seek queens, sophisticated monitoring training either from experienced and control of honeybee diseases beekeepers and/or tanning services. (now essential in many regions), the Interestingly one very good method movement by the beekeeper of the recounted by many experienced bees to different crops as they come beekeepers is that in the early days into flower, mechanical harvesting of their activities much of what and processing of honey, and much they learnt came from carefully else. observing bees and how they Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods organise themselves. This is a very 1 Please note that this chapter of the booklet has important point and will be time and partly been sourced and referenced from FAO.2009. time again referred to as the first step Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome in sustainable beekeeping. Small- pp. 32- 42, the first edition of FAO. 2003. Beekeeping scale farmers need to adapt to the and sustainable livelihoods, by N Bradbear, FAO Diversification booklet No.1, Rome, FAO.2006. bees’ necessities and enable the best Value-added products from beekeeping, by R. Krell, possible living conditions; adequate FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 124, Rome and Curtis, G. 1982. Small scale beekeeping. Appropriate hives, good nectar and pollen flows, technologies for beekeeping, Peace Corps, Washington shade and fresh drinking water. Wise D.C.

23 BOX 6 Beekeeping as an activity

Beekeeping does not fit easily into the sectoral divides of rural development: as an activity, it spans forestry, horticulture, agriculture, the natural environment, animal husbandry and entomology without fitting precisely into any one of these sectors. Likewise, pollination is an important part of horticulture, yet the management of bees is often considered part of animal production. Similar problems confront the classification of bee products because honey is a food, yet beeswax is listed amongst non-food waxes and oils. Beekeepers have been categorised in different times and places as farmers, hunters and gatherers, cattle-keepers, or rural dwellers – with beekeeping remaining hidden as an important skill and part of their lives. These ambiguities present complications for development policy-makers, practitioners and researchers, even though such complexity is in keeping with the way people themselves link different activities, resources and products together in their daily lives.

Source: FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome

FIGURE 10 Bees on an unprotected comb in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Photo: FAO/ 24683_0259/ G. Napolitano)

24 ■ The bees nectar and pollen, make honey and There are many types of bee species wax, feed the queen, tend to eggs, and most do not live in colonies. building and repairing the comb, The Apis mellifera is one of the cleaning, temperature control within honey producing bees and has been the colony and guarding the entrance introduced in most regions of the to the hive. Drones have the sole task world. In trpocial regions there of mating with the queen bee. are also bees, such as Trigona and Honey bees live in colonies in Melipona that are stingless. In a bee the wild and can be attracted into colony there are two types of female hives or caught in the wild. Small- bees, the queen and the workers bees scale farmers can ‘sprinkle’ an area and then there is the male referred to with small boxes and/or hives, which as the drone. Queen bees are raised have been rubbed with beeswax, from the same eggs as worker bees, in attempts to catch bee swarms. but are provided with more food. Usually when a bee swarm is formed There is one queen bee per colony in the wild it will send out scout and her main function is to lay eggs. bees to look for a new home that is The queen bee produces the most suitable for the colony to develop in. eggs in the first year of her life. If foraging conditions are good Laying rates are in an around 2 500 to in terms of abundant flowering 3 000 per day. A worker bee can carry plants and good weather the bee out the following activities: collect colony will develop. Bees will

CASE STUDY 3 Mayas and bees

In central America the Mayas developed a system of keeping Melipona in log hives.

For Maya culture honey was vey important in their festivals, celebrations and religious Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods functions. This is the only case in the world where a bee culture developed with a non- Apis species of bee. Today in some regions of Central America Meliponiculture still exists. The log hives provid yields in the range of 10 to 12 kilos.

As a result of low yields and the bees’ nature to store honey and brood in particular nest structures, makes this kind of beekeeping viable for home production. However the honey produced is much valued and does have consumer preference.

Source: Adapted from Curtis, G. 1982. Small scale beekeeping. Appropriate technologies for beekeeping, Peace Corps, Washington D.C.

25 FIGURE 11 Brood honey comb (Photo: FAO/19147/M. Marzot) build the comb from the top of the • There is a source of water nearby. hive downwards and will increase • Hives are sheltered from wind. brood (eggs) production. Shortage • Hives are shaded from strong of food, excessive disturbance and sunlight. bad management will cause the bee • Hives are placed out of sight and colony to leave the hive. This is not near places where humans called absconding. are likely to be: this is to avoid When choosing a site for keeping possibilities of people being bees it must have the following: stung if the bees are defensive, and to avoid theft. • There are plenty of flowering • Hives are not going to suffer from plants and trees in the area. water dripping from overhead • There are no serious branches. environmental problems nearby, such as crops being sprayed with In any area it is advisable to start pesticide. with a maximum of 10 colonies and

26 then gradually find out if the area can In hot climates, wild-nesting support more colonies. colonies always choose a shady Honeybee colonies must not get spot for their nest, near to a water too hot. If the colony temperature supply. The easiest way to protect becomes too high then foragers colonies from the sun is to place will be busy collecting water, to them under shade trees in a green reduce the nest temperature, rather grassy area. If no shade trees are than nectar or pollen. In very sunny available then artificial shades must conditions, colonies protected by be constructed. If a large number shade can produce 50 percent more of hives are to be shaded and a honey than colonies exposed to long shade is to be constructed, the sun. Small-scale farmers can then it should run east-west to give obtain greater honey harvests by maximum benefit. Hives can also providing nearby water sources be painted white or another light and protecting colonies from too colour to reflect rather than absorb much heat. heat. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

FIGURE 12 New model beehive in Madagascar with a palm cover to protect it from the sun (Photo: FAO/22560/J. Van Aker)

27 ■ Hives Honeybees always store clean and A hive is just a container to keep perfect honey regardless of where bees inside, and good, serviceable they are living: it is subsequent hives can be made from many handling by humans that leads to different materials. The purpose of reduction in quality. a hive is to encourage the bees to The volume of honey harvested build their nests in such a way that from a colony is decided by the it is easy to manage and maintain forage for bees that is available in them. Different styles of hives may the area, and the strength and needs be of greater or lesser convenience of the colony. As long as the hive is for the small-scale farmer, but of large enough volume, bees will the honeybee is only concerned store as much honey as they can. having a safe place, large enough (The more honey they can store, for the whole colony (the bees’ the greater the chance of the colony family) and its stores, and protected surviving through hard times ahead.) from unfavourable weather and Movable frame hives influence honey predators. production because they save bees’ The best method for any situation effort in creating beeswax comb: will be determined by the available therefore, movable frame hives human skills, physical and financial enable harvests of honey rather than resources, and the species and race beeswax. of bee being utilised. Fixed comb hives Hive type need not determine honey These are containers made from quality whatever materials are locally The type of hive a honeybee lives available: typically, hollowed-out in has no effect upon the quality of logs, bark formed into a cylinder, honey that she makes. clay pots, woven grass or cane. It is

BOX 7 The three main types of hive

Fixed comb hives: clay hives, wall hives, log hives, bark hives and many others Movable comb hives: top-bar hives, of which there are many styles Movable frame hives: Langstroth, Dadant, Adz, National, Smith, WBC, etc.

Source: FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome

28 common in some countries of Africa, number of low cost hives, only some Asia and the Middle East to keep bees of which will be occupied at any inside cavities built into house walls. time, than to have a small number of This keeps bees safe from predators high cost hives, some of which may and protected from extremes of heat be empty. or cold. The main region of the world The sole purpose of a hive is to where traditional beekeeping encourage bees to nest in a site that practises are still the most widely is accessible to the beekeeper. In a used – tropical, sub-Saharan Africa – fixed comb hive, the bees build their is also the region with least honeybee nest inside the container, just as they disease problems. Frequent natural would build it in a naturally occurring movement of the colony to new cavity. The bees attach their combs to nesting sites means that diseases do the inside upper surface of the hive. not have the chance to remain within This means that combs cannot be the colony as they do when colonies removed without being broken when are static. the small-scale farmer harvests the nest to obtain crops of honey and Movable comb hives beeswax. Bees may or may not be Low-technology hives have been killed during this process, depending developed as a way of obtaining on the care provided. If the colony the advantages of movable frame is destroyed, the hive will remain hives (no need to break combs, empty for a while. If there are plenty standardisation, manageability, of honeybee colonies in the area then efficient honey harvest) without eventually a migrating colony or the disadvantage of high cost swarm may settle in the empty hive manufacture. Bees are encouraged and start building a new nest. to construct their combs from the Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods Usually small-scale farmers using undersides of a series of top-bars local-style hives often own many – instead of attaching comb to the hives, and expect only a proportion ceiling of the hive (as in a fixed of these to be occupied by bees at comb hive) or building comb inside any time. In many ways, this style of a rectangular, wooden frame (as in beekeeping works well for tropical a frame hive). These top-bars then races of honeybees. In a tropical allow individual combs to be lifted country it can be a better strategy for from the hive. The combs can then be a small-scale farmer to have a large replaced back in the hive, removed

29 for harvest, or maybe moved to tools, smokers, protective clothing another hive or colony. and containers for harvesting, storing, The container for the hive may, processing and marketing honey. like traditional hives, be constructed from whatever materials are locally Movable-frame hives available. Another advantage of this These are the hives used in type of equipment is that it opens up industrialized countries and beekeeping to new sectors of society. developing countries where Low-technology hives can be kept beekeeping is an important part near homes, and can, if constructed of mainstream agriculture and the and transported with care, be moved infrastructure exists to provide between crops as they flower specialized expertise and equipment. successively. The objective of movable-frame hive All equipment for low technology beekeeping is to obtain a maximum beekeeping needs to be made locally. honey crop. The possibility of The only items that need construction recycling beeswax combs means with precision are the top-bars. These that the colony can quickly build up must provide the same spacing for honey stores during the flowering combs within the hive, as the bees season, and may also be managed would use in the natural nest. This specifically for the pollination of spacing will depend upon the species particular crops. and race of honeybees that are being Rectangular wood or plastic used. As a very general guide, Apis frames are used to support the bees’ mellifera of European origin need combs. These frames have two major top-bars 35 mm wide, and Apis advantages: mellifera in Africa usually need 32 millimetres. Apis cerana in Asia 1. They allow the beekeeper to need 30 millimetres. The best way inspect and manipulate the to determine the correct width is to colonies (for example moving measure the spacing between combs frames from a strong colony to in a wild nest of the same bees. The strengthen a weaker one). volume of the brood box should equate 2. They allow efficient honey roughly with the volume of the cavity harvesting because the occupied by wild-nesting honeybees. honeycombs within their Other necessary materials are hive frames can be emptied of honey

30 BOX 8 Principles for construction of a movable comb top-bar hive

Top-bar hives can be made from whatever cheap or scrap containers are available locally. These could be cardboard boxes, barrels cut in two lengthways, tea chests, or hives made from scrap timber. If timber is being used, it must be properly seasoned, otherwise shrinkage and warping of the hive will occur. The wood must be durable and able to last for several years without replacement, and be suitable for carpentry. The hive must be of a suitable volume: large enough for colonies of bees to build their brood combs and have plenty of room left for building extra combs for storage of honey (it is of course the inside measurements of a hive that are important). The hive must be clean and free from any contaminating odours, free of cracks and gaps, and may need some insulation depending upon the climate. Straw or cow-dung is often used as insulation for low-cost hives.

If the hive’s top-bars are to be placed next to one another to form a bee-tight top, then each top-bar must be of the correct bee space for the bees to build one comb from each bar (see above). Placing bars next to one another cuts down the number of bees leaving through the top of the hive to disturb the operator, and this can be beneficial when working with highly defensive bees. However, other people recommend using narrower top-bars (that can be cut with less precision) with a plastic sheet placed over the top (Romet, 2004).

Whatever width is used, it must be constant for each top-bar hive in the hive. If top- bars are too narrow, then combs will be too close to one another with no “corridor” for bees to work in – in this case, the bees will fill the gap with comb or propolis. If top- bars are too wide, resulting in too much space between combs, bees will build extra “brace comb” to fill the gap. It is a skilled job to make top-bars of exactly the correct dimensions using hand tools, and if power equipment is available it is valuable for this operation. The width of the top-bars is the only measurement that must be exact in this type of hive.

In the wild, honeybees build combs that have curved edges and are rounded at the bottom. If the side walls of the hive are rounded or slope at approximately the same angle as natural comb then the bees will not attach their comb to the walls and this Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods allows easy removal of comb. The sides of the hive can therefore be curved or slope inwards towards the bottom to form an angle of 5º with the bottom base. However, this is not essential, and hives with sloping sides are more difficult to construct. In straight sided hives, bees will sometimes slightly attach the comb to the sidewall of the hive. In this case, it is necessary to gently cut these attachments before the top-bar and its comb may be lifted from the hive.

Source: FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome

31 and then returned to the hive. between this box and one above it. This allows increased honey The queen excluder is a metal grid production as the bees’ resources with holes of a particular size such are saved from having to build that worker bees can pass through but fresh beeswax comb. the queen is unable to do so because of her larger size. Frame hives must be constructed This ensures that honey alone with precision. The spacing between is stored in boxes above the queen frames must achieve the same excluder and allows for an efficient spacing as in a natural nest. Frames honey harvest. In addition to the are contained within boxes and each boxes and frames, a floor and roof hive consists of a number of boxes are required, along with various other placed on top of one another. Usually specialized items of equipment. Frame the bottom-most box is used as the hive equipment should not be used brood chamber. This means that brood unless the infrastructure exists for is present only in this box: this is manufacturing it locally. Frame hives achieved by placing a queen excluder require well-seasoned timber, planed

FIGURE 13 A movable hive frame in Nepal. Beekeeping is a new activity in the Shivapuri area. The aim of the FAO project is to improve the economical situation of the local people by developing income-generating activities (Photo:FAO/16839/G. Bizzarri)

32 and accurately cut, as well as other bees to walk and work on the surface material like wire, nails and beeswax of the combs, while maintaining foundation. They are therefore the optimum nest temperature. Bee- relatively expensive to make. Frames space, dimensions of combs and and boxes must fit together precisely nest volume all vary with race and and need accurate carpentry. There species of honeybee. The bee-space must be access to supplies of the is a critical factor in the use of bee parts, which need frequent renewals, equipment and honeybees cannot be particularly foundation and frames. managed efficiently using equipment Centrifugal extractors are needed to of inappropriate size. When buying achieve full potential in harvesting the equipment it is important to have an honey from frame hives. understanding of the honeybees to be housed and the specification of the ■ Equipment equipment offered. Most equipment is Although equipment can be imported manufactured to the specification for to serve as a prototype, small-scale bees of European origin. beekeeping can only be economical in Honeybee species and races vary the long-term with equipment, which in biology and behaviour. Strategies can be serviced and manufactured for the management of honeybees locally. The equipment needed have been developed mainly for for traditional and low technology temperate-zone races of honeybees beekeeping can usually be made at and mostmovable-frame equipment is village level. intended for this type of management. Honeybee species and races vary in Colonies of tropical honeybees size. A honeybee nest (of those species show a tendency to abandon their that can be kept inside hives) consists hive – this may be as a result of either of a series of parallel beeswax combs. seasonal migration or absconding Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods Each comb contains rows of wax: because of disturbance by predators, hexagonal compartments containing and no reliable management honey stores, pollen or developing techniques have yet been developed to bee larvae (brood). The combs are prevent these – apart from feeding bees evenly spaced and are attached to to ensure they do not abscond for lack the ceiling of the nest. This spacing, of food, and to prevent disturbance by known as the ‘bee-space’, is critical in predators as far as possible. maintaining optimal conditions within During the last three decades, there the nest with just enough space for the has been a tremendous increase in the

33 spread of bee diseases and predators The smoker consists of a fuel box around the world. This has been containing smouldering fuel (dried brought about by man’s movement cow dung, hessian or cardboard) of honeybee stocks. There are still with bellows attached. The beekeeper a few remaining regions without puffs a little smoke near the entrance introduced honeybee diseases and of the hive before it is opened, and parasites, and most of these are in gently smokes the bees to move developing countries. It will be in the them from one part of the hive to future benefit of these countries if they another. Imported smokers are useful can retain their stocks of disease-free as prototypes, but smokers can be honeybees. It is therefore essential manufactured by village blacksmiths. to ensure that used beekeeping equipment is not imported. Honeybee Protective clothing colonies or even single queen bees A broad-brimmed hat with some veiling must never be moved from one area to will serve to protect the head and another without expert consideration neck from stings. Adequate protective of the consequences. clothing gives beginner beekeepers It can be helpful to import basic confidence, but more experienced equipment (protective clothing, beekeepers find that too much smokers, hive tools, etc.) to serve as protective clothing makes it difficult to prototypes for local manufacture. work sufficiently gently with the bees, For small-scale farmers practising and it is very hot. Some people find on a larger scale, for example where that a good way to protect their hands a cooperative has established a honey is to put a plastic bag over each hand, packing unit there are often items secured at the wrist with a rubber band, which necessitate importation, for although this can quickly become example honey gates (effective honey very sweaty! Rubber bands prevent ‘taps’ for use on honey containers), bees from crawling up trouser legs or specialized gauzes for the filtration shirtsleeves. Always wear white or of honey, or the equipment for light-coloured clothing when working determining honey quality. with bees – bees are much more likely to sting dark-coloured clothing. Smoker Imported clothing can provide useful A beekeeper needs a source of cool prototypes, but modified overalls can smoke to calm the bees, and this be made locally and provides a useful is achieved by use of a smoker. stimulus for local industry.

34 FIGURE 14 Smoking a hive for inspection and/ or harvesting of honey (Photo: FAO/ 24683_0240/G.Napolitano) Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

FIGURE 15 A small-scale farmer wearing protective clothing is checking on progress of hibernating bees after putting warm smoke in the boxes to wake them up. He is not wearing gloves because the bees were hibernating and there was no danger of being stung (Photo:FAO/23498/L. Miuccio)

35 FIGURE 16 This hive tool is used to lift hive frames and help in other management practices. The hat with veil protects the worker from bee stings (Photo: FAO/19128/M. Marzot)

Hive tools ■ Management Apis mellifera honeybees tend to close Like many other agricultural up every gap and seal every joint in the enterprises bees follow a seasonal hive with a sticky substance known as cycle. In temperate regions it is far propolis. The hive tool is a handy piece more easy to understand the cycles, of metal which is used to prise boxes while in tropical regions it is more apart, scrape off odd bits of beeswax, difficult. The colony cycle can separate frame-ends from the supports, be subdivided into three periods: and so on. It is possible to use an old build-up, honey flow and dearth. knife for this job, but knife blades tend In temperate regions, these periods to be too flexible and give insufficient are well defined, with only one for leverage. Village blacksmiths should each period of the year, while in the be able to produce a suitable implement tropics and sub-tropics periods are and once again, an imported hive tool variable and more then one of each could serve as a prototype. can occur in a yearly colony cycle.

36 Bees will respond to the nectar control. Good management of these flow and that of pollen. The nectar factors in terms of enhancing and and pollen flow are defined by improving them are important. weather and seasons. If there is a The level of sophistication of the good flow of both nectar and pollen enterprise determines the extent to then the colony will increase its which management can affect these brood (egg laying). As colonies factors. grow in size, the ratio of brood to Managing bees with low cost adults decreases hence enabling inputs is a prerogative of small- more adults to go out and forage scale farmer beekeeping and and not look after brood. The the most sustainable in terms of essence of good management is to business. Using local materials obtain a large adult population to for hives and tools, as well as coincide with the major nectar flow local labour is a way of keeping in an area allowing for a resulting input costs down. Labour is one of maximum honey flow. the most important management In tropical and sub-tropical factors. Labour needs to ensure regions there is often one major that bees have good stores of honey flow of nectar followed by several and pollen for the dearth period. lesser flows. This is a challenge as Labour also needs to increase and it is difficult to ascertain exactly reduce space in the colony when when the major nectar flow occurs. and where it is needed. Extra space This usually occurs after the rainy is needed in the nectar flow season season or may come after initial so more honey storage is possible rains following a long dry period. as well as for more brood. In the A healthy colony that is dearth period less space is required increasing in population requires and hence unused comb needs to be Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods a queen that has a good capacity removed. to lay eggs, availability of nectar It is important that management and pollen, space in the hive as interventions occur at the well as honey storage for the appropriate time and this requires dearth period, along with a good understanding the yearly colony worker bee population that can cycle. Management is required in look after and feed the brood, all three phases of the cycle, but is forage and maintian temperature most important in the dearth period.

37 BOX 9 Good seasonal management practices

Build-up period

• Keep the colony in a small space when it is still small, for instance, in a small hive or big hive with divider board. • Enlarge the hive when the colony grows by removing the divider board, by hanging the combs in a bigger hive or by adding a chamber. • Ensure there are enough small hives to bait swarms. • Put late swarms and smaller colonies together. • Prevent absconding ( bees leaving the hive) occurring later in the dearth season by keeping bigger colonies for example by merging them.

Honey flow period

• Do not harvest honey from small colonies. • Harvest as late as possible when there is enough space in the hive. • For top-bar hives: hang the combs in a harvest hive, if possible also do this with traditional hives. Do this so that damage to the combs is kept to the minimum and then extract the honey. • For movable frame hives: remove an entire honey frame, using a bee outlet if necessary. • Do not harvest honeycombs from the lowest brood chamber. These are for the colony. • Harvest in moderation so that there is enough honey left over for the bee colony and to limit absconding.

Dearth period

• Prevent absconding by removing empty combs. • Limit the space by using a divider board, hanging the combs in a smaller hive or reverting to fewer chambers. • Provide a supply of water inside or close to the hive. • Open the hives as little as possible. • Cover the top of the hive well to avoid heat loss.

Source: Adapted from CTA.2005a. Beekeeping in the tropics, Agrodok 32, Wageningen, the Netherlands

■ Harvesting fine layer of white beeswax. These Honey is harvested at the end of combs are usually the outer-most a flowering season. The small- ones. As far as possible, combs scale farmer selects the combs that containing any pollen or developing contain ripe honey, covered with a bees need to be left undisturbed.

38 The honeycomb can be simply ■ Standards, quality and cut into pieces and sold as fresh, certification cut comb honey. Alternatively, the Application of standards, such honeycomb can be broken up and as those prescribed by Codex strained through muslin or another Alimantarius, varies from country to form of filter to separate the honey country. Quality is a very important from the beeswax. After honey is matter for consideration, in terms of separated from the beeswax combs, bee products, as fraudulent practices the beeswax can be melted gently can take place. For example, honey (over water) into a block. Beeswax can be adulterated with cane sugar does not deteriorate with age and fed to bees. Importantly quality the scarps of beeswax can be saved in bee products enables trade, until there are sufficient amounts to as inspections, for example at sell. international borders, can be reduced, Honey is obtained from frame if bee products are certified prior to hives by spinning the frames in a entering the country of destination. centrifugal extractor. The empty Moreover quality is important honeycombs are then returned to for consumers as well as health the hive. Because the combs are and safety and with standards and recycled, bees put effort into honey certifications can reassure consumers production rather than beeswax when buying bee products. comb production. This explains Codex Alimantarius, for example why the beeswax yield from frame- in the case of honey, states the hive beekeeping is low compared to following: “ honey sold as such traditional beekeeping methods. shall not have added to it any food Choice of harvesting and ingredient, including food additives, processing equipment depends nor shall any other additions be Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods upon the quantities to be processed, made other than honey. Honey shall and the type of product required. In not have any objectionable matter, some areas, traditional beekeeping flavour, aroma, or taint absorbed from is practised on a large-scale and foreign matter during its processing may well justify the provision and storage. The honey shall not have of relatively expensive, large- begun to ferment or effervesce. No scale honey processing equipment pollen or constituent particular to capable of dealing effectively with honey may be removed except where honey in bulk for export. this is unavoidable in the removal of

39 foreign inorganic or organic matter ” C. Authenticity of labelling ( Codex Alimentarius, 2001). descriptions 1. Honey may be labelled Elements of honey standards according to the honey removal process. Extracted, by A. Composition and quality factors centrifugal force of decapped 1. Honey should not contain any combs. Press or pressed by food ingredients other than pressing combs. Drained by honey. draining decapped combs. 2. It should not contain any 2. Honey may be labelled objectionable matter, flavour according to its form. Honey, or odours due to processing or in a liquid or crystallized state storage. or a mixture of the two. Comb 3. It should not be fermented. when in the comb or cut comb or 4. Pollen should not be removed as chunk when containing parts of well as other constituent matter. the comb. 5. Honey should not be heated or 3. Botanical source. Predominant processed so that the essential floral source single flower composition is changed. honeys (also known as monofloral or unifloral honey) B. Authenticity in production are unlike most commercial 1. Heating and filtering within honeys found on supermarket prescribed limits and labelled shelves or type floral or if outside those limits as, honeydew, fir or forest honey. “pasteurized” or “filtered.” Honey labelled as from a 2. Sugars used to feed bees should single flora source cannot be not be used to adulterate the blended with other honey (must honey and not fed to bees during meet minimum concentration the honey flow. requirements as well). 3. Non-ripe honey may not be 4. Geographic or topological harvested nor water added. source. The country region Honey is ripened in the hive or specific location within a by evaporating water until it country with corresponding reaches a certain water content honey characteristics. and is capped by the bees in the 5. Species of bee. Most honey is honeycomb. produced by Apis Mellifera, but

40 there are many other species and (no > 10 percent for some with unique characteristics of specific cases and no > 15 percent honey. for others) 6. Organic, raw (unheated), 2. Type (blossom or honeydew): the natural. To be labelled as organic conductivity of most of honey must be based on organic should be no > of 0.8 mS/cm. production procedures. As raw 3. Floral source: pollen analysis honey requires production and 4. The free acidity of honey may be storage at, or under maximum not more than 50 milliequivalents hive temperature. The claim acid per 1000g. of natural honey is always a 5. The hydroxymethylfurfural content misleading since all honey is of honey after processing and/ natural. or blending shall not be > than 40 mg/kg. However, in the case D. Contaminates of honey of declared origin from 1. Free of heavy metals in amounts countries or regions with tropical that become a hazard to health. ambient temperatures, and blends 2. Not exceed maximum limits of of these honeys, the HMF content pesticide and veterinary drugs. shall not be > than 80 mg/kg. 6. The diastase activity of honey, E. Hygiene determined after processing and/ 1. Follow general principles of or blending, in general should food hygiene. not be < than 8 Schade units and in the case of honeys with a low Honey standards criteria natural enzyme content not < than Many of the standards have specific 3 Schade Units. measurable criteria: Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods Certification of honeys 1. Composition: moisture content The certification of food products (no > than 20 percent and no > including honey requires the 23 percent for heather honey), completion of some rules and glucose and fructose (no < of procedures before it is authorized 60 percent the sum of both for for sale. It generally includes blossom honey and no < of 45 inspection, analysis and verification percent for honeydew); sucrose on aspects related to good practices (no > 5 percent for most honeys) for processing, hygiene, HACCP

41 control, among others. The Nowadays there are several certification is given by a recognized institutions which are able to provide authority that endorse that the final certification and authenticity of product is produced in line with the origins of food and agricultural defined standards and is verified products and it is of great importance to also by a well known laboratory of consumers, as well as local producers. analysis in order to authorize the In many countries, foodstuffs including sale of safe products in a competitive honey, are identified by their location market. through regulatory means.

42 Sustainable strategies for the livelihood activity

It is common that programmes Only if there are markets that will devoted to developing beekeeping buy and selling prices are above as a diversification enterprise focus costs will an enterprise be able to on the production of bee products earn profits. Profits are important as and related increased yields for they are the returns that the small- such bee products. Increased yields, scale farmer earns for his or her time though, are only justifiable if there and labour devoted to beekeeping. are consumers and markets that will Moreover part of the profits made buy such excess yields. can be re-invested in the enterprise, An enterprise to be successful for example buying new hives that and provide sustainable livelihoods may increase honey yields, and thus for small-scale farmers requires increment revenues. It is fundamental strategies for marketing and that small-scale farmers not only appropriate business management. understand what markets require

CASE STUDY 4 Marketing bee products in Zambia

The most popular bee products that are sold in Zambia are honey and beeswax. Other hive products such as propolis and royal jelly are not sold in Zambia. There are no reliable figures on local consumption and sales. It has often been assumed that the bulk of the honey (even 90 percent) is used for brewing beer, mbote. There is a market for honey beer both in local communities and in urban areas. Only a small portion of

the honey reaches the market as table honey and is sold mostly in urban areas. Over Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods the years, honey has gained a reputation as a health food – it has been purported to be effective in bringing down high blood pressure, in managing early stages of adult diabetes and in boosting immunity. It appears that honey is one of the commonly used foods for people suffering from HIV.

Beeswax is sold locally as a floor polish and for making candles. A significant proportion of beeswax is picked up by Tanzanian traders for sale to the cosmetics industry in Eastern Africa.

Source: Adapted from Mickels-Kokwe, G. 2006. Small-scale woodland-based enterprises with outstanding economic potential: The case of honey in Zambia, CIFOR

43 FIGURE 17 Women selling honey in Egypt (Photo: FAO/16191/L Spaventa) in terms of bee products, quantities Small-scale farmers who collect required and quality, but small-scale information on consumers, identify farmers have access to such markets local markets in which to sell in and and are able to compete with other are able to understand what other small-scale farmers who are also marketing activities are required selling bee products. will be in a better position to access Appropriate marketing of bee markets. Many small-scale farmers products requires small-scale who sell from farmer markets in a farmers to furnish a constant supply, village, for example, are in direct provide for demanded quantities contact with customers and can obtain and importantly have consistency in information from customers regarding, quality of bee products. for example, if the quality of products meets customers’ requirements, what ■ Access to markets product is bought most often, and Conducting regular market appraisals how the quality and price compare to helps and supports market access. competitors’ products.

44 However access can be elements comprising the remaining constrained by factors which our 5 percent subdivided into water, outside the control of small-scale organic acids and minerals. Honey farmers. Poor road infrastructure, has many characteristics. The lack of transport, and lack of access viscosity of honey depends on a large to credit for example can all hinder variety of substances and therefore access to markets. varies with its composition and particularly with its water content. ■ Bee products2 Viscosity is important for trade as it contributes to the ease of processing Honey and extraction from comb. Density is Honey is the natural sweet substance also another important characteristic produced by honeybees from the for processing and trade as well as the nectar of blossoms or from the hygroscopic nature of honey. Colour secretion of living parts of plants or is another important factor in trade as excretions of plant sucking insects well as honey crystallization. on the living parts of plants, which Honey is sold in unprocessed honeybees collect, transform and form, in the honey comb, as well as in combine with specific substances of the extracted form, in bottles and jars. their own, store and leave in the honey comb to ripen and mature. It is the Beeswax most popular and traded bee product. There are many waxes that derive When honey has, in the majority of its from numerous sources other than composition, been made from a single those of bees. These waxes can come source of nectar i.e. flowering plant, from plants, animals, petroleum it can be called a monofloral honey. derivates and so forth. In the case For example eucalyptus honey. of beeswax it derives from glands Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods When a honey is made from many in the workers bee’s head that are different sources of nectar it is called used to build comb for brood rearing mutlifloral honey. and honey storage. In many tropical Honey is composed for about countries wax is not accounted for 95 percent of sugars, with other as a bee product, even though it has a good economic potential. Initially 2 This section on bee products has been sourced wax from Apis millifera is white and from FAO.2006a.Value-added products from beekeeping, by R. Krell, FAO Agricultural as it ages become yellow and darker Services Bulletin No. 124, Rome in colour.

45 Pure beeswax from Apis mellifera honeybee can only carry two of these consists of at least 284 different pollen pellets. compounds. Not all have been The pollen collected by honeybees completely identified but over 111 are is usually mixed with nectar or volatile (Tulloch, 1980). At least 48 regurgitated honey in order to make compounds were found to contribute it stick together and adhere to their to the aroma of beeswax (Ferber hind legs. The resulting pollen and Nursten, 1977). Quantitatively, pellets harvested from a bee colony the major compounds are saturated are therefore usually sweet in taste. and unsaturated monoesters, Certain pollen types however, are diesters, saturated and unsaturated very rich in oils and stick together hydrocarbons, free acids and hydroxy without nectar or honey. A foraging polyesters. honeybee rarely collects both pollen In the past beeswax had a more and nectar from more than one extended use, but with the introduction species of flowers during one trip. of cheaper synthetic wax, its role Thus the resulting pollen pellet on has changed along with its trade. its hind leg contains only one or very Commonly beeswax is used for candle few pollen species. Accordingly, the making, for metal castings and models, pollen pellet has a typical colour, in food processing as an ingredient most frequently yellow, but red, and not only, in the cosmetic, textile, purple, green, orange and a variety of varnish and polish, and printing other colours occur. industries as well as in medicine. Pollen grains range from 6 to 200 m in diameter, and all kinds of Pollen colours, shapes and surface structures The pollen which is collected by may be observed. These are usually beekeepers and used in various typical enough to allow species or food or medicinal preparations is no at least genus identification. Most longer exactly the same as the fine, pollen grains have a very hard outer powdery pollen from flowers. The shell (sporoderm) which is very hundreds or sometimes millions of difficult or impossible to digest. It pollen grains per flower are collected is so durable that it can be found in by the honeybees and packed into fossil deposits millions of years old. pollen pellets on their hind legs with There are, however, pores which the help of special combs and hairs. allow germination and also extraction During a pollen collecting trip, one of the interior substances.

46 Pollen is used for food, as Natural and homemade beebread a medicine, in cosmetics, for will keep for a considerable time and mechanical and/ or hand pollination can easily be transported to the market and for monitoring pollution in the and served - even in small quantities environment. - as an excellent source of otherwise scarcely available nutrients. It can be Bee bread sold clean and by itself or immersed The partially fermented in honey to make it more attractive in pollen mixture stored in the taste. Small pieces of comb can thus honeybee combs, also referred be sold or given away as candy. to as “beebread” has a different The nutritional value of beebread composition and nutritional value is much higher in places where than the field collected pollen limited food variety or quantity pellets and is the food given to creates nutrient imbalances. It is honeybee larvae and eaten by young particularly children who might worker bees to produce royal jelly. benefit the most from regular pollen Saying pollen is the perfect food supplements in their diets. because it is the only food source for honeybees other than honey, Royal jelly their major carbohydrate source, is Royal jelly is secreted by the not only based on a questionable hypopharyngeal gland (sometimes comparison between human needs called the brood food gland) of young and bee requirements, but also on worker (nurse) bees, to feed young misinformation. larvae and the adult queen bee. Royal Traditional beekeeping cultures jelly is always fed directly to the with honeybees or stingless bees, queen or the larvae as it is secreted; usually appreciate the stored pollen, it is not stored. This is why it has Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods i.e. beebread. Its characteristic sour not been a traditional beekeeping taste together with brood and honey product. The only situation in which is a delicacy consumed directly harvesting becomes feasible is during during harvesting. The pollen queen rearing, when the larvae stored by honeybees undergoes a destined to become queen bees are lactic acid fermentation and is thus supplied with an over-abundance of preserved. This final storage product royal jelly. The queen larvae cannot is called beebread. Such beebread consume the food as fast as it is combs may be sold directly. provided and royal jelly accumulates

47 in the queen cells. The exact and claims are in the long run more definition of commercially available damaging than any short-term royal jelly is therefore related to the benefit that may be derived from, for method of production: it is the food example, an increase in the price of intended for queen bee larvae that are a product. Products containing royal four to five days old. jelly should be specially marked or Royal jelly is a homogeneous packaged in order to distinguish them substance with the consistency of from similar products without it. a fairly fluid paste. It is whitish in colour with yellow or beige tinges, Propolis has a pungent phenolic odour and a Propolis is a mixture of various characteristic sour flavour. amounts of beeswax and resins Royal jelly can be used as a food, collected by the honeybee from as a dietary supplement, in food plants, particularly from flowers processing as an ingredient in food and leaf buds. Since it is difficult to processing, in cosmetics and as an observe bees on their foraging trips ingredient in medicine-like products. the exact sources of the resins are Royal jelly can be sold in its fresh usually not known. Bees have been state, unprocessed except for being observed scraping the protective frozen or cooled, mixed with other resins of flower and leaf buds with products, or freeze-dried for further their mandibles and then carrying use in other preparations. The fresh them to the hive like pollen pellets production and sale can be handled on their hind legs. It can be assumed by enterprises of all sizes since no that in the process of collecting and special technology is required. In modelling the resins, they are mixed its unprocessed form it can also be with some saliva and other secretions included directly in many foods of the bees as well as with wax. and dietary supplements as well as These resins are used by worker medicine-like products or cosmetics. bees to line the inside of nest cavities Since the assumed benefits of and all brood combs, repair combs, royal jelly have not been sufficiently seal small cracks in the hive, reduce the proven, statements in advertisements size of hive entrances seal off inside and on package labels should be very the hive any dead animals or insects careful to avoid suggestions which which are too large to be carried out are not well-founded. Any kind of and perhaps most important of all, fraudulent or exaggerated statements to mix small quantities of propolis

48 with wax to seal brood cells. These membranes or eyes, it causes uses are significant because they considerable burning and irritation. take advantage of the antibacterial Dried venom takes on a light and antifungal effects of propolis yellow colour and some commercial in protecting the colony against preparations are brown, thought to diseases. Propolis has been shown to be a result of oxidation of some kill the bee’s most ardent bacterial of the venom proteins. Venom foe, Bacillus larvae - the cause of contains a number of very volatile American Foul Brood (Mlagan and compounds which are easily lost Sulimanovic, 1982; Meresta and during collection. Meresta, 1988). The use of propolis Used in small doses however, bee thus reduces the chance of infection venom can be of benefit in treating in the developing brood and the a large number of ailments. This growth of decomposing bacteria in therapeutic value was already known dead animal tissue. to many ancient civilizations. Today, The composition of propolis the only uses of bee venom are in depends on the type of plants human and veterinary medicine. accessible to the bees. Propolis No uses for venom, other than changes in colour, odour and medical ones are known. The only probably medicinal characteristics, legally accepted medical use of according to source and the season bee venom in Western European of the year. Moreover, some bees and North American countries is and some colonies are more avid for desensitizing people who are collectors-generally to the dismay hypersensitive (allergic) to bee of the beekeeper, since propolis is venom. Since the early 1980’s, a very sticky substance which, in pure bee venom has been used for abundance, can make it difficult to desensitization. The use of whole Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods remove frames from the boxes. body extracts has been largely Propolis is used as a food, in discontinued after a double-blind food processing, as a traditional test proved the higher efficiency of medicine and in cosmetics. pure venom (Hunt et al., 1978). In Eastern Europe and in many Asian Bee venom countries bee venom has been Honeybee venom is a clear, used in official medical treatment odourless, watery liquid. When of a large variety of ailments for a coming into contact with mucous considerable length of time.

49 The use of pure venom injections other uses. Beekeepers can make a and well placed bee stings is profit from selling their adult bees, increasing in Western countries as an often together with combs of larvae. alternative to heavy (and sometimes Depending on market conditions, ineffective) drug use, which is they can sell their bees in the form of often associated with numerous package bees, nuclei or small starter side-effects. This is particularly so hives and whole, full-size colonies. for arthritis and other rheumatoid Bees can be used for beekeeping, inflammations. pollination, in cosmetics in medicine Application methods for and as food. Adult and larval venom include natural bee honeybees contain reasonable stings, subcutaneous injections, amounts of protein and are non-toxic. electrophoresis, ointments, They could therefore serve as a direct inhalations and tablets (Sharma and food source once the beekeeper has no Singh, 1983). more need for extra bees or brood, or Since bee venom has both a when undesired colonies have to be local and a systemic effect, correct removed. Honeybee brood of all ages placement of injections, or stings is eagerly consumed by honey hunters and the dosage are very important. in Africa and Asia and is generally Therefore, bee venom therapy must considered a delicious treat. For be properly learned. Still, relief of several cultures, brood is said to form some ailments can be obtained by a considerable part of the diet (Hill et simply applying a sting or two to the al., 1984 and Bailey, 1989; as cited affected area, i.e. to some painful, in Schmidt and Buchmann, 1992). immobile arthritic joints. In the People’s Republic of China and Japan, drone larvae are canned Bees for export or, after being covered in As adult honeybees are the producers chocolate, become a sweet treat. Bee of all the primary products of brood is regularly sold alongside beekeeping, it is unlikely that a small- honey in markets in many parts of scale farmer will sell these adult Asia (Schmidt and Buchmann, 1992). bees when he or she is interested in production of primary products. Pollination services Honeybees or their brood can however, In many local communities constitute a primary product, and may beekeeping is perceived by many be sold directly or be processed for farmers as being important for their

50 own crop production. This is because the increases in quality and yields of they are well aware of the pollination honeybee pollinated crops are asking services that bees can perform on more for payment in monetary terms their crops. Pollination of corps is and not in kind. This helps the small- improved by a larger number of scale farmer cover transport costs of foraging bees then nature would hives from various locations where provide in a defined area. Pollination pollination services are required and services conducted by bees, does not increases his or her income that only provide for improved fruiting of derives from this important bee fruit trees for example, but increases service. yields and provides for superior quality of such fruits. ■ Marketing channels: local Small-scale farmers who have networks a beekeeping enterprise can offer The cost of marketing bee products pollination services to other farmers is an important consideration for in their area. Many times such farmers, especially if profit margins services are rewarded in kind and are small. One of the main costs is not in monetary terms. However transporting bee products to more this is changing as many small- distant markets. Farmers can contract scale farmers who have witnessed with transporters to take their produce

BOX 10 An example of the economic and yield advantages of pollination services for crop farmers

The beekeeper can hire out his or her hives to a farmer for the duration of one crop cycle. A beekeeper places two hives per hectare in a field of sunflowers. Without bees the farmer yields 500 kg of sunflower seeds per hectare, and with the bees 850 kg, thus 350 kg more. The beekeeper yields 50 kg of honey per colony, which is 100 kg per Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods hectare.The sunflowers yield € 1 per kilo, and the honey also about € 1 per kg, after expenses are deducted.

The farmer earns, therefore, 3.5 times more from the pollination than the beekeeper earns from the honey. The farmer pays the beekeeper € 25 per hive, which is a total of € 50 per hectare. The beekeeper thus earns € 150 per hectare. That is one and a half times what he earns from the honey alone. The farmer earns (€ 350–€50) = € 300 per hectare extra thanks to the bees! This is 60 percent more than the yield without bees.

Source: CTA. 2005b. Bee products; properties, processing and marketing, Agrodok No. 42, Wageningen, the Netherlands

51 to distant markets, for example, but ■ Marketing strategies hauliers have no requirement to Honey is commonly the most popular safeguard the quality of the foods that bee product with consumers. Demand they transport, and careless handling for honey is thus commonly high, can seriously damage products and both in comb and processed form and lead to a reduction in income for finds ready markets. However quality farmers. Thus local markets are often is a fundamental factor for honey a better option: farmers may be able as well as for other bee products. to transport products the shorter Quality is determined in the hive and distances to market using their own cannot be changed once the product animal driven carts for example. is harvested, save for attentive and This means that the time spent away careful following of quality and from the farm is less; and they retain safety guidelines in processing, so as control over the way that products to avert quality deterioration. are handled and their quality when Another strategy is how to sell displayed in the market. bee products. Small-scale farmers The main potential disadvantage can sell bee products directly to final of local markets is the likelihood consumers at the local village market, of lower prices compared to those or on the road side. It may also be available from both urban markets possible to sell bee products to a rural and other types of buyers (e.g. trader, processor or wholesaler or institutional buyers or food processing retailer. Importantly what has to be companies). considered here is which method will Local markets also are better provide the most advantages for the known by farmers and are far more small-scale farmer. In other words, familiar. Farmers may know many of which method will guarantee the best the consumers, traders and retailers possible prices for the bee products. in their local area, are familiar with For example bee products may in distance and roads and paths to get part be sold to a processor, in part to to markets and may have knowledge a wholesaler and in part sold directly of other competitors in such markets. to final consumers at the local village Moreover farmers in local markets market. Combinations of selling have their own networks derived from methods can be many. selling other farm produce which they Where to sell is another decision produce and can with ease introduce that small-scale farmers need to bee products to such a network. take. For example if the beekeeper

52 BOX 11 Selling honey from a road side stall

Selling honey at a roadside stall can bring the advantages of long opening hours and plenty of passing trade, without the overhead costs of a shop. Since customers will be travelling in a vehicle, maybe they will buy a larger package of honey.

In such a selling location a bold, bright sign, the display of containers as well as the display area being clean are essential. It is also important to combine other products that do not derive from the beekeeping enterprise alone. These products could be fruit from the farm, which combines well with honey for example.

Source: Adapted from FAO.2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non- wood forest products No. 19, Rome wants to sell to a processor, it may time honey prices are usually low. be important to find a processor in Thus it may be advisable to sell some a good location. This could mean of the product at harvest time, so as a processor that is nearby, or it can to obtain much needed revenue, but mean a processor that is further away, store the majority of the product for but may offer better prices. Selling later selling at possible higher prices. in the local village market may be good, but selling in urban markets ■ Products: value adding may command higher prices. Choice Bee products that are sold in their of where to sell must be based around original form, for example honey prices achieved for bee products and in comb, have not been processed the costs to reach such a location. For and hence no value has been added. example selling at a village market Honey can be processed and sold may cost little in terms of transport in liquid form in jars. Value has and setting up a stall. In urban cities been added and usually there will Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods the cost of transport may be higher be a price reward for this (see because it is further away from the FAO Diversification booklet No. business and fees may have to be 4 Value from village processing). paid for setting up a stall. In urban Great care must be taken in all markets prices are higher, but also processing operations for quality costs may be higher. and safety reasons. For example Importantly beekeepers must inappropriate honey processing decide when to sell their bee can cause honey fermentation. products. For example at harvest Moreover further processing can also

53 occur, for example making candles ■ Packaging from beeswax or honey beer (see Marketing bee products that have FAO Diversification booklet No. 5 been processed requires packaging. Processing for prosperity). Typically in local areas small-scale The main advantages of adding farmers use whatever they can find, value to bee products are that it can for example recycled bottles and jars. provide the small-scale farmer with In such cases it is important that not more products to sell, it can enable the only the packaging is clean and free small-scale farmer to tap into more and from odours and consumers can see diversified markets, it can enable small- the bee products, for example the scale farmers to have more control over colour of the honey, but it is also prices they set for their products, it not excessively heavy. For example can enable a more stable and regular recycled glass jars are heavy and may revenue source, excess produce and/or break if stacked and/or improperly waste can be used more efficiently and handled. Plastic containers may be overall can provide the opportunity to preferable, but may be difficult to earn more profits. obtain. Importantly whatever the

FIGURE 18 Honey being sold in plastic and transparent jars, with a logo and label printed on them (Photo: FAO/19184/M Marzot)

54 packaging it will have to protect the reducing transport costs. Further and bee product, keep it clean, uphold the importantly associations can carry quality of the bee product and be able out marketing research in more to withstand handling and transport distant markets and hence provide to final destination. more opportunities to sell products. Labelling is another aspect of Such associations can also packaging that is import for trade in and importantly organize honey more distant markets, such as town, collection centres in rural and remote city and export markets. A label, places. The advantages of honey for example on a honey jar, should collection centres are that they provide information to consumers can help in collecting honey from on such aspects as the type of honey remote small-scale farmers, may (unifloral/multifloral), where the provide processing and packaging honey comes from ( geographic area equipment and provide advantages of origin), the name of who produced in transporting otherwise dispersed it and the date when it was packaged produce to a central location. and the expiry date of when it needs Moreover farmers can not only to be consumed by. find a place in their vicinity where to sell their products, but importantly ■ Producer organization traders will be interested to travel In producing and marketing bee to remote areas, being certain of the products small-scale farmers can volume and quality they will be able organize themselves into groups. to collect (FAO, 2009). These can be either formal or informal Importantly though associations associations. Pulling resources have to be kept in place. Members together can be very advantageous must avert disagreeing and arguing for small-scale farmers. The group over decisions taken by other Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods may get better lending conditions members. This requires that rights from financial institutions, get better and responsibilities are clearly prices for buying equipment, have defined at the formation stage of the a better position in negotiating farmer association. All members must with rural traders, processors, be free to participate and importantly wholesalers, retailers and exporters, communicate among each other. processing operations can be carried It is important that the costs of the out at a larger scale as well as association are not too high and carrying out more value addition and that the association is created to

55 fulfil specific goals. For example an he or she will be willing to invest association can be formed to carry their time and labour in becoming out borrowing, transporting and proficient in both production and selling. Vitally the association should marketing. Improved production and not have to many functions. marketing skills further enhances competitiveness by reducing costs ■ Sustainable business enterprise as small-scale farmers become more An enterprise to survive in the long efficient and effective in carrying out term requires profits. Profits can required operations. Further the more provide for improved livelihoods: farmers understand that marketing more food security and safety in the quality bee products brings higher long term as well as the ability to pay prices and makes products more for needed health care and other farm competitive, the more small-scale family expenses. Importantly though farmers will be inclined to provide profits enable a farmer to re-invest quality bee products. Improved quality in the beekeeping enterprise, improve is far more advisable then an increase it and contribute to making it more in yields as higher prices on current competitive. The more a small-scale quantities sold have a greater impact farmer sees higher returns the more on profitability then increases in yield.

CASE STUDY 5 Beekeeping enterprises in the Niger Delta, Nigeria

An analysis of enterprise costs revealed that fixed cost accounted for 23.15 percent of total costs, while operating costs accounted for 76.85 percent. This shows that entry costs for such an enterprise are low, while running cost are relatively higher. Returns for a beekeeping enterprise were N 31 981.29 ($290.74) per annum which were slightly higher above the Nigerian average per capita income of $280.00. The average rate of return of the enterprise was better than other agricultural enterprises found in the area with value being 163 percent. In short, the production performance of beekeeping in the Niger Delta Area is economically viable and should be promoted further through the formulation of appropriate policies.

Source: Fadare, S.O., Ojo,S.O & Imoudu,P.B. 2008. Analysis of production performance of beekeepers in the Niger delta area of Nigeria, APIACATA, No.43, pp. 37-48

56 Support services to promote beekeeping

■ Access to support services ■ Technical training, equipment Support services for small-scale and information dissemination farmers involved in beekeeping For beekeeping many countries need to be importantly accessible. have considerable traditional Small-scale farmers need to be able knowledge and skills. In this respect to afford using such services, not any interventions to improve local only in terms of monetary costs, practices need to importantly but also in terms of time. Support recognize such skills and build services must also be in proximity on them in order to increase the of beekeeping production areas and likelihood of improving skills and importantly such services need to be capacity of small-scale farmers. One sustainable, both if they are publicly of the main constraints commonly or privately funded. The types and found in technical training is not kind of services on offer need to be only the lack of appropriately trained in tune with the current necessities extension staff, but time devoted by of small-scale farmers, but also extension workers to small-scale focus on the future and how such farmers. Typically extension workers services may need to evolve. These need to cover large rural areas and future needs should be supported have a full schedule. A method to by a long term vision on resources avert this constraint is to improve and how these can be used to keep interactions between extension the operation in business. Front line workers and famers via group support services that only operate trainings, such as using the Farmer Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods efficiently and effectively in the Field School (FFS) methodology. short term have little or any value This is a participatory approach for in development programmes if they learning beekeeping and improving cannot continue as a result of lack and building on existing beekeeping of resources. Services need to be skills. Farmers learn directly in the seen from a long term perspective ‘field’ working with bees and each and importantly consider the need activity that they carry out involves for constant improvements and action, observations, analysis and updating. then taking a decision. The aspects

57 considered do not only focus on the made spare parts can be furnished, ‘how’ but importantly on the ‘why’. but this needs to be ascertained prior During training sessions farmers to buying the improved equipment. are also encouraged to set their own farmer-to-farmer training from the ■ Business skills training cadre of initial farmers trained. Coupled with technical training Information dissemination small-scale farmers will also need through training and extension is appropriate training in marketing one of the fundamental aspects as well as in business management. of promoting beekeeping and Far too often technical training improving current practices. programmes focus only on improved However dissemination of technical beekeeping methods that increase aspects is not easy in rural and remote yield, but find no ready markets for areas and modern communication absorbing such excess capacity. technologies can be of support, for Business management and marketing example wireless communications. training need to be integrated into Traditional media can also be very technical training programmes as it effective in enabling information provides small-scale farmers a far dissemination as for example radio. more comprehensive spectrum of Beekeeping equipment is what a beekeeping business is all commonly made locally, ranging about. Like with technical training from hives, tools and protective where FFS methods are used, clothing. However improved business management and marketing equipment, such as removable frame training needs to follow the same hives can be an important alternative approach. Such training requires a to consider in terms of increased ‘learning-by doing’ method: training productivity and resulting yields. is conducted via action, observations, The major problem though with this analysis and then taking a decision. is the ‘spare parts’ supply chain that is needed after the hives have been ■ Market information bought. Many importers find it far Beekeepers in rural and remote areas to costly to distribute such spare do not have in many instances the parts in rural and remote regions as skills and opportunities to ascertain the potential demand for spare parts market information. They commonly is low in comparison to distribution rely on what the local rural trader costs. It may be the case that locally offers and have little if any idea of

58 prices paid in larger markets found transport infrastructure. In local in towns, cities and export markets. markets this problem may not be so This lack of information can also acute, but especially if attempting impede trade between other members to sell in urban and export markets of the bee products supply chain and this can become a hindrance. Traders provide for trade inefficiencies. will not travel in and to rural and Collection of market information remote areas, if they have difficulty on a regular basis that focuses in collecting honey from widely on such aspects as prices and dispersed producers as a lack of quantities traded, for example, and infrastructure and appropriately its dissemination in a timely manner, supported transport systems. not only supports small-scale famers, Transport infrastructure and systems but the entire supply chain as well as need to enable trade and not hinder it. fosters the development of a more Bee products that are transported effective and efficient bee products inappropriately and require long trade. Such information can also travel times have a higher risk of provide indicators to small-scale damage and loss in quality. This, for farmers if it is viable to expand, example, is especially true for honey, contract or maintain beekeeping that if exposed to excessive heat and production constant. Further and sunlight can start to ferment. importantly such information and its Commonly when transport dissemination also enables a more infrastructure is developed and equitable distribution of returns as maintained appropriately in a local supply chain members are more area, it does not only favour one informed and hence have a better enterprise over another, but provides bargaining position. Moreover for development opportunities for all market information can also support farm commodities and products as Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods and help in terms of reducing trade well as other businesses that may be risk and improve identification found locally. of target markets for small-scale farmers. ■ Organizational options Efforts of small-scale farmers to ■ Transport join together in associations, be it For small-scale farmers one of the producer, marketing or both, need major impediments to market access to be encouraged and supported. is lack of transport and adequate Facilitation of association formation

59 is not only required at the start of such as honey for example to the the organization, but importantly European Union. The European needs to last over time . For example Union requires all imported honey to support is particularly required in be certified in terms of it being free terms of business management of from chemical, antibiotic and other producer organizations. residues. Promoting and facilitating Public organizations need to commodity associations, including provide training for small-scale all interested players in a supply farmers in terms of quality and its chain (farmers, traders, wholesales, related standards. However and exporters, etc.), will enable better importantly the public sector needs interactions between supply chain to create an enabling environment members and public institutions that allows for private sector quality and also better understanding of the certification organizations to operate necessities and requirements of the and not only provide training, but beekeeping sector. Such associations packages of interventions to support can also promote voluntary quality quality in bee products. Most often assurance programmes among its producer organizations are preferably members, provide information and targeted as they have the financial support in developing national quality capabilities for paying for such standards with the public sector services, but also and importantly as well as providing promotional have the tradable quantities that can campaigns at national level regarding justify such costs. the benefits of consuming bee products. ■ Supporting women in beekeeping ■ Quality In many countries beekeeping is the Quality in bee products needs to be domain of women, as often bee hives upheld and standards need to be are kept close to the home stead. In communicated effectively to those this respect a particular focus needs to involved in small-scale beekeeping. be given to women when considering This supports not only consumer the development of the beekeeping acceptance and trust for bee products, sector. Women face barriers, for but also facilitates trade transactions. example cultural and social, that do Standards become particularly not allow them to participate actively important for exporting bee products, in the commercialization of what

60 they produce. In other instances what with bee products and farmers with they produce is not commercialized income. For example traders collect at all and used for male –based bee products from widely distributed recreational activities, such as the small-scale farms in rural and remote brewing of mead ( honey beer). areas, assemble products, transport Development programmes are them and find markets in which to required that are women-based, but sell them. Without traders, farmers are socially and culturally acceptable. would not be able to make a living. Introducing the benefits that can Traders in bee product chains thus be derived from such an activity also need to be encouraged and in terms of improved nutrition and supported and this contributes to the income for the farm family may overall development of the sector. pose a justification for women Traders, like farmers need trust to involvement in training courses be able to conduct business. On the based on improved production one hand traders need to be assured practices, business management and that whatever bee product they are marketing. Moreover promoting buying is of quality and will live up to and facilitating women’s beekeeping trade expectations. On the other hand groups can provide a wide range of farmers need to know that they will benefits that can help them not only get paid for their efforts in providing improve production know-how, but such products. In this regard trust and importantly give them more ‘voice’ linkages between small-scale farmers within the sector. and traders need to be supported by promoting commodity associations ■ Building trust and linkages as well as improving and making Traditionally traders and other the bee product supply chain more middle men are seen as members transparent and easy for both farmers Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods of the bee product supply chain that and others involved to understand. take advantage of their bargaining position and credit availability. ■ Institutional role Traders, though are an important The role of the public sector is and fundamental element in bee commonly devoted to providing products supply chains as they infrastructural services, such perform a number of operations as transport, energy, water and that facilitate trade, reduce risk and communications as well as river, sea contribute to providing consumers and airports to facilitate international

61 exports. The public sector also has scale farmers. Advisors play a role the role of fostering an enabling not only in developing programmes, business environment that supports but importantly in implementing and facilitates trade and increases them. The main matters that advisor new trade opportunities. Further the can cover to support, develop and public sector also needs to provide implement beekeeping enterprises in institutional support and capacity that terms of small-scale farming are: enables, for example the reduction of paper work for national and • Provide an overview of the international trade. Moreover the beekeeping sub-sector in a passing of legislation and provision country; of a regulatory environment that • Advise small-scale farmers on the favours and supports small-scale plethora of opportunities that can beekeeping enterprises and more derive from beekeeping; generally the bee products supply • Provide information on the chain and sub-sector is another role low input necessity of such an that the public sector needs to play. enterprise; The public sector, in recent years, • Provide information and training has also taken on the role of promoting on technical and business private sector involvement in terms management matters related to of infrastructure, institutional support beekeeping; and capacity building as well as in the • Provide mark information on regulatory environment. For example pricing, marketing channels, many privately run organizations sources of market information, provide quality certification schemes etc.; to beekeepers. In other instances • Advise on the opportunities, privately-owned organizations offer challenges and risks; business development services in • Advise on marketing rural areas for many different and improvement programmes and varied agriculture-based enterprises. plans; • Facilitate and promote ■ Role of the advisor the formation of producer Advisors play a key role in organizations; awareness, promotion and support • Provide information on related in developing beekeeping as a viable quality standards and pertinent diversification enterprise for small- legislation.

62 Challenges

■ Bee species, parasites and Advisors will need to support diseases small-scale beekeepers in terms of Honey bees are subject to many providing information on the most diseases and pests like any other common pests and diseases in a livestock. The major problem in many geographic area as well as providing countries is that honey bee diseases training on how to prevent and and pests that do not affect Apis reduce diseases and pests in honey mellifera are not fully understood bee colonies. and researched adequately. Moreover it is also the lack of understanding on ■ Supply chain and market behalf of beekeepers combined with linkages lack of regulations and enforcement Small-scale farmers in rural and that has enabled the increasingly remote areas will have limited rapid spread of pathogens during the capacity to participate in formal past thirty years (FAO, 2009). supply chains, become active players Honey bees’ social habit of living within and be able to forge business in colonies with frequent contact relationships and linkages. Limited and sharing of work, via for example time, skills and resources are all using their mandibles to pass on constraints on small-scale farmers nectar, among hive members has to become active players in supply also contributed to the rapid spread of chains. To support supply chain diseases and pests. The most important integration advisors will need to first defense against disease and pests provide information on markets, Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods is the bees’ hygienic behavior, followed supply chains and information on by having strong and vigorous colonies, potential and lasting relationships good hive sighting and elevation from and linkages. the ground and good management practices carried out by small-scale ■ Quality and standards in local farmers. Importantly exposure to and international markets pesticides should be averted and the Limited capacity and especially use of chemicals to treat infected hives limited resources of small-scale should be kept to a minimum. farmers pose a challenge in terms of

63 quality in bee products. This becomes that builds on traditional skills and a serious constraint when considering improves them. exports markets in particular. Yet another challenge arises when Moreover when bee products are equipment is required, for example value-added in more complex a manual honey extractor, that may processing activities quality becomes not be available in the local area even more a challenge. Training and its cost may be well above farm that provides for capacity building household possibilities. One option in terms of not only quality in is the creation of honey collection production, but also and importantly centres where such equipment can in terms of processing. In production be bought collectively and/or the appropriate management of hives formation of producer and marketing and colonies can do very much to groups. However like all equipment improve the quality of final products. that is non-indigenous appropriate However once bee products are training is required and an appraisal harvested, interventions can be made of the ‘spare parts’ supply chain to in terms of conserving the original maintain such equipment in operation quality as found in the bee hive of also needs to be carried out. the bee products and preventing As value is added to bee products, deterioration while processing and not only is training required in marketing. improved processing methods for value adding, but quality control and ■ Processing quality maintenance training are also At farm household level basic required. processing of bee products may be traditionally managed. However ■ Packaging such methods may not be proficient Packaging can be a major constraint in supporting yields and quality to bee product marketing as mostly and hence will need support from this is carried out in rural and remote advisors. For example, in many areas using recycled drinking bottles countries when honey is capped from and other packaging materials comb, the wax is disregarded or used sourced locally. However very often for other purposes that do not have these types of packaging materials any market value. Awareness creation are unsuitable for wider distribution and training should be provided of bee products to town, city and

64 export markets. Improved packaging attempts to improve production materials, for example new glass jars skills, competencies and know-how with lids for honey, are not commonly as well as in marketing bee products. available in many areas and their cost can be high. Yet again honey collection centres and/or producer ■ Honey collection centres and organizations can provide the needed producer organizations funds to buy packaging in bulk and Honey collection centres are a hence reduce its unit costs as well as challenge in setting up as they offering packaging services for its require, not only some form of members. physical structure like a building and its related costs, but also ■ Local skilled trainers good management and financial Unfortunately, as a result of public investments by its members. Such budgetary cuts, it is difficult to an initiative could be consolidated find extension staff that has been with the formation of a producer provided with up dated training in group, though the issues and matters such aspects as improved production to solve remain very much the same. methods, treatments for diseases and Organizing widely dispersed small- parasites and so forth. This challenge scale farmers in rural and remote of disseminating improved technical areas is not an easy task. It requires information and knowledge results in some initial funding, meetings to take a competitive disadvantage for small- place among producers, travel time scale farmers. Conducting trainings and costs, and good communications and distributing training materials in among small-scale farmers. It also remote and rural areas is a challenge requires motivation and consistency as its costs are high as a result of to be able to keep the organization Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods dispersed small-scale farmers. going once it has been set-up.

■ Gender ■ Public policy In some countries there are cultural Laws and regulations that are and social barriers to sensitization specifically designed for the programmes and training sessions beekeeping sub-sector and in organized for women who tender particular to support small-scale honey bees. This hampers all farmers can be a challenge. Such

65 legislation may be seen by other and develop local markets with players in the supply chain as an adequate product quality assurance, attempt to favour only one player without undermining the development (small-scale farmers) in the supply of large-scale operations and related chain. Policies thus need to strengthen destination markets.

66 Selected further reading

Abrams, R. 2007. Working with honeybees, Purdue University.

Attfield, H.H.D. 1989. A beekeeping guide, Volunteers in technical assistance.

Bogdanov, S. & Ruoff, K. 2004. Authenticity of honey and other bee products, APIACTA 38 pp. 317-327.

Codex Alimantarius. 2001. Codex standard for honey, Codex Stan 12, Rome.

CTA. 2005a. Beekeeping in the tropics, Agrodok 32, Wageningen, the Netherlands .

CTA. 2005b. Bee products; properties, processing and marketing, Agrodok No. 42, Wageningen, the Netherlands.

Curtis, G. 1982. Small scale beekeeping. Appropriate technologies for beekeeping, Peace Corps, Washington D.C.

EPOPA. 2006. Practical guide for organic beekeepers, Export Promotion of Organic Products from Africa. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

Fadare, S.O., Ojo, S.O & Imoudu, P.B. 2008. Analysis of production performance of beekeepers in the Niger delta area of Nigeria, APIACATA, No. 43, pp. 37-48 .

FAO. 2009. Bees and their role in forest livelihoods, by N. Bradbear, Non-wood forest products No. 19, Rome.

FAO. 2007a. The urban producer’s resource book, Rome.

67 FAO. 2007b.Promises and challenges of the informal food sector in developing countries, by S. Simon, Rome.

FAO. 2006a.Value-added products from beekeeping, by R. Krell, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 124 Rome .

FAO. 2006b. Honey bee diseases and pests: A practical guide, Agricultural and food engineering technical report No. 4, Rome.

FAO. 2003.Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods, by N Bradbear, FAO Diversification booklet No.1, Rome, .

FAO. 2001. Small enterprise development, Beekeeping for selling honey and beeswax, Rome.

FAO. 2000a. Understanding and using market information, by A.W. Shepherd, Marketing Extension Guide No.2, Rome.

FAO. 2000b.Enahncing farmers’ financial management skills, by J.Heney, Agricultural Finance Revisited No.6, Rome.

FAO. 1997a.Basic finance for marketers, by S. Carter, N.J. MacDonald & D.C.B. Cheng, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text, Vol. 1, Rome.

FAO. 1997b. Agricultural and food marketing management, by I.M. Crawford, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text, Vol. 2, Rome.

FAO. 1997c. Marketing research and information systems, by I.M. Crawford, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text, Vol. 4, Rome.

FAO. 1995. The Group enterprise book, Rome.

FAO. 1994a. The group promoter’s resource book, Rome.

FAO. 1994b. Management of rural income-generating activities, Rome.

68 FAO. 1994c.Simple bookkeeping and business management skills, by R. Meijernik, Rome.

FAO. 1993. A guide to marketing costs and how to calculate them, by A.W. Shepherd, Marketing Extension Guides, Rome.

FAO. 1990a. Beekeeping in Africa, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 68/6, Rome .

FAO. 1990b. Beekeeping in Asia, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 68/4, Rome.

Gebey, T., Berhe, K. & Hoekstra, D. 2010. Beekeeping development using value chain approach in Fogera district: experiences from IPMS project interventions, ILRI, Addis Ababa.

Hilmi,M. 2003. Marketing research for micro and small scale beekeepers, Apiservices.

Hilmi, M. 2002. The marketing of bee products, Apiservices .

Hilmi, M. 2001. The marking of organic honey, Apiservices.

Hunt, G. 2007a. Advanced beekeeping methods, Purdue University.

Hunt, G. 2007b. Understanding the honeybee, Purdue University. Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

IFAD. 2004.Into the market manual, Rome.

ILO. 2000. Rapid market appraisal, ILO, Geneva.

Jones, R. 2000. Beekeeping as a business, IBRA.

Leisa. 2009. Bees, trade and success, Leisa Magazine 252.

69 Mickels-Kokwe, G. 2006. Small-scale woodland-based enterprises with outstanding economic potential: The case of honey in Zambia, CIFOR.

Mwale,J. 1994. Beekeeping training manual, wildlife conservation society.

National Honey Board. 2001. The honey files: A bee’s life, United States of America.

Practical Action. 1994a. Beekeeping, Technical Brief, Rugby, United Kingdom.

Practical Action. 1994b. Honey processing, Technical Brief, Rugby, United Kingdom .

Sanford, T. M. 2009. Basic beekeeping manual, Florida 4-H Youth Development Program, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

Sanford, T. M. 2003a. Sample pollination agreement, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

Sanford, T. M. 2003b. Financial management for the beekeeper, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

Somerville, D. 2005. Fat bees, skinny bees, a manual on honey bee nutrition for beekeepers, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.

Warré, A. 2007. Beekeeping for all, Patricia Heaf and David Heaf (Translation).

70 Sources of further information and support

Sources of further information and support

Apiconsult http://www.apiconsult.com/index.htm

Apimondia http://www.apimondia.com/

Apiservices http://www.beekeeping.com/

Basic beekeeping manual http://teca.fao.org/sites/default/files/resources/Basic%20 Beekeeping%20Manual.pdf

Bees for development http://www.beesfordevelopment.org/

Beekeeping glossary http://www.beekeeping.com/_menus_us/index.htm?menu.htm&0 Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods

International Bee Research Association http://www.ibra.org.uk/

Liberty Development Foundation (LIDEFO) http://www.lidefo.org/

Organic beekeeping society http://thehealingpath.com/OrganicBeekeeping/OBS/index.shtml

71 Preparing a business plan: An example for beekeepers http://www.farmcentre.com/File.aspx?id=b44db8ff-c6e2-43ab-8173- 33c28e51619c

Small-scale beekeeping http://www.beekeeping.org/articles/us/small_beekeeping/index. htm

72 Notes Notes 7KHUHKDYHDOZD\VEHHQSHRSOHLQFRPPXQLWLHVWKHZRUOGRYHU ZKRNHHSEHHVIRUWKHLUSURGXFWVDQGVHUYLFHVWKDWWKH\RIIHU %HHVSURGXFHQXPHURXVSURGXFWVWKHPRVWSRSXODUEHLQJKRQH\ DV ZHOO DV EHHVZD[ ,PSRUWDQWO\ EHHV SURYLGH IRU SROOLQDWLRQ VHUYLFHV WKDW QRW RQO\ HQVXUH D JRRG KDUYHVW ZLWK LQFUHDVHG \LHOGVEXWTXDOLW\RIWKHKDUYHVWHGSURGXFH0RUHSUDFWLFDOO\ KRZHYHU D FRORQ\ RI EHHV SURYLGHV IRRG DQG LQFRPH IRU WKH IDUPIDPLO\DQGQRWRQO\

7KLV ERRNOHW LV LQWHQGHG WR UDLVH DZDUHQHVV DQG SURPRWH EHHNHHSLQJ DPRQJ SHRSOH DQG RUJDQL]DWLRQV LQYROYHG LQ VXSSRUWLQJ VPDOOVFDOH IDUPLQJ DV D VXFFHVVIXO GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ HQWHUSULVH WKDW VPDOOVFDOH IDUPHUV LQ UXUDO SHUL XUEDQ DQG XUEDQFHQWUHVFDQLQWHJUDWHLQWRWKHLUIDUPLQJV\VWHPVHDVLO\

ISBN 978-92-5-107062-8 ISSN 1810-0775

9 789251 070628 I2462E/1/11.11