A Companion to the Latin Language

A COMPANION TO THE LATIN LANGUAGE

Edited by James Clackson

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

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CClackson_ffirs.inddlackson_ffirs.indd i 66/7/2011/7/2011 111:48:591:48:59 AAMM BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises between twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORY A Companion to Catullus Published Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner A Companion to the Roman Army A Companion to Roman Religion Edited by Paul Erdkamp Edited by Jörg Rüpke A Companion to the Roman Republic A Companion to Greek Religion Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Edited by Daniel Ogden Morstein-Marx A Companion to the Classical Tradition A Companion to the Roman Empire Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf Edited by David S. Potter A Companion to Roman Rhetoric A Companion to the Classical Greek World Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl A Companion to Greek Rhetoric A Companion to the Ancient Near East Edited by Ian Worthington Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to Ancient Epic A Companion to the Hellenistic World Edited by John Miles Foley Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Greek Tragedy A Companion to Late Antiquity Edited by Justina Gregory Edited by Philip Rousseau A Companion to Latin Literature A Companion to Archaic Greece Edited by Stephen Harrison Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees A Companion to Ovid A Companion to Julius Caesar Edited by Peter E. Knox Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Greek and Roman Political A Companion to Ancient History Thought Edited by Andrew Erskine Edited by Ryan K. Balot A Companion to Byzantium A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language Edited by Liz James Edited by Egbert Bakker A Companion to Ancient Egypt A Companion to Hellenistic Literature Edited by Alan B. Lloyd Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss A Companion to Ancient Macedonia A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and Its Tradition Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam A Companion to the Punic Wars A Companion to Horace Edited by Dexter Hoyos Edited by Gregson Davis A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman LITERATURE AND CULTURE Worlds Published Edited by Beryl Rawson A Companion to Classical Receptions A Companion to Greek Mythology Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography Edited by John Marincola

CClackson_ffirs.inddlackson_ffirs.indd iiii 66/7/2011/7/2011 111:48:591:48:59 AAMM A COMPANION TO THE LATIN LANGUAGE

Edited by James Clackson

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A companion to the Latin language / edited by James Clackson. p. cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world) Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 978-1-4051-8605-6 (alk. paper) 1. Latin language–History. 2. Latin philology. I. Clackson, James. PA2057.C66 2011 470–dc22 2011009293 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDFs [ISBN 9781444343366]; Wiley Online Library [ISBN 9781444343397]; ePub [ISBN 9781444343373]; Mobi [ISBN 9781444343380]

Set in 10/12.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2011

CClackson_ffirs.inddlackson_ffirs.indd iivv 66/7/2011/7/2011 111:48:591:48:59 AAMM Contents

List of Illustrations viii Notes on Contributors x Abbreviations of Ancient Authors and Works xiv Abbreviations of Modern Sources xx Symbols Used xxiv Linguistic and Other Abbreviations xxv

1 Introduction 1 James Clackson

PART I Sources 7 2 The Latin Alphabet and Orthography 9 Rex Wallace 3 Latin Inscriptions and Documents 29 James Clackson 4 Latin Manuscripts and Textual Traditions 40 Bruce Gibson 5 Romance Languages as a Source for Spoken Latin 59 Roger Wright

PART II The Language 81 6 The Sounds of Latin: Phonology 83 Matthew McCullagh 7 Latin Prosody and Metrics 92 Benjamin W. Fortson IV

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8 The Forms of Latin: Inflectional Morphology 105 James Clackson 9 Latin Syntax 118 Geoffrey Horrocks 10 Latin Vocabulary 144 Michèle Fruyt 11 Word-Formation in Classical Latin 157 Michèle Fruyt 12 Latin Particles and the Grammar of Discourse 176 Caroline Kroon

PART III Latin Through Time 197 13 The Historical Background to Latin within the Indo-European Language Family 199 Benjamin W. Fortson IV 14 Archaic and Old Latin 220 John Penney 15 Classical Latin 236 James Clackson 16 Late Latin 257 J.N. Adams 17 Medieval Latin 284 Greti Dinkova-Bruun 18 Neo-Latin 303 David Butterfield

PART IV Literary Registers of Latin 319 19 The Language of Roman Comedy 321 Wolfgang de Melo 20 The Language of Latin Epic and Lyric Poetry 344 Rolando Ferri 21 The Language of Latin Verse Satire 367 Anna Chahoud 22 The Language of Roman Oratory and Rhetoric 384 J.G.F. Powell 23 The Language of Latin Historiography 408 Christina Shuttleworth Kraus

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24 Epistolary Latin 426 Hilla Halla-aho 25 Latin as a Technical and Scientific Language 445 Thorsten Fögen 26 Legal Latin 464 J.G.F. Powell 27 Christian Latin 485 Philip Burton

PART V Latin in Social and Political Contexts 503 28 The Social Dialects of Latin 505 James Clackson 29 Latin and Other Languages: Societal and Individual Bilingualism 527 Alex Mullen 30 Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire 549 Bruno Rochette 31 Latin Inside and Outside of Rome 564 Giovanbattista Galdi

References 582 Index Locorum 619 Index 627

CClackson_ftoc.inddlackson_ftoc.indd vviiii 66/7/2011/7/2011 111:48:351:48:35 AAMM List of Illustrations

Figures

2.1 Etruscan abecedarium from Marsiliana d’Albegna 12 2.2 The Fibula Praenestina 13 2.3 The Forum inscription 14 2.4 The Duenos inscription 16 2.5 The epitaph of Scipio Barbatus 16 2.6 The earliest Latin abecedarium 17 2.7 The Tibur inscription 20 2.8 Dipinto with cursive E and F 21 2.9 Graffito from Pompeii 22 4.1 Simplified stemma showing the relationship of the principal manuscripts of Catullus 43 4.2 MS Canonicianus class. lat. 30, f. 20r., showing Catullus 63.26–56 51 12.1 Sallust, Jug. 95–96.1 189 12.2 Hierarchical structure of Sallust, Jug. 95–96.1 190 15.1 Papyrus fragment of Gallus found at Qasr Ibrim 246 29.1 Bilingual roof-tile from Pietrabbondante 534 29.2 Monument to Regina (RIB I.1065) 544

Tables

2.1 The Classical Latin alphabet 10 2.2. Spelling of velars in Very Old Latin inscriptions 11 2.3 Very Old Latin inscriptions of the seventh to sixth centuries BCE 13 2.4 Comparison of archaic Etruscan and Latin letterforms 19

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2.5 Variation in Very Old Latin letterforms 20 3.1 Editorial conventions for inscriptions and documents 35 6.1 The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin 84 8.1 Representative paradigms of the main declension classes of Latin 107 8.2 Paradigms showing distinctive neuter endings 107 8.3 The Latin personal pronouns 110 8.4 The Latin pronoun hic, haec, hoc 110 8.5 The Latin pronoun is, ea, id 111 8.6 The Latin relative pronoun 111 8.7 The interrelationship between tense, mood and verb stem in Latin 112 8.8 The four regular Latin verb conjugations 113 8.9 Other present stem formations of the verb amoˉ 114 8.10 The Latin perfect conjugation 114 8.11 Other perfect stem formations from the verb amoˉ 115 8.12 Passive forms of the verb amoˉ 116 8.13 Perfect passive forms of the verb amoˉ 116 13.1 Development of PIE voiced aspirates in Latin 203 13.2 Vowel changes from PIE to Latin 205 19.1 Imperfects in Plautus and Terence 324 19.2 Futures in Plautus and Terence 324 19.3 The position of possessives in Plautus 329 19.4 Focus and the position of possessives 330 19.5 Telicity and tense in the accusative and infinitive construction 332 19.6 Seruos and seruolus in Plautus and Terence 339

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J.N. Adams was Senior Research Fellow at transmission of Latin literature. He has All Souls College, Oxford, from 1998 to co-edited The Penguin Latin Dictionary 2010. His numerous publications on Latin (London, 2007) and A.E. Housman: include The Regional Diversification of Latin Classical Scholar (London, 2009), and has 200 BC–AD 600 (2007), Bilingualism and the written various articles on Latin poets Latin Language (2003), Wackernagel’s Law (particularly Lucretius) and the history of and the Placement of the Copula esse in Classical scholarship. Classical Latin (1994), The Latin Sexual Anna Chahoud is Professor of Latin at Vocabulary (1982) and The Vulgar Latin of Trinity College Dublin. She is the author the Letters of Claudius Terentianus (1977). of C. Lucilii Reliquiarum Concordantiae In 2009 he was awarded the Kenyon Medal (1998), of articles on Republican Latin for Classical Studies and Archaeology by the and the grammatical tradition, and British Academy. co-editor of Colloquial and Literary Latin Philip Burton is Reader in Latin and Early (2010). She is currently finalising a Christian Studies at the University of commentary on the fragments of Lucilius Birmingham. His previous publications for Cambridge University Press. include The Old Latin Gospels (2000) and James Clackson is Senior Lecturer in the Language in the Confessions of Augustine Department of Classics at the University (2007), as well as articles on Latin linguistics of Cambridge. His books include The and on the reception of Classical Antiquity. Blackwell History of the Latin Language He is currently working on an edition on the (2007, with Geoff Horrocks), and Indo- Old Latin traditions of John (www.iohannes. European Linguistics: An Introduction org) for the Vetus Latina series. (Cambridge, 2007). His research interests David Butterfield is the W.H.D. Rouse include historical and comparative Research Fellow and Lector in Classics at linguistics, the sociolinguistics of the Christ’s College, Cambridge, and works ancient world, and the Armenian primarily upon the textual criticism and language.

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Greti Dinkova-Bruun is Associate Fellow at Benjamin W. Fortson IV teaches Classical the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, languages and Indo-European philology at Toronto. She has published widely on a range the University of Michigan. His of topics within the field of Medieval Studies. publications include articles and reviews on A noted palaeographer, she is responsible for Indo-European and historical linguistics, a number of critical editions and translations as well as an introductory textbook in of medieval texts including the poetry of Indo-European (Indo-European Language Alexander of Ashby, Alexandri Essebiensis and Culture, 2nd edn, 2010) and a Opera Poetica (2004) and The Ancestry of monograph on Plautine metrics and Jesus (2005). Since January 2010 she has linguistics (Language and Rhythm in been the Editor-in-Chief for the Catalogus Plautus, 2008). Translationum et Commentariorum (CTC). Michèle Fruyt is Professor of Latin Rolando Ferri is Professor of Latin at the Linguistics at the University of Paris- University of Pisa. He studied at Pisa, Sorbonne (Paris IV) and Director of the Princeton and London, where he was Centre Alfred Ernout for Latin linguistics. Momigliano Student in the Arts in the Her research mainly concerns the years 1993–1996. He has published books following: a description of the Latin on Horace (I dispiaceri di un epicureo, lexicon from both a synchronic and a 1993) and Senecan tragedy (Octavia diachronic perspective, focusing on the attributed to Seneca, 2003), and he has way elements of the language were edited books devoted to the Roman school perceived by Latin speakers (motivation, (F. Bellandi and R. Ferri, ed., Aspetti della de-motivation, re-analysis); semantic issues scuola nel mondo romano, 2008) and to in the functioning of the language; the Latin lexicography (R. Ferri, ed., The structural organization of the Latin Latin of Roman Lexicography, 2010). He lexicon; word-formation; the morpho- now works on the bilingual Greek–Latin syntactic evolution of Latin, including glossaries and their value as evidence for grammaticalization, deixis and endophor, the study of Late and Vulgar Latin. verbal periphrases, etc. Thorsten Fögen teaches Classics at Durham University and the Humboldt University of Giovanbattista Galdi holds a PhD in Berlin. Among his research interests are the Classical Philology from the University history of linguistic ideas, ancient rhetoric, of Bologna (2002). He was scientific literary criticism, non-verbal communication co-worker at the Thesaurus Linguae and semiotics, ancient technical writers, Latinae in Munich from 2001 to 2003 women in antiquity, animals in antiquity and wrote his Habilitation at the University and ancient epistolography. He is the author of Trier from 2003 to 2007. Currently, he of “Patrii sermonis egestas”: Einstellungen is Assistant Professor of Latin Language at lateinischer Autoren zu ihrer Muttersprache the University of Cyprus (Nicosia). His (2000), “Utraque lingua”: A Bibliography main areas of interest lie in the field of Late of Bi- and Multilingualism in Graeco- and Vulgar Latin, epigraphic language and Roman Antiquity and in Modern Times Greek–Latin bilingualism. He is the author (2003), and Wissen, Kommunikation und of Grammatica delle iscrizioni latine Selbstdarstellung. Zur Struktur und dell’impero (province orientali). Morfo- Charakteristik römischer Fachtexte der sintassi nominale (2004) and of numerous frühen Kaiserzeit (2009). articles on Latin language.

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Bruce Gibson is Professor of Latin at the Her main research interests lie in the fields University of Liverpool. His principal of pragmatics, discourse linguistics, and, research is concerned with the literature of especially, the linguistic articulation the Roman Empire, with significant of narrative. She is currently supervising connections with various aspects of Roman a linguistic-narratological research pro- history and culture. His work also engages gr amme on ancient war narrative. with the transmission of Latin texts in manuscripts and with Renaissance Matthew McCullagh teaches at St Paul’s scholarship. His publications include an School in London. He received his edition and commentary of Statius, Silvae doctorate in Classics from Cambridge 5 (Oxford, 2006). University, and he has taught both at Cambridge University and at Royal Hilla Halla-aho works as a researcher at Holloway, University of London. He is the Department of World Cultures, currently preparing a monograph on the University of Helsinki. Her main interests prehistory of the Greek aorist passive. are the language of Latin non-literary texts as well as variation and change in Latin Wolfgang de Melo teaches in the syntax. Her publications include the Department of Latin and Greek at the monograph The Non-Literary Latin University of Ghent and is a Quondam Letters: A Study of Their Syntax and Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. His Pragmatics (2009). book The Early Latin Verb System: Archaic Forms in Plautus, Terence, and Beyond Geoffrey Horrocks is Professor of was published in 2007. His main scholarly Comparative Philology in the University interests are the linguistic aspects of Early of Cambridge. His publications include Latin; the development from Indo- The Blackwell History of the Latin Language European to Latin, and from Early to (2007, with James Clackson), and Greek: Classical Latin; and the closest relatives A History of the Language and Its Speakers of Latin (Faliscan, Oscan, Umbrian, (2nd edn, 2010). His research interests Venetic). include the history and structure of the Greek and Latin languages (including Alex Mullen is Lumley Research Fellow in Medieval and Modern as well as Ancient Classics at Magdalene College, University Greek), linguistic theory, and historical of Cambridge. She has published on linguistics. linguistic and cultural contacts in Roman Christina Shuttleworth Kraus is Thomas Britain and southern Gaul and is currently A. Thacher Professor of Latin at Yale Univer- co-editing a multi-authored volume on sity. She works on Latin historiography, multilingualism in antiquity. primarily on Livy and Tacitus, and is currently John Penney is University Lecturer in preparing a commentary (together with A.J. Classical Philology at the University of Woodman) on Tacitus’ Agricola. Oxford and Fellow of Wolfson College, Caroline Kroon is Professor of Latin at Oxford. His research interests include the VU University Amsterdam. She is the Indo-European phonology and morphol- author of Discourse Particles in Latin: ogy, the languages of pre-Roman Italy, and A Study of nam, enim, autem, vero and at Tocharian. He has also published articles (1995), and co-editor of Theory and on historical aspects of the language of Description in Latin Linguistics (2002). Latin verse and prose.

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J.G.F. Powell is Professor of Latin at Rex Wallace is Professor of Classics and Royal Holloway, University of London. Associate Dean of Personnel and He has published editions of Cicero’s Cato Research for the College of Humanities Maior de Senectute (Cambridge, 1988), of and Fine Arts at the University of Laelius de Amicitia (Warminster, 1990), Massachusetts Amherst. His research and of De Re Publica and De Legibus interests are the languages of ancient (Oxford Classical Text, 2006), has edited Italy and historical/comparative lin- Cicero the Philosopher (Oxford, 1995), and guistics. He is the author of The Sabellic Logos: Rational Argument in Classical Languages of Ancient Italy (2007), Rhetoric (BICS Supplement 2007), and Zikh Rasna: A Manual of Etruscan co-edited Author and Audience in Latin Language and Inscriptions (2009), and Literature (Cambridge, 1992), Cicero’s numerous articles on Etruscan and Italic Republic (BICS Supplement 2001) and linguistics. Cicero the Advocate (Oxford, 2004). He is Roger Wright is Emeritus Professor of working on, among other things, a new Spanish at the University of Liverpool. He Latin grammar for Wiley-Blackwell. is the author of (inter alia) Late Latin and Bruno Rochette is Professor of Greek and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian Latin Language and Literature at the France (1982), Early Ibero-Romance University of Liège, Belgium. He is the (1995), and A Sociophilological Study of author of Le latin dans le monde grec. Late Latin (2003). His research interests Recherches sur la diffusion de la langue et des centre on both the linguistic and the lettres latines dans les provinces hellénophones historical aspects of the transitional period de l’empire romain (1997) and of articles on between Latin, Romance and the Romance various aspects of Greco-Latin bilingualism. languages.

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xiiixiii 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:212:07:21 PMPM Abbreviations of Ancient Authors and Works

Accius, praet. L. Accius, Fabulae Praetextae Ael. Claudius Aelianus (Aelian), Varia Historia Afran. L. Afranius com. comoediae as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Amm. Ammianus Marcellinus Andr. L. Liuius Andonicus (Livius Andronicus), works as in the Fragmenta Poetarum Latinorum App. Appianos (Appian) Sam. History of the Samnite Wars Apul., Met. L. Apuleius, Metamorphoses Asel. Sempronius Asellio August. Aurelius Augustinus (Augustine) C.D. de Ciuitate Dei Doct. Christ. de Doctrina Christiana Quaest. Hept. Quaestiones in Heptateuchum Trin. de Trinitate B. Afr. Bellum Africanum B. Hisp. Bellum Hispaniense Caecil. Caecilius Statius (Caecilius) com. comoediae as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Caes. C. Iulius Caesar (Caesar) Civ. de Bello Ciuile Gal. de Bello Gallico Cato M. Porcius Cato (Cato) Agr. de Agri Cultura Orig. Origines Catul. C. Valerius Catullus (Catullus) Cels. A. Cornelius Celsus, de Medicina

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Cic. M. Tullius Cicero (Cicero) Ac. Academica Arch. pro Archia Att. Epistulae ad Atticum Brut. Brutus Caec. pro Caecina Cat. in Catilinam Clu. pro Cluentio Div. de Diuinatione Dom. de Domo sua de Orat. de Oratore Fam. Epistulae ad Familiares Fat. de Fato Fin. de Finibus Har. de Haruspicum Responsio Inv. de Inuentione Leg. de Legibus Man. pro Lege Manilia Mur. pro Murena N.D. de Natura Deorum Off. de Officiis Orat. Orator Phil. Philippicae Pis. in Pisonem Q. fr. Epistulae ad Quintum fratrem Rep. de Republica S. Rosc. pro S. Roscio Amerino Sen. de Senectute Tim. Timaeus Top. Topica Tusc. Tusculanae Disputationes Vat. in Vatinium Ver. in Verrem Cod. Iust. Codex Iustinianus Cod. Theod. Codex Theodosianus Col. L. Iunius Moderatus Columella (Columella), de Re Rustica Curt. Q. Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni Dig. Digesta D. S. Diodorus Siculus Edict. Roth. Edictus Rothari Enn. Q. Ennius (Ennius) Ann. Annales (ed. Skutsch) Scen. Scenica (ed. Vahlen) Trag. Tragoediae (ed. Jocelyn) Eus. Eusebius Vit. Const. Vita Constantini

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xvxv 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM xvi Abbreviations of Ancient Authors and Works

Fest. S. Pompeius Festus (Festus), de Significatu Verborum Fortunatianus, Ars rhet. Consultus Fortunatianus, Ars rhetorica. Frontinus, Str. S. Iulius Frontinus (Frontinus), Strategemata Fronto, Ep. M. Cornelius Fronto (Fronto), Epistulae Gaius, Inst. Gaius, Institutiones Galen Aelius Galenus (Galen) Libr. Propr. de Libris Propriis Gel. Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae Hipp. Berol. Hippiatrica Berolinensis Hor. Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace) Carm. Carmina Ep. Epistulae Epod. Epodi S. Sermones Hyginus, Astron. G. Iulius Hyginus (Hyginus), de Astronomia Isid. Isidorus Hispalensis (Isidore of Seville) Or. Origines Just. M. Iunianus Iustinus (Justin), Epitoma Historicarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi Juv. D. Iunius Iuuenalis (Juvenal), Saturae Laber. D. Laberius (Laberius) mim. mimi as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Liv. T. Liuius (Livy), ab Vrbe Condita Lucil. C. Lucilius Lucr. T. Lucretius Carus (Lucretius), de Rerum Natura Marc., Med. Marcellus Empiricus, de Medicamentis Naev. Cn. Naeuius (Naevius) com. comoediae as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Nepos Cornelius Nepos Alc. Alcibiades Dat. Datames Non. Nonius Marcellus, de Compendiosa Doctrina Nov. Nouellae Constitutiones Nov. Theod. Nouellae Theodosianae Novius Q. Nouius (Novius) com. comoediae as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Onas. Onasander Ov. P. Ouidius Naso (Ovid) Met. Metamorphoses Tr. Tristia Pac. M. Pacuuius (Pacuvius) trag. Tragoediae as in the Tragicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Paul. Fest. Paulus Diaconus, Epitoma Festi Per. Aeth. Peregrinatio Aetheriae Persius A. Persius Flaccus (Persius), Saturae Petr. Petronius Arbiter (Petronius), Satyrica

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Pl. T. Maccius Plautus (Plautus) Am. Amphitruo As. Asinaria Aul. Aulularia Bac. Bacchides Capt. Captiui Cas. Casina Cur. Curculio Epid. Epidicus Men. Menaechmi Mer. Mercator Mil. Miles gloriosus Mos. Mostellaria Per. Persa Poen. Poenulus Ps. Pseudolus Rud. Rudens St. Stichus Trin. Trinummus Truc. Truculentus Plin., Nat. C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Naturalis Historia Plin. C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny the Younger) Ep. Epistulae Ep. Tra. Epistulae ad Traianum Pan. Panegyricus Traiani Plut. Plutarchos (Plutarch) Alex. Alexander Caes. Caesar Cat. Mai. Cato Maior Cic. Cicero Polyb. Polybios (Polybius), Histories Pompon. L. Pomponius (Pomponius) com. comoediae as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Prop. S. Propertius (Propertius), Elegiae Quint., Inst. M. Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian), Institutio Oratoria Rhet. Her. Rhetorica ad Herennium Sal. C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust) Cat. Bellum Catilinae Hist. Historiae Jug. Iugurtha Schol. Juv. Scholia in Iuuenalem uetustiora Sen. L. Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Elder) Con. Controuersiae Sen. L. Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Younger) Dial. Dialogi Ep. Epistulae Morales

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xviixvii 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM xviii Abbreviations of Ancient Authors and Works

Med. Medea Nat. Naturales Quaestiones [Sen.] Oct. Octauia, attributed to L. Annaeus Seneca (the younger) Serv. Maurus Seruius Honoratus (Servius) A. in Vergilium commentarius: ad Aeneidem Ecl. in Vergilium commentarius: ad Eclogas SHA Scriptores Historiae Augustae Hadr. Hadrianus Sept. Sev. Septimius Seuerus Soran. Lat. Sorani Gynaeciorum uetus translatio Latina Stat. P. Papinius Statius (Statius) Silv. Siluae Theb. Thebais Suet. C. Suetonius Tranquillus (Suetonius) Aug. Augustus Claud. Claudius Gram. de Grammaticis Iul. Iulius Ner. Nero Tib. Tiberius Ves. Vespasianus Vit. Vitellius Tac. Cornelius Tacitus (Tacitus) Ag. Agricola Ann. Annales Dial. Dialogus de Oratoribus Hist. Historiae Ter. P. Terentius Afer (Terence) Ad. Adelphi An. Andria Eu. Eunuchus Hau. Hautontimorumenos Ph. Phormio Tert. Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus (Tertullian) Theodorus Priscianus Eupor. Euporista Tib. Albius Tibullus (Tibullus), Elegiae Titin. Titinius com. comoediae as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Tribonian Flauius Tribonianus (Tribonian) Inst. Iust. Institutiones Iustiniani Turpil. S. Turpilius com. comoediae as in the Comicorum Romanorum Fragmenta Var. M. Terentius Varro (Varro) L. de Lingua Latina R. Res Rusticae

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Vegetius P. Flauius Vegetius Renatus (Vegetius) Epit. Epitoma Rei Militaris Vet. Ars Veterinaria Vell. C. Velleius Paterculus, Historiae Romanae Ven. Fort. Venantius Honorius Clementianus Fortunatus (Venantius Fortunatus) Verg. P. Vergilius Maro (Virgil) A. Aeneis Ecl. Eclogae G. Georgica Vitr. M. Vitruuius Pollio (Vitruvius) de Architectura V.Max. Valerius Maximus, Facta et Dicta Memorabilia

Note: Where translations are credited to authors but no further source is given, the translation is taken from the Loeb Classical Library.

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xixxix 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM Abbreviations of Modern Sources

AAntHung Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae AC L’Antiquité Classique AE L’Année épigraphique AION Annali dell’Istituto universitario orientale di Napoli, Dipartimento di studi del mondo classico e del Mediterraneo antico AJA American Journal of Archaeology AJPh American Journal of Philology AKG Archiv für Kulturgeschichte ALL Archiv für lateinische Lexikographie und Grammatik ALMA Archivum Latinitatis Medii Aevi (Bulletin Du Cange) ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt AntTard Antiquité tardive BEFAR Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale BSL Bulletin de la Société de linguistique de Paris CA Classical Antiquity CAG Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca. Berlin, 1882–1909 CB Classical Bulletin CCC Civiltà classica e cristiana CEL P. Cugusi, Corpus Epistolarum Latinarum, papyris tabulis ostracis servatarum. 3 vols. Florence, 1992–2002 CGL G. Loewe and G. Goetz, Corpus Glossariorum Latinorum. Leipzig, 1888–1923 CHG E. Oder and C. Hoppe, Corpus Hippiatricorum Graecorum. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1924–1927 ChLA Chartae Latinae Antiquiores. Olten, 1954–

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xxxx 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM Abbreviations of Modern Sources xxi

CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Berlin, 1862– CJ Classical Journal CLE Carmina Latina Epigraphica. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1895–1926 CLL Cahiers de L’Institute de Linguistque de Louvain CML Corpus Medicorum Latinorum. Berlin, 1915– CPh Classical Philology CPL. R. Cavenaile, Corpus Papyrorum Latinarum. Wiesbaden, 1958 CPR Corpus Papyrorum Raineri. Vienna, 1895– CQ Classical Quarterly CR Classical Review DHA Dialogues d’histoire ancienne ET H. Rix et al., Etruskische Texte. Editio minor. Tübingen, 1991 FLP E. Courtney, The Fragmentary Latin Poets. Oxford, 2003 GL H. Keil, Grammatici Latini. 8 vols. Leipzig, 1855–1923 G&R Greece and Rome HLov Humanistica Lovaniensia HSCPh Harvard Studies in Classical Philology HSK Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft IF Indogermanische Forschungen IG Inscriptiones Graecae. Berlin, 1873– IGF D.-C. Decourt, Inscriptions grecques de la France. Lyon, 2004 IGPhilae Les inscriptions grecques de Philae. Paris, 1969– IGUR L. Moretti, Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae. Rome, 1968–1979 ILAlg Inscriptions latines de l’Algérie. Paris, 1922– ILLRP A. Degrassi, Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae rei publicae. 2 vols. Florence, 1957–1963 ILS H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae. 5 vols. Berlin, 1892–1916 JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology JIES Journal of Indo-European Studies JPh Journal of Philology JRS Journal of Roman Studies K-S R. Kühner and C. Stegmann, Ausfürliche Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache. Satzlehre. Revised by A. Thierfelder, 3rd edn. Hanover, 1955 LCM Liverpool Classical Monthly MedArch Mediterranean Archaeology: Australian and New Zealand Journal for the Archaeology of the Mediterranean World MH Museum Helveticum NphM Neuphilologische Mitteilungen O.BuNjem R. Marichal, Les Ostraca de Bu Njem. Tripoli, 1992. O.Claud. Mons Claudianus. Ostraca graeca et latina. Cairo, 1992– O.Max. Unpublished ostraca from Maximianon (Al-Zarqua, Egypt) O.Wâdi Fawâkhir O. Guéraud ‘Ostraca grecs et latins de l’Wâdi Fawâkhir,’ BIFAO 41, 1942, 141–196

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xxixxi 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM xxii Abbreviations of Modern Sources

OCD3 S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd edn. Oxford and New York, 1996 OGI W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1903–1905 OLD P. Glare, Oxford Latin Dictionary. Oxford, 1968–1982 P.Herc. Papyri Herculanenses P.Masada H.M. Cotton and J. Geiger, Masada II, The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963—1965. Final Reports: The Latin and Greek Documents. Jerusalem, 1989 P.Mich. Michigan Papyri. Ann Arbor, 1931– P.Ness. Excavations at Nessana. 3 vols. London and Princeton, 1950–1962 P.Oxy. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri. London, 1898– P.Panopolis L.C. Youtie, D. Hagedorn and H.C. Youtie, Urkunden aus Panopolis. Bonn, 1980 P.Ryl. Catalogue of the Greek and Latin Papyri in the John Rylands Library, Manchester. Manchester, 1911– P.Yadin The Documents from the Bar Kochba Period in the Cave of Letters. Jerusalem, 1989– PCPhS Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society PL J.-P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus. Series Latina. Paris, 1844– PLLS Papers of the Liverpool Latin Seminar/Papers of the Leeds International Latin Seminar/Papers of the Langford Latin Seminar PSI Papiri greci e latini. Florence, 1912– QUCC Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica REI Rivista di Epigrafia Italica (published as part of Studi Etruschi) REL Revue des Études Latines RenQ Renaissance Quarterly RH Revue historique RhM Rheinisches Museum RIB The Roman Inscriptions of Britain. Oxford, 1965– RIDA Revue internationale des droits de l’Antiquité RIG Recueil des inscriptions gauloises. Paris, 1985– RLM C. Halm, ed., Rhetores Latini Minores. Leipzig, 1863 RPh Revue de philologie, de littérature et d’histoire anciennes SB Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Aegypten SCI Scripta classica Israelica SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum, Leiden, 1923– Sel. Pap. A.S. Hunt and C.C. Edgar, Select Papyri. 5 vols, London and New York, 1932–1934 SIFC Studi italiani di filologia classica SIG3 W. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum. 3rd edn. 4 vols. Leipzig, 1915–1924 SO Symbolae Osloenses ST H. Rix, Sabellische Texte. Die Texte des Oskischen, Umbrischen und Südpikenischen. Heidelberg, 2002

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T.Alb. C. Courtois, L. Leschi, C. Perrat and C. Saumagne, Tablettes Albertini. Actes privés de l’époque Vandale. Paris, 1952 T.Sulpicii G. Camodeca, Tabulae Pompeianae Sulpiciorum: edizione critica dell’archivio puteolano dei Sulpicii. 2 vols. Rome, 1999. T.Vindol. Vindolanda: The Latin Writing Tablets. London and Oxford, 1983– Tab. Sulis R.S.O. Tomlin, ‘The Curse Tablets’, in B. Cunliffe (ed.), The Temple of Sulis Minerva at Bath, vol. 2: The Finds from the Sacred Spring. Oxford, 1988: 4–277 TAPhA Transactions of the American Philological Association TLL Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. Leipzig, 1900– TPhS Transactions of the Philological Society Ve E. Vetter, Handbuch der italischen Dialekte. Heidelberg, 1953 WS Wiener Studien YClS Yale Classical Studies ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik ZSS Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xxiiixxiii 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM Symbols Used

* precedes an element which is reconstructed for an earlier stage of the language or for a proto-language, but which is unattested ** precedes an element which is unattested or is an impossible formation < > enclose an orthographic symbol or symbols (in most cases one or more letters of the Latin alphabet) [ ] enclose a phonetic symbol or symbols, representing a particular sound or sequence of sounds // enclose a symbol or symbols, representing a phoneme or sequence of phonemes [β] a voiced bilabial fricative, like the medial sound in Spanish beber [ð] a voiced dental fricative, like the initial sound of English that [θ] an unvoiced dental fricative, like the initial sound in English thin [j] a palatal approximant, like the initial sound of English yet [ŋ] a velar nasal, like the final sound of English sing [∫] a postalveolar fricative, like the initial sound of English shirt [x] a velar fricative, like the final sound of the German name Bach [ε] a relatively low or open “e” vowel, like the vowel in English pet [ә] a mid central unrounded vowel (schwa), like the final vowel in English pizza [I] a close front i vowel, like the vowel in English pit [ ]с a relatively low or open “o” vowel, like the vowel in English paw [y] a high front rounded vowel, like the German vowel written ü

[Ω] a relatively close back rounded vowel, like the vowel in English good [i] a close central unrounded vowel, like the second vowel in English roses [u] a close central rounded vowel written after a phonetic symbol for a vowel sound represents a long vowel ø zero/zero morph (indicating the form has no ending) X→Y Y is a derivative of X X>Y X becomes Y by sound change

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xxivxxiv 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM Linguistic and Other Abbreviations

abl. ablative abs. absolute acc. accusative ADJP adjective phrase ADVP adverb phrase agr. agreement antipass. antipassive C consonant Class. Classical dat. dative Det determiner erg. ergative fem. feminine gen. genitive gov. government IE Indo-European inf. infinitive instr. instrumental loc. locative masc. masculine [NEG] any negative word or phrase neut. neuter nom. nominative NP noun phrase OL Old Latin PIE Proto-Indo-European pl. plural PP prepositional phrase

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xxvxxv 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM xxvi Linguistic and Other Abbreviations

pple participle pr. praefatio rel. relative S sentence sg. singular V in chapter 9 = verb; in other chapters = vowel voc. vocative VP verb phrase

CClackson_flast.inddlackson_flast.indd xxvixxvi 66/8/2011/8/2011 2:07:222:07:22 PMPM CHAPTER 1

Introduction

James Clackson

Latin was the first “World Language” of human history. As the language of the Roman Empire and then the Roman Catholic Church it has spread around the globe, and today well over a billion people speak a language derived from Latin as their first or second language (Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian, etc.). Although there are no native speakers of Latin still alive, Latin has a cultural prestige matched by no other language in the West. In religion, in law, in medicine and in science, Latin terms and phrases are still employed on a daily basis. Latin’s position in the modern world reflects its importance as the language of many of the most influential texts written between antiquity and the Early Modern period, from Virgil’s Aeneid and Tacitus’ Annales through the works of Augustine and the church fathers, to the use of Latin by Newton, Milton and Spinoza. Despite Latin’s enormous cultural significance, this is the first single volume companion to the Latin language, both enabling the reader to access reliable summaries of what is known about the structure and vocabulary of the language, and setting the language in its cultural milieu from its first appearance, in short inscriptions in the first half of the first millennium BCE, to its use as a language of scholarship, of law and of the church in the modern period. Latin comes after Greek. The initial impetus for this volume was as a companion to Bakker’s Companion to the Greek Language (2010), and in structure and scope the Companion to the Latin Language mirrors its older sister. Indeed, in some areas, the two volumes overlap and complement each other. Just as the Companion to the Greek Language combines “traditional” and “modern” approaches to the linguistic study of the language, so does the Companion to the Latin Language. This volume attempts to give a comprehensive overview of the Latin language, including aspects of social variation and language change, speakers’ attitudes to language and the use of Latin in literary texts.

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However, in much the same way that the Latin language has a very different history to Greek, so the structure of this Companion also reflects the differences between the two languages. The longer history of Greek (and the continual use of the label “Greek” to describe the language spoken in Greece in modern times) has meant that the written forms of the language have been recast many times. Moreover, the existence of Greek city states in the Classical period, and the emergence of different literary forms through oral and local traditions, have led to the adoption of a range of varieties of the language as written forms (the so-called Greek dialects). In contrast, there is usually reckoned to be only one standard form of Latin, Classical Latin. No dialects of Latin ever reached the status of a literary form, and no later stage of the language ever rivalled the prestige of the Classical standard. The formation of Classical Latin, and the repeated moves to purify or correct the language will be repeated themes of this volume, as will the demonstration that within the apparently monolithic structure of Classical Latin there is room for considerable variation and choice. The Companion is divided into five parts, each of which is built around a different broad theme. Part I deals with the sources of our knowledge of the Latin language. Latin is a corpus language, known only through written documents, and no one who could genuinely be described as a native speaker of Latin has been alive for the last millennium. It is appropriate therefore that the first chapter of this section is devoted to the alphabet that encodes the language. Rex Wallace addresses the question of the adoption and adaptation of the alphabet from the Greeks through Etruscan intermediaries, and his richly illustrated chapter contains the most up-to-date survey of the very earliest Latin inscriptions that survive. He then traces the development of the Latin letterforms, the differing orthographic practices of the Romans down to the imperial period, and the possible connections between and influences from letterforms and orthographic practices among the other literate peoples of Italy. The next two chapters examine the ways Latin texts function as sources for the language. Latin texts have reached us through two principal routes. Either the original written form has survived on a medium such as stone, wood, metal or papyrus, or a text has been copied and recopied in an unbroken chain of manuscript transmission. In general, texts in the second category comprise literary works, and those in the first all other forms of documentation (although there are instances where literary works are recorded in inscriptional texts, such as Augustus’ Res Gestae, or where manuscripts preserve sub-literary material). James Clackson presents a discussion of some of the pitfalls for the linguist who uses inscriptional and documentary material to research the Latin language, including the vexed problem of attributing “authorship” to an ancient inscription. This chapter also includes a description of the range of such material available for the ancient world and explanations of some of the editorial conventions used. Bruce Gibson addresses the question of how literary texts have been handed down through the centuries. He shows how a modern editor of a text reconstructs a manuscript tradition, and how scholars have addressed the problems of variant readings, non-standard orthographies and different sources for a single text, presenting (among other examples) a test case of a manuscript page of Catullus and the modern reading. Roger Wright concludes Part I by looking at the use of a very different sort of source for the Latin language, the medieval and modern languages which have descended from spoken forms of Latin. As he shows, in order to understand this topic it is important to distinguish first between what counts as Latin and what counts as

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