The 5th ELTLT CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS October 2016

DISCOURSE MARKERS USED BY MULTILINGUALISM STUDENTS

Dias Andris Susanto University of PGRI [email protected]

Abstract This small research is aimed to know the discourse markers used by multilingualism students at Bina Bangsa School. The instruments used were the survey and interview conducted at the school. The respondents were students and teachers (not only English teachers). The sample were the student of junior high schools grade two. The results of the small research is that shows some discourse markers used by students are; the most frequently used and popular discourse markers among the subjects are - but, so, and, therefore, however, then, anyway, whereas. In the written texts, the subjects have often used the discourse markers namely consequently, as a result, in addition, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore, regarding. Those discourse markers used in written texts on an examination texts produced by students. The conclusion is that discourse markers frequently used by multilingualism students while doing their writing examination on any subjects.

Keywords: discourse markers, multilingualism, written texts

Introduction Language policy and globalization, although Multilingualism is now a legitimate reality in being the main catalyst for the promotion of the world. (Cook V, 1995) Given that multilingualism, also affect multilingualism multilingualism is a norm rather than the in many ways (Cenoz 2009). In many exception, maintaining and developing schools and societies, multilingualism has multilingual competence has become a been emphasized but the result has not been necessity. A majority of students arrive in positive since only the national language is schools with multilingual competence and promoted (Dewaele, 2010). Therefore, as hold multiple identities. And even if they part of the effort to explore them, this paper arrive as monolinguals, it is imperative that reports the observation about the impact of they have opportunities to acquire additional nationalism on multilingualism in languages from peers or from instruction. and how it affects foreign language teaching. Multilingualism has been excessively Indonesia is a multilingual society with over discussed and often linked to the ability of an 700 hundred indigenous languages. Bahasa individual or a community of speakers to use Indonesia () is the multiple languages (Jessner, 2006). To national language used for communication, appreciate language diversity, most nations education and for all government affairs have designed their language policy to reflect throughout the archipelago. Other indigenous and accommodate their multilingual nature. languages are neglected and usually used in (De Angelis, 2007) This in no way gives the villages for no official purposes. The equal status to all the languages that exist in nationalist stance to strengthen the that society because national identity, Indonesian language has led to a recent nationalism and education are given much proposal by the Ministry of Education to stop consideration. As a result, multilingualism teaching English in primary schools starting has remained a complex phenomenon. There two last year when the new curriculum is are a number of challenges that affect implemented. Since 1955, Indonesia has multilingualism. embraced English as the first foreign

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The 5th ELTLT CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS October 2016 language taught at all levels of education. 4. ICAS (Numerous Gold Awards and High The proposal, if implemented, will have Distinctions) grave consequences to multilingualism and 5. Ranked 1 for ICAS performance by foreign language teaching in the country. University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Bina Bangsa School is a young, growing and vibrant school. Established in 2001, Bina In addition, many of our students have Bangsa School has quickly distinguished received full scholarships from prestigious itself for its academic excellence. In BBS, schools in such as Hwa Chong students undergo a rigorous program International and Nanyang Girls School. modelled after the Singapore curriculum. Bina Bangsa's alumni have also gone on to BBS provides quality education to students further their studies in world renowned ranging from Pre-School to Junior College universities such as: Nanyang Technological levels. Our students sit for the International University, Singapore Management General Certificate of Secondary Education University, Hong Kong University, (IGCSE) and the International 'A' Levels , University of New examination offered by Cambridge South Wales, , University. BBS aims to nurture leaders who University of Alberta and University of strive to be the best that they can be through Toronto. Despite these achievements, Bina lifelong learning, and also grounded in the Bangsa School continues to strive for Word of God. The BBS family consists of 5 excellence and improvements because we campuses located in , , believe every BBS student deserves our best. Semarang and and has a total We invite you to make Bina Bangsa your enrolment of more than 3000 students. Our school where you can learn and grow. teaching fraternity is staffed by 250 qualified and experienced teachers representing over Problem statement 12 countries, bringing with them diverse The problem of this paper is what are the cultures and experiences to enrich students' discourse markers used by multilingual learning. students at Bina Bangsa School ?

Besides, pursuing academic excellence, BBS Related literature also has a framework to develop our students To support the paper, the writer states some holistically through the following programs: supporting areas of theories like this follows; 1. Music (Chinese or Western Instruments) 1. The Terms Bilingualism and 2. Performing Arts and Drama Multilingualism 3. Sports and Fitness This section is devoted to analyzing the 4. Community Service terms bilingualism and multilingualism, a 5. Faith Builder distinction that will pave the way for the following section in which I intend to Within a short span of 10 years, BBS examine how this terminological students have accomplished countless clarification bears on different types of achievements, such as: bilingual and multilingual education 1. Cambridge Brilliance Awards (Best in models. Indonesia) 2. Cambridge CIE (Top of the World Multilingualism is traditionally used as an Awards) umbrella term that includes bilingualism. 3. University of New South Wales The Oxford dictionary, however, defines a bilingual as the person who is able to

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speak two languages equally well, (2007), for example, provides abundant whereas a multilingual person is evidence illustrating the existing described as the person able to speak or differences between L2 and multilingual use many languages. Based on these acquisition. Jessner (2006: 13) happens to definitions, two main conclusions could be very assertive and concludes that be drawn. Firstly, we can conclude that ―nowadays it is known that learning a bilingualism refers to two languages and second language differs in many respects multilingualism to many. In fact, the from learning a third language.‖ This dictionary includes an entry that leads the conclusion is also valid for bilingual and reader to ―compare bilingual, multilingual education and both terms monolingual‖ and the word should preferably be distinguished. compareimplies that the terms ―bilingual‖ 2. Discourse Markers and ―multilingual‖ are not used as Discourse markers are the word synonyms. Moreover, the Latin prefixes insertions that provide continuity in ―bi‖ and ―multi‖ literally mean ―two‖ and conversations. Discourse markers are also ―many‖ respectively, which would known as words or short ‗lexicalized underpin our first conclusion. Secondly, phrases‘ (Schiffrin, 2001) that organize our attention is drawn to the fact that texts. Discourse markers help to create whereas the bilingual person is supposed ‗cohesion‘ and ‗coherence‘ in a given text to speak or use both languages ―equally by establishing a relationship between the well‖, this adverbial phrase is obliterated various ideas that are expressed within in the case of the multilingual. One could the text (Schiffrin, 2001). Schiffrin also infer that it is quite habitual to speak (1987) operationally defines discourse two languages equally well, but that this markers as sequentially dependent is a much convoluted task when three or elements which brackets units of talk. more languages are involved. This latter Examples of discourse markers in English idea is closely linked to the concept of would include ‗oh‘, ‗well‘, ‗and‘, ‗but‘, multicompetence (for further information, ‗or‘, ‗so‘, ‗like‘, ‗because‘, ‗now‘, ‗then‘, see Cook 2006), which unfortunately falls ‗I mean‘, ‗you know‘, ‗uh‘, ‗anyway‘, beyond the scope of this chapter. I will ‗yet‘ etc. ‗Discourse markers‘ is the term focus then on the first conclusion in the linguists give to the above mentioned following lines. words that break our speech up into parts and show the relation between parts. It could be advocated that researchers Discourse markers are found in various should attempt to avoid using both b grammatical categories including bilingualism and multilingualism conjunctions, interjections and adverbs. interchangeably, as this lack of precision Discourse markers can ‗connect‘ various may lead to misinterpretations of research units of dynamic meaning (coherence) as data. A second reason to propose this well as the surface structure of the text distinction is based on empirical research. (cohesion). For example, ‗oh‘ prepares Those researchers (Jessner 2006 ; De the hearer for a surprising or just- Angelis 2007; Aronin and Hufeisen remembered item, and ‗but‘ indicates that 2009; Cenoz 2009; Dewaele 2010) sentence to follow is in opposition to the who actively work on multilingualism one before. However, these markers don‘t have highlighted that there are significant necessarily mean what the dictionary says differences between the acquisition of a they mean. Some people use ‗and‘ just to second language and the acquisition of start a new thought, and some people put third or a dditional languages. De Angelis ‗but‘ at the end of their sentences, as a

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way of trailing off gently. Discourse interaction (Lenk, 1998). Discourse markers also occur when speakers shift markers are linguistic expressions used to their orientation to information. In this signal the relation of an utterance to its case the markers alert the listener that immediate context, with the primary something within the speaker has function of bringing to the listeners‘ changed. attention a particular kind of linkage of the upcoming utterance with the Discourse markers are usually immediate discourse context. polyfunctional elements. Discourse Thus, it is seen that discourse markers markers can be understood in two ways: help to create ‗cohesion‘ and ‗coherence‘ First, as elements which serve towards (Schiffrin, 2001) in a given text by the union of utterances. Secondly, as establishing a relationship between the elements which serve a variety of various ideas that are expressed within conversational purposes, discourse the text. During the last two decades, markers are linguistic expressions used to analyses of discourse markers have signal the relation of an utterance to its occupied a large space in the literature on immediate context, with the primary pragmatics. And discourse markers have function of bringing to the listeners‘ been considered from a variety of attention a particular kind of linkage of perspectives and approaches. the upcoming utterance with the Some of the functions of the most immediate discourse context. commonly used discourse markers Simone Muller (2005) made a list of are as follows- how discourse markers function. He stated that discourse markers are used Well -to initiate discourse, ―Well‖ serves various functions in -to mark a boundary in discourse (shift/ discourse depending on the context and partial shift in topic), its position in the utterance. ―Well‖ at the -to preface a response or a reaction, beginning of a turn serves as a response -to serve as a filler or delaying tactic, marker to what has gone before. -to aid the speaker in holding the floor, -to effect an interaction or sharing Now between speaker and hearer, ―Now‖ at the beginning of a turn is -to bracket the discourse either used as a transition marker, introducing a cataphorically or anaphorically, new topic and changing the direction of -to mark either fore grounded or back the discourse. In the case of automated grounded information. dialogues, where the application may be very specific, "now" can be used to move For a long time, English was considered a from one part of the dialogue to another. language that lacked particles (Lenk, 1998). Subsequent studies of discourse Actually markers in English have meanwhile ―Actually‖ gives processing pointed out that this is indeed not the instructions to a listener about how the case: although the propositional content particular utterance should be understood. of a sentence might not be altered by the "Actually" can therefore be used to signal addition or deletion of a discourse to the hearer that although what follows marker, discourse markers in English, is relevant to the ongoing discourse, it nevertheless, fulfill an important will contain (in the opinion of the pragmatic function in the conversational

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speaker) information that the hearer is not though the vital aspect of language expecting. Etc. learning is integrated skill. Nevertheless, 3. English Language Teaching and the situation in English medium schools Discourse Markers are little better. And, there are institutes Teaching of English in the schools in which follow TESOL (teaching English Indonesia is in a confused state today. to speakers of other languages). The goal Students from the urban vernacular of this experimental text is to introduce medium and rural vernacular medium are the students (and lay men and women taught English for about six periods per who would like to help those who do not week. So they face problem in forming know English) to some basic ideas, structures of English. A teacher‘s so methods, and tools of teaching English as called target is to ―prepare‖ the students a second or foreign language. TESOL for the examination and not to make the includes TESL and TEFL. TEFL- students competent in the use of the Teaching English as a foreign language, language they are learning. In reality that is teaching in a country where neither the student nor the teacher is English is a foreign language. For anxious to learn or to teach English. So example: Indonesia, , Mexico, and the student is nervous only about his/her Korea). success in the examination and the As mentioned before, the most teacher‘s sole problem is to see that the interesting feature in a multilingual pass percentage does not go down. People setting like Indonesian is that irrespective care more for diplomas than for of the language, the people are knowledge. It is not learning that we conversing in, the discourse markers ‗ok‘, want, but the prize that learning brings - ‗oh‘, ‗well‘, ‗and‘, ‗but‘, ‗or‘, ‗so‘, ‗like‘, wealth, prestige, status, and so on. ‗because‘, ‗now‘, ‗then‘, ‗I mean‘, ‗you know‘, ‗uh‘, ‗anyway‘, ‗yet‘ are seen to Generally, the students in the government be used. The discourse markers do help a schools are assessed in all the states in student in forming better structures in Indonesia by means of a single English as discourse markers or linking examination conducted towards the end words indicate how one piece of of the year. In this system students discourse is connected to another piece of usually work hard for a few days just discourse. The discourse markers help to before the examination and get through develop ideas and to relate them to one the examination. But, such last minute another. They show the connection preparation does not help in the case of between what has already been written or language. Language needs constant said and what is going to be written or practice over an extended period and this said. Some are very informal and can be ensured only if examinations are characteristic of spoken language. Others held at frequent intervals. The present are quite formal and characteristic of system of relying solely on an all - written language. There are some important annual examination therefore discourse markers which help in does not serve the purpose. Moreover the presenting complicated information in question papers are set in such a way writing. where all the questions can be answered with the help of guides available in the Methodology market. For such an examination, An inductive method of research based on a students require no thinking, no sample survey was used for the present originality, no imagination and no skill,

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The 5th ELTLT CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS October 2016 study. The collection of data was done in the addition, nevertheless, moreover, following sequence: furthermore, nonetheless, regarding more in a. Existing literature related to ‗Discourse their written texts and less in their oral texts. Markers‘ were collected and read. b. After the above analysis was done, first, Findings a questionnaire containing both The subjects used these discourse markers subjective as well as objective sentence initially, (other than one-two questions, was prepared. exceptions, it was seen in all the scripts of students). A large chunk of the subjects in the This questionnaire was taken to the field and written texts used the discourse marker ‗and‘ the subjects (students) were asked to fill it to coordinate idea units and to continue the up. Second, a cloze test was prepared, where speaker‘s action. The discourse markers in a portion of a text with the discourse however, nevertheless, nonetheless were used markers removed, was given to the students by the subjects to emphasize contrast. The (subjects). The students were asked to subjects used ‗therefore, as a result, replace the missing words with appropriate consequently‘ for the same purpose, to show discourse markers. Third, the students of that the second statement follows logically junior high schools were asked to write a from the first statement. But the frequency in letter, story and an essay. Taking their (the the use of the discourse marker ‗therefore‘ subjects) letter, story and essay as a was much higher than the discourse marker specimen, the frequency of their usage of ‗as a result‘, ‗consequently.‘ Technically, ‗Discourse Markers‘ was analyzed. The ‗whereas‘ give expression to two ideas which subjects were selected by simple random contrast but do not contradict each other. But sampling. after the analysis, it is seen that the discourse c. After the data was elicited and marker ‗whereas‘ is used by the subjects to collected, it was categorized and both contrast and contradict two ideas. The tabulated. This tabulated data formed the subjects used ‗anyway‘ for dismissal of basis of the final analysis. previous discourse or idea unit. The subjects used ‗furthermore‘, ‗moreover‘ to add more Data Analysis information. They also used the discourse The sample of this small study was the marker ‗in addition‘ in the same line but it students of second grade of junior high was used for more formal purpose in their schools of Bina Bangsa School. There were 3 texts. classes as the population and sample, the writer randomly took the participants being Other than these discourse markers, the interviewed and asked filling the subjects are seen to have used some questionnaire. There was a teacher became a discourse markers occasionally. Those participant being as well as interviewed and discourse markers are as follows – The asked filling the survey. Form the surveys subjects used ‗at the same time, on the other distributed, there are about 60 participants hand, conversely‘ to balance contrasting who gave it back to the researcher. After the points. The subjects used ‗At least, in any analysis, it was seen that the most frequently case‘ to dismiss the previous discourse or used and popular discourse markers among sentence unit. The subjects used ‗similarly, in the subjects are- and, but, so, therefore, the same way‘ to show similarity, however, whereas, then, like, anyway, comparison between idea units. The subjects because (both in oral and written texts). used ‗after all‘ for persuading. The subjects Again, the subjects often used the discourse used ‗I mean, actually‘ to clarify or give markers consequently, as a result, in detail of an idea unit. The subjects used

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‗basically, generally‘ to summarize a Gessica De Angelis, English L3 learning in a discourse unit. ‗Yet‘ is seen to be used by the multilingual context: the role of subjects to emphasize a contrast. The socioeconomic status (SES) and L2 subjects used ‗by the way, incidentally‘ for exposure within the change of subject. The subjects used ‗lastly, community, International Journal of finally‘ when they were talking about the Multilingualism, 12, (4), 2015, p435 - end. 452 Fasold, R. 1984. The Sociolinguistics of Conclusion Society. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. On the basis of the present study it was found Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. 1985: that the most frequently used and popular Language, Context and Text: Aspects discourse markers among the subjects are - of Language in a Social Semiotic but, so, and, therefore, however, then, Perspective. Oxford: Oxford anyway, whereas. Again, in the written texts, University Press. the subjects have often used the discourse Jessner, U. 2006. Linguistic awareness in markers namely consequently, as a result, in multilinguals: English as a third addition, nevertheless, moreover, language. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh furthermore, regarding. The study reveals University Press. that the Discourse markers in English do Kachru, B. ed.1982. The Other Tongue: serve as connectors and aid successful English across Cultures. Oxford. communication in the mother tongue and Pergamon. other languages of the student. Skutnabb Kachru, B.1983. The Indianization of Kangas (2000) says that English is a killer English. The English Language in language in Indonesia. But it is seen that . Oxford:OUP. English is not usually the direct cause of Kudchedkar, S. 2002. Readings in English language death in Indonesia. Rather, it is Language Teaching in India, Orient seen to be a driving force in the globalization Longman. of the economy, which forces people to Lakoff, R. 2001. Nine Ways of Looking at switch to English as a means to improve their Apologies: The Necessity for social mobility. Today, be it education, Interdisciplinary Theory and Method business or administration, English plays a in Discourse Analysis. In D. Schiffrin, very important role. It is the medium of D. Tannen, & H. E. Hamilton (Eds.), instruction for higher education-both The Handbook of Discourse academic and technological. Proficiency in Analysis.119-214. Malden, MA: English is mandatory for jobs in private Blackwell. companies. Today, the reality is such that it Lenk, U. 1998. Discourse Markers and is difficult to think of success in any career in Global Coherence in Conversation. India without adequate proficiency in Journal of Pragmatics 30: 245-257. English. Muller, S. 2005. Discourse Markers in Native and Non-Native English Discourse. Bibliography John Benjamins. Baker, C. 1988. Key Issues in Bilingualism Pattanayak, D.P. 1990. Multilingualism in and Bilingual Education. Clevedon: India (ed). Clevedon: Multilingual Multilingual Matters. Matters Ltd. Cook, V. 1995. Multi-competence and the Schiffrin, D. 1987. Discourse Markers. learning of many languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Language, Culture and Curriculum 8 Press. (2): 93–98.

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Schiffrin, D. 1994. Approaches to Discourse. Linguistics, 38 (1): 43-69. Cambridge: MBP. Skutnabb-Kangas,T. Phillipson, R. eds. 1994. Schiffrin, D. 2001. Discourse Markers: Linguistic Human Rights: Language, Meaning, and Context. In: Overcoming Linguistic D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. Discrimination. Berlin and NewYork. Hamilton (eds.). The Handbook of Mouton de Gruyter Discourse Analysis, 54-59. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 2008. Linguistic Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Genocide in Education – Or Schwenter, S. 2002, "Discourse Markers and Worldwide Diversity and Human the PA/SN Distinction". Journal of Rights? New Delhi: Orient Longman.

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