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Downloaded From H. Molenaar Concentric dualism as transition between a lineal and cyclic representation of life and death in Scandinavian mythology In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 138 (1982), no: 1, Leiden, 29-53 This PDF-file was downloaded from http://www.kitlv-journals.nl Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access H. A. MOLENAAR CONCENTRIC DUALISM AS TRANSITION BETWEEN A LINEAL AND CYCLIC REPRESENTATION OF LIFE AND DEATH IN SCANDINAVIAN MYTHOLOGY i In an important and interesting essay, Claude Lévi-Strauss (1956) 1 corrected a distinction he had previously made (1949) between the two forms of reciprocity, generalized exchange and restricted exchange. Instead of considering these forms as completely different, he poses that it is more reasonable and efficiënt from a logical point of view to deal with restricted exchange as a special case of generalized exchange. This correction enables him to explain why systems that are characterized by restricted exchange often show many features that we would not expect to find there and that belong rather with a system of generalized exchange. These features can be considered as traces of a transition from the one form to the other, a transition that has not been actualized completely and that has succeeded in creating a system of restricted exchange only in certain respects. Restricted exchange is characterized by a dual organization in which there is symmetrical reciprocity between the two elements. Generalized exchange, on the other hand, exists between at least three elements and is characterized by asymmetry. The transition from the latter form to the former can be observed in spatial concepts. The triadism of generalized exchange changes into the diametric dualism of restricted exchange through the transitional form of concentric dualism. This latter spatial concept is dyadic but also asymmetrie, and because of this occupies a place in between the other two forms. In many so-called dual organizations we find a mixture of these different concepts. Together they constitute an overall system in which every arrangement has its place. Lévi-Strauss (1960) has made it clear that this overall system transcends the level of a single cultural aspect. In this system the marriage relations as well as the social structure, the spatial organi- zation, the religious concepts, etc, all have their place. The theoretical H. A. MOLENAAR, an anthropology graduate from the University of Leiden, is interested primarily in religion and mythology. Besides the present article, he has published De Sterfelijke God, ICA Publications No. 44, Leiden 1981. He may be contacted at Zwanenveld 15-01, 6538 LS Nijmegen, Netherlands. Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access 30 H. A. Molenaar importance of Lévi-Strauss' thesis is nevertheless connected with the fact that especially the marriage relations play an important part. The terms "generalized" and "restricted" exchange apply to marriage relations, and the question as to the existence of dual organizations is also connected with it. That is why the question whether the structural principles described by Lévi-Strauss play a part also on levels which have nothing to do v/ith marriage exchange is relevant. With this question in mind we shall analyse the Scandinavian mythical and cosmographical concepts. In sections II and III three different cosmographical classifications, which correspond to dia- metrical dualism, concentric dualism and triadism respectively, will be discussed. In sections IV and V the question of whether specific forms of exchange go with these cosmographical arrangements will be investigated. In section VI will be explained how a principle of generalized exchange is connected with the triadic form and a principle of restricted exchange with diametrical dualism. In section VII a short summary and final evaluation will be given. II In the ancient Scandinavian world there existed simultaneously several ideas of life after death. One of these, which we find often mentioned in old Scandinavian literature, involves that the body lives on in the grave. Especially in the Icelandic sagas we come across many examples of this notion of the "living corpse" (de Vries 1956, 1:230). We read here about a man who wanted to be buried at a place where he could overlook the fjord (Svarfdoela Saga XXII); another wanted to be buried on a hill so as to be able to survey the whole of the district (Hoensna-Thóris Saga XVII). There are many stories to be found about the "draugr" 2, a ghost-like creature that haunts the surroundings from its grave.3 We also find the idea that the dead go on living together in a mountain. In the Eyrbyggja Saga we read how the members of Thórolfr Mostrarskegg's family stay with one another in the Helgafell after death. After the death of Thorsteinn Thorskabftr, a shepherd sees the face of the rock opening. Fires are burning in the hall, from where can be heard the peaceful sound of people talking and cups clinking. Thorsteinn is welcomed and given a seat facing his father. It is also said about the members of other families that they will enter a rock after death (de Vries 1956, 1:235). In this list of examples, which could be extended considerably, we find clear evidence of the notion of the dead living on in bodily form in the grave or in a mountain, in any case not far from the place where they have lived before death. Another idea we find is that man will go to the realm of the dead. Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access Concentric Dualism in Scandinavian Mythology 31 After death he has to undertake a long journey through deep, dark valleys. Bef ore this realm is reached a river with sharp weapons flowing with the stream has to be crossed. A wide, gilded bridge spans the river. A dangerous wolf guards the entrance to the realm of the dead, which is a huge gate. The name of this underworld is Hel (which is also the name of the woman who rules this realm), a word meaning "the hiding one". From this it can be gathered (de Vries 1956, 11:375-376; Turville-Petre 1963:271) that this representation was originally connected with the one about the grave. In the prose Edda we find a gloomy description of Hel which is evocative of the grave. The difference with the previous representation is the unmistakably mythical dimension. The realm lies far away from the earth in another part of the cosmos and cannot be easily reached. The woman who rules over the underworld is a mythical being with demoniacal traits who is hostile to the gods. A third idea relates to soldiers who have f allen in battle. They go to heaven to stay with Othinn.4 They are received amid celebration in his palace, Walhalla, which is situated in or near Asgarth, 5 and are honoured as brave warriors. In the literature can be found some cases of men dying in sickbed or killed by an animal who are nevertheless admitted to Walhalla. We read also of people "marked" with a spear or burnt after death going to Othinn (Ynglinga Saga). On the whole, however, the emphasis here is clearly on the heroic character of the dead.6 In the prose Edda Snorri Sturluson gives a description of Walhalla that is based on two poems from the poetic Edda, Grfmnis- mal and Vafthrüthnismal. In the first poem the roof of Walhalla is said to be made up of shields, while the rafters are spears, and the bench is covered with coats of mail. At the western door is a wolf and an eagle hovering above it. The fallen warriors feast daily in Walhalla; they eat the flesh of the boar Ssehrimnir, which (according to Snorri) revives again every night. Out of the udder of the goat Heithrun comes an unceasing stream of the mead that the warriors drink. Walhalla counts 540 doors, through each of which will rush 800 warriors to fight the monster Fenrir. In the Vafthrüthnismal we read that the warriors fight with one another daily and that those who are killed will be restored to life again each night to join in the feasting. On the face of it we seem to be confronted here with a represen- tation which differs considerably from the previous ones. Here we have a picture of the joyous fate awaiting proud, heroic warriors who die without fear. This impression becomes stronger when we read the descriptions of the deaths of kings and heroes in some of the poems (Eiriksmal and Hakonarmal) and in some later sagas (for example Ragnar's Saga Lothbrókar). Here a fierce, exultant longing for the stay with Othinn is expressed.7 However, on further con- Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access 32 H. A. Molenaar sideration the differences turn out not to be quite so big. De Vries (1956,11:377-378) points out that from the point of view of the history of religions Walhalla originally was a subterranean space which only later was thought of as heaven. Turville-Petre (1963:55) states that the name Walhalla is probably connected with the word hallr (rock) and points to the consequent correspondences with the idea that men go on living in a mountain af ter death. The welcoming of the fallen warriors in Walhalla indeed somewhat resembles the reception of Thorsteinn in the Helgafell. Ellis Davidson (1964:153) points out that the description of Walhalla in Grimnismal is not unlike a description of the grave. Moreover, she draws attention to a passage in the Gesta Danorum in which a description is given of a gloomy, tomb-like dwelling with a roof of spears (as in Walhalla) in which the dead stayed (Ellis Davidson 1979, 1:265).
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