H. Molenaar Concentric dualism as transition between a lineal and cyclic representation of life and death in Scandinavian mythology

In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 138 (1982), no: 1, Leiden, 29-53

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i In an important and interesting essay, Claude Lévi-Strauss (1956) 1 corrected a distinction he had previously made (1949) between the two forms of reciprocity, generalized exchange and restricted exchange. Instead of considering these forms as completely different, he poses that it is more reasonable and efficiënt from a logical point of view to deal with restricted exchange as a special case of generalized exchange. This correction enables him to explain why systems that are characterized by restricted exchange often show many features that we would not expect to find there and that belong rather with a system of generalized exchange. These features can be considered as traces of a transition from the one form to the other, a transition that has not been actualized completely and that has succeeded in creating a system of restricted exchange only in certain respects. Restricted exchange is characterized by a dual organization in which there is symmetrical reciprocity between the two elements. Generalized exchange, on the other hand, exists between at least three elements and is characterized by asymmetry. The transition from the latter form to the former can be observed in spatial concepts. The triadism of generalized exchange changes into the diametric dualism of restricted exchange through the transitional form of concentric dualism. This latter spatial concept is dyadic but also asymmetrie, and because of this occupies a place in between the other two forms. In many so-called dual organizations we find a mixture of these different concepts. Together they constitute an overall system in which every arrangement has its place. Lévi-Strauss (1960) has made it clear that this overall system transcends the level of a single cultural aspect. In this system the marriage relations as well as the social structure, the spatial organi- zation, the religious concepts, etc, all have their place. The theoretical H. A. MOLENAAR, an anthropology graduate from the University of Leiden, is interested primarily in religion and mythology. Besides the present article, he has published De Sterfelijke God, ICA Publications No. 44, Leiden 1981. He may be contacted at Zwanenveld 15-01, 6538 LS Nijmegen, Netherlands.

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access 30 H. A. Molenaar importance of Lévi-Strauss' thesis is nevertheless connected with the fact that especially the marriage relations play an important part. The terms "generalized" and "restricted" exchange apply to marriage relations, and the question as to the existence of dual organizations is also connected with it. That is why the question whether the structural principles described by Lévi-Strauss play a part also on levels which have nothing to do v/ith marriage exchange is relevant. With this question in mind we shall analyse the Scandinavian mythical and cosmographical concepts. In sections II and III three different cosmographical classifications, which correspond to dia- metrical dualism, concentric dualism and triadism respectively, will be discussed. In sections IV and V the question of whether specific forms of exchange go with these cosmographical arrangements will be investigated. In section VI will be explained how a principle of generalized exchange is connected with the triadic form and a principle of restricted exchange with diametrical dualism. In section VII a short summary and final evaluation will be given.

II In the ancient Scandinavian world there existed simultaneously several ideas of life after death. One of these, which we find often mentioned in old Scandinavian literature, involves that the body lives on in the grave. Especially in the Icelandic sagas we come across many examples of this notion of the "living corpse" (de Vries 1956, 1:230). We read here about a man who wanted to be buried at a place where he could overlook the fjord (Svarfdoela Saga XXII); another wanted to be buried on a hill so as to be able to survey the whole of the district (Hoensna-Thóris Saga XVII). There are many stories to be found about the "draugr" 2, a ghost-like creature that haunts the surroundings from its grave.3 We also find the idea that the dead go on living together in a mountain. In the Eyrbyggja Saga we read how the members of Thórolfr Mostrarskegg's family stay with one another in the Helgafell after death. After the death of Thorsteinn Thorskabftr, a shepherd sees the face of the rock opening. Fires are burning in the hall, from where can be heard the peaceful sound of people talking and cups clinking. Thorsteinn is welcomed and given a seat facing his father. It is also said about the members of other families that they will enter a rock after death (de Vries 1956, 1:235). In this list of examples, which could be extended considerably, we find clear evidence of the notion of the dead living on in bodily form in the grave or in a mountain, in any case not far from the place where they have lived before death. Another idea we find is that man will go to the realm of the dead.

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After death he has to undertake a long journey through deep, dark valleys. Bef ore this realm is reached a river with sharp weapons flowing with the stream has to be crossed. A wide, gilded bridge spans the river. A dangerous wolf guards the entrance to the realm of the dead, which is a huge gate. The name of this underworld is Hel (which is also the name of the woman who rules this realm), a word meaning "the hiding one". From this it can be gathered (de Vries 1956, 11:375-376; Turville-Petre 1963:271) that this representation was originally connected with the one about the grave. In the prose Edda we find a gloomy description of Hel which is evocative of the grave. The difference with the previous representation is the unmistakably mythical dimension. The realm lies far away from the earth in another part of the cosmos and cannot be easily reached. The woman who rules over the underworld is a mythical being with demoniacal traits who is hostile to the gods. A third idea relates to soldiers who have f allen in battle. They go to heaven to stay with Othinn.4 They are received amid celebration in his palace, Walhalla, which is situated in or near Asgarth, 5 and are honoured as brave warriors. In the literature can be found some cases of men dying in sickbed or killed by an animal who are nevertheless admitted to Walhalla. We read also of people "marked" with a spear or burnt after death going to Othinn (Ynglinga Saga). On the whole, however, the emphasis here is clearly on the heroic character of the dead.6 In the prose Edda Snorri Sturluson gives a description of Walhalla that is based on two poems from the poetic Edda, Grfmnis- mal and Vafthrüthnismal. In the first poem the roof of Walhalla is said to be made up of shields, while the rafters are spears, and the bench is covered with coats of mail. At the western door is a wolf and an eagle hovering above it. The fallen warriors feast daily in Walhalla; they eat the flesh of the boar Ssehrimnir, which (according to Snorri) revives again every night. Out of the udder of the goat Heithrun comes an unceasing stream of the mead that the warriors drink. Walhalla counts 540 doors, through each of which will rush 800 warriors to fight the monster Fenrir. In the Vafthrüthnismal we read that the warriors fight with one another daily and that those who are killed will be restored to life again each night to join in the feasting. On the face of it we seem to be confronted here with a represen- tation which differs considerably from the previous ones. Here we have a picture of the joyous fate awaiting proud, heroic warriors who die without fear. This impression becomes stronger when we read the descriptions of the deaths of kings and heroes in some of the poems (Eiriksmal and Hakonarmal) and in some later sagas (for example Ragnar's Saga Lothbrókar). Here a fierce, exultant longing for the stay with Othinn is expressed.7 However, on further con-

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access 32 H. A. Molenaar sideration the differences turn out not to be quite so big. De Vries (1956,11:377-378) points out that from the point of view of the history of religions Walhalla originally was a subterranean space which only later was thought of as heaven. Turville-Petre (1963:55) states that the name Walhalla is probably connected with the word hallr (rock) and points to the consequent correspondences with the idea that men go on living in a mountain af ter death. The welcoming of the fallen warriors in Walhalla indeed somewhat resembles the reception of Thorsteinn in the Helgafell. Ellis Davidson (1964:153) points out that the description of Walhalla in Grimnismal is not unlike a description of the grave. Moreover, she draws attention to a passage in the Gesta Danorum in which a description is given of a gloomy, tomb-like dwelling with a roof of spears (as in Walhalla) in which the dead stayed (Ellis Davidson 1979, 1:265). It is further possible to connect the fallen warriors' heroic struggle every day, whereby they are brought back to life again at night, with ideas about the grave and the under- world. De Vries (1956, 1:233-234) and Ellis Davidson (1964:152) both indicate that such a struggle, which is repeated continually, is described in several sources. However, here it is not presented as a heroic occurrence but rather as a dismal fate. This struggle is situated on earth (the story of Hildr8), in the underworld (Gesta Danorum 1:31), or in a burial mound (Flateyjarbók I). Because of these correspondences several authors (de Vries 1956, 11:377) have assumed that the representation of the abode of the dead in heaven is the product of a late development in mythical thought. Like the ideas about Hel, it can be traced back to the notion of dead people living on in the grave after death. This does not detract from the fact that there is a clear difference between heaven and the under- world in the sources at our disposal. The stay in Hel is made out to be miserable and gloomy. In Baldrs Draumar we read how a dead woman was covered with snow, lashed by rain and soaked with dew. This resembles a description in Helgakvitha Hundingsbana II, in which the dead Helgi is described as being icy-cold and covered with rime and dew. In the prose Edda Hel's plate is said to be called "hunger", her knife "lack", her bed "sick-bed", etc. Several authors 9 have pointed out that this mode of description reveals traces of mediaeval Christian influence, but this does not detract from the content of the description. On the other hand, heaven is represented as a splendid place where magnificent palaces are covered with gold and silver. One palace even outshines the sun. In Walhalla there is abundance. The mead flows from Heithrun's udders continuously and there is no lack of meat because the boar revives every night. In these images we find a clear distinction between heaven and the underworld. Moreover, the impression is created (especially in the more recent sources) that the stay in Walhalla is comparable to living on among

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access Concentric Dualism in Scandinavian Mythology 33 the gods. Only brave warriors who fall in battle are eligible for this. They are pre-selected for this fate by the Valkyries, Othinn's servants, who decide who will die on the battlefield. Others, according to the prose Edda those who die of disease or old age, do not qualify. They die a genuine death and afterwards remain in Hel. This heaven, named Asgarth, is also clearly defined cosmographically. As the underworld extends below the earth, heaven is situated above the earth. One cannot reach Asgarth easily. The fallen warriors are guided to Walhalla by the Valkyries. The bridge Bifröst (the rainbow) connects heaven to earth, but it can only be trodden by the gods. The names of some palaces in heaven, such as Breithablik (far-shining) and Himinbjorg (heaven-mountain), are also indicative of the elevated location of Asgarth. The notion that different worlds lie above one another can be found in several places in the literature. In the Voluspa the seeress speaks of nine worlds, while it is said of Othinn that from his seat Hliothskjalf he is able to survey all the worlds. In Vafthrüthnismal a giant speaks of nine worlds he has visited up to Niflhel, "whither the dead pass out of Hel". This indicates that there was supposedly another, deeper, underworld below Hel. In the prose Edda we read that above Asgarth there is another heaven, Andlang, and above it yet another one, Vithblain. After the end of the world righteous men will live on in this third heaven. Here we get the impression of a cosmographical arrangement of several worlds lying above one another; man can travel from one world to the other by way of the transition from life to death. The cosmographical ideas do not, however, seem to have assumed quite such a crystallized form. In most sources no distinction is drawn between Hel and Niflhel, while the notion of the third heaven where righteous men live on shows unmistakable Christian traits (cf. Olrik 1922). Despite the apparent lack of order, the data testify clearly to a dis- tinction between high and low in the cosmographical organization. Asgarth and Hel are marked and diametrically opposed to one another in this respect. Both regions are the abodes of men after death, and in this respect are logically one another's equivalent. But the opposition between high and low is accompanied by a clear distinction in sphere. The stay in the underworld is represented as dismal. There is bitter cold and people suffer from hunger and disease. The road towards it passes through the dark. In heaven, on the other hand, there is an abundance of food and drink, which are available in unlimited quantities. Magnificent palaces shine with a radiance stronger than that of the sun. In Asgarth heroes live on among the gods after their life on earth, while the stay in Hel seems to follow the dying of a genuine death. Both representations may stem from a com- mon idea about living on in the grave after death. However, this is

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III Another cosmographical arrangement found in the mythical representa- tions is that formed by the contrast between the land of the giants (Utgarth) on the one hand and the territory of men and gods (Mithgarth and Asgarth) on the other. In the prose Edda the earth is said to be round and surrounded by a deep sea. On the shores of the latter the gods have given land to the giants to settle. Inland men live in a region called Mithgarth. Because of the hostility of the giants, Mithgarth is built in the form of a great round citadel. In the centre of the world the gods have built a citadel for themselves, called Asgarth. Further- more, some poems of the poetic Edda 10 inform us that the border of the land of the giants is a river. In this representation we find the gods living amidst men. This is not so strange, as gods and men both stand in a hostile relation to the giants. The giants are represented mostly as demoniacal beings. They are a constant threat to the order of the world. The gods, on the other hand, try to maintain this order, and in this way act as protectors of mankind. We may consider this cosmographical arrangement as being expressive of an opposition between gods and giants. This arrangement calls to mind the distinction between the human territory and surrounding nature. There are further indications allowing us to compare giants to forces of nature. They live near the sea, f ar from the human territory, or (according to many sources) near moun- tains and rocks. Giants are extremely strong and are associated with cold and f rost.11 One giant is supposed to bring about the wind (Hreesvelgr), while another is associated with the sea (^Egir) and yet another with fire (Logi). One author (Meyer 1903) has even tried to distinguish between several categories of giants on the basis of the forces of nature they are associated with (mountain, forest, water, and cloud giants, etc). Moreover, the giants are descended from the first living being, Ymir, who displays unmistakable traits of belonging to the vegetable kingdom. However, to speak of an opposition between culture and nature seems unjustified. The giants have knowledge of magie and are even Othinn's teachers in this respect (Havamal 140, Voluspa 22). They also have a great store of general wisdom (Vafthruthnismal). This corresponds with the idea that the giants were the first inhabitants of the earth and were driven out by the gods, which we come across in several sources. Further, we read of giants' habitations with cattle, tilled fields and rich property. The giants are familiar with the in- stitution of marriage and according to some myths have at their

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disposal — although temporarily — cultural goods such as mead and Thórr's hammer. It seems advisable to consider the giants as the cosmic opponents of the gods. Even at the creation of the world the giants and gods were placed in opposition to one another, and this continues to be so right till the end of the world, when they will fight one another. We come across giants in this role in many myths. Because of this many demonic, wild and nature-like traits are attributed to the giants. How- ever, it is important to realize that the gods and giants can in principle enter into relation with one another, whether it be a marriage relation or some other kind of exchange relation, and so do not belong to orders that are essentially different. This opposition between gods and giants is expressed on the cosmo- graphical level in the distinction between Mithgarth (or Asgarth) and Utgarth. In this we discern a form of concentric dualism that is actualized on the horizontal plane, whereas the distinction between heaven and underworld referred to in the previous section was a vertical diametric 12 one. We are dealing here with two distinct prin- ciples of classification. Nevertheless, it is possible to connect Utgarth with the underworld. De Vries has pointed out (1956, 11:374) that Utgarth indeed stretches away in all directions, but the east and north are mentioned especially as places where giants live. Furthermore the north is mentioned several times as a region in which the underworld is found. Here are located the shores of the realm of the dead (Voluspa 38) and the realm of the dead itself (Sturlunga Saga 2). According to the prose Edda the road to Hel points northward and downward. In the Gesta Danorum (book VIII:262-267) we find a description of a long, dangerous journey to "a region of everlasting cold, spread with deep snows, for it does not experience the sun's vigour even in summer". In this region live the giants, but their country borders on the realm of the dead and is only separated from it by a river spanned by a golden bridge. So on the one hand we find heaven diametrically opposed to the underworld in a high-low contrast. On the other hand we see a blending of Utgarth and the underworld on the horizontal level, on which they are opposed to Asgarth in a concentric model. Even if we do not consider spatial categories, this same picture emerges. In the continual conflict between the gods and the giants, Hel is on the side of the giants. Not only does she belong to the race of giants, but she will also fight against the gods together with the other giants during the last struggle, in which the earth will be destroyed. A third cosmographical arrangement is related to the conception of the world tree. The branches of this tree spread out over the whole world and reach even over Asgarth. The tree, called Yggdrasill, is kept in its place by three roots which run far apart. According to a

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description in Grimnismal these roots lead to Hel, the territory of the giants and the world of men. In the prose Edda roughly the same idea is expressed; here Niflhel, giant-land and the realm of the gods are mentioned. These descriptions resemble one another because, as has been said before, the realms of the gods and of mankind can hardly be separated (cf. also Gurevich 1969), while Niflhel and Hel can also be equated. A cosmographical tripartition is involved in this concept. So we find several spatial arrangements existing side by side in the mythical concepts, in which the same elements recur continually. We have been able to recognize the following forms respectively: dia- metric dualism, concentric dualism and triadism. We have ascertained that in the concentric arrangement a blending of the underworld and the land of the giants takes place. Consequently we are able to conceive of the concentric model as a transitional form linking up the other two arrangements.13 The comparison with Lévi-Strauss' view is inevitable. He writes: "Concentric dualism is a mediator between diametric dualism and triadism, since it is through the agency of the former that the transition takes place between the other two" (1963:151). The obvious question that arises now is whether we can find in the mythical concepts a distinction between generalized and restricted exchange paralleling the above-mentioned contrast between triadism and dia- metric dualism.

IV Discussing the relation between Asgarth and the underworld, we have so far only considered the fact that both territories are looked upon as habitations of the dead. In the myths we also find a direct relation between Asgarth and Hel, however. A god, Baldr, is mentioned as dying and afterwards staying in Hel. A myth in the prose Edda gives a detailed description of this event (other versions of this story can be found in the poetic Edda and the Gesta Danorum). In this myth the issue of exchange between Asgarth and Hel is raised. In brief summary the narrative runs as follows. Baldr, Othinn's son and most beloved of the gods, is tormented by dreams threatening his life. The gods take counsel together about this and Frigga, Baldr's mother and Othinn's wife, decides to make all things (trees, plants, stones, metals, poisons, etc.) promise under oath not to harm Baldr. After this has been done, the gods amuse themselves by standing around Baldr in the Thing and throwing all kinds of objects at him, which do not wound him. The cunning god Loki is jealous and by means of a ruse finds out that Frigga has not extracted the promise from one little plant, the mistletoe. Loki gets hold of the mistletoe, goes to the Thing and approaches Hoth, Baldr's blind brother. He tells

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Hoth to pay honour to Baldr like the others, and, giving him the mistletoe, says to him that he will direct his arm. Hoth throws the mistletoe and Baldr falls to the ground, mortally wounded. The gods are overcome with grief and decide to send a messenger to the under- world to ask Hel for Baldr to be restored to life. Hel tells the messenger that she will allow Baldr to return if everything weeps for his death. The gods send out messengers to make this condition known, and all trees, plants, stones, metals, etc, weep over Baldr's death. When the messengers return home they meet a giantess. This giantess, Loki in disguise, refuses to weep, and on account of this Baldr has to remain in the realm of the dead. This myth reveals a clear structure. In the first part of the narrative Baldr is alive. The gods want to preserve the status quo and therefore administer the oath to all beings and objects. On the other hand, Loki wants to change the situation and so achieves the death of Baldr. In the final part of the narrative Baldr is dead. This time the gods want to accomplish a change, namely a transition from death to life. Loki, however, wants Baldr to stay in Hel and contrives this by refusing to weep. This myth appears to be a logically closed whole, in which four elements are opposed to one another.14 The oath is administered because Baldr has dreams in which it becomes clear to him that his death is near. The aim of this oath is to prevent a transition from life to death. Not everything, however, swears the oath: the mistletoe is left out. Consequently it is the mistle- toe with which Baldr is killed. The non-swearing of the oath by the mistletoe occasions the transition from life to death. Once Baldr is dead, the gods try to restore him to life. To accomplish this, everything is invited to weep. The aim of the weeping is to bring about a transition from death to life. There is an exception here as well. The giantess refuses to shed tears over Baldr's death and in so doing ensures Baldr's stay in the underworld. The non-weeping prevents the transition from death to life. These four elements are thus connected to one another by a system of relations. This is represented in diagram 1. In this can be seen a clear confirmation of what may be called a lineal representation of life and death: life is temporary, and sub- sequent death is inevitable and final. In this particular myth an alter- native for this course of af f airs is presented. By means of the oath the gods try to secure eternal life for Baldr. This attempt fails, and thereby the inevitability of death is confirmed. Next the gods try to make Baldr return to the land of the living. The failure of this attempt confirms the irreversibility of death. Instead of a temporary life and an eternal death, the gods try to secure for Baldr an eternal life and a temporary death. The failure of this confirms the lineal model of life and death. However, this myth contains more than the confirmation of the

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DIAGRAM 1 The structural arrangement of the different elements in relation to the life of Baldr transition from transition from life to death death to life 1. 3. initially — transition + transition

2. 4. finally + transition — transition 1. refers to the swearing of the oath, 2. to the non-swearing of the oath by the mistletoe, 3. to the weeping over Baldr's death, and 4. to the non-weeping over Baldr's death by the giantess. Transformation A relates to the contrast between the initial solutions found by the gods on behalf of Baldr and the final problems confronted by them because of Loki. Transformation B relates to the direction of a transition between life and death, while to transformation C applies that C = A.B lineal model. The cyclic representation of life and death also plays a role. To start with, we should consider the giantess and the mistletoe. A distinguishing mark of the mistletoe is that this plant remains green during winter. As such the mistletoe represents the negation of winter and of the attendant death in nature. The giantess stands in sharp contrast to this. In the text of the myth the weeping is compared to thaw: "... just as you will have seen these things weeping when they come out of the f rost and into the warmth" (Young 1954:84). Because of her refusal to weep, the giantess forms as it were a negation of thaw, or a negation of summer and the return of life in nature that goes with this season. Obviously this opposition between the mistletoe and the giantess is remarkable precisely in relation to the cyclical model. Both are an exception to the normal cycle of life and death that manifests itself in the succession of the seasons. In the same way as the attempts made by the gods on behalf of Baldr are opposed to the lineal model, the giantess and the mistletoe are opposed to the cyclical model. At the same time the mistletoe and giantess, as we have seen, cause Baldr's death and the definite state of this death. The negation of the cyclical model leads to the realization of the lineal model. So the mistletoe and the giantess are opposed to the cyclical representation of life and death, and at the same time confirm the lineal representation. Above we saw that the oath and the weeping were opposed to the lineal model. Now we may suppose that this is

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access Concentric Dualism in Scandinavian Mythology 39 at the same time a confirmation of the cyclical model. This is indeed the case as far as the weeping is concerned. The weeping is compared to the coming of the thaw. This can be interpreted as a confirmation of the seasonal cycle and the connected cycle of life and death. As regards the oath things are slightly more problematic. There is nothing in the text of the myth that allows us directly to conclude that the oath is a confirmation of the cyclical model. However, the function of the oath in the myth and its place among the other elements do enable us to draw this conclusion. The mistletoe is the only object that does not swear the oath. If the greenness of the mistletoe in winter is the important distinctive feature here — and the clear contrast to the giantess in this respect certainly points to this — then it will hold true for all the beings and objects that do swear the oath that they do not deny death in winter and so are subject to the normal seasonal cycle. The fact that these same beings and objects in a later phase of the narrative (when they are invited to weep) are explicitly made subject to the seasonal cycle points in this direction. So the conclusion seems justified that the swearing of the oath not only is a negation of the lineal model, but also a confirmation of the cyclical model. Every element has a certain value in relation to the lineal as well as the cyclical model. As far as the lineal model is concerned, the elements are a confirmation or a negation of this model on the basis of their position in relation to the life of Baldr. As far as the cyclical model is concerned, the position of the elements in relation to the succession of the seasons is of importance. By way of illustration the position of every element in this respect is represented schematically in the following diagram.

DIAGRAM 2 The positions of the different elements in relation to the confirmation or negation of the lineal and cyclical representations of life and death in the myth about Baldr's death — transition of Baldr from life to death the swearing. — lineal of the oath + cyclical + transition from life to death within seasonal cycle

+ transition of Baldr from life to death the non-swearing of the + lineal oath by the mistletoe , — cyclical — transition from life to death within the • seasonal cycle

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+ transition of Baldr from death to life the weeping over — lineal Baldr's death + cyclical transition from death to life within the seasonal cycle

— transition of Baldr from death to life the non-weeping over Baldr's + lineal death by the giantess — cyclical transition from death to life within the seasonal cycle Now we are able to present a more complete picture of the structure of this myth: DIAGRAM 3 Structural arrangement of the different elements in relation to the . lineal and the cyclical representation of life and death in the myth about Baldr's death transition from transition from life to death death to life 1. 3. initially — lineal — lineal + cyclical ^_ + cyclical

2. 4. finally — cyclical — cyclical + lineal + lineal

1. refers to the swearing of the oath, 2. to the non-swearing of the oath by the mistletoe, 3. to the weeping over Baldr's death, and 4. to the non-weeping over Baldr's death by the giantess. Transformation A relates to the contrast between the initial solutions found by the gods on behalf of Baldr and the final problems confronted by them because of Loki. Transformation B relates to the direction of the transition between life and death, while to transformation C applies that C = A.B

In this myth we discern a structure in which the lineal and cyclical representations of life and death are contrasted. It is true of every element in this structure that if it is a confirmation of the lineal model it is at the same time a negation of the cyclical model, and vice versa. Consequently, the two models are clearly opposed and represented

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as being mutually exclusive. As far as the lineal model is concerned the myth is about the principle of exchange between Asgarth and Hel. Baldr dies and therefore cannot remain in Asgarth but has to go to Hel. His return is not possible. So we see a movement in one direction only, in which there is no reciprocity. This is the central theme of the story, which is emphasized all the more strongly by the contrast with the cyclical model of life and death which, on the contrary, is characterized by reciprocity. The cyclical model relates to the succession of the seasons in which life and death alternate continually. The lineal model relates to the life and death of a god which, we may assume, reflects the course of af f airs of man. Of the cyclical model it holds true that the coming of life is inherent in the model, namely as a transition from the phase of death to a new phase of life. In the lineal model this is not the case. All reference to the coming of life — life in a lineal sense — is lacking here. So it is at this point that we should continue our analysis.

In many passages in the Scandinavian sources we come upon the notion of a marriage giving rise to a tie between two groups (the families of the bride and bridegroom), which is diametrically opposed to a relation of conflict or war. By marrying off a woman, the way is paved for further exchanges of a different kind. To a marriage are connected important economie, political, religious, moral and juridical aspects. The marrying off of a woman (to quote Marcel Mauss) is part of a "prestation total". The relation brought about by it is a total relation. A situation of conflict or war is opposed to it. In the latter kind of relation no exchange of goods and women takes place, and hostility is the all-important factor. It is important not to see these relations as extremes of a continuüm along which different kinds of human relations are classified. In Scandinavian thought there is clear discontinuity between them. The reason is that a relation of war is associated with the causing of death, while the marriage relation is associated with the bringing of life. Represented in this way, the two relations reveal themselves as opposite forms. This opposition is found in many places in the literature, and it plays a major role in the mythical concepts (Molenaar 1981). This life-bringing aspect is central in the conception of marriage. The coming of new life is seen as a consequence, perhaps even a property, of the bringing about of a marriage. In this context it is important to note that an analysis of the creation-myth (Molenaar 1981) has shown that the physical secretion-process of childbirth can be interpreted in social terms as a separation from the patri-group of the

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mother, which is followed immediately by an inclusion in the patri- group of the father. This transfer of the child takes place in the same direction as the transfer of the mother during the contraction of the marriage preceding the childbirth. At the same time it is a transfer of life. Since marriage and the bringing forth of children are closely linked together it is possible to speak here of an equation to the effect that "wife-giving is life-giving". Now the interesjting thing is that there are some myths in which the contracting of a marriage between giants and gods is the central theme. So at the same time the question of the coming of new life — life in a lineal sense — is raised. Remarkably enough we also find a contrast with the cyclical representation of life and death in these myths. One of these myths concerns the building of the citadel in Asgarth — a story which is also found in the prose Edda. In summary the narrative runs as follows. One day, at the beginning of winter, a giant visits the gods and offers to build a citadel in Asgarth. In return he wants to marry the goddess Freyja and gain ownership of the sun and the moon. The gods deliberate and agree to the proposal. However, they stipulate that the citadel must be completed in one winter. The giant in his turn demands that his horse be allowed to help him, which the gods grant on Loki's advice. The giant begins to build and uses his horse for hauling stones at night. The horse is strong enough to transport even huge stones, and the work makes good progress. At the end of winter the gods are overcome with alarm on realizing that the giant will succeed in com- pleting the citadel on time. They remember that it was Loki's advice that induced them to allow the giant the help of his horse, and compel Loki to find a solution. Loki changes himself into a mare in heat and lures the giant's horse away. On account of this the giant does not succeed in completing the citadel on time. He becomes furious and threatens the gods. They ask Thórr for help, and he kills the giant with his hammer. If the giant had succeeded in completing the wall he would have been able to contract a marriage with Freyja. We may interpret this as a reference to the coming of life in a lineal sense. At the same time he would have taken possession of the sun and the moon at the end of winter. This would have meant that winter in Asgarth would not have been followed by summer — in other words a violation of the cyclical model. Since the giant does not succeed in completing his work, the opposite is the result. He does not marry Freyja, so there is no coming of life 15 in the lineal sense. He does not gain owner- ship of the sun and the moon, and so winter gives way to summer in the normal cyclical pattern. We should discuss immediately after this another myth, in which the opposite takes place. This myth is about the marriage of Njorth.

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It is the continuation of another story, which ends with the gods killing the giant Tjiazi. Tjiazi's daughter, Skathi, comes to Asgarth to avenge her father's murder. By way of reconciliation the gods offer her the opportunity to marry one of them. However, when choosing one of the gods, she may only see the feet. Skathi singles out the god with the most beautiful feet, who turns out to be Njorth. Another demand that Skathi then makes is that the gods must make her laugh, in the conviction that they will not succeed in this. When the gods finally do succeed she marries Njorth. The giantess Skathi is clearly associated with winter. Her home, Thrymheimr (literally: noise-home or storm-home), is in the mountains, and the wolves can be heard howling nearby. She moves about on skis and is referred to as "snow-shoe divinity". Her stay in Asgarth may be interpreted as the ruling of winter in the land of the gods. The question of whether or not Skathi will marry one of the gods gives rise to another question, namely whether or not she will live in Asgarth, in view of the rule of virilocality of residence. Although Skathi agrees to a reconciliation, she initially refuses to marry Njorth, stipulating that first the gods must make her laugh. This refusal to marry may be interpreted as a negation of the lineal model. A life- bringing relation is not contracted. This implies that Skathi will leave Asgarth again, so that winter will give way to summer. In the initial situation we find confirmation of the cyclical model and negation of the lineal model. Because the gods succeed in making her laugh this situation is reversed — she marries Njorth and settles in Asgarth. Here we discover an interesting link with the myth about Baldr's death, in which we came across a giantess who refused to weep. In it we saw a confirmation of the lineal model and a negation of the cyclical model (see diagram 3). We may assume that a giantess who refuses to laugh represents the opposite principle, hence a negation of the lineal model and a confirmation of the cyclical model. This corresponds exactly with the interpretation we have just given. It can be established that both the myth about the building of the citadel and the myth about Njorth's marriage show a contrast between the cyclical and the lineal model. Moreover, in this respect the two myths can be considered as each other's inversions. This inversion is also observable in another respect. The myth about Njorth is about a marriage between a god and a giantess, a marriage that is, in fact, effected, and because of this winter continues.16 The myth of the building of the citadel is about a marriage between a goddess and a giant that does not take place so that winter is followed by summer. The position of the different elements may be represented as follows.

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DIAGRAM 4 The positions of the different elements in relation to the confirmation or negation of the lineal and cyclical representation of life and death in the myths about the building of the citadel and Njorth's marriage

— marriage between, god and giantess the non-laughing • k— lineal of the giantess + cyclical + transition from death to life within the seasonal cycle

+ marriage between god and giantess the laughing of + lineal the giantess , — cyclical — transition from death to life within the seasonal cycle

+ marriage between goddess and giant citadel finished + lineal on time — cyclical — transition from death to life within the seasonal cycle

— marriage between goddess and giant citadel not finished • — lineal on time + cyclical + transition from death to life within the seasonal cycle

The four elements are connected to one another by a system of relations as represented in the following model (see page 45). Thus we see that the principle of exchange between Utgarth and Asgarth is at issue. A marriage between a god and a giantess appears to be possible, but a marriage between a goddess and a giant im- possible. We notice a movement in only one direction, whereby there is no reciprocity. This is emphasized the more by the contrast with the cyclical model of life and death, which on the contrary is characterized by reciprocity. This same picture is discernible in other myths. In two poems in the poetic Edda, Thrymskvitha and Skfrnismal, this theme is also dealt with. In the first poem we read how a giant wants to marry

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DIAGRAM 5 Structural arrangement of the different elements in relation to the lineal and the cyclical representation of life and death in the myths about the building of the citadel and Njorth's marriage marriage between marriage between god and giantess goddess and giant 3. initially + lineal — cyclical

2. 4. finally — cyclical + cyclical + lineal — lineal 1. refers to the non-laughing of the giantess, 2. to the laughing of the giantess, 3. to the citadel being finished on time, and 4. to the citadel not being finished on time. Transformation A relates to the contrast between the initial problems faced by the gods and the final solutions found by them for these. Trans- formation B relates to the direction of a marriage: god to giantess or goddess to giant. To transformation C applies that C = A. B

Freyja and fails in the attempt; the second poem tells how the god Freyr succeeds in marrying the giant's daughter Gerth. In these myths no contrast with the cyclical model can be found, but they do show that marriages between Asgarth and Utgarth are possible in only one direction.17 The question that was raised at the end of the previous section is now answered. We may now proceed to a closer analysis of the information obtained by us about the exchanges between Utgarth, Asgarth and Hel.

VI A comparison of diagrams 3 and 5 illustrates that there is a big similarity between the two structures. Between Hel and Asgarth as well as Utgarth and Asgarth a transfer takes place in one direction. In both cases this is connected with the realization of the lineal model of life and death. The a-reciprocal character of these transfers is emphasized by the contrast with the cyclical model. The most important aspect of the contraction of a marriage relation between Asgarth and Utgarth is the coming of life in a lineal sense. We have already indicated above that the transfer of a woman can be seen as a transfer of life. In terms of life and death this is a transition from that which precedes life to life itself. This transition appears to

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access 46 H. A. Molenaar be possible in only one direction, namely from Utgarth to Asgarth. The transfer from Asgarth to Hel is opposite to this. It concerns a transition from life to that which follows life, death. The central idea of these concepts is that that which precedes life is not identical to that which follows life. In that case we would be dealing with a cyclical representation of life and death, while the very contrary of this representation is emphasized. Cosmographically this means that Utgarth is not identical with Hel. This conception corresponds to the triadic arrangement of the cosmos by the three roots of the world tree. In connection with this cosmographical arrangement the principle of exchange is such that Asgarth receives life from Utgarth and yields life to Hel. Here of course there is no question of a closed system in the sense that Hel (possibly by intermediate steps) returns life to Utgarth again. For this there is no indication to be found. We are dealing here with a concept viewed from the perspective of one of the elements, namely Asgarth. In this way this concept corresponds completely to the basic principle of generalized exchange. One receives something from a certain group and finally yields this thing to another group, so that there is a form of postponed reciprocity. The logical operation by which this triadism with generalized exchange can be turned into a dual form of organization with restricted exchange is obvious. A simple identification of that which precedes life with that which follows life is sufficient. A succession of life and death within a cyclical pattern, or in other words, a reciprocal ex- change of life between the two elements then results. This operation does in fact take place in the mythical conceptions, though via a transitional form. This form is provided by the cosmographical arrangement of concentric dualism. This corresponds to Lévi-Strauss' findings, who writes: "Any attempt to move from an asymmetrie triad to a symmetrie dyad presupposes concentric dualism, which is dyadic like the latter but asymmetrie like the former" (1963:151). The transition according to Lévi-Strauss lies in the asymmetry, since the outer aspect of the concentric model contains two elements of the former triadism. This is exactly what we observe in the distinction between Asgarth and Utgarth. The land of the giants and the under- world lie in the territory that surrounds Asgarth. There is no explicit identification of the two regions, but on the other hand no distinction is made between them in terms of these spatial categories. The latent ternary character of concentric dualism derives, according to Lévi-Strauss, from another source as well. The system always refers to the environment. The opposition between the central circle (Asgarth or Mithgarth in our case) and the peripheral circle (Utgarth) requires a third element which circumscribes the binary whole while at the same time extending it (Lévi-Strauss 1963:152). When describing the

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access Concentric Dualism in Scandinavian Mythology 47 concentric model we said that the giants live on the borders of the earth, which is surrounded by a sea. Several sources indicate that the land of the dead was supposed to lie on the other side of the sea. The many traces of ship burials in Scandinavia are indications in the same direction. Lévi-Strauss further pointed out (and even Maybury Lewis (1960:40) has accredited him with admirable subtlety for this) that many anti- theses by which a dual organization is characterized have a hetero- geneous character and point to a contrast between the continuous and the discontinuous, between state and process. This can be explained by the asymmetrie character of concentric dualism. This phenomenon is observable in the mythical concepts as well. The peripheral circle stands both for that which precedes and that which follows life, while there is no identification of the two. These are periods of indefinite duration and therefore are opposed to the finite life of the central circle as continuous is to discontinuous. The contrast between the opponents and the protectors of the world order can also be interpreted in this way. Once that which precedes life is identified with that which follows it a cyclical representation of life and death emerges and the asymmetry disappears. A symmetrie reciprocity that is realized in a diametric dualism is the result. There are indications that this is the case in the conception in which Asgarth and Hel are diametrically opposed by a vertical line. In the second section I described how both Asgarth and Hel are regarded as places where men live after death. From this I drew the conclusion that the two regions are logically equivalent. However, there has been no mention of reciprocal exchange. We did notice a distinction between Hel and Asgarth in the sense that the stay in Hel is associated with darkness, cold, hunger and sickness, while the stay in Asgarth is characterized by light and abundance. We may possibly interpret this as an expression of the contrast between winter and summer. A cyclical, thus reciprocal, exchange would be implied. In that case Asgarth is associated with summer or life in a cyclical sense, and Hel with winter or death. This coincides with the distinction between Asgarth as a place where men live on among the gods and Hel as the place where men end up after suffering a real death. However, it is not clear 18 how we should conceive of the cyclical course, and so we can hardly speak of a crystallized concept. In the Gesta Danorum (Ellis Davidson 1979, 1:30) we find a clear representation of such reciprocal exchange, although it deviates slightly from the above-defined concept. It concerns the relation between the human world and the underworld; Asgarth is not mentioned. A womah raises her head from the ground, shows a few stalks of hemlock, and asks the hero Hadding where on earth such fresh plants can be found

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access 48 H. A. Molenaar to grow during the winter season. Hadding wants to know the answer to this question and is taken down to the underworld where the dead dweil. There they enter a sunny region where the hemlock grows. The implication of this story is that summer and winter are exchanged between the realm of the living and the realm of the dead. In both notions we find an association of the life and death of human beings with the cycle of summer and winter in nature. Actually it makes no difference whether we speak of an exchange of summer and winter between the realms of the living and the dead, or of an exchange of the living and the dead between the regions of summer and winter, or of an exchange of summer and the living on the one hand and winter and the dead on the other. In all these cases we are dealing with a symmetrical form of reciprocity. It is only to be expected that notions of reincarnation will go with these concepts, and so it is hardly surprising to find information on this. We come up against the idea that a person will or can be reborn in several places in the literature.19 Also in name-giving do we find this idea expressed. New-born children were of ten named af ter dead relatives, which was connected with the notion that certain family traits reappear continually in new members of that family. We find the cyclical representation of life and death expressed in an indirect way in many other mythical concepts. An analysis of the temporal code in Scandinavian mythology (Molenaar 1981) indicates that the gods and giants are opposed to one another in the context of a cyclical time-flow. Within the spatial-temporal order of the universe, the giants are associated with that which precedes as well as that which follows the life of the gods. An analysis of the complex symbolism in which these representations are expressed falls outside the scope of the present essay. However, there can be no doubt about the antiquity of the cyclical representation of life and death.

VII The total complex of traditional Scandinavian ideas and conceptions about life and death and the arrangement of the cosmos at first glance is confusing and self-contradictory. However, it has appeared to be possible to establish a clear order on the basis of the structural prin- ciples described by Lévi-Strauss. In this process three spatial arrange- ments were described: a diametric dualism between Hel and Asgarth, a concentric dualism between Utgarth and Asgarth, and a triadic relationship between Hel, Utgarth and Asgarth. The concentric dualism of Utgarth and Asgarth can be considered as a logical transitional form linking up the other two forms. Parallel to the distinction between triadism and diametric dualism, we established a distinction between generalized and restricted exchange. These forms relate to the transi-

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access Concentric Dualism in Scandinavian Mythology 49 tion(s) between life and death. The first form corresponds to the lineal model and the second form to the cyclical model of life and death. Generally the terms "generalized" and "restricted" exchange are used only for forms of exchange of women. However, they refer also to underlying forms of reciprocity, and so their application is much wider. These very forms of reciprocity were found in our analysis, and not on the level of social organization but on that of mythical concepts. They bear on relations of exchange between life and death instead of exchange of women. The fundamental character of these forms of reciprocity becomes clear once again in this completely different manifestation. Even more interesting is the fact that also on this level of mythical concepts the two forms of reciprocity correspond to spatial arrange- ments, and that a transitional arrangement can be found. In this we see clear confirmation of Lévi-Strauss' statement that there is no absolute difference between the two forms and that restricted exchange can be considered as a special case of generalized exchange. We are not dealing here with relations of exchange existing on an empirical level within a village or region as in Lévi-Strauss' examples. We are dealing with relations between life on the one hand and that which precedes it and/or that which follows it on the other hand: relations that extend diachronically. The fact that even these forms are defined in spatial categories is very interesting. Perhaps we may conclude from this that the human mind is capable only of conceiving of the transition from generalized to restricted exchange by means of spatial categories. A final explanation at the end of this essay is necessary. Lévi-Strauss made clear that many dual organizations have ternary and asymmetrie aspects. The explanation for this is provided by the above conclusion that the symmetrie reciprocity of restricted exchange is a border-line case of generalized exchange. If a given culture displays a dual organization in the marriage system, then often asymmetrie and ternary arrangements will still play a part in religious concepts, spatial cate- gories, etc. All these different aspects are part of an overall system in which every arrangement has its place. However, this is not the picture we found in the cosmographical conceptions. We did come across diametric dualism, concentric dualism and triadism side by side with one another here, it is true. But these arrangements did not relate to different aspects of the same system. On the contrary, they bore on the same phenomenon, the relation between life and death. My conclusion is that the two representations of life and death exist simultaneously. Of course we are dealing here with a difference in the level of abstraction. If, on a high level of abstraction, the order of life and death of the universe (and the relations of exchange giving expression to this order) is being referred to, representations that

Downloaded from Brill.com10/04/2021 03:40:55AM via free access 50 H. A. Molenaar may be interpreted by means of the cyclical model will be found. If, on the other hand, on a much lower level of abstraction, the experience of life within this order is being referred to, then we will find representations that can be understood with the aid of the lineal model. The functioning of the order of life and death is then being defined from within the category of life. In that case, birth and death are sharply opposed to one another (associated with marriage and warfare respectively) and are depicted as irreversible processes. This simultaneous existence of the two representations is most interesting. Both occupy an important place within the total body of mythical concepts. They probably correspond with different psycho- logical needs for order and meaning. But apparently no contradiction is feit. One is taken from the one representation to the other by a simple mental operation. The very existence of a transitional form in the cosmographical conception shows that this simultaneity is of central importance. In this way the myths express different feelings and cater to different needs, while at the same time creating a sense of unity and interconnection. We can state that the application of Lévi-Strauss' views to the Scandinavian material introduced a clear order in what seemed at first to be a confusing body of contradictory data. At the same time we must conclude that our analysis of this material confirmed Lévi- Strauss' observations on many points. The structural approach indeed transcends the boundaries of specific cultural aspects. It seems justified, therefore, to attach great importance to the structural principles un- covered by Lévi-Strauss.

NOTES 1 Quotations are from the English translation, 'Do dual organizations exist?' (1963). 2 The word probably means "malicious creature" (de Vries 1956, 1:231). 3 Amongst others in Eyrbyggja Saga, Egils Saga, Grettis Saga. 4 According to some sources the goddess Freyja receives half the fallen warriors and Othinn the other half (Egils Saga, Grimnismal). 5 The presence of Heithrün and Eikthyrnir (Gylfaginning XXXIX) makes this clear. 6 Women could also in some cases enter Walhalla. On this see Ellis Davidson (1964:150-151). 7 During the period immediately preceding the introduction of Christianity the notion probably existed that fallen kings were admitted among the gods (Marold 1972). 8 Several sources, viz. Ragnarsdrapa, prose Edda, Gesta Danorum. 9 Güntert, Falk, Krappe (de Vries 1956, 11:377). 10 Harbarthsljóth, Hymiskvitha 5, Vafthrüthnismal 16. 11 Cf., for example, the name "hrïmthursar" (rime-giants) in Vafthrüthnismal 33 and Grimnismal 31. 12 Diametric in the sense of directly opposed. There is no reference to a representation of the cosmos as a circle divided into two parts.

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13 In my opinion the distinction between these three orders corresponds better with the data than the distinction between a horizontal and a vertical world order made by Meletinskij (1973). The opposition between the horizontal and the vertical principle is without any doubt of importance (and plays a part in the discrimination of the diametrical and the concentric model), but is applied too rigorously by Meletinskij. The way the two world orders are related as subsystems that have a subsidiary function with respect to one another is rather problematical. On the other hand, the interrelations of the three orders presented in this essay are placed on a clear structural level. These logical interrelations confirm the value of each individual order. 14 Attention is given here only to those aspects of the myth that are relevant for this analysis. In fact, the myth is more comprehensive (Brodeur 1929: 70-75). 15 The new life that would have been the result of the union between Freyja and the giant would have belonged to the giants. This is prevented by the gods. 16 Another myth (also in the prose Edda) tells how Skathi is unable to bear the stay in Njorth's dwelling-place. She returns to Thrymheimr and Njorth goes with her. However, in this place life is unbearable for Njorth, and so the couple splits up. 17 It is no coincidence that all these marriages concern the Vanir (Njorth, Freyr and Freyja). No more is it fortuitous that the relation between Asgarth and Hel is expressed by means of one of the /Esir (Baldr). This is connected with the opposition between these two groups of gods (an important theme in Scandinavian mythology). However, an analysis of the relation between JBSIT and Vanir falls outside the scope of this essay. For the purpose of gaining an insight into the cosmographical concepts we may conceive of them as belonging to one and the same group, that of the gods. The three Vanir are included in the community of the gods and live in Asgarth, like the /Esir. 18 Possibly the ideas about the end of the world should be related to this. Othinn and all warriors of Walhalla lose their lives in the final struggle. Baldr, on the other hand, returns from Hel to rule over the new world. 19 Helgakvitha Hundingsbana II, Sigurtharkvitha in skamma, Flateyjarbók II, Sturlunga Saga II.

REFERENCES Brodeur, A. G. 1929 The Prose Edda, New York. Ellis Davidson, H. R. 1964 Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, Harmondsworth. Ellis Davidson, H. R. (ed.), and P. Fisher (tran.) 1979 Saxo Grammaticus — History of Danes, I: Text, Cambridge. Genzmer, Felix 1979 Edda, Thule, Altnordische Dichtung und Prosa, 2 vols., 5th edn. (revised by Hans Kuhn), Düsseldorf-Köln. Gurevich, A. Ya. 1969 'Space and Time in the Weltmodell of the Old Scandinavian Peoples', Mediaeval Scandinavia 2:42-53. Lévi-Strauss, C. 1949 Les structures élémentaires de la parenté, Paris. 1956 'Les organisations dualistes existent elles?' Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 112-2:99-128.

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1960 'On manipulated sociological models', Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 116-1:17-44. 1963 Structural Anthropology, Harmondsworth. Marold, E. 1972 'Das Walhallbild in den Eiriksmal und den HakonarmaF, Mediaeval Scandinavia 5:19-33. Maybury Lewis, D. 1960 'The analysis of dual organizations', Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 116-1:2-44. Meletinskij, E. 1973 'Scandinavian Mythology as a System', Journal of Symbolic Anthro- pology I, 1, pp. 43-59, 2, pp. 57-79, Mouton, The Hague/Paris. Meyer, E. H. 1903 Mythologie der Germanen, Berlin. Molenaar, H. A. 1981 De Sterfelijke God, ICA publication 44, Leiden. — Struktuur en betekenis van de skandinavische scheppingsmythe, un- published internal report, ICA, Leiden. — De Wereldboom, unpublished internal report, ICA, Leiden. Olrik, A. 1922 Ragnarök — die Sagen vom Weltuntergang, Berlin. Turville-Petre, E. O. G. 1963 Myth and Religion of the North, London. de Vries, J. 1956 Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, 2 vols., Berlin. Young, J. I. 1954 The Prose Edda, Cambridge.

MYTHOLOGICAL SOURCES Baldrs Draumar in poetic Edda. Egils Saga Islenzk Fornrit II, ed. Nordal, Reykjavik, 1933. Eiriksmal in: Genzmer, 1979. Eyrbyggja Saga Islenzk Fornrit IV, ed. Sveinsson + Thórtharson, Reykjavik, 1935. Flateyjarbók Kristiana, 1860-1868. Gesta Danorum Ellis Davidson (ed.) + Fisher (trans.). Grettis Saga Islenzk Fornrit VII, ed. G. Jónsson, Reykjavik, 1936. Grïmnismal in poetic Edda. Hakonarmal in: Genzmer, 1979. Harbarthsljóth in poetic Edda. Havamal in poetic Edda. Heimskringla L. M. Hollander, Heimskringla, Austin, 1964. Helgakvitha Hundings- in poetic Edda. bana II Hoensna-Thóris Saga ed. Heusler, Berlin, 1913. Hymiskvitha in poetic Edda. poetic Edda Gustav Neckel (original text), Edda. Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmalern, Vol. I: Text, 4th ed. (revised by Hans Kuhn), Heidelberg, 1962. Genzmer 1979 (German translation).

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prose Edda Finnur Jónsson (original text), Edda, Kopenhagen, 1900. A. G. Brodeur 1929 (English translation). Ragnarsdrapa in: Finnur Jónsson. Den norsk-islandske Skjaldedigtning, 1908-1915. Sigurtharkvitha in poetic Edda. in skamma Skirnismal in poetic Edda. Sturlunga Saga ed. Kaalund, Kopenhagen, 1931. Svarfdoela Saga ed. Asmundarson, Reykjavik, 1898. Thrymskvitha in poetic Edda. Vafthrüthnismal in poetic Edda. Voluspa * in poetic Edda. Ynglinga Saga in Heimskringla.

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