No Choice: the Implications of Unmet Child Care Needs For

BRIEF No Choice

THE IMPLICATIONS OF UNMET CHILD CARE NEEDS FOR UNEMPLOYMENT ASSISTANCE & PAID LEAVE ACCESS DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

CASSIDY VISER, ISABELLA CAMACHO-CRAFT, millions of essential workers, had no choice but to INDIVAR DUTTA-GUPTA, & KALI GRANT continue to work away from home.2 For many working or unemployed parents of dependent KEY TAKEAWAYS children, widespread child care and in-person school closures made searching for work and securing formal ■ The COVID-19 pandemic shrunk child care employment virtually impossible. Many other families availability, pushing many working parents, have opted to keep children home out of concerns that including many women of color and women who alternative care arrangements that may not meet new are paid low wages, out of formal employment. public health standards. As a result of the economic ■ Though unemployment assistance and paid turmoil, child care providers have faced a steep drop in (family, medical, and sick) leave can buffer demand, and some providers receiving state subsidies income losses when parents are unable to work report that their costs have increased even as enrollment because they are caring for their children, the levels plummeted, and that state supports have been reach and generosity of these programs have insufficient.3 been insufficient and uneven across states and territories. As long as the pandemic is underway, in the absence of adequate, safe, and accessible child care and in-person ■ Federal and state policymakers can take the following steps to address and mitigate working schooling for all who need it, strong unemployment parents’ unmet child care needs: assistance and paid leave programs can keep families afloat until they have viable options to both return to ● Provide additional emergency and longer- employment and access needed child care. At the same term child care funding and ensure safe time, strong investments in the existing child care system school re-openings; can ensure that safe, affordable care will be available ● Establish, expand, and extend federal and when parents can return to employment. state paid leave programs; and

● Align emergency and permanent CHILD CARE SHORTFALLS unemployment assistance with the lived DRAMATICALLY WORSENED DURING THE experiences of working parents. PUBLIC HEALTH CRISIS Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the United States spent far less as a percentage of economic output WORKING PARENTS FACE than peer nations on child care,4 never having ensured DAUNTING CHILD CARE adequate child care for all who need it. The pandemic RESPONSIBILITIES DURING THE has dramatically exacerbated these shortfalls.5 Income COVID-19 PANDEMIC eligibility limits and insufficient public funding have The deadly COVID-19 pandemic upended the lives of kept child care out of reach for low and middle-income 6 working families with drastic and uneven effects on families alike. As the pandemic took hold in the U.S., employment, child care, and in-person schooling. More child care providers—including Head Start and Early Head than nine months after economic activity abruptly shrunk Start programs—and in-person schooling shuttered or 7 in response to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, the United States moved online. As of June 2020, 47 percent of families economy has nearly 10 million (9.8 million) fewer jobs with children under 5 years of age lost the child care 8 than before the pandemic.1 Following public health they used before the pandemic, according to one study. guidance and orders, some working parents began to Unsurprisingly, survey data from July 2020 indicate that work from home where possible, while others, including the majority of parents who quit their jobs during the

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 1 early months of the pandemic (52 percent) did so due to Among 36 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and child care provider or school closures.9 Nearly a year after Development (OECD) countries, the U.S. is one of only the onset of the pandemic,10 parents continue to provide seven that offers no national child or family caregiving child care at rates significantly above pre-pandemic leave program.22 At the start of the pandemic, just nine levels.11 state (including D.C.) had paid family and medical leave programs. However, only six state programs (including As of January 2021, most children are not eligible for the D.C.) were established early enough to have paid Pfizer-BioNTech,12 Moderna,13 Oxford-AstraZeneca,14 or out benefits in 2020.23 Pre-pandemic, only 15 states Johnson & Johnson (pending FDA approval)15 COVID-19 (including D.C. and Puerto Rico) mandated paid sick leave vaccines.16 Many parents may be reluctant to send for workers; later in 2020, two more states established unimmunized children to school.17 paid sick leave programs—Colorado (emergency UNEMPLOYMENT ASSISTANCE & PAID program) and New York (permanent program); in January LEAVE CAN MITIGATE INCOME LOSSES 2021, two additional states—Maine and Nevada— FOR FAMILIES WITH UNMET CHILD CARE established permanent paid sick leave programs (See NEEDS Figure 1). Earnings replacement programs, like unemployment Congress Recognized the Need for Robust assistance and paid leave, can help offset income losses Unemployment Assistance & Paid Leave in until parents no longer need to care for their children the Pandemic during work hours and can return to work. Unfortunately, In March 2020, Congress enacted temporary expansions pre-pandemic unemployment assistance and leave to unemployment assistance through the Coronavirus policies provided insufficient access to adequate Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act24 and income replacement and failed to secure job protection established the nation’s first paid leave programs for non- for workers with new and unexpected caregiving federal employees through the Families First Coronavirus responsibilities. Recognizing increased needs, Congress Response Act (FFCRA).25 Before the programs expired in enacted emergency relief in March 2020 which has been December 2020, FFCRA provided two weeks paid sick extended through subsequent legislation. leave for workers’ COVID-19 related needs (at the regular Earnings Replacement Programs in the U.S. rate of pay), two workweeks paid sick leave to care for Were Inadequate Before the Pandemic others’ COVID-19 related health needs (at two-thirds regular rate of pay), and ten workweeks of paid leave For 85 years, the federal-state Unemployment Insurance for workers who had unmet child care needs due to the (UI) program has been a key support for tens of millions COVID-19 pandemic (at two-thirds regular rate of pay).26 of involuntarily unemployed jobseekers. Yet, since 1975, Leave was provided through an employer mandate with the program has failed to serve even a simple majority of benefit costs fully offset through a tax credit. unemployed workers, and in recent years has supported less than 30 percent of unemployed workers.18 UI can be The two programs covered certain public employers, particularly challenging for working parents to access. and private employers with fewer than 500 employees, In many states, the program requires eligible parents to though it included carve-outs for many small employers have child care arrangements in place while searching for and essential workers.28 Up to approximately 60 million work. Additionally, a number of states exclude workers private sector workers may have had access to sick who must separate from employment due to child leave.29 However, one survey indicated that barely a care obligations.19 Nevertheless, the U.S. entered the quarter (28 percent) of covered firms have actively pandemic with existing UI infrastructure in all states plus made use of FFCRA as of early May 2020.30 One analysis the District of Columbia (D.C.), Puerto Rico, and the U.S. estimates that a mere two weeks of sick leave had the Virgin Islands. effect of increasing the average daily hours at home per day by 4.2 percent (compared to pre-FFCRA values).31 In contrast, when the public health crisis began, there Another study found that in the spring of 2020, states was no national paid sick, family, or medical leave where employees gained access to FFCRA paid sick leave program in place for families to turn to.20 In one analysis had a statistically significant decrease of approximately of 22 countries with high living standards, the U.S. 400 fewer new cases per state per day.32 Unfortunately, alone lacked a national paid sick leave guarantee.21 the paid sick leave mandate expired on December 31,

2 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG FEBRUARY 2021 2020, though the tax credit was extended through March ■ Current Department of Labor guidance makes 31, 2021 under the Consolidated Appropriations Act, parents who choose to keep their children at home 2021.33 from school ineligible for PUA if schools have an in- person option.46 Just nine days after enacting the FFCRA, the CARES ■ As of late January 2021, the majority of states will Act grew the dollar amount, duration, and coverage not pay state unemployment assistance benefits in of unemployment assistance, quickly delivering aid cases where the parent cannot work because they 34 to families and stabilizing the economy as a whole. believe that available in-person school is unsafe for The Federal Pandemic Unemployment Compensation their child.47 (FPUC20) provided a $600 per week unemployment assistance boost through late July 2020, helped However, individuals whose primary caregiving support 30 million workers and their families, and kept responsibilities prevent them from being able to work poverty from rising,35 particularly for Black and Latinx from home “may be considered unable or unavailable 48 people.36,37 The formation of a complementary Pandemic for work” and could be eligible for PUA benefits. Unemployment Assistance (PUA) program expanded Additionally, if a school system is providing a combination unemployment assistance to a wider array of workers, of online and in-person instruction, and an individual including many self-employed and gig workers, and some “must stay home to care for the child on the days of caregivers who were unable to work due to COVID-19 remote instruction, the individual may be eligible for paid 49 related reasons.38 A temporary Pandemic Emergency leave benefits under FFCRA.” Unemployment Compensation (PEUC) program and The FFCRA provided limited paid sick leave and full relief for the state share of permanent Extended family and medical leave for workers with caregiving Benefits (EB) together helped provide months of responsibilities, saving lives while preserving the crucial additional benefits to many workers.39 These provisions connection between employer and employee that have been extended through March 14, 2021 under the can hasten an economic recovery.50 The lack of a prior Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021, and a new $300 permanent paid leave law likely led to strikingly low weekly benefit increase (FPUC21) was made available for take-up rates of these benefits and potentially larger use the final days of 2020 through March 14, 2021.40 of unemployment assistance. According to a Bipartisan Policy Center nationally representative survey of workers DESPITE RESPONSE EFFORTS, THE claiming unemployment insurance conducted in July PANDEMIC AMPLIFIED PRE-EXISTING 2020: SHORTCOMINGS OF EARNINGS REPLACEMENT PROGRAMS ■ The vast majority of workers (94 percent) claiming unemployment assistance—including state programs, Despite relatively timely congressional action in March PUA, and EB—either were not, or were not sure, if 2020, the reach and generosity of unemployment they were offered by their employer the opportunity assistance and paid leave have been insufficient and to use paid leave instead.51 uneven across states and territories during the pandemic, ■ Nearly two out of three unemployed adults (63 due to existing structural limitations, the lack of a unified percent) reported they would be somewhat (29 federal and state response to the crisis, and the limited percent) or very (34 percent) likely to return to work reach of emergency relief programs. sooner if they knew they had access to paid leave.52

States failed to maximize opportunities under federal ■ Paid family leave would be especially beneficial to law to expand unemployment assistance in the following people of color: 73 percent of Black and 67 percent ways: of Latinx workers claiming unemployment benefits (compared to 61 percent of white workers) say they ■ At the beginning of the crisis, several states refused would be more likely to return to work if they had to relax work search requirements (the requirements access to paid family leave.53 that claimants actively look for work to receive unemployment benefits) for UI eligibility,41 defying FFCRA42 and the CARES Act’s43 nudges to ease these requirements. Most of these states were eventually prodded into suspending work search requirements44 as public pressure mounted.45

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 3 THE COVID-19 PUBLIC HEALTH ■ People working low-paid jobs are more likely to work jobs that must be done in person and often cannot & ECONOMIC CRISES HAVE 62 EXACERBATED EXISTING afford to miss a paycheck. When schools and child care centers close and one parent is forced to stay CAREGIVING INEQUITIES home, families with low or moderate incomes can The COVID-19 crises have exacerbated many existing face financial devastation.63 64 65 racial, gender, and economic inequities—particularly ■ Pre-existing wealth and unemployment disparities related to caregiving. Even before the pandemic, left many families of color, particularly Black families, women, particularly women of color, disproportionately with fewer buffers to weather economic shocks or shouldered caregiving responsibilities.54 The COVID-19 take time off even though they are far more likely to pandemic, poor economy, and inadequate policy experience job loss.66 responses have shrunk already insufficient child care ■ Working mothers of color work at higher rates and availability, pushing many working parents, especially are more likely to supply the primary source of women of color and low-paid women, out of formal income in their households than white mothers.67 In employment. 2017, 68.3 percent of Black mothers and 41 percent of Latinx mothers provided the primary economic WOMEN, ESPECIALLY WOMEN OF support for their families, compared to 38.6 percent COLOR, DISPROPORTIONATELY of white mothers.68

SHOULDER CAREGIVING INEQUITIES ■ Black and Latinx mothers disproportionately work Women, including women of color, disproportionately low-paid jobs with unpredictable schedules, and as a shoulder the burden of balancing the responsibilities result, may often struggle to find affordable child care that aligns with those schedules.69 of work and child-rearing. Even pre-pandemic, it was difficult for working mothers to balance work with child THE PANDEMIC & POOR ECONOMY care responsibilities. This is especially true for women HAVE SHRUNK ACCESS TO CHILD CARE & of color, since Black, Latinx, and indigenous parents are EMPLOYMENT FOR WOMEN more likely than their white counterparts to experience Women are particularly vulnerable to the effects of job disruptions related to child care that could drastically COVID-19 because of pre-existing structural inequalities:70 affect their financial stability.55

■ Women—especially Black, Latinx, and indigenous ■ In 2019, the labor force participation rate for women women—hold the majority of essential work with children under age 6 (66.4 percent) was far positions,71 and are thus disproportionately at risk in below the rate for women with children age 6 to 17 the pandemic.72 (76.8 percent).56 ■ Women tend to hold a far greater number of jobs ■ Working mothers were twice as likely to say than men in sectors like hospitality, health care, and that parenting has interfered with their career education73—sectors which suffered the largest job advancement than fathers.57 losses between February and December 2020.74 ■ Among financially secure two-parent families with ■ In December 2020, 100 percent of the net job loss children, parents tended to divide responsibilities, was held by women, overwhelmingly Black and Latinx with one taking on a greater share of caregiving women.75 responsibilities, and the other prioritizing work.58 In male-female couples, mothers are more likely to take ■ Overall, women represented more than half of all net 76 on caregiving duties.59 job losses in 2020 (55 percent).

■ Workplaces tend to penalize women who elect to Due to the reduced availability of child care outside the work fewer hours or need more scheduling flexibility home, the U.S. is teetering on the brink of effacing the due to child care responsibilities.77 limited workplace gains that women—especially women of color—have made in the past few decades:60 Child care workers, especially the 40 percent who are women of color,78 have struggled as well. An April 2020 ■ One study found that the loss of full-time child survey found that 60 percent of licensed child care care increased the likelihood of unemployment providers had closed.79 A July 2020 survey found that 88 for mothers far more than for fathers during the pandemic.61 percent of self-identified “minority-owned” providers have been forced to resort to furloughs, layoffs, and/

4 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG FEBRUARY 2021 or pay cuts, compared to 73 percent of all providers.80 A and ease the burden on working families that rely upon November 2020 survey of child care providers found that child care to accept necessary in-person jobs. nearly half of respondents knew of multiple providers To address immediate needs, who had closed in their communities; 44 percent of remaining providers were uncertain about how much ■ Tens of billions in federal emergency child care relief longer they could stay open.81 is needed. The ideas in the Child Care is Essential Act, which calls for $50 billion in appropriations for the DESPITE EMERGENCY PROGRAMS, Child Care Stabilization Fund to award grants to child UNEMPLOYMENT ASSISTANCE care facilities, and other proposals could help address this need.83 To date, the CARES Act provided just & PAID LEAVE POLICIES COULD $3.5 billion for child care funding.84 The Consolidated DO FAR MORE TO SUPPORT Appropriations Act, 2021 provided an additional $10 CAREGIVERS billion in child care funding.85 Other proposals would Inadequate and uneven state and federal policy provide additional child care funding.86, 87, 88, 89 responses have left parents and other caregivers ■ Payment rates for publicly-subsidized child care with limited access to critical earning replacements, should be enhanced at the state level, as North particularly unemployment assistance and paid leave, Carolina and Illinois have done, recognizing child during a time when caregiving responsibilities often care providers as frontline workers.90 Subsidy rates made paid work impractical. Even with schools expected could better match actual operating costs and reflect to reopen in large numbers in the first and second enrollment instead of attendance, and states could quarters of 2021 and immunization efforts underway— provide more grants to providers, including those investing in the workforce.91 likely reaching teachers in the coming months in many states82—many working parents will face daunting child ■ State funding should also support providers who are care challenges for the foreseeable future. closed or partially open and cover co-payments and tuition costs for families, particularly families with Many parents will also continue to face challenges low incomes.92 navigating the complicated federal, state, and local To address needs over the longer term, patchwork of permanent and emergency earnings replacement programs and their intersections with child ■ Quality, affordable child care should be guaranteed care. To help working parents navigate these barriers, for all children who need it, with a particular focus policymakers should fund cross-program outreach and on combating racial and gender inequities in the education that is culturally-informed and accessible in child care sector. All child care jobs should offer adequate compensation, safety, and opportunity for multiple languages and formats. Other program-specific advancement. Provisions in the proposed Child Care changes will also be important for ensuring working for Working Families Act likely would come close to parents are able to both work and have their caregiving accomplishing both of those goals.93 needs met. For example, not only do working parents of school- PAID LEAVE RECOMMENDATIONS age children frequently require child care for younger Establishing and improving federal and state paid sick, children, but daily and annual work hours frequently family, and medical leave programs would allow working exceed school hours, requiring wraparound care— parents and other caregivers to maintain employment before care, after care, and summer care. In addition to and adequate income while caring for children and taking public health measures that would allow the safe others. Equitable, inclusive, and robust paid leave reopening of all preschools, elementary schools, middle programs can improve the economic security of workers schools, and high schools, the recommendations below and their families, and support greater health and child would help address this care crisis in the short-run and development outcomes.94 Paid leave may have large beyond. effects on children in their earliest years of life—a time when a minimum income95 and parental care96 may CHILD CARE RECOMMENDATIONS be especially consequential. Paid sick leave protects Increasing funding to allow child care providers to safely community health by providing workers the ability to open—and stay open—would both stabilize the sector take time off when they are ill.97, 98

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 5 To address immediate needs, mothers of color)106—while maintaining labor force attachment.107 ■ The FFCRA’s employer mandate for paid leave should be reinstated and expanded. The latest COVID-19 To address immediate needs, relief package, passed December 27, 2020, does not extend the requirement that employers provide ■ The PUA, PEUC, and full federal EB funding should be extended through 2021 and programs’ expiration emergency paid sick and family leave but instead 108 allows employers and self-employed individuals to should be tied to economic conditions. These three claim tax credits for voluntarily-provided emergency policies are currently set to expire or phaseout as of paid leave through March 31, 2021. The FFCRA paid March 15, 2021. leave mandate should be reinstated and extended ■ The PUA program should cover individuals who to large employers, essential workers, all federal face increased caregiving responsibilities due to employees, and caregivers of adults,99 through the the partial closing or reduced capacity operation of end of 2021 and trigger off only as public health child care facilities, unaffordable dependent care conditions warrant. expenses, or health risks from attending school or child care. The Support Working Families Act of 2020 ■ Unmet child care needs should constitute as 109 qualifying events for state and local paid leave would ensure this expansion. programs, as several state paid leave programs, ■ Primary caregivers who lack access to adequate including New York’s Paid Leave for COVID-19 law,100 and safe child care—including through in-person have done. schooling—should be exempted from work search requirements in all federally funded unemployment To address needs over the longer term, assitance programs.110

■ Workers should earn sick leave of at least one hour of ■ UI work search requirements should be suspended sick time for every 30 hours worked, and emergency until the end of the public health crisis, as states paid sick leave without accrual requirements in the including Arizona111 and California112 have. Some event of public health emergencies. Provisions in states that have temporarily suspended work search the Healthy Families Act101 and the PAID Leave Act102 requirements will reinstate them in December would together accomplish these goals. 2020 or January 2021. Some states, like Texas, that

■ More paid family and medical leave programs should reinstated work search requirements at the height be created at the state level, as ten states already of the economic and public health crises,113 have have, including recent additions like Connecticut, not waived those requirements for people at higher Massachusetts, Oregon, and Colorado (see Figure 1). risk for COIVD-19, potentially forcing workers to choose between unsafe work conditions and a loss of ■ At least three months of annual paid family and 114 medical leave should be guaranteed nationally, along benefits. with anti-retaliation protections, job security upon ■ Earnings disregards should be increased to ensure return from leave, implemented as a gender-neutral that people working part-time while searching policy with additional weeks for single parents,103 for suitable child care or full-time work continue and set progressive wage replacement levels and receiving partial unemployment assistance.115

eligibility criteria that allow low-paid workers to take ■ States should institute and enhance their UI good needed leave.104 A bill in the model of the FAMILY Act, cause provisions to apply to parents with unmet child to provide workers up to 12 or more weeks of paid care needs or school closures. Similarly, “able and family leave and cover individuals that the Family and available” and suitable work provisions should build Medical Leave Act (FMLA) leaves out could reduce in flexibility to respond to working parents’ child care the number of families who fall into poverty from needs. taking unpaid leave through the FMLA by 75 percent, according to one study. 105 To address needs over the longer term,

■ A Jobseeker’s Allowance (JSA) should be established UNEMPLOYMENT ASSISTANCE to help jobseekers who are ineligible for or would RECOMMENDATIONS qualify for a lower UI benefit. As we have proposed Improving state UI and the federal PUA programs to align elsewhere, a JSA would help jobseekers obtain with the lived realities of working parents would both employment and attach or reattach to the labor market through job-search assistance, training stabilize incomes for unemployed parents (especially programs, and addressing structural barriers to employment.116 The JSA should include automatic

6 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG FEBRUARY 2021 extensions and enhancements at the national level, ■ UI’s automatic stabilizer features should be improved triggered by economic indicators.117 so that when future recessions hit into effect,

■ All state UI programs should be required to have unemployed workers can receive enhanced benefits 120 broadly applicable good cause provisions to comply quickly, without waiting for Congress to act. with federal laws. Rhode Island, for instance, ■ States who have not done so should increase the expressly lists the “need to care for children due to maximum duration of state regular compensation to school/daycare closures” as an example of possible at least 26 weeks, which 41 states have done.121 good cause for refusing work.118

■ Similarly, all state programs should be required to build flexibility into UI “able and available” provisions. For example, California allows exemptions from these provisions for claimants who have young children and states that they must spend time caring for119 in contrast to other states’ provisions that categorically exclude caregiving responsibilities as valid circumstances for determining unavailability.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Tanya Goldman, Andrew Hammond, Sherry Leiwant, Elizabeth Pancotti, Katherine Robbins, and Karen Schulman for providing feedback on this issue brief and a state-by-state workbook that accompanies the brief. In addition, Rachel Dissell, The Fuller Project, Vicki Shabo, Tanya Goldman, and Monica Halas provided feedback on and input for the accompanying workbook. Amanda Welch-Alleyne provided editing and research assistance, as well as updates to the accompanying workbook. Please refer any questions, suggestions, and other comments to [email protected].

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 7 APPENDIX Figure 1. Summary of Key Unemployment Insurance & Paid Leave Provisions for Working Parents, by State

Unemployment Insurance Paid Leave

State Work Search Reqs. Eligibility if Schools & Standard Weekly At Least 26 Weeks Family & Medical Sick Leave Suspended Child Care Unavailable Benefit Amount of Assistance Lewave Program AL No No $45 - $275 No N/A N/A AK Partial Yes $56 - $370+ Yes* N/A N/A AZ Yes No $119 - $240 Yes* N/A Yes AR No No $81 - $451 No N/A N/A CA Yes Yes $40 - $450 Yes* Yes Yes CO No No $25 - $618 Yes N/A Yes CT Yes No $15 - $649+ Yes Yes# Yes DE Yes Yes $20 - $400 Yes N/A N/A DC Yes No $50 - $444 Yes Yes Yes FL No No $32 - $275 No N/A N/A GA Yes Yes $55 - $365 Yes N/A N/A HI Yes No $5 - $648 Yes N/A N/A ID Partial No $72 - $448 Yes Yes N/A IL No Yes $51 - $484+ Yes N/A N/A IN Yes Yes $37 - $390 Yes* N/A N/A IA Partial Yes $72 - $481+ Yes N/A N/A KS Partial No $122 - $488 Yes* N/A N/A KY Yes Yes $39 - $569 Yes N/A N/A LA Partial No $10 - $247 Yes N/A N/A ME Partial No $77 - $445+ Yes N/A Yes MD Yes No $50 - $430 Yes N/A Yes MA Partial Yes $98 - $823+ Yes Yes# Yes MI Yes No $150 - $362+ Yes N/A Yes MN Partial Yes $28 - $740 Yes N/A N/A MS Yes No $30 - $235 Yes N/A N/A MO No No $35 - $320 No N/A N/A MT Partial No $163 - $552 Yes N/A N/A NE Yes No $70 - $440 Yes N/A N/A NV Yes No $16 - $469 Yes N/A Yes NH Yes Yes $32 - $427 Yes N/A N/A NJ Yes Yes $120 - $713+ Yes Yes Yes NM Yes No $86 - $461+ Yes N/A N/A NY Partial No $104 - $504 Yes Yes Yes NC Partial No $15 - $350 No N/A N/A ND Yes Yes $43 - $618 Yes N/A N/A OH Yes No $134 - $480+ Yes N/A N/A

8 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG FEBRUARY 2021 Unemployment Insurance Paid Leave

State Work Search Reqs. Eligibility if Schools & Standard Weekly At Least 26 Weeks Family & Medical Sick Leave Suspended Child Care Unavailable Benefit Amount of Assistance Lewave Program OK Yes No $16 - $539 Yes N/A N/A OR Yes Yes $151 - $648 Yes Yes# Yes PA Yes No $68 - $572+ Yes N/A N/A PR No Yes $60 - $240 Yes N/A Yes RI Yes Yes $53 - $599+ Yes Yes Yes SC Yes No $42 - $326 No N/A N/A SD Yes No $28 - $428 Yes N/A N/A TN Yes No $30 - $275 Yes N/A N/A TX No No $69 - $521 Yes N/A N/A USVI Yes Yes $33 - $602 Yes N/A N/A UT No No Maximum $580 Yes Yes N/A VT Yes Yes Maximum $513 Yes N/A Yes VA Yes No $60 - $378 Yes N/A N/A WA Yes Yes $201 - $844 Yes Yes Yes WV Yes Yes $24 - $424 Yes N/A N/A WI No No $54 - $370 Yes N/A N/A WY No No $36 - $508 Yes N/A N/A + States provide additional unemployment supplements for individuals with dependents. * Duration of unemployment assistance is subject to unemployment rate. # State paid leave programs have not taken effect as of January 2021. Source: Georgetown Center on Poverty and Inequality, 2021. Note: Information as of 25 January 2021. Information based on data from and Authors’ conversations with State Departments of Labor and State Departments of Education, full workbook and information available at https://www. georgetownpoverty.org/issues/state-by-state-implications-of-unmet-child-care-needs/.

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 9 Figure 2. Income Eligibility Limits for Child Care Assistance for a Family of Three, & Waiting Lists by State, 2019

State As annual dollar As percent of 2019 federal As percent of 2019 state Number of Children or Families on amount poverty level ($21,330 a year) median income Waitlist List as of early 2019 AL $27,012 127% 46% No waiting list AK $61,872 290% 74% No waiting list AZ $34,296 161% 57% 2,420 children AR $43,803 205% 83% 370 children CA $54,027 253% 77% Waiting lists at local level CO $38,443 180% 50% 376 children CT $47,270 222% 50% No waiting list DE $38,448 180% 50% No waiting list DC $51,050 239% 61% No waiting list FL $31,170 146% 53% 16,945 children GA $30,745 144% 50% Frozen intake HI $47,124 221% 60% No waiting list ID $27,024 127% 49% No waiting list IL $38,448 180% 51% No waiting list IN $26,388 124% 41% 6,290 children IA $30,132 141% 43% No waiting list KS $38,448 180% 57% No waiting list KY $33,252 156% 55% No waiting list LA $34,608 162% 55% 3,596 children ME $58,000 272% 85% No waiting list MD $60,081 282% 64% No waiting list MA $47,802 224% 50% 18,829 children MI $26,556 125% 39% No waiting list MN $39,455 185% 47% 1,640 families MS $43,685 205% 85% No waiting list MO $27,816 130% 43% No waiting list MT $31,176 146% 48% No waiting list NE $27,012 127% 39% No waiting list NV $27,012 127% 45% No waiting list NH $45,716 214% 52% No waiting list NJ $41,560 195% 44% No waiting list NM $41,560 195% 80% No waiting list NY $41,560 195% 54% Waiting lists at local level NC $40,836 191% 67% 29,201 children ND $46,572 218% 60% No waiting list OH $27,014 127% 39% No waiting list OK $35,100 165% 61% No waiting list OR $38,496 180% 58% No waiting list PA $41,560 195% 56% 3,886 children

10 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG FEBRUARY 2021 State As annual dollar As percent of 2019 federal As percent of 2019 state Number of Children or Families on amount poverty level ($21,330 a year) median income Waitlist List as of early 2019 RI $37,404 175% 46% No waiting list SC $32,450 152% 55% No waiting list SD $37,888 178% 56% No waiting list TN $49,740 233% 85% No waiting list TX $39,456-$53,472 185%-251% 63%-85% 16,379 children UT $37,416 175% 58% No waiting list VT $62,340 292% 85% No waiting list VA $31,176-$51,960 146%-244% 38%-64% 7,053 children WA $41,568 195% 54% No waiting list WV $31,176 146% 53% No waiting list WI $39,461 185% 53% No waiting list WY $38,760 182% 55% No waiting list Source: Schulman, Karen. “Early Progress: State Child Care Assistance Policies 2019.” National Women’s Law Center. October 2019. Available at https://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/NWLC-State-Child-Care-Assistance-Policies- 2019-final.pdf.

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 11 ENDNOTES 1. “All Employees, Total Nonfarm.” Federal Reserve Bank of St. 14. Boyle, Patrick. “We can’t defeat COVID-19 without Louis. 4 December 2020. Available at https://fred.stlouisfed. vaccinating children. There aren't even any kids' clinical trials org/series/PAYEMS. yet.” Association of American Medical Colleges. 19 October 2020. Available at https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/ 2. Geary, et al. “Who Are Essential Workers? The U.S Economy we-can-t-defeat-covid-19-without-vaccinating-children-there- Depends on Women, People of Color, & Immigrant Workers.” arent-even-any-kids-clinical-trials-yet. Georgetown Center on Poverty and Inequality. 20 July 2020. Available at https://www.georgetownpoverty.org/issues/who- 15. Guzman, Joseph. “Johnson & Johnson to Test Coronavirus are-essential-workers/. Vaccine in Children.” The Hill, 20 October 2020. Available at https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/prevention- 3. Additional costs include hiring professional cleaning cures/523698-johnson-johnson-to-test-coronavirus-vaccine-in. services to comply with sanitization procedures or installation of new ventilation systems, costs facilities did not bear pre- 16. Pfizer and Moderna have recently initiated trials pandemic. Leonhardt, Megan. “‘You’re so stressed you can’t including children as young as 12. J.Salazar, Juan C. “When sleep at night’: Parents and child-care providers are still Will the COVID-19 Vaccine Be Available for Kids, and Will It struggling as the pandemic drags on.” CNBC. 13 October 2020. Be Safe for Your Family?” Connecticut Children's Medical Available at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/10/13/families-and- Center. 24 December 2020. Available at https://www. child-care-providers-still-struggling-during-pandemic.html. connecticutchildrens.org/coronavirus/when-will-the-covid- 19-vaccine-be-available-for-kids-and-will-it-be-safe-for-your- 4. “PF3.1: Public spending on childcare and early education.” family/. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Family Database. 4 February 2019. Available at https://www. 17. Mayer, Beth Ann. “Without a Vaccine, Should Parents oecd.org/els/soc/PF3_1_Public_spending_on_childcare_and_ Send Their Kids Back to School?” Parents. 16 July 2020. early_education.pdf. Available at https://www.parents.com/health/coronavirus/ without-a-vaccine-should-parents-send-their-kids-back-to- 5. Carson, Jess, and Marybeth Mattingly. “COVID-19 Didn’t school/. Create a Child Care Crisis, But Hastened and Inflamed It.” Carsey School of Public Policy and Federal Reserve Bank of 18. “Unemployment Insurance Chartbook.” U.S. Department Boston. 24 August 2020. Available at https://carsey.unh.edu/ of Labor. Updated 1 November 2019. Available at https://oui. publication/child-care-crisis-COVID-19. doleta.gov/unemploy/chartbook.asp. 6. Ibid. 19. “Fixing Unemployment Insurance in Response to COVID-19.” Georgetown Center on Poverty and Inequality. 23 7. Though the public health emergency declaration was March 2020. Available at https://www.georgetownpoverty. signed on January 31, 2020 and dated back to January 27, org/issues/fixing-unemployment-insurance-in-response-to- 2020, widespread job losses did not materialize until the covid-19/. second half of March 2020. 20. The United States did and does provide paid leave to 8. “Between a Rock and a Hard Place.” University of Oregon many federal employees through several state programs. Rapid-EC Research Group. 2 June 2020. Available at https:// medium.com/rapid-ec-project/between-a-rock-and-a-hard- 21. High living standards according to the United Nations place-245857e79d9d. Human Development Index. Hye Jin Rho, Shawn Fremstad, and Jared Gaby-Biegel. “Contagion Nation 2020: United States Still 9. Schweer, Adrienne, Ben Gitis, and Abby McCloskey. “The the Only Wealthy Nation without Paid Sick Leave.” Center for Need for Paid Leave Amidst Historic Unemployment and Economic Policy Research. 19 March 2020. Available at https:// Caregiving Responsibilities.” Bipartisan Policy Center. 23 July cepr.net/report/contagion-nation-2020-united-states-still-the- 2020. Available at https://bipartisanpolicy.org/blog/the-need- only-wealthy-nation-without-paid-sick-leave/. for-paid-leave-amidst-historic-unemployment-and-caregiving- responsibilities/. 22. “Paid Family Leave Across OECD Countries.” Bipartisan Policy Center. 31 January 2020. Available at https:// 10. “Determination that a Public Health Emergency Exists.” bipartisanpolicy.org/explainer/paid-family-leave-across-oecd- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. 31 January countries/. 2020. Available at https://www.phe.gov/emergency/news/ healthactions/phe/Pages/2019-nCoV.aspx. 23. “Comparative Chart of Paid Family and Medical Leave Laws in the United States.” A Better Balance. 1 November 2015. 11. “Returning to Care…But Worried.” University of Oregon Available at https://www.abetterbalance.org/resources/paid- RAPID-EC Project. 27 October 2020. Available at https:// family-leave-laws-chart/. medium.com/rapid-ec-project/returning-to-care-but-worried- 5093fda63dab. 24. H.R.748. 116th Congress. Enacted 27 March 2020. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ 12. Hsu, Andrea, and Ari Shapiro. “A COVID-19 Vaccine For house-bill/748/text. Children May Still Be Many Months Away.” NPR. 27 November 2020. Available at https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus- 25. H.R.6201. 116th Congress. Enacted 18 March 2020. live-updates/2020/11/27/939341531/a-covid-19-vaccine-for- Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ children-may-still-be-many-months-away. house-bill/6201/text. 13. Ibid. 26. “Families First Coronavirus Response Act: Employee Paid Leave Rights.” U.S. Department of Labor, 2020. https://www. dol.gov/agencies/whd/pandemic/ffcra-employee-paid-leave.

12 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG FEBRUARY 2021 27. Andersen, Martin, et al. “Effect of a Federal Paid Sick 39. “Policy Basics: How Many Weeks of Unemployment Leave Mandate on Working and Staying at Home During the Compensation Are Available?” Center on Budget and Policy COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Cellular Device Data.” Priorities. 14 December 2020. Available at https://www.cbpp. National Bureau of Economic Research. October 2020. org/research/economy/policy-basics-how-many-weeks-of- Available at https://www.nber.org/papers/w27138. unemployment-compensation-are-available. 28. “Paid Sick Days and Paid Leave Provisions in FFCRA and 40. “Highlights of $900 billion COVID-19 relief, wrapup bills.” CARES Act” Center for Law and Social Policy. 6 May 2020. The Associated Press. 21 December 2020. Available at https:// Available at https://www.clasp.org/publications/fact-sheet/ apnews.com/article/health-care-reform-health-legislation- paid-sick-days-and-paid-leave-provisions-ffcra-and-cares-act . coronavirus-pandemic-762f84e4da11d350d8b5be5680ab01c4. 29. Glynn, Sarah Jana. “Coronavirus Paid Leave 41. Quinton, Sophie. “Some States Let Vulnerable Workers Exemptions Exclude Millions of Workers From Coverage.” Turn Down Jobs.” Pew Trusts. 6 May 2020. Available at Center for American Progress. 27 April 2020. Available https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/ at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/ stateline/2020/05/06/some-states-let-vulnerable-workers- news/2020/04/17/483287/coronavirus-paid-leave-exemptions- turn-down-jobs. exclude-millions-workers-coverage/. 42. FFCRA provides that the amount of state funding will 30. Cain Miller, Claire, and Jim Tankersley. “Paid Leave Law be contingent on several factors, including “waiving work Tries to Help Millions in Crisis. Many Haven’t Heard of It.” search requirements and the waiting week.” H.R.6201. 116th The New York Times. 8 May 2020. Available at https://www. Congress. Enacted 19 March 2020. Available at https://www. nytimes.com/2020/05/08/upshot/virus-paid-leave-pandemic. congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6201/text. html. 43. The CARES Act creates flexibility for states to determine 31. Andersen, Martin, et al. “Effect of a Federal Paid Sick whether claimants are “actively seeking work,” for COVID- Leave Mandate on Working and Staying at Home During the related reasons, including illness, quarantine, or movement COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Cellular Device Data.” restrictions. H.R.748. 116th Congress. Enacted 27 March 2020. National Bureau of Economic Research. October 2020. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ Available at https://www.nber.org/papers/w27138. house-bill/748/text. 32. Fewer cases relative to the pre-FFCRA period and to 44. Bhardwaj, Prachi. “Here Are Every State's Unemployment states that already ensured access to paid sick leave; COVID-19 Rules for Work Search and Waiting Periods.” Money. 28 May data series from March 8 - May 11, 2020. Pichler, Stefan, 2020. Available at https://money.com/collect-unemployment- Katherine Wen, and Nicolas R. Ziebarth. “COVID-19 Emergency benefits/. Sick Leave Has Helped Flatten The Curve In The United States.” 45. See Evermore, Michele. “Coronavirus and Unemployment Health Affairs. 15 October 2020. Available at https://www. Insurance: Options for Policymakers to Mitigate Job Loss.” healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/hlthaff.2020.00863. National Employment Law Project. 6 March 2020. Available at 33. H.R.133. 116th Congress. Enacted 27 December 2020. https://www.nelp.org/publication/unemployment-insurance- Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ helps-mitigate-job-loss-during-pandemics-options-for- house-bill/133/text. policymakers/. 34. “Unemployment Insurance Provisions in the Coronavirus 46. “When the school system provides the individual with Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act.” National a choice between full-time in-person instruction and remote Employment Law Project. 27 Mach 2020. Available at https:// learning, it is open for students to be physically present at the www.nelp.org/publication/unemployment-insurance- school. If the individual who is the primary caregiver chooses to provisions-coronavirus-aid-relief-economic-security-cares-act/. have the student(s) participate in remote learning instead of in- 35. Stettner, Andrew. “More than 25 Million Americans Are person instruction, the individual does not meet the provisions About to Lose an Essential $600-a-Week Unemployment of item (dd) of Section 2102(a)(3)(A)(ii)(I) of the CARES Act. Insurance Benefit.” The Century Foundation. 8 July 2020. Unless the individual meets another listed COVID-19 related Available at https://tcf.org/content/commentary/25-million- reason under items (aa) through (kk) in Section 2102(a) americans-lose-essential-600-week-unemployment-insurance- (3)(A)(ii)(I) of the CARES Act, the individual is ineligible for benefit/?session=1. PUA.” Unemployment Insurance Letter 16-20, Change 3. U.S. Department of Labor. 27 August 2020. Available at https://wdr. 36. Casselman, Ben. “End of $600 Unemployment Bonus doleta.gov/directives/corr_doc.cfm?DOCN=3849. Could Push Millions Past the Brink.” The New York Times. 21 July 2020. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/21/ 47. “Workbook: State-by-State Implications of Unmet Child business/economy/coronavirus-unemployment-benefits.html. Care Needs for Paid Leave & Unemployment Assistance.” Georgetown Center on Poverty and Inequality. 10 November 37. “Implementing and Operating Instructions for the Federal 2020. Available at https://www.georgetownpoverty.org/issues/ Pandemic Unemployment Compensation (FPUC) Program.” U.S. state-by-state-implications-of-unmet-child-care-needs/. Department of Labor. 4 April 2020. Available at https://wdr. doleta.gov/directives/attach/UIPL/UIPL_15-20_Attachment_1. 48. Unemployment Insurance Letter 16-20, Change 3. U.S. pdf. Department of Labor. 2020. 38. “Unemployment Insurance Provisions in the Coronavirus 49. Unemployment Insurance Letter 16-20, Change 3. U.S. Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act.” National Department of Labor. 2020. Employment Law Project. 2020. 50. Pichler, Stefan, Katherine Wen, and Nicolas R. Ziebarth. “COVID-19 Emergency Sick Leave Has Helped Flatten The

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 13 Curve In The United States.” Health Affairs. 15 October 2020. sector/our-insights/the-economic-impact-of-closing-the-racial- Available at https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/ wealth-gap#. hlthaff.2020.00863. 65. Gould, et al. “Black workers face two of the most lethal 51. Schweer, Adrienne, Ben Gitis, and Abby McCloskey. “The preexisting conditions for coronavirus—racism and economic Need for Paid Leave Amidst Historic Unemployment and inequality.” Economic Policy Institute. 2020. Caregiving Responsibilities.” Bipartisan Policy Center. 2020. 66. Bernstein, Jared and Janelle Jones. “The Impact of 52. Ibid. COVID10 Recession on the Jobs and Incomes of Persons of 53. Ibid Color.” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 2 June 2020. 54. Dastur, Nina, et al. “Building the Caring Economy: Available at https://www.cbpp.org/research/full-employment/ Workforce Investments to Expand Access to Affordable, High- the-impact-of-the-covid19-recession-on-the-jobs-and-incomes- Quality Early and Long-Term Care.” Georgetown Center on of-persons-of. Poverty and Inequality. Spring 2017. Available at https://www. 67. Schochet, Leila. “The Child Care Crisis Is Keeping Women georgetownpoverty.org/issues/employment/caregiving/. Out of the Workforce.” Center for American Progress. 28 March 55. Novoa, Christina. “How Child Care Disruptions Hurt 2019. Available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/ Parents of Color Most.” Center for American Progress. 29 early-childhood/reports/2019/03/28/467488/child-care-crisis- June 2020. Available at https://www.americanprogress.org/ keeping-women-workforce/. issues/early-childhood/news/2020/06/29/486977/child-care- 68. Glynn, Sarah Jane. “Breadwinning Mothers Continue disruptions-hurt-parents-color/. To Be the U.S. Norm.” Center for American Progress. 10 May 56. “Employment Characteristics of Families— 2019.” Bureau 2019. Available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/ of Labor Statistics. 21 April 2020. Available at https://www.bls. women/reports/2019/05/10/469739/breadwinning-mothers- gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf. continue-u-s-norm/. 57. Patten, Eileen. “How American parents balance work 69. Henley, Julia R., and Gina Adams. “Insights on Access and family life when both work.” Pew Research Center. 4 to Quality Child Care for Families with Nontraditional Work November 2015. Available at https://www.pewresearch.org/ Schedules.” Urban Institute. October 2018. Available at fact-tank/2015/11/04/how-american-parents-balance-work- https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/99148/ and-family-life-when-both-work/. insights_on_access_to_quality_child_care_for_families_with_ nontraditional_work_schedules_1.pdf. 58. Bertrand, Marianne, Claudia Goldin, and Lawrence F. Katz. “Dynamics of the Gender Gap for Young Professionals in the 70. Madgavkar, Anu, et al. “COVID-19 and gender equality: Financial and Corporate Sectors.” American Economic Journal: Countering the regressive effects.” McKinsey & Company. 15 Applied Economics, 2(3): 228-55. July 2010. Available at https:// July 2020. Available at https://www.mckinsey.com/featured- www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.2.3.228. insights/future-of-work/covid-19-and-gender-equality- countering-the-regressive-effects. 59. Glynn, Sarah Jane. “An Unequal Division of Labor” Center for American Progress, 18 May 2018. Available 71. Salas, Gabriela. “The Pandemic is Disproportionately at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/ Affecting Women — Here’s Why.” National Women’s Health reports/2018/05/18/450972/unequal-division-labor/. Network. 9 September 2020. Available at https://nwhn.org/ the-pandemic-is-disproportionately-affecting-women-heres- 60. Paine, Neil, and Amelia Thomson-DeVeaux. “How The why/. Pandemic Could Force A Generation Of Mothers Out Of The Workforce.” FiveThirtyEight, 27 July 2020. Available at https:// 72. Gould, Elise, and Valerie Wilson. “Black workers face two fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-the-pandemic-could-force-a- of the most lethal preexisting conditions for coronavirus— generation-of-mothers-out-of-the-workforce/. racism and economic inequality.” Economic Policy Institute. 1 June 2020. Available at https://www.epi.org/publication/black- 61. Petts, Richard, Daniel Carlson, and Joanna Pepin. “A workers-covid/. Gendered Pandemic: Childcare, Homeschooling, and Parents’ Employment During COVID-19.” SocArXiv. 12 Sept. 2020. 73. Franck, Thomas. “Hardest-hit industries: Nearly half the Available at https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/gwkzx/?s=03. leisure and hospitality jobs were lost in April.” CNBC. 8 May 2020. Available at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/08/these- 62. Kinder, Molly, and Martha Ross. “Reopening America: industries-suffered-the-biggest-job-losses-in-april-2020.html. Low-wage workers have suffered badly from COVID-19 so policymakers should focus on equity.” Brookings Institution. 23 74. Hegewisch, Ariane. “Women and the COVID-19 Pandemic: June 2020. Available at https://www.brookings.edu/research/ Five Charts and a Table Tracking the 2020 Shecession by Race reopening-america-low-wage-workers-have-suffered-badly- and Gender” Institute for Women’s Policy Research, 28 January from-covid-19-so-policymakers-should-focus-on-equity/. 2021. Available at https://iwpr.org/iwpr-issues/employment- and-earnings/women-and-the-covid-19-pandemic-five- 63. Taub, Amanda. “Pandemic Will ‘Take Our Women 10 Years charts-and-a-table-tracking-the-2020-shecession-by-race-and- Back’ in the Workplace.” The New York Times. 26 September gender/. 2020. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/26/ world/covid-women-childcare-equality.html. 75. Ewing-Nelson, Claire. “All of the Jobs Lost in December Were Women’s Jobs.” National Women’s Law Center, 64. Noel, Nick et al. “The Economic Impact of Closing the January 2020. Available at https://nwlc.org/wp-content/ Racial Wealth Gap.” McKinsey & Company. 13 August 2019. uploads/2021/01/December-Jobs-Day.pdf. Available at https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public- 76. Ewing-Nelson, Claire. “All of the Jobs Lost in December Were Women’s Jobs.” National Women’s Law Center,

14 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG FEBRUARY 2021 January 2020. Available at https://nwlc.org/wp-content/ Introduced 21 May 2020. Available at https://www.congress. uploads/2021/01/December-Jobs-Day.pdf. gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-resolution/594. 77. Taub, Amanda. “Pandemic Will ‘Take Our Women 10 Years 89. The Child Care for Economic Recovery Act would provide Back’ in the Workplace.” The New York Times. 26 September 2020. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/26/ an additional $5 million for volunteer income tax assistance, world/covid-women-childcare-equality.html. $850 million for the Social Services Block Grant (SSBG), and $10 78. Austin, Lea J.E., et al. “Racial Wage Gaps in Early Education billion in infrastructure grants to improve child care safety, and Employment.” Center for the Study of Child Care Employment. would increase and make refundable the Child and Dependent 19 December 2019. Available at https://cscce.berkeley.edu/ Care Tax Credit (CDCTC). See H.R.7327. 116th Congress. Passed racial-wage-gaps-in-early-education-employment/. House 29 July 2020. Available at https://www.congress.gov/ 79. “Nationwide Survey: Child Care in the Time of bill/116th-congress/house-bill/7327. Coronavirus.” Bipartisan Policy Center. 10 April 2020. Available H.R.6800. 116th Congress. Passed House 1 October 2020. at https://bipartisanpolicy.org/blog/nationwide-survey-child- Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ care-in-the-time-of-coronavirus/. house-bill/6800. 80. “Holding On Until Help Comes: A Survey Reveals Child S.Res.594. 116th Congress. Introduced 21 May 2020. Available Care’s Fight to Survive.” National Association for the Education at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate- of Young Children. 13 July 2020. Available at https://www. resolution/594. naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/ our-work/public-policy-advocacy/holding_on_until_help_ H.R.7327. 116th Congress. Passed House 29 July 2020. comes.survey_analysis_july_2020.pdf. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ house-bill/7327. 81. “Am I Next? Sacrificing to Stay Open, Child Care Providers Face a Bleak Future Without Relief.” National Association for 90. Uhng, Cody. “BPC Releases Policy Recommendations the Education of Young Children, December 2020. Available for State Child Care Funding.” First Five Years Fund. 6 May at https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/ 2020. Available at https://www.ffyf.org/bpc-releases-policy- downloads/PDFs/our-work/public-policy-advocacy/naeyc_ recommendations-for-state-child-care-funding/. policy_crisis_coronavirus_december_survey_data.pdf. 91. Workman, Simon and Katie Hamm. “6 State Strategies To 82. “Phased Allocation of COVID-19 Vaccines.” Centers for Improve Child Care Policies During the Pandemic and Beyond.” Disease Control and Prevention. 1 December 2020. Available Center for American Progress. 29 October 2020. Available at at https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/acip/meetings/downloads/ https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/ slides-2020-12/COVID-02-Dooling.pdf. reports/2020/10/29/492546/6-state-strategies-improve-child- care-policies-pandemic-beyond/. 83. See Gallagher Robbins, Katherine, and Stephanie Schmit. “Child Care and Early Learning: Addressing the Urgent Crisis 92. See also Sethi, Shiva, Christine Johnson-Staub, and and Investing in the Future.” National Women's Law Center. Katherine Gallagher Robbins. “An Anti-Racist Approach to 20 November 2020. Available at https://nwlc.org/wp-content/ Supporting Child Care Through COVID-19 and Beyond.” Center uploads/2020/11/ccagenda2021-1.pdf. for Law and Social Policy, July 2020. Available at https://www. clasp.org/sites/default/files/publications/2020/07/2020_ 84. H.R.748. 116th Congress. Enacted 27 March 2020. antiracistchildcare_0.pdf. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ house-bill/748. 93. Schochet, Leila. “Proposed Bill Would Help American Families Afford Child Care.” Center for American Progress. 13 85. Ibid. September 2018. Available at https://www.americanprogress. 86. The Biden Administration’s proposed American Rescue org/issues/early-childhood/reports/2018/09/13/457518/ Plan allocates $25 billion in funding for child care providers, proposed-bill-help-american-families-afford-child-care/. and $15 billion towards child care assistance for families. 94. Grant, Kali, et al. “The Paid Family and Medical Leave See North, Anna. “Biden’s Covid-19 stimulus plan includes Opportunity: What Research Tells Us About Designing a Paid $40 billion for child care.” Vox. 20 January 2021. Available at Leave Program that Works for All.” Georgetown Center on Poverty and Inequality. July 2019. Available at https://www. https://www.vox.com/2021/1/20/22238757/joe-biden-covid- georgetownpoverty.org/issues/tax-benefits/paid-family- 19-stimulus-child-care. medical-leave-opportunity/. 87. The HEROES Act 2.0 would provide $57 billion in 95. Duncan, Greg J., Jeanne Brooks‐Gunn, and Pamela emergency funding for the child care sector, including the Kato Klebanov. “Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood The Society for Research in Child Development creation of a $50 billion child care stabilization fund and $7 Development.” , 65(2): 296-318, April 1994. Available at https://srcd. billion in Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994. funds to the states. See H.R.6800. 116th Congress. Passed tb00752.x. House 1 October 2020. Available at https://www.congress.gov/ 96. “Three Principles to Improve Outcomes for Children and bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6800. Families.” Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. October 2017. Available at https://developingchild.harvard. 88. Senate Resolution 594 calls for increasing CCDBG funding edu/resources/three-early-childhood-development-principles- by an additional $25 billion. See S.Res.594. 116th Congress. improve-child-family-outcomes/.

FEBRUARY 2021 GEORGETOWNPOVERTY.ORG 15 97. DeRigne, LeaAnne, et al. “Workers Without Paid Sick Leave 112. “Eligibility Requirements.” State of California Less Likely To Take Time Off For Illness Or Injury Compared To Employment Development Department. Retrieved Those With Paid Sick Leave.” 2016. https://www.healthaffairs. 30 December 2020. Available at https://edd.ca.gov/ org/doi/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0965. Unemployment/Eligibility.htm. 98. Piper, Kaitlin, et al. “Paid Sick Days and Stay-At-Home 113. See “COVID-19 Resources Job Seekers.” Texas Workforce Behavior for Influenza.” 2017. https://journals.plos.org/ Commission. Retrieved 30 December 2020. Available at https:// plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0170698. www.twc.texas.gov/news/covid-19-resources-job-seekers#wor 99. Romig, Kathleen and Kathleen Bryant. “Commentary: kSearchRequirementsReinstated. Policymakers Should Expand Emergency Paid Leave in Next 114. 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