Excavation of Three Chambered Cairns at Loch

EXCAVATIO THREF NO E CHAMBERED CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS . CORCORANP . W . X . bJ y , F.S.A.SCOT.

INTRODUCTION THREE cairns, Tulach an t-Sionnaich and the two Tullochs of Assery, lie at the northern end of Loch Calder, in the parish of Halkirk, some five miles SW. of Thurso in Caithness (fig. Junn i)I . e 196 e write th 1e s inviteInspectorat th wa r y b d f o e Ancient Monument e (thenth f so ) Ministr f Workyo excavato st cairnse eth d an , completes thiswa d durin summee gth thaf ro t yearlevee Locf Th .o l h Caldes wa r

FIG. i. Locatio (basep wit np ma O.Sn do h ma . permissio Directoe th f no r General). (The numberin thas gi t of Henshall Chambered e . S.A ,Th , Tombs of Scotland, i, Edinburgh (1963)) 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 abouraisede b o t pars schema t a ,f o t increaso t e county'e eth s water supplyy b , constructioe cairne th th f so . which barragN a resulta f e no s th a , o e,t e werb o et submerged either completely or partially. The cairns lie on the Old Red Sandstone of the Thurso Flagstone group, forming Caithnese parth f o t s Flagstone Series.1 This flagstone, usually pale ochr r paleo e

FIG. 2. Map of northern shore of Loch Calder in 1961 blu colourn ei lais dwa , dow land-lockea n ni d basin durin gseriea f cycleo s f o s sedimentation deposits identifie,e b whice presency th hy ma b df ripple-marks eo , current bedding and fossil land plants, and by the absence of marine fossils. The ease with which the stone may be split into thin slabs for paving arid roofing has encourage f Caithneso e us e sdth Flagston buildins ea g materia recenn i l t timess a , seee b ny froma m vernacular architectur flagstond ean e countye dyketh n si . Evi- dence of intensive working in the past is provided by disused quarries in the vicinity of Thurso and Loch Calder. Neolithic immigrants were no less appreciative of the building potential of this flagstone, as shown by their handling of it in the construction of both Tullochs of Assery. 1 Phemister, J., Scotland, The Northern Highlands (British Regional Geology), Edinburgh (1948), 65-67. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 3 Tulach an t-Sionnaich and the Tullochs of Assery formed part of a group of chambered cairns centre Locn do h Calder (fig .e thre i)Th .e cairn f differino s g plan were situated close together on level ground within 300 ft. of the northern shore line of the loch, as it was in 1961. The Tullochs of Assery lay 100 ft. apart. Tulach Tullocf o l thre. al E Asserf d e ho th weran a, o nt y A e. t-Sionnaich ft situate 0 70 y dla approximately 215 ft. above Ordnance Datum (fig. 2). In the Royal Commission's Inventory for the county the description of Tulach an

n 1910i t-Sionnaich,s , wa agree t i s a d wit s appearanchit e fifty years latere Th . 1 Tulloch Asserf so y were describe 'mounds',s da thid an 2s nam retaines e ewa th n do latest editio6-ince th f nho Ordnance Survey map, although earlier editiond ha s referre 'broughs'o dt . Before excavatio apparens wa t ni o t tha tw smallee e th t th f o r mounds was a short-horned cairn and, despite the opinion expressed in the Inventory, projectioe th f uprighno t stones throug ture hth f mantl largee th f eo r mouns dwa more suggestive of a chambered cairn than of any other type of structure. Tulach t-Sionnaichn a excavates wa d during July 1961, with some additional work at the end of September of that year and in April 1963. The Tullochs of Assery were excavated during mid-August and the greater part of September ig6i.3 In this repor hornee th t d cair referres ni Tullocs a circulae th o t d Asserd f ho an r , yA cairn as Tulloch of Assery B. They are discussed in order of excavation. SUMMARY Tulach t-Sionnaich.an PassagA eheel-shapea Grav in eset d cairn typa , e known hitherto only in the Shetland Isles, formed the southern part of a long complex structure. Most of the structural details of the former could be paralleled in one or more of the Shetland cairns. Burnt and unburnt human and animal bone were found in the paved and possibly corbelled chamber, and a secondary cremation deposi beed ha t n inserte forecourte th n di t somA . e undefined date subsequeno t t heel-shapee th f maie o e th nus d cairn t possibl timbu e , th et ya Beaker se werus n ei Caithnessn i longa ,ston w lo , e structure, apparently without chambe r cists o r wa , addecairne composite th Th o dt . e structur encloses ewa d withi nrevetmena t wall which, in the forecourt of the heel-shaped cairn, overlay cairn slip. A few featureless sherd undecoratef so d Neolithic sherd o pottertw Beakef d so yan r provide onle dth y indicatio relativf no e dating. Tulloch of Assery A. A passage, antechamber and chamber opened from each forecour short-hornea f o t d cairn, whicN.-Sa d h.ha orientation. Ther soms ewa e evidence of structural techniques, including the use of extra-revetment. In the northern chamber, whic probabld hha y been corbelled, burial deposit unburnf so t bone were stonplacew lo en dplatformso . Surviving remain latese th f tso buriay lla in articulation near the entrance to the chamber. There were no artifacts in the northern chamber. Evidence of extensive disturbance, including an apparent nineteenth-century occupation layer, accounte almose th r dfo t complete clearance th f eo 1 The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, Third Report and Inventory of Monuments and Constructions in the County of Caithness, Edinburgh (1911), No. 135 (pp. 38-39) (henceforth abbreviated to R.C.A.H.M. (Scotland), Caithness). 2 ibid., Nos. 160-1 (p. 44). 3 Preliminary report in Arch. News Letter, vn (1962), 155-9. 4 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 southern chamber. The only artifact of recognisable type was a petit tranchet derivative flint arrowhead which was found in the southern chamber. Tulloch of Assery B. A large circular cairn enclosed a long, narrow orthostatic passage, opening from the SE., and a rectangular chamber of Canister type. The side walls of the latter were of dry-stone walling, reinforced by the use of large slabs tpairo for projectinf tw walld s o md en san g orthostats whicf o l al h, contributeo dt e supporth a probabl f o t e barrel-vault, als f dry-stono e construction. Unburnt huma discontinuoua nn bono y ela s paving, below whicpre-caira s hwa n deposif o t burnt bone, charcoa sherdd an l undecoratef o s d Neolithic pottery e chambeTh . r was surrounde a massiv y db e inner wall d ther othes an , ewa r evidenc f inneeo r structural reinforcement. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wis acknowledgo ht e with gratitud hele eth p whic hI hav e received from many individuals while planning the excavation, during the excavation itself, and in the preparation of this report. Mr lain Maclvor and Mr William Boales of the Inspectorate of Ancient Monu- ments arrange e suppl th d transporr yan dfo f heavo t y equipment,r aideM y db Hugh MacDonald whole th r e Fo perioexcavatioe . th f do r WillianM m (Frank) Taylo Ministre th f o r f Publiyo c Buildin Worksd gan , acte foremas da chargn ni e of workmen recruited in Thurso, and he contributed greatly to the smooth running excavatione ofth . Surveying equipmen Departmene th lens y b twa t Geographf o t y in the University of Glasgow, and Mr Gordon Petrie, of that department, kindly len camera t black-and-whitr afo e photography. Throughou excavatiothe t wifmy n e assistantvaryinactemy for as d gand , periods Miss Edna Durrell, Mrs Noel Hall and Mr lain Walker acted as assistant supervisors r EtiennM . e Rynn Nationae th f eo l Museu Irelanf mo d gave very considerable help during the somewhat hectic concluding weeks of the excavation, and rea greatee dth r par thif o t s repor typescriptn ti . Several membere stafe th f th o ff so Atomic Energy Research Establishmen t Dounreaa t theid yan r .wives, notablr yM . CJ . Smith lai s r RobernM Mr , Waresd tan Macleor , M worke site d eth dan n do t differena t times Peter Marjoris M . r Mr Hal d elan Jordan also joine excavatioe dth n for a fortnight. Mr Jollonds helped to prepare the contour plan of Tulloch of Assery B. Severa colleaguey m f e Universito l th n i s f Glasgoyo w kindly examined bone charcoad an l fro excavatione mth theid an , r finding Appendicese givee th ar s n ni . r ArchibalD d Youne Departmenth f go f Anatomo t y gave s timfreelhi n i ef o y examining and identifying the large quantity of human and animal bone. Dr Dorothy Lunt of the Dental Hospital and School examined and Identified the teeth. D. Tr.A Sandiso r MarD . DepartmenCatte d yE th n an f oo Pathologf o t y arranged for radiographic photographs to be taken of the human vertebra with an arrowhead embedded in it from Tulloch of Assery B, and gave advice in its interpretation. Mr D. W. Brett of the Department of Botany identified the charcoal. I am also grateful to Professor A. J. Cain of the Department of Zoology in the University of THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER5 , CAITHNESS Manchester for identifying the mollusca. Mr C. B. Denston of the Duckworth Laboratory for Physical Anthropology in the University of Cambridge examined the secondary crematio d othenan r bone from Tulach t-Sionnaich,n a s reporhi n d o t an the former is contained in Appendix C. I have greatly benefited from discussion with Miss Audrey Henshall, both at Loch Calde subsequentlyd . Powelran E . mattern G o l. T witd r san ,h M relatin o gt this excavation and to the study of chambered cairns generally. Finally I shoul, d lik acknowledgo et travee eth l gran tCour e e giveth th f y o ntb Universit Glasgof yo enablwo carrsmalt a o t t e you lem supplementary excavation at Tulach an t-Sionnaich in April 1963. Professor and Mrs Ralph Condee of Penn- sylvania State University kindly helpeactuae th n di l excavatio t thana t time. TULACH AN T-SIONNAICH ('The Mound of the Fox')1 Before excavation this appeared to be a mound orientated NNW.-SSE., measuring approximately 200 ft. in length, with the higher and broader end towards the south. Its greatest height was approximately 6 ft., and its average width 40 ft. A 'trench', referred to in the Inventory* and believed to have been excavated across the cair t abouna fee0 5 t t fro southere mth n prominena ends ,wa t feature generae Th . l appearance was that of a long cairn, possibly disturbed and without evidence of horns t retaininbu , g s structuramostit f o l features. Surface indications suggested that the principal chambered structure would lie at the S. end, and initial cuttings were mad than ei t convenienareas i t I . describo t t heel-shapee eth e d th cair d nan northern structure separately, followe generaa y db l discussio caire wholea th s f nna o . Heel-Shaped Cairn Chamber (PI. I) Excavation reveale dPassaga e Grav passage axie eth 5) d f s (figssTh o . an e wa 4 . aligned some 15° to the W. of the longitudinal axis of the long cairn. The chamber was approximately square in plan, measured 5 ft. across, and was built of four orthostats. Two of the latter were already broken at the time of excavation, that . sidE ee beinth n o g considerably disturbed orthostate th s A . s wer t deepleno t yse subsoile th n accouni n o , outcropsf o t , alternative suppor necessarys wa t . This swa achieved partially by the use of 'buttress' stones and partially by dry-stone walling built agains outee th t rorthostats e sidechambee th . wal th f N sf o supo le s Th rwa -. ported along its whole length by a heavy buttress stone, some 6 in. thick (PI. II, 2). In the NE. corner the buttress stone rose to a height of 16 in. above the paving of the chamber, and also gave some support to the E. wall. This buttress stone was placed in position before the erection of the western orthostat, as its western extremity underlies the latter. The floor of the chamber was paved with two slabs, both measuring mor thicknessn ei . tha in westere n6 Th . n covered approximately three- quarters of the floor area and the eastern covered most of the remainder. It is probable that thes heavo etw y floor slabs, together wit heave hth entrance y th sil t a l e

.chambere toth , were chosen, not merel pavingr yfo t als partias bu ,oa l supporr fo t N.G.R1 . ND 07056192. * R.C.A.H.M. (Scotland), Caithness, No. 135 (pp. 38-39) 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 orthostats. Into the space between their outer edges and the orthostats were packed smaller stones, which also provided . sidesupporE d s uprightsr an N.e tfo . th S , n O . the orthostats were backed by roughly built walling. That on the W. side had collapsed. There were two structural details in the chamber which were difficult of interpretation. A little less than half-way along the northern orthostat from its W. edge a small, vertically set stone projected southwards into the chamber (PL II, 2). It was not set into the ground, but was balanced, partially on the northern 'buttress', and partiall smala n yo l stone restin largea turn g i n no r stone, whice th hn o itsel y la f pavino tw e largeg th stones f unlikels o i r t I . y that this arrangemeno t e du s wa t collapse, but its purpose is unknown, unless it was to demarcate the NW. corner of the chamber where a human cranium had been deposited. The second anomalous feature, a thin rectangular slab, measuring 2 ft. 6 in. in height and a little over i ft. in breadth, was similarly supported by stones set on the paving. Its purpose is un- define lengts it s da h would have been insufficien contributo t t suppore th e th o e t f o t roof (PI. II, i). Fragments of human and animal bone were found at its base. The chamber had been disturbed, particularly on the E. side where the orthostat had been broken. It is not known whether the roof collapsed as a result of this disturbance r whetheo , falled ha t ni r previously. There was, therefore, little evidence of original roofing t seemI . s improbable thachambee th t beed ha rn coverea y db single capstone resting directly on the orthostats, as this would have allowed a head- roouppermose th lesf m o n sI tha. ft tn 4 chambelevel e th f so r filling there werx esi flat slabs, stacke nearla n di y vertical position, leaning slightl wese th t o yt (PI . Ill, i). It is probable that these originally formed part of a corbelled roof and that they fell into the chamber, perhaps when the E. orthostat was disturbed. Such corbelling would have provided additional head-room of at least a ft. above the orthostats in centre chambere th th f eo . collapsee Th d chambercorbellinfilline e th th f disturbee n go o th y n ,i gla d upper levels of which were many very small fragments of unidentifiable, but probably unburnt animal ,southere bonestoneth e th n I f . o s n chambere . parS th f e o t th o t , identifie collapses da d corbellingadjacene th n i d t an norther, npassage parth f o t e there were deposits of charcoal and mollusca. The latter mainly comprised the common land snail (Cepaea hortensis) commoa d an n specie limpef so t (Patella (?}vul- gata) and other marine mollusca.1 These deposits had been tightly packed between small flat stones which forme e uppeth d r e chambee fillinlevelth th f f go o sd an r passage, immediately below collapsed roofing material. To the N. of the deposit of mollusca in the chamber and at the same level, there was a layer of intensely burnt, but unidentifiable, animal bone, charcoal and burnt earth. It is possible that this d beeha n deposited whil burne eth t materia stils smale lwa l th hot s la , stonen o s which the deposit rested were fire-reddened. Alternatively, it is possible that these fire-reddened stones had themselves also been brought from a hearth or fire. e molluscTh animad aan l bone perhapy sma interpretee sb remains da foof so d

1 Mollusca were kindly examined and identified by Professor A. J. Cain of the Department of Zoology in Universite th Manchesterf yo . AH cSionnAit

FIG . Tulach3 . t-Sionnaich:n a general plan. (The stippled area mark positioe sth heel-shapee th f no d cairn . fig) cf ,4 . THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS J deposits. It is not known whether they represent the remains of a funerary feast or were intende fora s dma of viaticum deade lattee th r Th . fo r interpretation, however, may be preferred, as these deposits appear to have been carefully placed in position as part of the act which accompanied the final filling of the chamber and passage. Some limpet shells were found wit maie hth n human burial deposi lowee th n rti part chambee ofth thesed ran , together with animal bones similarly ma , interpretee yb d foos a d offerings scatteA . f animao r l bone, somt burnti f ed o Cepaea an , hortensis, northere th immediatelf o . npassageE e pare th f th o t o yt , probably represents part of the same or a similar deposit disturbed during the destruction of the eastern wall passagee oth f . Beneath the level marked by the upper deposits of shell and animal bones the remainde e chambeth f s filleo r wa rd wit a hdeposi f boneo t , both humad an n animal e limpeth , t shells already mentioned d layeran , f thino s , flat stonese Th . deposit was approximately i ft. 6 in. thick and lay on the paving stones of the chamber. Although the E. side-wall of the chamber was disturbed, the actual con- e chambetentth f o s r appea havo t r e suffere a minimud f interferencmo e beyond that cause structuray db l collapse e humaTh . n remains wer t articulatedeno t bu , several long bones had been laid alongside the western orthostat of the chamber at floor level (PL III, 2), and part of a cranium was found in the NW. corner, also at ground level, and apparently protected by the curious stone arrangement referred to above. Part of a second cranium was found at a higher level in the chamber, mixed with other bone, both human and animal, and sandwiched between small, flat stones. humae e bulth f Th ko n remainattributee b individualso y tw sma e o dt on e th , probabl aduln ya tearl s malhi y n e i secone thirtie th d ds an possibl femalya r he n ei late teens. It is also certain that a fragment of mandible belonged to a third, rela- tivel individuald yol . Some bones which cannot certainl attributee yb eitheo dt f ro individualsfirso e th tw t alsy oma , belong eithe thio t r s third r evefourta o , o nt h individual, particularl smalo tw ls y fragmenta bonf so possibl e ear y thosinfantn a f eo . apparens i t I t tharemaine individualfirso th e t th tw t f so s referre wero dt e eth last to have been placed in the chamber. As there was no evidence of deliberate subsequent human interference, it is probable that these human remains were in an advanced stat f disintegrationeo t alreadno skeletaa f i , n yi l state, when interred. The human remains may therefore have temporarily been stored elsewhere, perhaps in an ossuary, prior to interment in the chamber. The fragmentary remains of a third possibld an , yfourtha , individua more ar l e difficul interpretationf o t . They may represent fragments of previous interments, the bulk of which had previously been removed fro e chambermth . Alternatively, therepreseny yma t fragmentf o s burials whic alreadd hha y reache advancen da d stat disintegratiof eo ossuaryn a n i , whicd an h intentionall unintentionallr yo y were deposited wit principae hth l burials. e humaTh n remains s alreada , y noticed, were sandwiched between layerf o s small, flat stones and animal bones. Most of the latter may be interpreted as remains of food offerings. They included domesticate ddeerd possiblcattld re an ,d ean y bird and fish. The mollusca referred to also appear to have been part of a food offering. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 AH t-SiormAi£

feet

net res

FIG. 4. Tulach an t-Sionnaich: plan of heel-shaped cairn THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER9 , CAITHNESS Of greater significance, perhaps, are the remains of two dogs. The greater part of the skeleton of a mature animal was found in the middle of the main burial deposit in the chamber in a position which suggested that this animal, like the human remains, had been deposited in an ossuary and subsequently placed in the chamber. skeletoe t articulatedno Th s nwa . There were alsremaine oth youna f so g animal. These include intacn da t skull, found wit hlimpea t shel charcoald an l tightld an , y packe p betweedga inte e easteroth th n n orthostae pavinth d e gan th tsla n i b extreme SE. corner of the chamber. Unlike the remaining bones in the chamber, which were free of earth, the skull was tightly packed with earth and small stones. This may have been caused by flooding of the chamber; the skull lay at a lower level than othe e mosth f rto bonechambere th n si would an , d therefore have been affected by flooding, which may not have risen sufficiently high to affect the rest of the deposit. The whole deposit in the chamber was capped by a layer of mollusca, animal bone, som t intenseli f eo y burn unidentifiabled an t charcoald an , . Detail animaf so l bone are given in Appendices A and B. lines dry-stony wa db . lon d ft e passag g7 an Th s e ewa walling , built partially on the ground level and partially supported on upright stones (PL III, 3). The basal courses only of the E. wall survive, but the W. side of the passage adjacent to the chamber survived to a height of 3 ft. 6 in., and had been protected by a large slab which had probably been chosen as seating for roofing stones. It is probable that this was the original height of the passage, and its width of 2 ft. at the entrance, widening to 3 ft. at the inner end, could have been spanned by stone available locally. t surviveRoofinno d situ,n gha di althoug largo htw e slabs overlyine gth southern and more disturbed area towards the entrance of the passage may have formed part of the roof at that point. In addition to the heavy sill-stone at the entranc e chamberth o t e , thers discontinuouwa e s pavine passaga th d n gi an e secon entrances dit silt a l . Acros entrance th spassage th o et e proper a ther s ewa carefully laid blocking of flat stones of varying size, surmounted by a large slab, chosen probably for the stability it would have offered. On account of disturbance and robbing, precise details of the contents of the passage are unknown. A small part of the main burial deposit appears to have slipped fro chambee mth r int adjacene oth t norther npassagee parth f to . Thers ewa evidenco n deliberata f eo e filling elsewher passagee vere fragth w th yfe n e d -i an , ments of bone found probably represent pieces dropped during either the filling or the clearance of the chamber. The few finds from chamber and passage are discussed belo . i4f.)w(p . Cairn (figs. 4 and 5) The outer ends of the walls of the passage were bonded into a revetment wall, which originally was probably circular in plan, and which enclosed the whole of the central are f thiao scairne parth f o .t This revetmen bess wa tt preserve. W e th o dt e entranceoth f t it bu ,coul d als e Ee trace ob .th distanc a sid r n do efo f 1. eo 8ft Sufficient remained to suggest that its original diameter was approximately 35 ft., 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 assuming that it was circular. Between the E. side of the chamber and passage and the revetment wall was an inner wall, rather roughly built, but quite stable. At its . extremitS y this walbondes passagee lwa . sidth E df e o e int reae th . o f th rThenco e its line could be traced for a distance of 18 ft. until it was lost in disturbed cairn material. It survived to within a few inches of the humus, and was curved in plan. . sid W trace o e thern similaf th s e o n ewa O r walling t ther beed ,bu eha n considerable disturbanc than ei tcairne areth f ao . This inner walprobabls wa l y ova plann i l , intendes wa d dan bot beao ht r thruse somth f eo t fro chambee mth ro t area d an , consolidate the walling built against the orthostats of the chamber. Between the outer revetment wall and the inner wall, to the E. of the chamber, two large flat slab toward° angln a 45 s t f werchambere a o t sth ese . They, too, were probably intende supporo dt t structural thrust fro chambee mth r area. Elsewhere withie nth circular revetment the cairn was built of small, flat, horizontally set flagstones. entrance th Immediatel f o . eS slightla there s th eo wa yt y curved settin fivf go e large stones, considerably larger than the average stones of the body of the cairn, and forming part of the basal layer of a concave facade. The latter was built across entrance th passagee th almoso ed t an , t touche circulae dth r revetment wal t eacla h sideoriginae Th . l heighfagade th f unknowns o tei disturbanceo - t un e s i du , t i t bu , likel havo yt e exceeded thre r foueo r course thicknesn i s s abov massive eth e basal course. Betwee facade nth d oute an e r revetment wall cairn materia builo s s t wa l tha t maskei t lowee dth r course revetmene th f so t wall. Thibess stwa preserven di entrance th f o . eE (PIe . aree th I) . th o at Owing to disturbance, both prehistoric and recent, it was not possible to recover either the complete plan of the facade or the side walls of the heel-shaped cairn. On the E. side of the cairn two lines of well-built dry-stone walling converged and met at a large vertical buttress stone, set at right angles to the walls some 24 ft. from the S. wallo tw s e wer, i)Th IV .caire L th approximatel f n(P o d en alignmenn yi t with the passage, splaying slightly outwards in plan towards the SE. limit of the cairn. The inner wall stood in places to a height of 2 ft. and the outer to a height of i ft. Both walls abutte larga o t en flado t slab shape positioth ,d ean whicf no h continued the outward splay of the walls. The original junction of facade and side wall at the . corne apparentlSE s wa r y disturbe prehistorin di c constructio e timeth y sb e th f no wall which incorporate heel-shapee dth d cairn int lone oth g cairntherefors i t I . e unknown whether an upright stone had originally stood here and at the SW. corner, a common feature in heel-shaped cairns. Near both corners, however, large stones, whic y oncma he have stood upright, wer ee forme lyinth n go r ground surface. Socket ther sfo m identified e coulb t t wouldi no t bu ,d have been possibl ther efo mo t have bee t upright f theinse o t leasa e r s sideon a t, s would have provide dstabla e alsbaseis oIt .possibl e thasucany th upright stones would have been deliberately thrown down when the later enclosing wall was built. heel-shapee . sidth f W e o e Th d cair disturbes nwa robbedd dan thao ,s t very little survived and the exact position of the side wall could not be identified. Assuming tha heel-shapee th t d cair symmetricalls nwa y planned, comparison wit positioe hth n of the E. wall in relation to the passage and diameter of the circular revetment wall, THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS II

FIG. 5. Tulach an t-Sionnaich: plan of passage and chamber 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 suggest . walsW thale shoulth t parn di t have lai approximateln ni positioe yth n occupied by the later enclosing wall. Part of the original wall of the heel-shaped cairn havy ma e been incorporated intlatee oth r revetment wall shorA . t stretce th f ho foundation course for the former was identified, protruding from under the later enclosin gpoine walth t ta l wher formee eth r splaye plan di - nex . towardSW s sit tremity (PI. IV, 2). At this point, as on the E. side, the wall was aligned on a recumbent slab. Although there had been considerable disturbance and robbing on the W. side of the heel-shaped cairn, it was possible to identify some internal structural details. Many stonebasae th f l so cair e layeth f nro wer considerablf eo e size, some measuring mor f thes lengtho n ei e tha. eft stoneOn n4 . s appeare havo dt e formed para f o t roughly built internal wall; aligned on the S. wall of the chamber, and presumably intended to absorb some of the stress from the chamber. . heel-shapelimite N th f e so Th d cairn were identifie so-callee aree th th f ao n di d 'trench', wher e disturbeeth d remain f dry-stono s e walling, approximately . 18in high, were identified. The walling was slightly curved in plan and was aligned approximatel t righya t anglelongitudinae th o st composite l axith f so e long cairn. Although it was not possible to trace the outer wall of the heel-shaped cairn throughout its perimeter, sufficient was identified to allow a reconstruction of the original plan, and was supplemented by traces of the line of the wall visible on the ground surface. The heel-shaped cairn measured approximately 51 ft. in width, along a line lengthn i . ft . corners3 , 5 SE measure d e th an , drawo t d. fron e SW fro mth e mth cairne centr facadreae e th th f th ro .f eo o et Secondary Cremation Burial q A cremation deposit was inserted into slip from the heel-shaped cairn, approximatel yblockine . 1SSEth 0 entranceft e f o th . f go approximateld an , . S . in 6 y . ft i latee ofth r enclosing wall built over slip fro heel-shapee mth d cairn (cf . e 18)p . Th . remain e apparentlar s y thossingla f eo e individual, possibl aduln ya t femaleA . single animal bone, probably of pig, was identified among the human remains. Details of the cremation are given in Appendix C. When first discovered it was believed that the cremation had been enclosed in a container of some perishable substance. It was subsequently recognised that the 1 container was a pot which had been so inadequately fired that, on discovery in the relatively moist conditions obtainin southere th n gi quitns cairne parth wa e f t i o ,t plastic. As much of the deposit as possible was removed in a matrix from the forecourt area. When fully dried true th ,e natur containee th f e o recognised s rwa e Th . outer surface of the pot, however, was completely abraded and morphological details are unknown. It was probably an urn in the Bronze Age tradition, inserted upright into a small pit dug into cairn slip, carefully packed round with small flat stones and covered by similar stones. A thumb-nail scraper of flint and two unworked fragments of flint were found insid deposie eth t (cf . 15)p . . 1 Corcoran, Arch. News Letter, vii (1962), 156. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS

a O o o ~o

V E I

•s s

g •

L I

i/T- 14 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 It is suggested below that the secondary cremation post-dates the building of the northern structure, and therefore the deposit was made in the SE. part of what, in effect, was a long cairn. In this it may be compared with a group of cremations in urn. parlona f SE so gt e founcairth Wigtownshire.n n di i 1

Finds (i) Pottery (a) One small, dark grey, featureless sherd was found in the main burial deposit in the chamber, immediately below the layer of mollusca, burnt bone and charcoal (cf. p. 6). The sherd is too small to allow any identification to be made of the type of pot to which it belonged. Its fine sandy texture, smalf o e l us piece quartf so fillings za smootd an , h oute inned an r r faces compare closely wite hth finer sherds from Tulloch of Assery B, which belong to undecorated Neolithic pottery (cf. p. 42). (b) Thirteen sherds and several small fragments were found with animal bones to the E. of the entrance, betwee facade heel-shapee nth th f o e d cairn e late propeth rd enclosinan r g wall built acros forecourte sth sherdse Th .l apparentl al , y belongin singla o gt e pot beloy la ,basa e wth l level of the enclosing wall a few inches above former ground level, and were sealed below cairn slip. The sherds vary in length between 3-5 and 13 mm., and in thickness between 6 and 8 mm. The texture is sandy wit hfillinga , largely organic disintegratione th , whicf o gives hha nsomewhaa t 'corky' appearanc surfacee th o et . Both surface smoothe ar s t lacbu ,k evidenc burnishingf eo e outeTh . r surfac generalls ei y dark gre innee coloun yth i rd fawn-colouredan r . sherdNone th f eo s preserves featurey an s which might allo wreconstructioa generae th pot e t th bu ,lf ntextureo , apart froe mth fillin f organio g c material, compares with e coarsesomth f o e r sherd f undecorateo s d Neolithic pottery from Tulloc Asserf ho . yB (e) Two sherds of a Bell Beaker were found immediately to the north of the northern orthostat chambee ofth uppere th n ri , disturbed levelchambee th f so r area . Bot(figb) hd . fasherdan s appear to have belonged to the upper part of the same pot. One is a rim sherd; the rim is out-turned, rounded, but not thickened. From this sherd it is possible to reconstruct the diameter, which was 4/J in. The average thickness of the wall of the pot in the surviving sherd is 7 mm. The fabric is har weld dan l made, havin gfawn-colourea d surfacharda d ,ean grey-fawn coloured core, wida i filling of very small pieces of quartz, rarely exceeding a mm. in greatest extent. Decoration consists of at least three, but more probably five, horizontal grooves, apparently produced by a blunt- toothed implement. Each groove measures approximatel groovee th widtn i d e . sar han mm y2 spaced approximately 4 mm. apart. The top-most groove lies i cm. below the rim. Below the lower-most, at a distance of i -5 mm. from it is a row of deep diagonal impressions, some of which appear to overlie a lighter series of diagonal impressions arranged at right angles to the first and so producin n imperfecga t lin f X-shapeeo d impressions. Sherd f thio s s Beaker hav t surviveno e d below this point. (d) Remain cinerara f so wern yur e found enclosin secondare gth e th yf o crematio . S e th o nt heel-shaped cairn and S. of the later enclosing wall (cf. p. 12). The surviving sherds are fragile and apparens i imperfectls t i wa t t po tha e yth t fired. When discovere though s containea e wa b t d i o t r of some perishable substance, as in moist conditions the fabric was quite plastic. The outer surface was completely abraded, and there is no indication of decoration. The upper part of the urn did therefors i t surviv t i no d ean unknown collarwhethea d ha . t i rSufficien t remaine shoo dt w that d beeha n n depositeur e th d upright e greatesTh . t surviving diamete s approximatelwa r . in y6 The inner surface was relatively smooth. The fabric is medium brown in colour, sandy in fillina s texture f smalha o g d l an ,piece micf o sd quartz aan . Surviving sherds hav averagn ea e thicknes approximatelf so . mm y7 sher(eA ) d consistin straighe f parth g o f o t t wald flaan tl baslargea f eo , heavy, apparently wheel-made witt po ,hbasa a l diamete approximatelf ro foun s in.y8 wa , d lying immediately above 1 Mid Gleniron I, Discovery and Excavation Scotland 1964, 54. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 15 the enclosing wall built across the forecourt to the SE. of the entrance. The fabric is hard, compact, with a filling of quartz. Its outer surface is brick-coloured and appears to have been glazed; the inner surfac blacks i ee averag Th . e survivin basee th f g,o thicknesd e walan . th s 13- i f l o s5mm 19 mm. know o shere n s Th dnha prehistoric parallel appeard latsan e b eo st medieva r earlo l y modern in date.

FIG. 7. Tulach an t-Sionnaich: a, b, Beaker sherds; c, Arran pitchstone; d, e, flint (•§•)

(2) Flint Thirteen piece flinf so t were found passage e , chambere threth th n i n ei foree o , th foutw , -n i r cairne bode th th f yo n .i Sevee on courthesf n o d unworkede an etar , althoug blade-like hon e flake havy ma e been utilised fragmente On . , associated with bone, somt burnti f e founed o th an , n di chamber similarls wa , y burnt piecA . water-rollef eo d beach pebble flint e bode founth th f yo n di cairn appears to have been used as a side scraper (fig. jd). e threTh e remaining flints were found insidee cinerare th nead th base n i an , , th r n eof yur forecourtsmalle ar o , unworkeTw . d fragments thire crudela Th s d.i y worked thumb-nail scraper (fig. 7e). ) Arran(3 Pitchstone One small worked point of Arran pitchstone was found 3 in. above the floor of the chamber. It t possibl . no thick s i mm t cit. o longeI t .2 ecm s greatess i iclosit s,2 d ean parallel. t widtcm I s hi s for this artifact, apart froflino mtw t point f similao s r shap d proportionean s foun Tullocn di f ho Assery B (cf. p. 44). The pitchstone point, however, lacks the secondary working around the edges fline oth f t points but, like them strucs wa , k fro mslightla y curved flake which retaine buls dit f bo percussion. The opposed face is worked (fig. 7^)-

Discussion Some of the structural features in the S. part of Tulach an t-Sionnaich may be paralleled among the heel-shaped cairns of Shetland,1 although there are variations,

recend fula r an l 1Fo t discussio Henshalle nse Chamberede . S.,A Th , Tombs of Scotland, i, Edinburgh (1963), '35-53 (henceforth abbreviated to Henshall, C.T.S.). See also Calder, C. S. T., f .S.A.S., xcvi (1962-3), 58-67. l6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 both in overall size and proportions and in the construction of the chamber. There similaritiese ar exampler fo , cairn i , n construction between Tulach t-Sionnaichn a d an Verrientry (SHE 45), despite differences in dimensions and in the plans of the respective chambers t botA .1 h site circulaa s r cairn surroundin chambee gth s wa r enclose heel-shapea y db d structure t VementrA . circulae yth r cairn apparently rises from within a heel-shaped platform. Allowing for differences in building materials, Tulach t-Sionnaichn a originally ma y have presente dsimilaa r appearance, base centrala th f eo , circular dome surrounde heel-shapea y db d structure, defined b yrevetmena f dry-stono t e walling probabls i t I . e thamaximue th t m heighf o t . ft latte3 e s th rwa In both cairns, and possibly in other cairns of similar type in Shetland, the facade was built across the entrance to the passage. Miss Henshall has suggested tha tmean y acces b 'drop-entrya s f so swa ' behin facade.e heel-shapea d th d Ha d 2 cairn wit unbroken ha n fagade been builunita s a t , this would have bee onle nth y possible means of access. There is nothing to suggest, however, that the heel-shaped structur t Tulachea t-Sionnaichn a t adde circulano a s o dt wa r cairn afte e latteth r r alreadd ha y enjoye independentn a d , although possibly short, existence. Without heel-shapee th d structur lattee simpleth a s ri e Passage circula a Grav n i t ese r cairn, the entrance of which was carefully blocked independently of the facade. A typological sequenc s beeeha n propose r heel-shapedfo d cairn Shetlandn si 3 and, according to this, Tulach an t-Sionnaich should be early in the sequence. It is one 'narrowe ofth ' grou whicn pi overale hth l length fro chore mth d acros fagade sth e caire bace th t oth f n k o equal exceedr so maximue sth m presenwidthe th n I .t state of knowledge neither the origins of the heel-shaped cairn may be defined, nor may the relationship of Tulach an t-Sionnaich to the Shetland group be established. It cannot be assumed, for example, that the Caithness cairn was ancestral to those of Shetland, although the rejection of such a hypothesis poses the problem as to the means by which a cairn of a type at present identified only in Shetland, came, to be built in Caithness. almose th n I t complete absenc datablf eo e finds fro heel-shapee mth d cairnf so e morShetlandth l e al unfortunat s i t i , e that Tulach t-Sionnaichn a yielde littleo ds . e similarit Th smale th f lyo featureless sherd fro chambee m th undecoratee th o t r d Neolithic pottery from Tulloc f Assero h y s Binsufficieni f itselo t o allot f e wth assumption that the final deposit in the chamber of Tulach an t-Sionnaich dates from the floruit of that type of pottery in Caithness. A single sherd might have easily have survive dchambere froth earlief n ma o e r havo us ,r e accidentally been includen di e buriath l deposit long aftee remaindeth r e potth f ,o r from whic survivine hth g sherd came, was destroyed.

thin I s discussion each Shetlane cairth f no d grou followes p i abbreviatioe th y db n SHE (for Shetland) and 1a number. The latter refers to the numbering in Miss Henshall's Catalogue (Henshall, C.T.S., 156-82), where full references may be found. A similar method is used elsewhere in this paper to refer to other cairns catalogued by Miss Henshall, abbreviations for counties being as follows: CAT — Caithness ORK - Orkney SU Sutherland— T . , •••> Henshall, C.T.S., 143-6. 3 ibid., 145^7. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS IJ sherde Th s from immediatel fagade fronn y th i apparentl d f o tean y belongino gt a single pot may also be compared with undecorated Neolithic pottery from Tulloch of Asser . ThiyB s suggests tha e sherdth t s were deposite facade fronn dth i f f o teo Tulach t-Sionnaichn a before sliaccumulated pha than di t area somd an , e time before the later enclosing the, walbuilts so t nmighi f lwa I . suggestee b t d tha pottere tth y and the cairn were at least in part in contemporary use. sherdo Tw Beakef so r were foun disturbea n di d area immediatel norte th ho yt chambee ofth levee th collapsef t o l a r d roofing materialburiae bule th th f ko s l A . deposit in the chamber was undisturbed below the level of collapsed corbelling, it is possible that the Beaker sherds post-date the final use of the chamber. Taken together, these facts might sugges heel-shapee tth tha f maie o th e t nus d cair f Tulachno an t-Sionnaich in fact took place during the floruit of undecorated Neolithic pottery and prior to the local arrival of Beakers. Northern Structure Until the rear of the heel-shaped cairn had been identified, it had been assumed that the entire structure of Tulach an t-Sionnaich had been built as a unit, although durin earle gth y stage excavatiof so alignmene nth passage th f sidd o t ean e walln si caire . parth S f ne o t appeareth anomalouse b o dt . Onc heel-shapee eth d caird nha been recognised it was necessary to establish its relationship with the remainder of caire th n (fig. 3). norther e . limiS th f e to Th n structure appeare definee b straigha o dt y db t fagade of low, upright stones set at right angles to its longitudinal axis, at a distance of approximately 13 ft. from the rear of the heel-shaped cairn (PI. V, i). As similar arrangement lowf so , upright stones similaa n i , r alignment, were identifie othen di r cuttings elsewher northere th n ei n structure doubtfus i t i , l whether this fagade-like feature was visible after the building of the northern structure was completed. All the evidence from the other cuttings in this area suggests that the intention of the builders was to incorporate the heel-shaped cairn into a long, composite structure. Thimoss swa t clearly demonstrate wallremaine w th lo ,y a dmostlb f so y surviving only in its foundation course, which joined the northern and southern structures, and which extended southwards to enclose the heel-shaped cairn. It has been shown that this later enclosing wall probably overlay part of the W. wall of the heel-shaped cairn. The builders of the northern structure chose an orientation some 15° to the E. of that of the heel-shaped cairn, probably in order to take advantag ridgw lo ea whicf eo h gav illusioe eth greatef no r heighfinae th lo t t appearance of the composite structure. The position of the heel-shaped cairn close . sidW es woullocit e inlen n th a ho f do o tt also have prevente alignmene dth e th f to northern with the earlier structure. On account of this change of alignment, the S. sector of the later enclosing wall on the W. side was obliged to depart from the smooth alignment which was possible on the E., and the final plan was therefore slightly asymmetrical. To reduce this asymmetry to a minimum, the later enclosing wall did not take in the SW. corner of the heel-shaped cairn. On the E. side the later enclosing wal buils distanca t wa la t approximatelf eo . edg E . fro ft e e my7 th l8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 of the heel-shaped cairn. The intervening area was found to be filled with loose stone, possibly slip from the latter. There also appears to have been a low dry-stone wall, probably buil stabiliso t t e this loose material befor latee th e r enclosing wall was built. Immediately to the NE. of the heel-shaped cairn there was a short stretch of subsidiary dry-stone walling which extended westwards fro msmala l vertical stone set in the line of the enclosing wall. This may similarly have been necessary to stabilise the rear of the heel-shaped cairn, which perhaps had become unstable by time northere th eth n structur buils ewa t (PI , 4)V .. The suggestion that there had been slip from the heel-shaped cairn prior to the construction of the enclosing wall is reinforced by evidence from the area in front of the fagade. Dry-stone walling extended in a straight line across the shallow forecour overlad an t y cairn slip, whic accumulated hha t thida s poin thicknesa o t t f so mor abouo e walbuils n f Th wa elo t t. thaft i n three courses, althoug large hon e slab used nea centre th rmors ewa e than . thick ft i t eac thid A . hsen wall abutted smalla oo nt , thin vertical slab which marke junctione dth formee th f o r wite hth long sides of the enclosing wall. Although several cuttings were northere madth n ei n structure particularln yi areas where surface indication suggested sha e existencdth chambera f eo , neither chamber r cistno ss were identified n severaI . f theso l e cuttings various cist-like arrangements of stone, such as that at the N. end of the cairn, were shown to be cairn'e parth f o ts structure lattee Th . r differed from heel-shapee thath f o t d cairn beinn i g less carefully constructed. Wherea predominane sth t arrangemen flagf o t - stone forming the body of the heel-shaped cairn was horizontal and with little earth, northere thath f to n structur verticas ewa l with many earth-filled gaps. This vertical arrangement in several places suggested the appearance of disturbed chambers or cists, particularly morr whero o e etw stone s wer alignmenn ei right a r to t angleo st each other. In particular, there were a number of rough alignments, lying at right anglelongitudinae th o st l axis thed an ,y resemble pseudo-facade dth e which marked the S. limit of the northern structure (PL V, 2). Roughly built dry-stone walling, rarely surviving to more than four courses in thickness, enclosed the northern structure (PL V, 3). The latter was straight-sided d taperean d slightle e pseudo-facadth th t a t y a . . ft fro ft 6 mwidta 2 4 3 o t ef ho slightly conve . endx N e distanc.Th s 127ewa e averagft.betweeo th ; tw e enth height of this structure was 2 ft., and did not exceed 3 ft. at any point. An illusion of greater heigh gives buildiny wa t nb caire gth nridge w alonlo e cresa . gth f o t Neither artifacts nor bone were found in this northern structure. Discussion importano Tw t facts emerge fro e excavatiomth f Tulackno t-Sionnaich.n a e On is the identification of the first heel-shaped cairn to be recognised on the mainland of Scotland. The second is the recognition of a later structural addition to a chambered cairn, already complete in itself, which altered the external appearance of the original cairn. interpretatioy An northere th f no n structur t Tulachea t-Sionnaichn a inhibites i d THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS IQ by lac comparablf ko ebees dataha n t I show. n tha cuttinge nonn i tth f eo s made was there evidence of chamber or cist. Without complete excavation, which was impossible in the time available, it cannot be assumed that remains of some structures t exisno td somewherdi unexcavatee th n ei elevatiow dlo cairne pare th f f nTh o o t. the structure, however, was unsuitable for the concealment of such structures, and cuttings were made wherever surface indications had suggested their existence. This complex structure has posed a new problem in megalithic studies. The purpose of the northern structure, if indeed it lacked either burial or chamber, is elusive. Newcomer Loco t s h Calder perhaps wishe e associateb o t d d with ritual centre heel-shapee th n do d cairn. Having deposited their chamber e death n di , they may architecturae havth eo t wished ad o dt l complexity possibld an , e ritual efficacy, by adding the northern structure. In so doing, they produced a long cairn. Such a suggestio s inadequate ni alternativy an wil o e s b lt bu e, hypothesis until more detailed knowledg bees eha n acquire chamberef do d cairnnorte th Scotlandf hn so i . Tulach an t-Sionnaich is of particular interest, and perhaps of added complexity, as the heel-shape t previousld cairno s nha y been recognise Scottise th n do h mainland. The only excavated site in Britain which offers any basis for comparison with the structure as a whole is the chambered cairn of Bryn yr Hen Bobl in Anglesey,1 although, even here, the similarities are superficial. At Bryn yr Hen Bobl there is a large circular cairn with an apparently rectangular chamber opening from a deep, funnel-shaped forecourt which faces east. Attached to the cairn is what the excavator terme d'terrace'a , consistin lona f go g mound, approximatel . longft 5 , y32 circulae th t mor f 4wide. o no 0 ft . t er S cairtha high. bu ,e ft th nt lien3 I . o sandt , in the excavator's opinion, its construction preceded that of the chambered cairn, perhaps only by days or even hours. Evidence for this is not clear, and the chambered cairn itself may be of rather more complicated construction, possibly of more tha periode non . Thi suggestes si changa methoe y db th n e i constructiof do s it n i upper levels. The core of the 'terrace' was built of a mass of stones pitched on end, compacted with smaller stones and earth and enclosed by walling which was poorly built in places. At the S. limit the wall was slightly convex in plan. In those parts 'terracee oth f ' excavated, neither chamber r cistsno s were foundcrematioa t bu , n under a cinerary urn and other cremations were found immediately S. of the structure. Beneath the 'terrace' were Neolithic artifacts and traces of occupational debris. The excavator was unable to offer any suggestion as to the purpose of the 'terrace', theore th d y an tha t mighi t t have been transpor e usebana th s r da k fo buildinf o t g material during the construction of the cairn is as inadequate as it is improbable. There are certain similarities of construction between the long structures of both Brynyr Bobl n d TulachHe an t-Sionnaich,n a enclosine sucth s ha g walls attachee th o dt chambered cairn, the make up of the long structures, and inferiority of their construction when compared with that of the cairns proper. There are also differences, particularl differenca e lengthn yi b y t thi degref bu o e,sma e rather tha kindf no , e heightath s f bot o se comparable ar h f greateO . r importance, perhapse th s i , apparent absence of a chamber or a cist. Even if these similarities are accepted to 1 Hemp, W. J-, Archaeologia, LXXXV (1935), 251-92. 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 e extenth f regardino t g both structure s belongina s e samth eo gt generic typet i , remove s probleme nonth f eo interpretatiof o s lacd f comparablnan ko e datas A . excavatoe th r ofBrynyrHen Bobl remarked, feature s'terrace's suchi s ha attachef i , d to chambered cairns, may well have disappeared in cultivated land. Piggott has commented on the possibility of some connection between the 'terrace' at Bryn yr Hen Bobl and the long, low ridge, apparently linking a circular cairn with a smaller cair t Lonna g Low, Wetton, Derbyshire. This 'ridge founs contaiwa 'o dt n cremations, but without re-examination o1f the whole complex no valid conclusions may drawne b t doe I t sugges. sno closa t e parallel wit northere hth n structur f Tulacheo an t-Sionnaich, which differs both from the 'terrace' of Bryn yr Hen Bobl and the ridge of Long Low in that both the former's proportions and dimensions are closer to those o morfa e conventional long cairn. Excavation of Tulach an t-Sionnaich has revealed the existence of a chambered structurao cairtw f no l periods, separate somy db e undefined perios timef dha o t I . been assumed that the enclosure of the heel-shaped cairn was contemporary with the construction of the northern structure. There is no conclusive evidence of this, apart fro alignmene mth side-walle th f lattee to th f rso wit latee hth r walls enclosing the heel-shaped cairn, and the absence of any break in this alignment. The im- portanc eidentificatioe restth n so distinco tw f no t period constructiof so n withina cairn which, prior to excavation, had appeared to have been of unitary construction. Before excavation what may now be seen to have been a gap between the two main cair nappearance masseth d ha s 'f aeo trenc excavate. . h. d right acrost a s about 50' from the ESE. end'. There are similar surface indications in other long 2 cairn Caithnessn si ,lone sucth gs ha cair t Canistena r (CAT 12). Published planf so this cairn ten obscuro dt e some possible structural features profiln I . o e thertw e ear depressions running across the width of the cairn. The N. end of the cairn is both considerabl yappearance higheth s broaded ha an r d havinf eo an r g bee inden na - pendent cairn. The depressions have not been caused in recent years, as they may identifiee b woodcua n di t accompanying Anderson's paper, publishe iSyo,n di n o 8 hornee th d cairn Caithnessf so . Whil suggestint eno g tha caire thred tth nha e periods of construction, althoug ht improbable thino s si t doei , s seem possibl. eN thae th t chamber, a Passage Grave, was once enclosed in its own circular cairn. To this may have been added a chamber of Camster type, apparently within its own circular cairn, and the whole complex was ultimately enclosed in a long-horned cairn, either simultaneously wit constructioe hth Canister-type th f no e chambe subsequentlyr ro . In doing so, it compelled the builders to produce a laterally chambered cairn, having forecoura t from whic hacceso thern chamber a s o st e wa sequence Th . chambef eo r construction might have been reversed, but this seems less likely. This must remain merel yhypothesia s unti site fulls th eli y excavated. Elsewhere in the county there are other long cairns which have similar surface features. The long-horned cairn on Cnoc Freiceadain (CAT 18), a little over four 1 Piggott , NeolithicS. , Cultures Britishe th f o Isles, Cambridge (1954), 268-9. Bateman Tears'n Te , T. , Diggings.. ., London (1861), 144-7, 182-3. " R.C.A.H.M. (Scotland), Caithness, No. 135 (p. 39). 8 Anderson , P.S.A.S.,,J. vn als(1867-8)e oSe Henshall 4 48 , , C.T.S., plate 10. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 21 miles to the NW. of Tulach an t-Sionnaick, has a prominent southern end 'which rises almost like a separate cairn'. To the N. is 'a slight depression or trench across the body' whic Royae hth l Commission's Inventory believe havy dma e been secondary.1 A second long-horned cairn, Na Tri Shean (CAT 41), situate dlittla e over 100 yds. to the south of Cnoc Freiceadain, has a similar 'trench' and the appearance of a large circular cairn incorporated into a long structure. Miss Henshall has grouped together long cairns of this type, some of which are horned, and refers to them as the JVfl Tri Shean type, drawing parallels between them and long mounds of her Balna- gowan group. 2i Shean Tr Lon a typgN e cairneth havf o s larga e d distincean t circular mound at the more easterly end. The body of the cairn is much lower, rarely more fee thaw tfe highna , compare moune dth witr fo d hheigh. 1a o 2t ft 8 f to at the E. end. The long-horned cairn at Head of Work (ORK 18) in Orkney is similar. Without excavatio unknows i t ni n whethe t thes cairne no r ear ro mor f so e thae non perio constructionf do . Suc hhypothesia s would nevertheless accoun aligne th r -tfo . chambeE e menth f t Tulacho ta r Buaile Assery (CA ) whicT59 h differ abouy b s ° 45 t from the longitudinal axis of the cairn as a whole. In several cairns of this type, such as Brawlbin Long (CAT 6), Cnoc Freiceadain (CAT 18) and Tulach Buaile Assery (CAT 59), the tops of thin upright slabs, set at right angles to the longitudinal axis, are visible and they resemble similar settings at Tulach an t-Sionnaich. Excavatio sincs nha e reveale existence dth e elsewher Britain ei multi-periof no d cairns. t Wayland'A s Smith Berkshirn yi megalithiea c chambe addes a wa r o dt 3 long composite barroth d wan e structure enclose lona n di g trapezoidal mound.4 Surface indications, in the form of so-called 'trenches', have been recognised in some long cairns in the Cotswolds, and may indicate the existence of multi-period cairns within the Cotswold-Severn group.5 The particular importance of Tulach an t-Sionnaich othed an r known cairn f morso e thaperioe non constructiof do thas ni t the recognition that such cairns exist may contribute to a clearer understanding of the means by which some well-defined types of chambered long cairns may have evolved within Britain. t possiblno s i datt o eI t northere eth n structur f Tulacheo t-Sionnaichn a associy b - ated obviousfindsis It . , however, tha post-dateit t heel-shapethe s d cairn which, bees ha n t i suggested undecoratef dato y e ema , us fro e mth d Neolithic pottern yi Caithness. The position of the secondary cremation outside the later enclosing wall suggests that the cremation was deposited after the enclosing wall was built. Had the cremation and the wall been contemporary, it might be supposed that the cremation would have been deposited t outsidewithinno d aree an th , a enclosey db walle th . Thes factoro etw s suggest bot hterminusa post terminusa quern d an ante quern for the building of the northern structure and the associated wall surrounding the heel-shaped cairn perioa , d betwee floruite nth undecoratef o d Neolithic potterd yan

1 R.C.A.H.M. (Scotland), Caithness, No. 370 (p. 102). 2 Henshall. C.T.S., 75. 3 e.g., Dyffryn Ardudwy, Merioneth (Powell . E.G , . Antiquity,T , xxxvn (1963), 19-24) Glenirod Mi ; n , WigtownshirII d an I e, Trans. (Corcoran,P. . W Dumfriesshire. X . J Gallowayd an Nat. Hist, and Ant. Soc., XLI (1964), 99-110 and forthcoming). 4 Atkinson, Antiquity,C. . J . R , xxxrx (1965), 126-33. Powelln i . E. . al., 5G ,et CorcoranP. ,. . Megalithic,T W . X . ,J Enquiries thn i e West of Britain (forthcoming). 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 Bronz cinerareAge y urnsbeginning datthe A . locaeat the l of Earl y BronzeAge might be appropriate, and it may tentatively be suggested that the presence of Beaker in the upper levels of the heel-shaped cairn is in some way associated with this event. Such a hypothesis would not contradict the generally accepted view that chamberef o e us e th d long Britaicairnn i d sen n camn wit a locae o heth t l arrivaf o l Beakers.

TULLOC ASSERF HO Y A1 Excavation of this short-horned cairn presented few problems, either of technique or of interpretation. Before excavation the general characteristics of its type, including both pairs of horns, were visible, but there was doubt as to the position of wha thes nwa t though singla e b eo t chambe passaged an r . Published e planth f so short-horned cairn f Ormiegilo s d Garrywhil an (CA ) T42 n (CA ) showeT26 d that entrance to a single passage and chamber was from either SSE. or SSW. Surface indications at Tulloch of Assery A suggested that a passage opened from the northern forecourt caire th , n being orientated almost exactly earl n N.-Sa t yA - .stag ex f eo cavation, however, it was realised that the cairn contained a passage and a chamber entered from each forecourt. Excavatio plannes nwa uncoveo dt mucs ra possibls ha e of the body of the cairn. Considerably more than half of the total area of the cairn was uncovered majoe th d r structuraan , l details were located reconstructioA . f no the original plan of the cairn may therefore be offered (fig. 8).

Northern Chamber Passaged an ) d PIVI an . , (figs9 , 8 . northere Th n chamber comprise chambee dth r ante-chambern propea d an r . The latter was subrectangular in plan, 7 ft. 6 in. wide and 5 ft. long. Its E. and W. walls were built of dry-stone walling. Its N. and S. limits were each marked by two orthostats which separate t respectiveldi y fro passage mth chamberd ean , with gaps between each pair of orthostats to allow access. The chamber proper was polygonal in plan, measured i o ft. at its greatest width, and was 8 ft. 9 in. long. Its N. limits were orthostatso formetw y b d , commo boto nt h chambe d antechamberan r A . large orthostat leanint se , g backward sligha t sa t angle ,wall d e formeen Th .e dth E. and W. walls were each built of a single orthostat, each leaning backwards, and linkeothee th o rdt three orthostat very sb y well-built dry-stone walling. evidenco Thern s ewa e tha socket e orthostate tth th f so s were packed with stones to aid stability. In this, Tulloch of Assery A and Tulach an t-Sionnaich differ from Tulloch of Assery B. The sockets of Tulloch of Assery A were set in sockets whose shallow dept limites hwa outcropy db flagstonf so e beneat cairne hth . Stabilits ywa achieved by the selection of orthostats having flat bases, their incorporation into a composite structure of orthostats and dry-stone walling, backing walls and, where appropriate settine th , orthostatf go smala t sa l angle fro verticale mth . side-walle Th passage th f so e were constructe dry-stonf do e walling whica d hha slight backward batter, that of the eastern wall being more pronounced than the 1 N.G.R. ND 06816189. TULLOCH OF ASSERY A

FIG. 8. Tuttoch of Assery A: general plan THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 23 western. Slabs of greater than average length were used in the foundation course. A pair of jamb-stones, aligned facadewite line th hf th e o , marke entrancee dth e Th . western orthostat had been slightly displaced and leaned outwards into the forecourt. Betwee jambse n th extendind an , distanca int. r passagee gft fo o 3 th f eo , thera s ewa blockin carefullf go y laid horizontal slabs e passagTh . e measure . froin dm6 . 14ft the entrance to the pair of orthostats which separated it from the antechamber. Its width varied slightly at ground level from 2 ft. 3 in. to 3 ft. and from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 9 in. at its uppermost surviving courses. The S. end of the passage was blocked looselyy b t carefullybu , , laid slabs. Roofing did not survive in situ in any part of the cairn. A considerable number of large flat slabs, having an average width of 3 ft., lay at different angles in the northern chamber, and were of a size suitable for roofing material. Several slabs lay close together in vertical stacks as they had fallen. One very large slab, measuring approximately 5 ft. by 3 ft., which had fallen near the junction of antechamber and chamber, would hav proportionf eo beesiza d f ean no s appropriat capstonea o et . This evidence suggest formee sth r existenc fairla f eo y massive corbelled roof. Recent interference in the N. part of the cairn was considerably less than that in the S. and, apart from roofing, the only direct evidence for disturbance came from each side of the W. orthostat, set between antechamber and chamber, and from the opposee . sidth N f eo d orthostat. While this interferenc havy ema e been sufficient disturo t destrod ban delicate yth e stabilit roofinge th f yo , therevidenco n s ei o et suggest further human depredation in either passage or chamber. Beneath the infill of stone in the chamber burials were found, apparently undisturbed since prehistoric times. The highest point of the W. orthostat in the chamber was 5 ft. above floor level, but the underside of the roofing at its highest point must have exceeded this. It is most improbable tha chambee tth r could have been spanne roofiny db g stones resting directl e side-wallth n yo s bees ha and ns a suggested, quantite th , fallef yo n stone found in the chamber suggests that some form of corbelling was employed. The upper cours dry-stonf eo e walling thosn i , e areas wher t surviveei d undisturbeds wa , forme singla f do e large slab, simila passage thath o t r n i tt Tulachea t-Sionnaichn a . Thes9) (cf . p .e appea havo t r e been chosen, bot r theihfo r stabilising effectd an , as seating for corbels. Behind the orthostats cairn material was built up in horizontal layers in the form of a rough, but substantial, backing wall. The uppermost undisturbed material forming the body of the cairn in the immediate vicinity of the chambe composes wa r flagstonesf do t witse , hsligha t upward inclination towards the centre. Each of these details would have contributed to the stability of a corbelled structure. It is not known to what height such a corbelled structure would have been built, althoug t hwouli d undoubtedly have afforded clearance sufficient stano t n alloo dt uprightma wa centre chambere t leasa th ,th f n i teo . Evidencr efo corbelling was noted by Anderson in both long- and short-horned cairns in Caithness, although roofing did not remain intact in any of the cairns examined by him.1 The floor of the chamber was not paved. Two platforms of dry-stone construction were

Anderson, J., P.S.A.S., vii (1867-8) 495. 1 4 2 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 . chambersectoe th W f e o rbuil theth d discussee n an ,i ytar d belo connectiown i n with the burial. Some for corbellinf mo alsy ogma have bee nante-chambere useth n di bots a , h longitudinal and lateral distances would seem to have been too great to be spanned easil singly yb e slab flagstonef so e heighroofine antechambee th Th .th f o f t go s i r unknown similarls i t I . y unknown whethe roofeindependens n a wa y t db i r t corbelled structure, or whether chamber and antechamber were both covered by the

feet

FIG. Tulloch9 . of Assery : plaA northerf no n passag chamberd ean , showing positio buriaf no l depositF sA-

same roofing widte passagee th Th .f ho , wit possible hth e exceptio shora f no t length about half-way along, would have allowe havo t t di e been spanne individuay db l slabsnorthere e wallth Th f .o s n passage survive averagn a o dt e heigh littla f o te under 4 ft. and, as they showed little evidence of disturbance, apart from collapsed roofing, havy thisma e approximate originae th o dt l heighpassage th f mosr o t efo t lengths odistanca it f. fro r ft entrance m3 th Fo . f passage eo rooe th ef th s o f ewa probably lower, perhaps onl. high ft inne n y3 A . caire rbode s walth th f nwa yo n i l situate distanca fro. t dnorthera e ft m3 th f eo n facade thid san , survive edge th et da passage ofth heigha o et approximatelf o t y. abov ft i efa$adee thath e evi f o tTh -. dence suggests that at the entrance the passage was no higher than the low portal stones, which were 3 ft. high, and that the roofing remained at that height for the THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 25 first 3 ft. of its length. At both Ormiegill (GAT 42) and Garrywhin (CAT 26) the passage appears to have been roofed by simple slabs, and surviving evidence suggests similar roofin t Tullocga Asserf ho . yA Southern Chamber Passaged an (fig) .8 Becaus f extensivo e e disturbanc southere t th n no ei s ncaire wa parth t f ni o t possible to recover structural evidence comparable with that from the northern, but sufficient remaine alloo dt w southermade plae a b th f no t eo n chambe passaged ran . This revealed that there were minor difference lay-oun i s dimensiond an t s between northere th southerd nan n structures. e southerTh n chambe subrectangulas wa r plann i r , with slightly curved side- walls, and rather more symmetrical than the northern chamber. Its back wall was formed by a large orthostat, leaning backwards in a manner similar to that of the corresponding orthostat in the northern chamber, and the southern limits were defined by a pair of orthostats with a gap to allow access from the antechamber. The western orthostat alone survived, but the socket of the eastern was located. The greates greatese t widtth d han t lengtchambee th f ho r wer. Sidein e9 -. botft h9 walls were each constructed of a single orthostat, and were joined to the northern and southern walls by dry-stone walling. Although the overall plan of the chamber was symmetrical orthostate th , side-walle th f so symmetricallt s werse t eno relatioyn i n eaco t h other originae chambee Th .. sid th E f lee o bee d flooth rha f no r intensively t possiblno s determino ewa t burnt t i t bu , e whether thioccurred sha prehistorin di c times or during more recent disturbance. westere plae th f Th no nantechambee parth f o t survivedd eastere ha r th t nbu , beed ha n completely destroye latey db r disturbance which include constructioe dth n antechambee oth heartha f d Ha . r been symmetrically planned plae th , n would have been approximately trapezoidal and would have measured 6 ft. in length and approximatel greatess it t a . tft ywidth8 survivine Th . g western side-wal buils wa l t of dry-stone wallinantechambee th d gan probabls rwa y separated fro passage mth e by a pair of orthostats, the western of which remained in situ. The base of a small broken vertical ston founs intt e wa subsoi e assumede se o th th n lo deastere linth f eo n wall of the antechamber. Its original height is unknown. Its function appears to have been connected wit innehan r wall followin souther linthe gthe eof n facade, and is discussed below. e passagTh . wideft e 3 measure .s lengtAparn i wa . d ft hdtan 7 fro smale mth l orthostat, set half-way along the W. wall, the walls were dry-stone built. At the entrance there was a pair of j amb-stones, set in line with the frontal fac. ade and similar . entrance N . entranc S e thos o t e th alst s eTh a . o ewa sealed blockiny ,b g similao rt . entranceN e thath extended n i an t, d int passage o th distanc a . r ft efo 3 f eo On account of disturbance in the S. part of Tulloch of Assery A it was impossible recoveo t r detail roofingf so structuras A . l detail walle th passagf f sso o chambed ean r resembled northerthose th f eo n structure perhapy ma t ,i assume e sb d tha roofine tth g may have been simila thao t r t suggeste lattere th r d.fo Disturbanc caire . parth S nf e o t appearth n ei havo st e been associated witha 6 2 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 temporary encampment on the site within the last century or so. The cairn was levelled in this area at a height of about 2 ft. above the original ground level, and a discontinuous paving laid down. Immediately to the E. of the antechamber there was a small stone-built fireplace. Alongside was a small, stone-lined socket, possibly intended to hold a forked branch from which cooking vessels were suspended (PI. VII, 2). There were no traces of post-holes, and it may be assumed that there had not been a permanent domestic structure. Artifacts of recent date were found associated with this disturbance. Cairn Reference has been made to the construction of the cairn in the area immediately surrounding the N. chamber. In those parts of the cairn which had been relatively undisturbed t couli , seee db n that almost every cairn ston beed eha n carefulld yan precisely laid in position. There was no impression that the builders had thought in term constructinf so g inner retaining merelf wallso d yan , tipping cairn materian i l between them particulae Th . r propertie Caithnesf so s Flagstone allowed perfection of detail, denie mano dt y chambered cairn groups. Despite some disturbance in the body of the cairn, it was possible to determine tha massivta e 'core', penannula plann ri , surrounded each chambe backins it d ran g material. This cormors ewa e tha nsimpla e retaining wall which t Tulacha s a ,n a t-Sionnaich, neves wa r more tha course non thicknessn ei . Wherever measurements coul sees madee db wa n t thai ,core th te measure thicknesn i t . leasa sft d 8 t an s possibldiametern i . ft 6 y3 . Detail constructios it f so n were more easily identifien di the N. part of the cairn, but surviving cairn material in the S. part showed a similar construction penannulae e tipth f sTh o . r core formed wall t bacsse k som . froft em2 uppee th r course northere walle th th f f so so n passage, probabl alloo yt w roor mfo roofin cairne . parth northere N gf th ,o e tstones th n nI .cor e limit th parn ei f so t coincided wit innen ha r wall, built some distance behin northere dth n fagadee Th . outer limits of the core had largely been disturbed, but those of the southern core were more readily identified in a curved setting to the E. of the chamber. Consider- able traceinnee th f sro face botf so h norther southerd nan n structures were identified, eacn i d h casan corbuile s e th agains p ewa tu end-stone tth respectivs it f eo e chamber. This typ f constructioeo n resemble e circulath s r wall, approximateln i . ft 5 y2 diameter, which surrounde chambee dth t Ormiegilra l (CA and) T42 , apparentlyt a , Garrywhin (CAT 26). Anderson noted tha wale buils th t heavf lwa to y blocks, rather more massive tha stone nth econstructioe useth n di outee th f rno walls. Although

there are similarities between the three1 cairns, it is not known whether the internal walls which Anderson identified were similar to the less massive structure at Tulach an t-Sionnaich or whether they were the more easily identified outer courses of the typ corf eo e recognise t Tullocda Asserf ho . yA Despite careful plannin executiond gan probabls i t i , e that there were local areas caire th nn i where overall desig unabls nwa preveno et t instabilit cairf yo n material. Although Caithness Flagston materiaw ra a s ei l which possessed considerabl- ead

Anderson, J., P.S.A.S., vii (1867-8), 493. 1 section , E-F section , C-D

*'(-/,- "3SVS ..-r.-. -rsv " "'/, ,-"•• -^i-W. entrance blocking ...... gn-f^ance "for'ecb'urf"bI6ctih'q" 215 projected blockin d slian p g forecourt passage ante-chamber chamber chamber ante-chamber assaqe forecourt

IO O 50 feet

sectioB A- n

D 21O I 3 extra -revetment chamber oufer'wall

15 metres

sectioB A- n

219 OD

214 OD outer wall chamber ext •a - revetment

FIG. 10. Tulloch of Assery : sectionA s THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 2J vantages for the builders of chambered cairns, a cairn almost entirely constructed from it had certain inherent weaknesses due to movement and slip. The need for local stability was partially satisfied by the use of vertical buttress stones which were botf o identifie. hE northere th o dsouthert d nan n chambers. There were also traces of internal walling to the W. of the N. chamber. It was slightly curved in plan and joined the inner of the two lateral walls of the cairn to the chamber area, and was probably intende soms da e for innef mo r reinforcement additiona thao t l t allowed for in the original design. Wherever identification was possible, the limits of the cairn were defined by well- built dry-stone walling. Greater attention to appearance was probably paid in the constructio facadee th f no s (PI. VII . facade,S i) d . Botan s . werhN e built from horizontally laid flagstone. Where teste excavationy db lowese th , t cours beed eha n set in a shallow trench, which had probably been cut to mark out the edge of the cairn. Slab sconstructioe useth n di fagade th f no e varie lengtn di h ft.fro3 ,o mt . ift t maintainebu dunifora m thicknes approximatelf so . facadeS d . Botan sin . y3 h N survive heighrespective n di th t a t e entrance e entranc th e top f th o s o t se jambs, approximatel probabls i t i d ft.y3 an e, tha originae th t s thiswa l heighfacade th f to e at this point. From each entrance the height of the facades gradually diminished hornse tipth e until f th so , t thea , y wer einche w onlfe ya s high werd an , e built from courseo tw r flagstonef r moro so o e distanc. a eacn ft er on o 0 he Fo 2 .sidf th eo f eo entrances, the fagades had a slight batter, which would have aided stability. For some distance on each side of both passages there was an inner wall which followed the line of the facade at a distance varying between 2 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. from the upper courses of the facade. Neither the outer limits of this walling nor its relation to the lateral inner wall were determined because of disturbance, but it could be seen that in the S. part of the cairn the walling continued for a distance of at least 16 ft. on each side of the passage. In the N. part of the mound, the corresponding wall also marke outee dth centrae r facth f eo l raise inneds cairne it are th t rf A ao . limit lowee sth r courses were built int passage walle poine th o th f th s o t whict a tea h the height of the passage was increased. In the S. part of the cairn the E. inner wall converge . entrancE e plan th di t ena portalt towardi e t Th fagade me . th sd an e corresponding W. inner wall appears to have been aligned on an orthostat set half- way along the W. wall of the S. passage. The N. inner wall also partially coincided with, and formed lower courses of, the northern limits of the core. This interdependence of structural elements ensured internal stability within the cairn, and the whole central mass built around each chamber contributed to the security of the roofing. It is impossible to offer a precise reconstructio originae th f no l appearanc possibls wa cairnt e i yth t f dome-likebu o , e centrae th n i l areadepositioe Th . individuaf no l cairn-stones witt se , slighha - up t ward tilt toward e centre cairnth sth f o e, would have contribute thio dt s effect. Assuming tha capstonee th t chambere th f so beed sha n completely covere cairy db n material, the original height of the cairn would have been several feet higher than it was at the time of excavation. It has been suggested that the fagade was no more heightn i tha. t tha ft inne e n3 bu , th t r walsomewhas lwa t higher intervenine Th . g 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 area appears to have formed a level platform at the height of the upper courses of the fagade. This would have given the cairn a 'stepped' appearance, provided that cairn material had not been added to mask it. There was no evidence for the former existenc additionaf eo l cairn materia t thia l s point. The side-walls of the cairn were similar in construction to the fagades, but had been rather more extensively disturbed impossibls wa t I . recoveo et r satisfactory evidence of the junction of the inner walls following the line of the facades and those of the side-walls. The little evidence that existed in the NW. quadrant suggested thajunctioe th t n occurre poine th t whict a tda projectioha linee th f bot o sf no h surviving inner walls would have met. It is improbable that the inner walls continued into the horns of the cairn. accounn O disturbancf o t possibl no s determino et wa t ei originae eth l height of the side-walls. In most places where the outer wall was identified, it rarely survive thicknesa o dt morf so threr e . quadrant o tha o e NW ntw courses e th , n howI . - nino evert ep u ,course outee th f rso wall survive shorn di t stretche heigha o st f o t 2 ft. In the same quadrant the inner wall survived to a height of 4 ft above the old ground surfac collapsed an e d wallin immediate th n gi e vicinity suggested thae th t height of the inner wall at this point was originally still greater. It is probable that the inner wall along the sides of the cairn was built to a greater height than that of the fagade. It is probable, too, that the inner wall was built to a height greater than that of the outer wall at any given point on the perimeter of the cairn, and this accords with evidence from other short-horned cairns e inneTh . r wall followe line f dth eo the outer wall at an average distance of 2 ft. 6 in. behind the face of the latter. If the interpretation of the junction of the inner walls is correct, the ground plan of the area enclose innee th y rd b wal l would have been subrectangular t formeI . firda m retaining wall built aroun twie dth n core additionad san l strengt achieves hwa n di frontae th l area bondiny sb g togethe structureso tw innee e th rth cor e rd th ,walle an . The outer wall was built probably to give the cairn its distinctive ground plan, rather tha structurar nfo l reasons. thruse Mosth f o t fro centre caire mth th f neo would have been absorbed by the cores and the inner wall, although additional material buil againsp facinu te latteth e d th tg ran provide outee th ry db wal l would have had some additional structural value. As the height of the fagade decreased fro e entrancmth e toward e horns s possiblth si t i , e that alon e sidgth e walle th s height increased towards the waist of the cairn. The horns were of negligible structural importance, as they were quite low in elevation, and at Tulloch of Assery A o evidencn ther s wa e e thae inneth t r walls extended inte hornsoth . Anderson claime t Ormiegilda l (GA ) tha innee T42 th t r wall extended completely roune dth cairn without a break, but found breaks in similar structures in other, unspecified horned cairns.1 cair e plae th f nTh no proper dennes oute,a e th y rd b wall almoss ,wa t symmetrical compared an d closely with horned cairns type,it f o s havin appearance gth a f eo stretched animal hide. The northern fagade measured 81 ft., taken along the chord betwee southere hornse th . th Frotipe d ft f nth s0 o an ,m n8 entranc entranco et e

Anderson, J., P.S.A.S., vn (1867-8), 489. 1 THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 2Q chore Th d caire . waise ft betweeth th 5 n t 4 ta measure rea e in.d 6 n th . an r, ft 0 d6 western e horne th tipth n f eastere o so . th measure. ft n Eac2 o n 8 . sidft d h 6 ean d9 horn projected for a distance of approximately 25 ft. from the main mass of the cairn. . hornSE sd measurean . AcrosNW tipde e sth sapproximatelth . NE in.e 6 . th , ft y8 and SW. 9 ft. 6 in. Extra-revetment Beyond the outer wall there was a considerable quantity of stone in each of the forecourt d alon e cairn an sidese th s interpretatio gth f It o s. n involves some con- sideration of the problem of extra-revetment material, whether or not it was deliberately placed in position and, if so, for what purpose. At Tulloch of Assery A it seems possible that, although some cairn materia slipped lha d fro moune mth d proper into the surrounding area, the outer revetment walls had been deliberately masked by extra-revetment, not necessarily at the time of their construction, but possibly at some time during the use of the cairn. In both forecourts and along the sides of the cairn layer flagstonef so s were found lyin sligha t ga t angle agains outee th t r wall. placen I flasa t founslas bwa d lying almost vertically agains wala t l face, between the latter and the mass of extra-revetment material.

It is difficult to interpret this evidence. Experiments conducted on the site showed x that pressure from the cairn could cause collapse of several courses of an outer wall which had no revetment. The top course frequently fell into an almost vertical position. Simultaneous collaps severaf eo l courses often resulte staca n neaf di ko r vertical slabs wers a , e foun numbea n di placef ro s (cf. section C-D, fige th . 10)n O . contrary, collapsed walling very rarely settled itself into the near horizontal position of so much of the extra-revetment material around the cairn. At Tulloch of Assery A, therefore, it is possible that extra-revetment material resulted partially from collapse and was partially placed in position by the users of the cairn. The relatively few sections in which nearly vertical slabs were found may represent early collapse, althoug possibls i t hi e that havthey yma e been place than di a ts a positio t ac o nt seating for extra-revetment material. Deliberately placed extra-revetment is probably that represented by what appeared to be carefully laid and nearly horizontal flagstone, sometimes consisting of slabs measuring more than 2 ft. in length. That forecourte th n i s differed little from that alon cairne sidee th attempo gth f N o s. t has been made in either plan or section (figs. 8 and i o) to distinguish between what may have been deliberately set extra-revetment material and slip from the body of cairne th . Attempt t suca s identification ha n could onl made yb sita t eea where ther beed eha n disturbanceo littln r eo forecourte th n I . s extra-revetment extended at its greatest extent opposite the entrances for a distance of between 9 and 13 ft., and along the sides of the cairn for between 12 and 15 ft. There was no evidence to suggest that the extra-revetment in the forecourts had subsequently been removed alloo t w later accespassagee th o st . The problem of interpretation of extra-revetment material is one which has not been solve theiro dt complete satisfactio somy nb e scholars excavatoe :on Irelann ri d 1 1 See discussion in Daniel, G. E., Prehistoric Chamber Tombs of England and Wales, Cambridge (1950), 41-43. 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 subsequently revise earlien da r interpretatio deliberatelf no t extra-revetmenyse o t t causee on slip.y db Although similar evidence from chambered cairns elsewhern ei 1 Hiberno-Britise th h provinct necessarilno y ema relevane y b interpretatioe th o t t n of such features in cairns of northern Scotland, it is perhaps germane to refer to this lack of unanimity. It is also possible that there has been a tendency to oversimplify the problem and regard all extra-revetment material as being either entirely the result of deliberate construction or entirely the result of slip. The present writer was able to visit this cairn on three occasions subsequent to excavation. The first visit took place just under one year after the excavation of 1961 secone th , d nine month thire s th later dd threan , e years afte originae th r - ex l cavation. During this time the site had been left uncovered and had been undisturbed. Walling remained relatively stable t ther beed bu , eha n progressive flaking of dry-stone walling, individuasome th f eo l stone whicf so entireld hha y disintegrated into small flakes (PI. VII . Perhap,3) s more than other evidence, this supporte sth conclusion that Tulloc Asserf ho coulyA t havdno e been left without some sorf o t extra-revetmen lengty an f timer ho fo t . Such evidence canno e applieb t d indis- criminatel cairno yt similarf so construction t knowelsewhereno s i whao n t t i s ta , extent factors such as climate, physical properties of the stone used in construction and the length of time incorporated in a cairn, may be relevant. The present writer found that similar weathering of a similar type of revetment wall occurred within a similar period of time at Luckington in Wiltshire. 2 Finds Only one Neolithic artifact of recognisable type, a flint arrowhead, was found caire wholea th s na n i . Despite apparent absenc disturbancf eo northere th n ei n chamber, ther onls ewa y one, very small fragmen flintf o t . Sherds, glas metad san l object recenf so t date were disturbede founth n di , souther ncairne parth f o t.

FIG. ii. Tulloch of Assery A: flint (i) (i) Flint (a) Arrowhead, A triangular arrowhead of blue-grey flint was found on the original floor level of the southern chamber. It measures 1-2 in. (30-5 mm.) in overall length and has a greatest thickness of 4 mm. (fig. 11 a). It belongs to a class G of Clark's petit-trancket derivatives,3 and a similar arrowhea short-hornee founs th d wa n di d cair Ormiegilf no l (CAT 42). , 1U.J.A., CollinsP. . E . xviA , i (1954), "-13; xxn (i959). 21-23. 2 Corcoran, J. X. W. P., Wilts. Arch. Magazine, forthcoming.

, Arch. D. Clark . J.,G . ,J xci (1934). 52 , 3 THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 31 (6) Flakes. Three flakes were also foun d. chamber S scattere e flooe th th f o rn .d o One gref o , y flint, has traces of secondary working along one concave edge (fig. lib). The other two, one large flake of brownish-red flint, and one smaller blue-grey flake, consisting almost entirely of a bulb of percussion, lack trace secondarf so y working, although havthey yma e been utilise scraperss da A . small, struck flak lighf eo t . antechambergreS e y floo e th founflins th f o rwa n t do smallA . , water- rolled fragmen browf o bottoe t smale th th nt a f mflin lo y sockela t t adjacen hearthe th o t t . e remaininTh g smala flint e ar sl rounde mucd dan h worn blad palef eo , fawn-coloured flint, whic founs h wa quadrant. d neaSE surfac e vere caira e rth th d th y f n ,smalan i e o l scra reddishf po - brown flint, which was found close to burial deposit A in the N. chamber.

) Rock(2 crystal A very small fragment of rock crystal was found immediately below the hearth in the disturbed S. area of the cairn. ) Finds(3 of Recent Date Sherd f receno s t domestic earthenwar a fragmen d ean f spectaclo t e lens weree founth n o d surface of the cairn, immediately below the humus. In addition, a small iron shovel with carbonised wooden handle, a bill-hook, button, fragments of thick glass and sherds of earthenware were associated with disturbanc cairne par. th S f e t.o th n ei

Burials Apart from collapsed roofing material, the N. chamber did not appear to have been disturbed, and burial deposits were here recovered intact. Two low platforms of dry-stone construction were built and burials were placed on them. One platform was buil sevef o t n course . corner Se dry-stonf W s n o th a n n i i ,t se e s wallinwa d gan orthostat. S d angl an theid . sean W r formeintercalare th y db y walling t formeI . da segmen circla f to plan n ei , havin gcurvea d frontal edge othee Th . r platforf o s mwa similar construction approximatels wa t I . y rectangula alony la e plann i rgd th an , chambee . th sid f W . orthostaeo e rNW . th platforbetwee e f th o tSW d e mnth an chamber. Five burial deposits wer . chamberN e e foun lyinth o n eacdi n tw ,g o h platform. Eac f thesho e four latter deposits comprised disarticulated assemblage f humao s n bone. The surviving portion of the fifth burial was articulated and lay on large slabs immediately to the E. of the N. platform. Bone was not found in the E. part of the chamber, but a small deposit was found in the E. part of the N. antechamber. Full detail f boneo s s identifie givee conveniens i ar d Appendit n ni i d an , t xA her o et summarise that evidence (Pis. VIII-X, fig. 9). Burial deposit A. The main part of this deposit lay on the S. part of the SW. platforconcentrates wa d m an aren a approximatelf an o d i y square. tim e ift th et A . of excavation t coul,i seee db n that part crushea f so d cranium overlay vertebrad ean other bones. Parts of bones of the forearm and a scapula had fallen from the plat- formgreatee Th . r ulnn parthred a f aan o t e ribagains y . orthostasla S e e th tth f o t chamber. A femur had been jammed into a cranium, and part of a pelvic margin was in contact with a mandible. Traces of burning could be identified on the surface of two bones of the foot. It was apparent that this deposit represented the careful collection of bones from decayed bodies. Remain individualo tw f so s wer ematura identifieds wa ee adultOn . , somf eo 2 3 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1964-66 the hand bones suggesting an elderly person. Surviving parts of long bones further suggested a rugged individual. A strong muscle ridge on one of the arm bones and vere th y large bone botf so h hand feed san t would suppor identificatioe th t a f no male. Trace f osteo-arthritio s e th f so wer e on ee lef founn th to n ulnd o d an a metatarsals. secone Th d individua adolescentn a s lwa , whost deata approximatels e hewa ag y 14 years, according to evidence from the cranium, dentition, axial skeleton and long bones. There was evidence to suggest that the skull had been deliberately struc hara k d determinee t coulb blowi t t dno bu , d whethe n ante-a rr s o thi wa s post-mortem injury. Rather more of the skeleton of this individual survives than of the accompanying adult. Burial deposit . platfors . S Thi B beed e wa . sidsth d ha nf mW e an o place e th n do partso parte foun smallere tw On th .,n di paralley la , . orthostal W wit e d hth an t consisted of two clay-covered long bones, one of which, a femur, was partly overlaid by part of a mandible with the teeth still in position. The larger part of the deposit consisted of a large mass of moist clay, in which several fragments of bone were subsequently identified. Teet d threhan e long bones, humerus, femu d tibiaan r , could be identified on the surface of the deposit, arranged in the form of a reversed deposite Th . N s were removed intac thein ti r matrice examined san laborae th n di - tory (PI. X). e moisTh t conditio f thino s deposit, particularl ye large th tha f o rt part, con- trasted wit drye hth , brittle stat apparenbons f eo deposiwa n e i t I . t A ttha t bones, some of which were already decayed, were collected and liberally encased in clay suco t extenn ha t that clabeed yha n forced int interioe oth lonf ro g bones, even into the gaps in bone structure caused by disease. As far as could be ascertained, the remains were those of a single individual, a fully grown adult, aged approximatel yeary0 4 betwee t deathd sa an 8 .n3 Bonf eo craniu e t verth no ys thickmwa lefe tth , humerus, radiu femud san r were each lightly built, appropriat femalea o righe t Th .t femu bots wa hr heavie thicked an r r than the left, one result of osteo-myelitis which, however, had not been the immediate cause of death. Traces of osteo-arthritis were identified in the second cervical vertebra. One fragment of the cranium had too abrupt a bevel to have been the normal joint between temporal and parietal bones, and it is possible that this represents a post-mortem cut. Although none of the long bones was complete, the humerus, radius and femur were compared with closely comparable complete bones in the Departmen f Anatomyo t , Universit f Glasgowo y . Calculations base n theso d e figures1 suggested that thif i , s individua beed lha n womana heighr approxihe ,s twa - mately 5 ft. 3 in. Burial deposit C. This small deposit lay at the S. end of the N. platform and comprised badly crushed bone embedde t possiblno s earthn determino di t ewa t I . e r sexo eithe e , althougag r lone hth g bones appeare havo dt e been lightly built. Ther reasoo n s ei assum o nt e that this deposit doe t represensno remaine th t n a f so individual distinct fro . mchamberN othere th n si , 1 Cornwall, I. W., Bon'.sfor the Archaeologist, London (1956), 236-7. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 33 Burial deposit D. This lay at the N. end of the N. platform and consisted of teeth and small fragments of bone mixed with soil. The skeletal remains may belong to a single individual. As surviving parts of the cranium are relatively thick, and as there ia petrous s temporal bon f averageo efulla sizr yefo grown individual, s thiwa s probably an adult. The fragmentary head of quite a large femur confirms this, and suggest malesa . Three attributee molarb y aduln a sma approximatelf o dt o t - y36 t death3a 8 e yearag . f sTheso belon y same eth ma eo gt individual. In addition, there were teeth of an adolescent and a single tooth of a possible third individual, perhaps an adult. Burial deposit E. The fifth deposit in the northern chamber lay immediately to . platformN e th t f partiallI o .th . eE y overlay large, loosely arranged slabs, having e appearancth f falleo e n roofing material, simila thao t r t which fille entire th d e chamber survivine th s A . g bone thif so s deposit were foun articulationn di , sucha hypothesis would sugges t least a tha rooe d t th tpartiallha f y collapsed e prioth o t r buria deposiof l whicE, t h seems improbable alternativAn . e suggestion, that these slabs represent an attempt to build a crude platform alongside the existing N. platform, whic s alreadhwa y occupie t thia d s time, seems preferable s thesA . e five deposits were the only burial found in the chamber, it appears that the users of the tomb did not wish to place human remains on the floor. By the time the final deposit was made, it may have been decided to increase the area occupied by platforms. Becaus f crampeeo d conditions havy ma e t i bee, n difficul construco t t e th t third platfor carefulls ma othe e th s ra y two ,appearance whicth d hha havinf eo g forme doriginae parth f o t lchambere plath f no . The human remains are those of an adult, aged over 20 years at death, and fragment fairla f so y heavy pelvis sugges havy t thama e t beei t malen a e bodd Th .yha been buried on its right side, with its hands near its knees, and in a position so tightly flexed tha t suggesti t e cuttine kneth sth ef go muscles . Thero evidencn s ei f o e diseas survivine th n ei g skeleton, which lacked skullbonee th f ,so including teeth, the vertebral column and all but one bone of the foot. The bones of both hands were remarkably well preserved. Burial deposit F. This deposit was found in a disturbed area immediately to the N. of the SE. orthostat in the N. antechamber. The remains appear to be those of two individuals. Teeth apparently belonged to a young adolescent, whereas remains of a large, thick femur suggest a fully grown adult, probably male. Traces of scoring, probabl prehistorif yo c date, wer righee identifieth f tlowee o th d n ren do humerus. This perhaps suggest post-mortemsa remova flesf o l h fro bonee mth . With the exception of a single incisor in the disturbed area to the east of the chamber and of a few fragments of unidentifiable burnt fragments of bone and recent animal bon e entranc fronn th ei f o t e blocking, these wer e onlth e y bones cairne . parth N f e o t.foun th Disturbanc n di destroyed eha l validal d evidencf eo . chamberS buriae th n i l. Discussion Tulloc chamberea Asserf s ho wa yA d type cairth ef no whic bees hha n known 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 for almost a century as a short-horned cairn,1 the distribution of which is apparently limited to Caithness, Sutherland and Orkney. Its size, relative proportions and metho f constructiodo n compare with thos f otheeo r excavated cairns classit f o s, although Tulloc Asserf honlo e th ys y i know n type cair th havo et f no e been built wit ha separat e chambe passagd an r e entered from each forecourt e grounTh . d plan of the cairn is similar to those of Ormiegill (CAT 42) and Garrywhin (CAT 26), although its horns splay outwards in plan more than do those of the two cairns cited e unexcavated thosth an f eo d cair t Skelpicna k South (SUTe e pla55)th f Th no . horns of unexcavated short-horned cairns at Eday Church (ORK 15) and Fara (ORK e long-horned thos17th an )f eo d cair t Heana f Wordo k (ORK 18) resemble those of Tulloch of Assery A. It is not suggested that conclusions concerning typological sequences should be drawn from these observations. The plan of both chambers in Tulloch of Assery A resembled the bipartite arrangement of chamber and antechamber at Garrywhin (CAT 26). Both differ in this from Ormiegill (CAT 42), where the chamber was of tripartite construction, and from Eday Church (ORK 15) and Fara (ORK 17), at both of which the chambers appear to have at least three sub-divisions. The back-to-back arrangement of independent chambers with their passages under a single cairn is paralleled in Caithness at Langwell (CAT 34), but here the cairn has been much disturbed. At present it is oval in plan and apparently without chamberhornss ha t I . Canistef so r type morA . e widesprea thif o se back-to-bacdus k arrangement may be seen in the double-horned (or dual-court) cairns of the Carling- ford Culture in the north of Ireland. TULLOCH OF ASSERY B2 Prior to excavation Tulloch of Assery B was a large, circular, grass-covered mound, measuring approximatel diameten i . ft oved o yn an rheighn ri . 12ft t (fig. 12). Although it had been recorded on earlier editions of Ordnance Survey 6-in. maps as a broch, and lay hidden under the anonymous designation of 'mound' on the most recent edition, it had the appearance of a burial mound. There was no visible evidenc chambera f eo . Surface indication summie th n so t suggested later activity, possibly associated with the insertion of secondary cists, but this interpretation was shown to be incorrect. Although there were several small depressions in surface mounde th th f eo , ther littls ewa e external evidenc extensivf eo e disturbance. This interpretation was also incorrect. accounmoundn e O sizth e excavatio e f th primareth o e f f e th o ,to th s m yai nwa location and excavation of any chamber and its contents, and any secondary structures f possibleI . , withi time nth e available alss owa hopet i , recoveo dt r some evi- dencmethoe th f e o constructiof do cairne th f no . These aims were largely achieved rathed an r more tha ncairquartea e examined s aree th f nth wa ao f ro . Passage Chamberd an (figs . d 14XIId 13an ,an Pis I ) X . Entrance was from the SE. The passage measured a little over 26 ft. in length and, wit exceptioe hth dry-stonf no e wallin entrance th shora t ga d tean stretcf ho 1 Anderson, J., P.S.A.S., (1867-8)n v , 489. 2 N.G.R 06766187D N . . THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 35

TULLOCH OF ASSERY B

feet 3O

FIG. 12. Tulloch of Assery B: general plan 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 simila passage . th sidinnes r S it f wallin eo t e ea rth endbuils n go wa , t from thin orthostats. Ther beed eha n considerable th f eo . disturbancN e aree th th o at n ei passage. Thi caused sha orthostato dtw falo st l inwards thed an ,y were found lying passagee flooe th th f flao rn o t. distanc a inne e fro. r entranceft th e mFo s 6 th r a outermose f eendr o th fa f s o a , t pai orthostatsf ro passage th , aligne s centre cairne ealignmene th wa th n f dTh eo o . t then backed througheadingw ne a ho t , 18whicn °o maintaines hwa distanca r dfo e of approximatel e remaindeyTh passag. 1e 4ft th f longitudinad o r ean e l axith f so chamber were laid out on a different alignment, some 15° to the S. of the previous alignment. These alterations in the alignment of the passage would explain the position of the chamber to the S. of the centre of the cairn. Had a passage and chambe same th f ero dimension s bee alignmenne builtth d entrance an th , t a t e main- tained throughout end-stone th , chambee th f eo r would have been placed closo et the centre of the cairn and the whole alignment would have lain along one of the cairne axeth f so . passage Th e doe t appeasno havo t r e been built with care comparable with that of the chamber. Orthostats of varying size were used, causing overlapping in places, an arrangement unlike planned imbrication. This overlap was structurally un- necessary, as the orthostats were adequately supported by strong backing and, where necessary, by packing stones in the sockets. The use of dry-stone walling at the inner end of the passage cannot be explained satisfactorily. entrance th . sid t S eA e passage dry-stone. th th wide onls in n 9 O ey wa .. ft i e walling, which linked the kerb and the first orthostat of the passage, extended for a distance of 2 ft. 9 in., and on the N. side for 3 ft. 6 in. The outermost pair of ortho- . apar in thereafted stat6 an t. sft weraverag2 e t th r ese e widtpassage th f s ho ewa t narrowI . ft distanca . fro 3 t e ft chambersa m th 4 poine f eo th t ta , where dry- stone walling on the S. side began, to 2 ft. Onl roofino ytw g stones were passages e identifiedi th t i f inneo d e d th an , t ren a , uncertain whether or not they were in their original position. The inner was resting at an angle of 70° on dry-stone walling on the S. side, and partly on an orthostat on outee Th r. roofinN e th g ston jammes ewa d agains innee th t r sidtala f leo orthostat on the S. side, but rested in a horizontal position on the opposite side. It is possible tha remaindee th t passage th roofef s o r ewa slaby b d s resting directl sidee th -n yo walls, which would have been suitable for the purpose. Construction of a narrow passage suggests that high roofing was not required. The side-walls increased in height fro e entrancmth e toward e chamberth s e innermosTh . t orthostae th n o t southern considerabls sidewa y taller tha remaindere nth possibls i t I . e thae th t builder beed sha n unabl obtaio et nstona suitablf eo e sizthad ean t they therefore used this unsuitably large orthostat. This would also perhaps account not only for dry-stonf o e us e eth wallin adjacene th n gi t sectio passagee th f no t als posie bu ,o th - survivine tioth f no g roofing stones probables i t I . , therefore, tha heighe e th tth f o t passage increased fro e entranc mth e chamber th o e t oute Th . r orthostats were survivino tw approximatel e outee th th gf . tall o rd roofin in an ,9 . ft gy2 stones swa . abovft 4 e floor levele entrancTh . e proper probabl outee yth extendes ra r fa s da THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER7 3 , CAITHNESS kerb of the cairn, and the outer limits of the passage were defined by the dry-stone walling already noticed e heighentrance th Th .f o t unknowns ei unlikel s i t i t ybu , havo t e exceede doutee thath f ro t orthostat passagee th f so blockinA . thif go n flat slabs, four course whicf so h survivedanglen a t a ,t witse , h their inner ends sloping downwards into a shallow pit, sealed the entrance. Immediately outside the entrance there was a flat sill-stone. Suppor side-walle th r passage fo th t provides f so ewa roughla y db y builtt bu , strong, wall . sidove. s wid S ft survive,d ewa whice r3 ean th distanca r n ho dfo f eo 8 ft. behind the first two orthostats. There had been extensive disturbance on the N. side, but sufficient remained to show that a similar backing wall had been built. On this side additional reinforcement had been provided by an orthostat-like slab whic beed hha n erected behin orthostatsfirso e dth tw t . Ther beed muco eha nto h disturbanc botn eo h passage sideth f so establis o et h whethe backine th r g wall continued behin e orthostatdth W.e r whetheth o , o t s r suppor provides e wa t th y db inne rcairne availablcore th f Th eo . e evidence suggeste lattere dth . e chambeTh subrectangulas wa r divides wa plan i d rd nan int o three, approximately equal, segment pairo orthostatsf tw so y b s thirA . d pair forme outee th d r limits of the chamber between which was a gap allowing access from the passage. e end-stonTh larga s eewa gabled orthostat, which measure in.6 . , ft s botit d7 t ha greatest height abov ground eol s greates it dt a leved t widthan l e side-wallTh . s were built of dry-stone walling which, at the time of excavation, was somewhat unstable owing to partial collapse. Each wall was built in a single section, which extended fro outee mth r edg outee eacf th eo f rho pai orthostatf ro lengta o st f ho dry-stone walling, formin backinge end-stonegth e th f o restind outee th an , n rgo otheedgee th f rso orthostat chambere th n squaliti e Th . dry-stonf yo e wallind gha been ver ystone highth t e use bu ,bee d dha n unabl withstano et d stresses imposen do it and had tended to collapse, particularly where it was not directly supported by orthostats. Each segmen lengthn i . e in tTh 6 . measure. ft 6 d an d . betweein 9 . ft n5 total length of the chamber was 18 ft., and measured approximately 9 ft. at its greatest width. Each orthostat in the chamber was tightly packed with large stones in a socket cut intsubsoile oth togethed an , orthostate th r s were intende provido dt e mosf o t structurae th l stabilit chambee th f yo r (PI. XIII ,side i)eTh . walls were builo s t that they rested agains outee th t r orthostate edgeth f so s (PI. XII, i). Thers ewa some evidence that ther beed eha n 'bench'a , buil dry-stonf o t e walling, between each pai f orthostatso r n accounO . f collapseo t , precise detail- re se coulb t dno innee coveredth rn . side i segmenS bence t e th , bu ,th hn surviveo t heigha o dt f o t originally ma in.d 6 . an ,y ft i have been higher (fig. 14). Whatever ritual function these benche havy ssomma en i hads a e, Orcadian cairns where burials were placed on benches or shelves,1 they would also have served a structural function in adding suppore bot orthostath e walle o th h t f th segmentto e s d themselvesth an tf o o stw n I . it was possible to see that a broad, but thin, slab of flagstone had been set vertically between the rear of the bench and the wall proper. It is improbable that these were visible once the chamber had been built, and their purpose was probably structural

Henshall, C.T.S., 78, 91-92. 1 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 n providini s mucga h suppor s possibla t e against pressure fro e e bodth mth f yo cairn for the lower courses of the wall. Roofing stones did not survive in situ over the chamber, but large slabs found in the upper layers of the filling in the chamber were probably fallen roofing material. Som emethoe ideth f a o roofinf do suggestes gi shape th sizd orthostatf y eean do b s chambere useth n heighda i t A approximatelf . o t t abovf y4 e floor leve outee th l r edges of each of the three pairs of orthostats tapered inwards at an angle of approximately 45°. Undisturbed side-walling had not survived above this height, but it seems probable tha t wouli t d have continue reso dt t agains outee th t r e edgeth f so orthostats and doinn ,i , woulgso d have been corbelled t knowinwardsno s i n t I . whether corbellin e side-wallth f g o continues wa s d upward inwardd an s s beyond the tops of the orthostats, or whether capstones bridged the gap of approximately orthostatse tope th leve e th f th so f t o l a . . ft Slab 4 siza f eso suitabl havo et e been capstones of that type were not found in the chamber. A larger quantity of smaller stone found in the upper levels suggests that corbelling was carried above the height orthostatse ofth originae ,th but, so f l,i heigh unknowns ti three Th .e pair orthof so - stats increase heighn di t above chambe flooe th f th ee o r th in.6 rt . a fro, ft m5 entrance to the chamber, to 7 ft. 6 in. at the innermost pair. The end-stone was gabled and, although asymmetrical t wouli , d have been possibl r corbellinefo o gt have been built agains thif I s. evidenctit bees eha n interpreted correctly t suggest,i s tha rooe tth f too for e kina k th f barrel-vaulm f o do t buil dry-stonf to e walling. There evidenco isn e that length flagstonf so e were lai supports da roofingr sfo , acrose sth orthostats forming par eacf o t hchambere walth f lo dry-stonA . e barrel-vaule th f to type suggested, had it existed, would have been a tour deforce, comparable, in its own way, with the tall corbelling of Macs Howe (ORK 36), Quoyness (ORK 44) and similar sites t wouldI . , however, have possesse mucda h greater instability, inherene th n i t us sucf eo largha e are inadequatelf ao y supported dry-stone walling. chambee flooe th discontinuoua f Th o rd rha s laye flaf ro t slab varyinf so g sizes, which increase numben di r toward innee sth r segment possibls i t I . e that this paving beed ha n lai pars d a somf to e ritual activity, whic taked hha n place befor caire eth n walargee th s f built o rt leas a slabe overlais s a ,on tside-wale swa th y db l (th . waleN l outee ofth r segment) pavine Th beed . gha n placed ove layea r burnf ro t material, which could be seen to have extended beyond the limits of the chamber, under the side-walls and into the area covered by the body of the cairn (PI. XII). outee Th r chambee limitth f so r were marke shalloa y db w trenc t inte hcu oth subsoil, immediately inside the outermost pair of orthostats. It measured 3 ft. in length, the same distance as that of the gap between the orthostats, but was not in line with them. It was approximately 9 in. wide and 6 in. deep, and on its W. side lines wa d t i with small, flat t beestonesi d n aligneHa . d wit orthostatse hth t migh,i t consideree b havo dt e bee som n associatei y ewa d with their sockets t thibu ,s seems trence . limith N unlikely f e o ht th ther t A .e were three small t firmlbu , y wedged, stone verticallt sse y acros lons sit g axis. Although the packin e closy th y la o et g stones . orthostatN e olattere fth th ,o t , the ° unlikangln a y45 paralle t e f wera eo e th t ese l setting of normal packing stones. Taken together with the stone lining of the trench, TULLOC F ASSERO H B Y

50 feet

FIG. 13. Tulloch of Assery B: plan of passage and chamber THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 39 the evidence seems to suggest that the latter had been a shallow socket for an upright stone. If this interpretation is correct, both the size of any such stone and whether it was intended to be fixed or movable, must remain unknown. Analogies for low septal stones are plentiful, but parallels for a movable stone dividing chamber from passage are rare. A thin vertical slab dividing the chamber from the passage was foun Passaga n di e Grav t Balvraiea d Farm, near Glenelg, Inverness-shire- ex , cavate writee th y n i rdb

Cairn (figs . d 1412an ) Cuttings in the southern area of the cairn revealedo two walls of dry-stone construction (PI. XIII, 2). The outer wall was subsequently identified in cuttings in the W. and N. sectors of the cairn, and its line traced throughout the SE. quadrant. It was much ruined, but could be seen to have been laid out in an almost perfect circle, diametern i 9. 6ft , wit hsligha t tendency toward flatteninsa aree plaf th go a n ni adjacent to the entrance. It formed the outer kerb of the cairn and had been built from long, carefully set slabs of varying sizes, some of the basal stones being more than i ft. thick, but the majority measured only a few inches. In most places the basal course alon placeew walfe remainede sth a l n i survive t a bu heigh, ft.3 o t d ,f o t which may have been its original height throughout the circumference. The inner wall was not concentric with the outer, but in the southern cuttings distance th e betweecoulo seetw e d b e increas o nt nth e toward . AlthougW e sth t hi was not possible to uncover the entire circuit of the inner wall, it appears to have been ovahavo t pla n i ld e nsurroundean chambee dth r (fig. 1 define3lins s ) It .e wa n di . quadranthSE e t massivels wherwa t i e y built, wit a hpronounce d battera o t , maximum ground . abovheighol ft e 6 edf th o t level. Approximatele th yo t 1. 2ft SW. of the end-stone of the chamber there was a break in the wall where it had been buil againsp u t t vertical slabs. Withi time nth e t possibl availablno s ewa t ei mako t e additional cutting possibls thin i swa s t i shoareao et t wbu , tha wale th t l uprighe wath f so continuedifferen. a t stonesn W o e t th tbu , o dt alignment e th n I . W. cutting the outer edge of the inner wall was identified, and here it was closer to . cuttin. quadrants N SE e wa e th t gi th centre n caire I n .th th i f ns eo thawa t i t possible onl locato yt uppee eth r walle level th t approximatelf a , so same yth e distance from the centre of the cairn as in the W. cutting. To the N. of the passage the inner wall was almost completely destroyed, but traces of it were identified, built up against the N. side of a large buttress stone, set vertically into the subsoil at right angles to the line of the wall. To the S., the end of the inner wall appears to have been buil againsp u t side-walle th t passagee th f so . The plan of the inner wall, then, was oval and enclosed the whole of the chamber and two-thirds of the passage. Along its longitudinal axis it measured approximately 60 ft. and 45 ft. at its greatest width. It had not been built as a continuous wall, but n sectioni s which were marke verticay b d l slab r buttreso s s stones e originath , l number of which is unknown. A detailed examination was not possible, but the wall

Unpublished. Preliminary note in Discovery and Excavation Scotland, 1965, 20. 1 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 itself probably measure thicknesn i t leas. da ft resemble8 td san coree dth s identified Tullocn i f Asserho . BetweeyA innee nth chambee rth wald an l r cairn material appear havo t s e been carefully buil horizontan i t l layers placesn I . , particularln yi e uppeth r e cairnlevelth f o ,s vertical slabs were incorporated amon e pregth - dominantly horizontal material, presumabl o givt y e stabilit e cairth no yt mass. They formed no regular pattern and were not firmly embedded in the cairn. The inner wall or core provided support for the central area of the cairn, includ- inchambee greatee gth th d rpassagere an parth f to , where structural stresses would have been greatest e builderTh . Tullocf so f Asserho y B, however havy ma ,e felt that eve e solidlth n y built centra t sufficientlno l s corwa e y stablet . no The d ydi merely add a capping of stone to give the cairn the appropriate shape, but, before doing this, adde dseriea buttresf so s stones aroun perimetee dth f coree o . th S f . ro . quadran entrance SE th e th tn ei seve thesf no e vertical buttress stones wer intt ese o the subsoil at differing angles, but with relatively even spacing, close to the outer limits of the core. In the W. cutting the line of the inner wall was built at a distance of . fro onl ft centre caire m . fro2 th yoved th 2 ft outee f mn6 an eth o 2 r r kerb- Be . tween the two were set a considerable number of large flagstones. Built up against outee th e corer d extendinth fac an f , o e g toward perimetee th s caire a th r f nfo o r distance of more than 4 ft., there were several vertical slabs, arranged in layers and firmly set parallel with the circumference of the core. To the W. of the vertical stones were foundation layer largef so r slabs, severa mord an l. e measurin ft tha 3 ny b . ft g4 1 ft. in thickness, arranged horizontally and extending almost to the inner edge of kerbe th . In the S. cutting the filling of the gap between core and kerb appears to have been less firmly constructed. Although several very large slabs were found, they belonged to horizontal foundation courses and firmly set vertical buttress stones were not identified. Stones t almosse , t vertically beed ha ,n laid agains coree caird th t an , n materia buils againsp wa lu t lattee overlad th t ran foundatioe yth n s coursewa t I . possiblt no obtaio et n elsewher caire th nn e i precise detail constructiof so aree th an ni between core and kerb, but to the N. of the passage vertically set stabilising slabs appear to have been used. The builders appear to have varied the construction of the outer kerb of the cairn according to the spatial relationship between core and kerb. wero Wher relativeltw n e i e eth y clos ecairne . areproximityth S f e ao , th n i s a , the inner wall was given a batter which, in the absence of outer buttressing, added stabilito uppee t th d r yan level whicf so h coul incorporatee db d int profile oth f o e the finished cairn. Where the distance between kerb and core was greater, the outer lattefacine th f rgo appear havo st e been built vertically added an , d support given by the arrangement of large vertical and horizontal slabs, as identified in the W. cutting. A final capping of smaller stones covered all structures within the kerb. The capping was carefully laid and gave the cairn its rounded profile. In undisturbed area t coulsi d clearl seee yb n that this outer mantl beed eha n carefully constructed resule haphazara th f t o t no s wa d d tippinan stonef go . The kerb appears to have been built with more attention paid to its appearance B

..., ^ 'N/_g-S-»j'3Z3n OD ^T^L^fc^MlS roofing-

kerb

Tallen trench orrhostats chamber bench 213 OD passaqe O 25 feet

226 OD

kerb 213 OD

metres

FIG. 14. Tulloch ofAssery B: sections THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS \\ innee th tha rd wall nwhole inneha e th Th .f reo structur beed eha n designe givo dt e maximum internal stabilit sucn yi hmannea r that very little stres imposes swa n do the kerb. Taking into account the size of the cairn, very little stone was found outside evidenckero e thern d th s ban e wa extra-revetmen f eo t material. Lac slif ko p demonstrate succese buildere dth th f so Tullocf so Asserf ho thein i yB r attemp ensuro t t e the internal stability of the cairn. In turn, this stability allowed them to enclose their cairn wit lowha , well built wall, above which mounde rosmase th eth f o s . Entranc passage th restrictes o et probablewa s wa sizen di d an y, contained within heighe kerbe th th f .o t Wit blockine hth entrance th f go positionn ei kere th , b probably presented the appearance of an uninterrupted dry-stone wall around the entire circumferenc cairne th f eo . Without complete excavation, thercertainto n s ei y that there wer t additionaeno l chambered structures in the cairn, either as part of the original or modified plan, or added as secondaries. There may have been secondary cists or the like, added at a later date, but it is improbable that there had been chambered structures other than that described. Althoug chambee hth situates wa r d e somth f o e . distancS e th o et centre of the cairn, the change of alignment in the passage appears to have been accidental, and it may have been intended that it should have been aligned on the centre of the cairn. Again, the inner wall was so built that it enclosed the centre of the cairn, and the area so enclosed would have allowed little suitable space for additional structures. The outer parts of the cairn were so built that they suggested a unified plan centred on the chamber. Vertical slabs, the tops of which were visible uppee th n i rcaire parth f no t before excavation whicd an , h resemble sidee dth f so cists, were found in every case to form part of the inner structural complex. Finds It has been shown that the cairn had been extensively disturbed in and around both the passage and chamber, but it appears that collapse of the roofing of both passag chambed ean r precede robbiny cairde an buildinth r nf gfo o g material. Arti- facts other than thos f prehistorieo c date wer t found e no lowe Th . re parth f o t chamber was filled with flagstone. There was no evidence to suggest that this represente resule dth f deliberato t e infillinoriginae th y gb l e tombuserth t f I so . may best be interpreted as the remains of collapsed walling, roofing and cairn material. As most of the roofing of the passage had been robbed, the loose stone found there is similarly best interpreted as the result of collapse and disturbance. The larger part of the burial deposit was found lying on a layer of flat stones in innermose th t segmen chambere th f o e bonet Th f thi. so s deposit wer t articueno - lated, but were heaped together in the centre of the segment and were surmounted by an almost complete, but shattered, cranium. Human bone was also found in the passageothee segmento th n rtw i d . sWitan exceptioe hth mandible parf th n o f o t e of a newly-born child or foetus, a single bone of what appears to have been a child's foot, and one molar attributable to a young adult, the human bone may be attributed to two adults only. The nature of the burial deposit suggests that the remains were interre singla s da e act. Lac articulatiof ko n further suggests tha bodiee th t s were 2 4 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 already decaye case d th f Tulach eando n i t-Sionnaichs n a ,a (cf . d previousl7).p ha , y been stored elsewhere. Further details are given in Appendix A. Animal bones were similarly l threfounal n e passagei d th segment n i d . an s Most appea represeno t r t food remains deposite chambee th n di r wit humae hth n burials greatee th s a , ranimae parth f o t l bones were found abov pavinge ew th fe A . animal bones were found belo pavinge wth t diffebu , r considerably fro smale mth l burnt fragments which occur in the underlying burnt deposit. The food remains include Red deer and domesticated cattle, rather fewer bones of sheep and possibly bonew fe possiblf o so fa pigd an ,e bir r watedo r fowl. Althoug remaine hth g do f so fewee ar r than those from Tulach t-Sionnaich,n a they, lik lattere eperhapth y ma , s have formed part of the original burial deposit. Remains of fox found in Tulloch of Assery B are probably intrusive. Animal remains are listed in Appendix B. e artifactMosth f o t s were found beneat e pavinghth , associated wit ha burn t deposit consisting of charcoal and very small fragments of intensely burnt and unidentifiable bone. As this deposit continued beneath the walls of the chamber, it appear represeno st remaine th t somf so e activity which precede erectioe dth e th f no cairn. Although only small sherds of Neolithic pottery were found, the unabraded conditio f mosno f theo t m suggests that this deposi lais dwa t dow t vernno y long befor e constructioth e e cairnth t f mighI no . assumee b t d thae 'pavingth t s wa ' placed in position immediately after the burnt deposit and artifacts were scattered over what was to become the chamber area.

(i) Pottery (fig. 15) A total of 107 small sherds were found, all from the chamber area, with the exception of six wall sherds found under fallen orthostat passagee th pottere n si Th . ye chambee founth th n o n di y rla old ground surface, most of it below the paving, where the latter existed. Sherds were found in each of the three segments, scattered through the N., central and S. parts of each, with the exception of . innesectoe S th e f ro r th segment, where both potter flind yan t were absent greatese Th . t concen- tratiomiddle th sherdf n ni o e s segmentswa . The sherds, with one exception, form a homogeneous group of well-made, dark-coloured and mostly undecorated pottery texture Th . sands ei normalld yan fillina s quartzf yha go shere On .d has a filling of mica and quartz, and another has a filling of charcoal. Whether burnished or not, the surface of the majority of the sherds is smooth, with the exception of a few in which the quartz filling protrudes beyond the inner surface. There is finger-tip fluting on the outer surface of at least one wall sherd (fig. thicknese i$p)- Th wale th lf ssherdo s varies betwee. 1d 5mm an n5 Eleve sherdm nri s were found, belongin nino gt e pots. Eigh thesf to e appea havo rt e out-turned rims, which vary from simple (fig. 151,7 rolleo t ) d forms (fig. 156 , e).d , Sufficient remaine f onldo y one of these eight pots to allow a reconstruction of its diameter, which was approximately 12 in. at the outer edge of the rim (fig. 156). The rim of this pot is out-turned and slightly rolled, having a maximum thickness of 9 mm. The average thickness of the wall is 7-5 mm. On the outer surface fine finger-tip vertical fluting begins approximately i cm. below the top of the rim and continues downward n unknowa r fo s n distance. Fine fluting also extends vertically downwards froe mth upper part of the rim for an unknown distance on the inner surface. Both surfaces are very hard and burnished e nint sherTh m . hri d (fig. 150 fawn-coloures i ) appeard dan havo st e come fro mclosea d bow roundela wits externan ha ha t dI diamete rim. m ri lin ,8 immediatelf o r y below whica s hi perforation. The sherd differs in colour and texture from the others. Three shoulder sherds wer markea es foundha e d ledgon ; e shoulder (fig. 155) secone th , d (fig. has a slight thickening, which emphasises a carination, and the third has a simple carination. THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 43 This last sherd (fig. 150) has shallow parallel grooves on the inner surface. There are three lugs. Of these, the largest projects 14 mm. from the wall of the pot, which at this point is 7 mm. thick (fig. 15m). The other two lugs are smaller. All three are unperforated. The sherds from Tulloch of Assery B belong to that family of mostly undecorated wares, variously referred to as 'Western Neolithic', 'Neolithic A' or 'Primary Neolithic'. The class as a whole has a

FIG. 15. Tulloch of Assery B: Neolithic sherds wide distributio Britain i Irelandbeed s nan ha n d founan , chamberen di d cairnCotswolde th f so - Severn, Carlingford and Solway-Clyde groups. Parallels within Scotland may be cited for the more

meaningful sherds from Tulloch of Assery B. Some of the pottery from Easterton of Roseisle, Moray- shire, for example, has vertical fluting. Sherds of shouldered bowl from this site 1 resemble rim sherds from Tulloc Asserf ho (figyB . 154). Ther alse ear o resemblances betwee shouldee nth r profiles from the pottery of each of these sites. The large lug from Tulloch of Assery B is analogous to one from East Finnercy, Aberdeenshire (National Museu f Antiquitiemo 386)O E s ,a sit t whica e h pottery with finger-tip flutin alss ogwa found.2 The occurrence of this class of pottery at Tulloch of Assery B is of interest in that it extends the distribution pattern to the extreme north of Scotland. This may eventually contribute to a more 3 precise identification of the cultural background of the type of cairn represented by Tulloch of 1 Callander , P.S.A.S.,G. . ,J LXIH . i (1928-9)(N.M.Ano , 38 351), figs, O E 56 .37 . . 2 Atkinson, R. J. C., in Piggott S., (editor), The Prehistoric Peoples of Scotland, London (1962), 34. 3 cf. maps and list of such pottery in Atkinson, op. cit., 14 (fig. a), 34-35. 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 Assery B. It must nevertheless be emphasised that the sherds from this cairn appear to have been deposited prior to its construction. The interval of time between the two acts, however, may not have been long. It is unfortunate that most of the pottery found by Anderson in chambered cairns in Caithness is lost,1 but his descriptions of it having been dark-coloured and well-made suggest that it may have resembled that from Tulloch of Assery B. There may be a further resemblance in

that much of the pottery found by Anderson in Caithness appears to have come from pre-cairn layers, simila2 r in composition to that at Tulloch of Assery B. What appears to have been a similar layer was identified under the cairn at East Finnercy.3

(2) Flint (fig) .16 Forty pieces of flint were found in the cairn. Of these, 29 came from the floor of the chamber, three from the passage and the remaining seven from the body of the cairn. The remaining flint is part of an arrowhead embedded in a vertebra. Flint was found in the N., central and S. parts of each of the segments of the chamber, with the exception of the S. part of the inner segment. The distributio flinf no t compares wit hpotterye thath f o t tha n greatesi ,e th t t concentratio founs nwa d in the middle segment. Twenty-five pieces of flint comprise small lumps of beach pebble flint, retaining part of the cortex, and struck, but not utilised flakes. The remainder show evidence of retouch or utilisation, and include arrowheads or points and scrapers. (a) Arrowheads smalo (iTw ) l points made from slightly curved flake palef o s , grey flint with small t probu , - nounced bulb percussionf so , were foun middle d. walth N neaf o e l erth segment (fig. i6a-b).e Th larger is 18 mm. long, 11 mm. in greatest width, and 2-5 mm. thick. The smaller is 17 mm. long, 9 mm. in greatest width and 2 mm. thick. Secondary working is confined to the edges of the larger,

t therbu slighs ei t workin non-bulbae th n go smallere r facth f eo . Both have very sharp tipwerd san e

probably intended as missile points. They resemble arrowheads from Hurst Fen 4 and Windmill Hill, althoug5 Caithnese hth s point smallee sar r than their English analogues. They resemble eth poin Arraf o t n pitchstone chambefoune th n di f Tulacho r t-Sionnaichn a (cf . 15)p . . (iithinA ) , burn abraded tan d fragmen whitf o t e flint, also foun middle d. wal th N nea f e lo erth segment is probably the lower part of a leaf-shaped arrowhead (fig. i6c). innermose th (iiin I ) t segmen brokena t , light-grey coloured, arrowhea founs dwa d embedded in what appears to have been a lower thoracic vertebra of a fully grown adult, forming part of the principal burial deposit e survivinTh . g portio e arrowheath f no d measure . (1. -f-gin sc 4 mm.)n i length, and Jf in. (15 mm.) in greatest width, at the point where the break occurred. At this point it is -3-2- in. (4 mm.) in greatest thickness and is elongated lozenge-shaped in section. The surviving portion is triangular in plan and has serrated edges. It is not known whether it was leaf- or lozenge- shaped or was barbed-and-tanged (PI. XIV). Several examples of wounds caused by flint arrowheads are known from Neolithic contexts,6 including chambered cairns.' In several instances it was a vertebra which was penetrated.

(b) Scrapers (i) A small, light grey-coloured thumbnail scraper made from beach pebble flint was found at the foot of the outer wall on the S. side of the cairn (fig. i(>g). (iisecondA ) , cruder, much wor abraded nan d scrape outee founs th rwa n r di segment. (iii flakA ) mediuf o e m gre yluma flin d lighf po an t t grey flint (fig. 16A) both have secondary working alon edgee appead gon an , havo rt e been use scraperss da . Both were middlfoune th n di e segment.

1 Henshall, C.T.S., 105-6. 2 ibid. . 94 , 3 Atkinson . cit.op , , 18. , P.P.S.,4 D. Clark . G . xxv,J i (1960), 220, fig. 13, F$6,. 37 5 Smith, I. F., Windmill Hill and Avebury, Oxford (1965), 100-1, fig. 45, FiO3, 108. 6 Calvin Wells, Boms, Bodies and Disease, London (1964), 47-49. H6rault7e e.gth n i . ; Arnal, J., Prehistoire, (1963)v x , 215. THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 45 (ivpointeA ) d flak lighf eo t grey flint, retainin gcortee parth secondars f o txha y working along one edge and may also have been used as a scraper (fig. i6e). It was found in the body of the cairn. (c) Blades (i) A blade of honey-coloured flint from the inner segment has secondary working along one edge and may have been used as a knife (fig. i6d). It is 5 cm. long.

FIG. 16. Tulloch of Assay B: a-i, flint;_/', bon) e(i

smal(iiA ) l blade wit bluntee hon d edge appear havo st e been used, perhap blada a s sa n ei composite tool. It is made from flint similar to that of the worked blade (i), and was found with it innee inth r segment (fig. i6/). (iii) A light-grey coloured blade, possibly utilised, was found at the foot of the inner wall in the S. part of the cairn (fig. :6i). (d) Miscellaneous Two very small fragments of light-grey flint, one from the middle segment and one from the 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 inner segment originallmay , y have been part artifactssof , possibly broken fro leaffaca mthe of e - shaped arrowhead verA . y small fragmen flintf o t . ,long 8-5mm , appear havo st e been worked into a point with a rudimentary tang. It was found in the outer segment.

) Crystal(3 Quartzd an Three piece f rock-crystao s l were e outefounth n ri d segment roundeo Tw . d quartz pebbles were found with animal bone near the S. wall of the outer segment.

(4) Bone Part of a long bone found in the innermost segment, possibly the distal end of the femur of an ungulate, appears to have been worked. The bone, which was scorched, seems to have been cut transversely, and edges of the cut smoothed, either deliberately, or as the result of wear. If this was an artifact, its purpose is obscure. It might have been used as a scoop or scraper. It would have served as the handle of a composite tool, but if so, there are no visible abrasions in the interior which migh expectee b t havo dt e been cause jamminy db g objecn inta t oi t sucflina s ha t blades It . greatest length is 4! in. (fig. i6j). Discussion Tulloc Passaga Asserf s ho wa eyB Grav f Camsteeo r type. Miss A 1 s Henshall s shownha , this typ chambef eencloseo e b y cairnma n rdi f differinso g plan, both roun long.d e focudan distributiof Th 2o s centres ni Caithnessn do , with apparent derivatives in Orkney. In this section discussion of Tulloch of Assery B is restricted comparisono t s with round cairns. normae Th l chambe f Camsteo r rtripartit a typs eha e plan. Side-walll al n si excavated cairns were carefully built of dry-stone masonry. Seven orthostats are normal, the end-stone and three pairs of tall upright slabs, two pairs of which segment the chamber. Tulloch of Assery B had each of these features, but differed from known analogues in the size of the orthostats relative to one another, a factor which bearina arrangemene s th ha n go roofinge th f severao tn I . l chamber end-stone sth e is frequentl shortesythe t orthostat Tullocat approximatelbut , Asser hwas of it yB y same th e heightallese th s a t pai orthostatsf o r severan I . l cairn outee sth r paif ro slabs which segment the chamber are the tallest orthostats in the structure. At Tulloch of Assery B the three pairs increase slightly in height from the entrance inwards, although the height of the tallest, approximately 7 ft., compares with those of other known chambers. t CamsteA r Round (CAT 13) roofine mosth f o tintact s gi tripartite Th . e division form antechamben a s chambea d an r r proper formee Th littla : s i re widers i d an , roofe lintely d b heigh a t sa t little greater tha npassagee thath separatef s i to t I . d from the chamber by a pair of tall orthostats. The chamber proper has a vaulted roof, divides i d an d intsegmento otw s of unequal siz ay epaib r of transverse orthostats which onle high. t reacft whicar d y 4 no ful e an , ho th lh d heigh roofside e th eTh f . wallto s begi oversaio nt heigha t a l t abov flooe eth r leve approximatelf o l risd ft.y7 o ean t , a maximum of 10 ft., at which height they were closed by a capstone. A similar arrangemen havy ma te existe othen di r cairns and, woulso f ,i d have differed from that at Tulloch of Assery B. It has been suggested that the entire chamber of the 1 Piggott, S., Neolithic Cultures of the British Isles, Cambridge (1954), 234-6, 240-3. 2 Henshall, C.T.S., 69-84. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 47 latter cairn was roofed by a structure resembling a barrel vault, as the outer edges uppee o orthostate fth th rl paral f o ts would have provide dseatina corbellingr gfo . tallese Th t pai orthostatf o r t Camstesa r Round have similar sloping upper surfaces which support the over-sailing courses of the side walls. If the chamber at Tulloch of Assery B had been roofed in the manner suggested, its greatest height would probably have been similar to that of Camster Round. Both the length and breadth chambee oth fforme e th f o rr were greater than thos mosf eo t normal chamberf so Camster type. The passage of Tulloch of Assery B differs from most known cairns of Camster typ havinn ei g orthostatic walls, apart from short stretche dry-stonf o s e wallint ga the entrance and the inner end, in place of the more normal dry-stone construction. s alsowa longet I r than most known passage rounn i s d cairns, including thaf o t Camster Round (CA s beeTha 13)n t I suggeste. d thae passagth t t Tulloca e f ho Asserd beeha ny B roofe flay b dt slabs d thian s, appear havo t s e been common practice. At Camster Round roofing stones at the inner end of the passage appear havo t angln a e t beea e t fro nhorizontale se mth . This would provid paralleea r fo l possibla y similar arrangemen Tulloct ta h o fnarrownes e AsserTh . passagye B th f so e heightw lo e ,th whicd an h increases fro entrance mth e inwards, have been noten di several cairns, and in this, too, Tulloch of Assery B conformed. It has been shown lattee thatth n ri , cairn outee th , r walllimite th f ,so buil t thia t s poin dry-stonf o t e walling, were bonded with the kerb. This, too, is a common feature of the class as a whole. e averagTh e diamete f rouno r d cairns covering chamber f Camsteo s r typn ei Caithness varies betwee Gd o an ft. 0 ,n 5 Camster Round havin gdiametea abouf ro t 60 ft. On the mainland there are a few cairns having a diameter of between 70 and 100 ft., but these apparently cover chambers of elongated plan and not of normal Camster type. Tulloch of Assery B, with its diameter of 96 ft., is larger than any known cairtypes it f no . Most round cairnclasse th f ,so where evidenc availables ei , have low, dry-stone kerbs similar to that of Tulloch of Assery B, and like this cairn, t appeadno o o havt r n extra-revetmenta e . Some cairn n Caithnessi s , sucs a h Camster Round (CA innen Ta 13)d r ha wall, , possibly simila thao t r Tullocf o t f ho Assery B, but their precise plan is unknown. Some structural details recognised in Tulloch of Assery B are paralleled in Orcadian derivatives of Camster type. Flattening of the plan of the kerb on each side of the entrance, for example, may be seen at Bigland Round (ORK 2), Kierfea Hil ld Know (ORan ) f CraiKe26 o e (ORK 27). Some Orcadian round cairns appear to have inner walls, as at Bigland Round (ORK 2) and Sandyhill Smithy (ORK 47), formee th r also incorporating buttress stone structures it n si greatef O . r significance, perhaps e recognitioth s i , f dry-stonno e 'benches t Tulloca ' f Asserho , whicyB h resemble stallee thosth f eo d cairn Orkney.f so 1 While it cannot be demonstrated that Tulloch of Assery B, rather than any other circular cairn of Camster type, influenced Orcadian development, the position of this cairn, within a few miles of the coast facing Orkney, does suggest that it could 1Henshall, C.T.S.,. 78 8 4 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 have bee parn i t parental. Caithnesf Excavatioo . N e th s wouln i d hel clarifo pt y the relationship between excavated cairns in the S. of the county and the excavated cairn Orkneyf so . CONCLUSION Evidence derived from the excavation of each of the three cairns described in this pape s beeha r n discussed individually n thiI . s final section referenc s madi e o et matter f moro s e general interest concernin e threediscussioy gth An . f possiblno e relationship between them is inhibited by lack of detailed evidence of absolute chronology. Although the floruit of each cairn appears to lie within the Neolithic in Caithness perio the whola , das e certainly extended over several centurieson and , present evidence there is no certainty that any two of the cairns were in simultaneous use. Ther s similarlei evidenco yn suggeso t e caire t thaon e builder ny th t an f o s adopted eithe buildine th r g technique rituae th r lso otherse usagth f eo . three Eacth f eho cairns provided evidence that their builders possesse higda h degre competencf eo handlinn ei g local building materials. Structural detaile th f so individual cairns have been discussed separately hers i t ei onld an ,y necessar refeo yt r again to the use of 'cores', inner walls and buttress stones in the achievement of internal stability. The type and scale of the cores vary, but in each instance the need to support and contain thrust from the chamber area was achieved. Having accomplished this, the outermost wall of each cairn was not required to fulfil any structural function beyond tha containinf to cappine acting f th cairne o th d f go an , arevetmena s t walle smalTh . l amoun f slio t p from Tulloc f Asserho y B demonstrate effectivenese sth thif o s s metho constructionf do bees ha n t I suggeste. d that a t Tulloc f Assere extra-revetmenho th yA s deliberatele wa tth t no s y wa built d an , resul f slip o f tthi I . extra-revetmene s th wer , eso functioa d ha t nt whicno s hwa simply structural, as the system of cores, inner walls and buttress stones ensured that little pressur exerte s revetmene ewa th n do t wall fro interioe mcairne th th f ro . Dis- turbance, due at least partially to the building of the later enclosing wall, had destroyed some evidence from the heel-shaped cairn at Tulach an t-Sionnaich, but here agai outer-mose nth t walls appea havo t r e experience dminimua thrusf mo t from the interior. There was no evidence of a deliberately built extra-revetment in this cairn. Stone alone appear havo t s e bee ne constructio useth n di e f eacth no f ho cairns, without any admixture of earth or turf, apart from the northern structure f Tulacho t-Sionnaich.n a originae Th l external appearanc cairne th f unknows eso i detail n t mighi i t bu ,t be assumed that the distinctive ground plan of both the heel-shaped and the horned somo t cair s e nwa exten t reinforce elevatioe th n di bees each.f nha o n t I suggeste d that the central mass of each cairn rose above a lower, flatter platform. In its original condition Tulloch of Assery A may have had a stepped appearance, and the heel-shaped cair t Tulachna t-Sionnaichn a similarly ma y have been stepped. Tulloch of Asser appearyB havsto e bee nhemisphericaa l cairn rising fro straight-sidemits d revetment. Each of the three cairns yielded evidence of multiple burial, but again there THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER9 4 , CAITHNESS appear havo st e been little uniformit methoe th n yi depositinf do e deae th g th n di different chambers e evidencTh . . echambe N fro e mth f Tulloco r f Asserho yA appears to be the most ambiguous. There were the remains of at least nine, and possibly eleven, individuals. Of these, all but one, burial deposit E, were fragmentary d disarticulatedan s uncertaii t I . n whether this implie a sequencs f successivo e e interments which, afte decanon-skeletae e th th r f yo l parts havy ma e, subsequently been collected togethe retained ran d withi chambere nth whether o , r ther beed eha n a simultaneous deposit of remains which previously and temporarily may have been housed elsewhere, perhaps in some sort of ossuary. The condition of burial deposit E which, although incomplete when excavated, was almost certainly interred while flesh still remaine bodye th n ,do might argue that successive buria practiseds wa l . On the other hand, the condition of the other deposits, and their fragmentary condition, might suppor hypothesie th t s that these deposits represen tokea t n buriaf o l remains brought from an ossuary. Burial deposit B, in its casing of clay, might similarly be thought to add weight to such an hypothesis. Had this been so, the position of burial deposit E demonstrates that space on the platforms was not cleared for it. It seems probable, on account of its position, that burial deposit E represents the remain a bod f o sy deposite e chambeth n di r subsequen e intermenth e o t tth f o t remaining deposit platformse th n so , whenever these latter deposit havy sma e been placed there. The small number of individuals buried in both Tulach an t-Sionnaich and Tulloch of Assery B - apparently no more than three or four in each cairn - and the condition of the burial deposit suggest that the human remains found in these two cairns had previously lain elsewhere n eacI . h cairn d moran , e particularl n Tullocyi f o h Asser , theryB e would have been adequate newle rooth mwhicn y i y la dead o ht . The incomplete skeletal remains and complete lack of articulation of all human remain cairno s tw fro e s mth wer e resule clearlth f subsequent o t yno t disturbance. Furthermore, the occurrence of animal bones mixed with human bone, and in the case of Tulach an t-Sionnaich of layers of stone, in the same deposit suggests that the contents of each chamber had been deposited simultaneously. Although the remains of four individuals were identifie thesn i dcairnso tw e eacn i , h cas e third eth dan fourth individuals were represente very b d y fragmentary remainse possith d - an , bility must be allowed that the chamber had been used previously and cleared to mak efinae rooth lr mdepositfo e remain thire Th fourtd .th df an o s h individuals might therefore be regarded as skeletal debris from an earlier use of the chamber. To what extent this was common practice in the N. of Scotland must await evidence from future excavation. Shoul t deventualli provee yb havo dt e been normal, only then will it be possible to begin to speculate on the implications inherent in the hypothesi ossuaryn a f occurrence so Th . smala f eo l quantit burnf yo t e bonth n ei chamber of Tulach an t-Sionnaich must similarly pass without comment until comparable data are available. The final use of each chamber was marked by the construction of a carefully built blocking to seal the low and narrow entrance to the passage. At Tulloch of Assery A this was followed by the positioning of the forecourt blocking and, perhaps extra-revetmenf o , t alon cairne sidee th g th f so . 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 Any attempt to compare evidence of burial in these three cairns with that from those cairns in Caithness excavated during the nineteenth century is hampered by lack of detailed data from the latter. In general, it may be seen that most of the individual features observed in Tulloch of Assery B were paralleled in one or more othee ofth r Caithness cairn whicn si h unburnt bone overla ydeposia burnf to t bone. Tulloc Asserf ho appearyA unique evidence b th o st n ei e derived . cham froN s mit - Tulachd beran t-Sionnaich, n a should properl comparee yb d only with Shetland cairns. layee charcoaTh f ro burnd lan t bone from Tulloc Asser f muchs o wa hyB thinner than that exampler ,fo , from Canister Round (CAT 13), both being round cairns with Camster-type chambers thiThe n .former layethe possiblof rand , 'pavingythe ' overlyin more ar , eg it closely parallele Camster-type thosy dth b n ei e chamberf so long-horneo tw e th d cairn t Soutsa h Yarrows (CA little , 55).T54 Th e evidence available suggests tha burne tth t deposi Camster-typ e eacn ti th f ho e chamber foue th rf so cairns on Warehouse Hill (CAT 62-65) was relatively thin. At Garrywhin (CAT 26) and Ormiegill (CAT 42), both short-horned cairns, there was a thick burnt layer in each chamber. There was no evidence whatever of a burnt layer in the N. chamber of Tulloch of Assery A, and disturbance in the S. chamber had destroyed all relevant evidence. Wher burne eth t deposit reache dthicknesa somf so e 1 2t Kenny' a in. s a , s Cairn (CAT 31r Ormiegillo ) t clearli , y differed fro e thimth n scatter identifiet a d Tulloch of Assery B. t knowno s whai o nt t I t exten practicee th t , observe e latteth t ra d cairnf o , scatterin burne gth t deposiformee th n o rt ground surface buildine prioth o t r f go the chamber, was followed. It would appear that a distinction should be made betwee deposit.a scatterna e formerd t TullocTh an a s a , f Asserho , mighyB e b t covere protected dan certaia o dt n exten 'paving'a y b t layerA . , however, measuring 12 in. or more in thickness, had it been deposited prior to the building of the chamber, could hardly have survive activite dth y attendan sucn o toperationn ha . inferree b y dma t thaI t burnt materia thif o l s quantit deposites ywa alreadn a n di y existing chamber. A further distinction may be observed. Burnt bone in the thicker deposits appear havo st e been derived fro commoe mth n typ prehistorif eo c cremation than i , t bone somonls th f eywa e o partly burn thad an tt recognisable fragments were included. Burnt bone from Tulloch of Assery B and South Yarrows South Anderson'e us ) (CAwaso t 55 T, s expressio n referrinni e latterth o t g, 'extremely comminuted'. In the former cairn no individual fragment of burnt bone measured more than across. \majorite in th , y of them measuring less than \ wer d in.ean , unidentifiable e distinctioth f I . s accepteni d betwee a npre-cair n scattea d an r deposit made subsequent to the building of the chamber, it may be assumed to reflect some variatio culn ni t practice n presenO . t evidenct possiblno s i o t t eei correlate such distinctions wit plae hcairth f no r chamberno . Although imperfect in detail, accounts of early excavation in Caithness suggest thae conditioth t f unburnno t bon mosn ei t cairns resembled tha f Tulloco t f ho Assery B. Evidence of articulated remains is ambiguous, but in any case appears to have been a rare occurrence. Human and animal bone appear to have been deposited together. Thi brokene sth factd an , scattere fragmentard dan y conditiof no THREE CAIRN LOCT A S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 5! humae th n skeletal material suggestscase Tullocth f e o n i s a Asser,f ho y B, thae th t majorit depositf yo s were place position di n afte decae th r fleshf yo . Therknowo n s ei n paralle e nortth f Scotlan ho n e arrangemeni l th r dfo t a t Tulloch of Assery A of skeletal material in small, well-defined deposits. The articulated remains of burial deposit E may be compared with at least one crouched burial in the short-horned cairn at Lower Dounreay (CAT 38), where the remaining burials appea havo t r e been heaped togethe e e chambercentrth th f n o ei r n I . every other respect Tulloch of Assery A is at present unique, when compared with known short-horned cairns, not only in its two chambers, but also in the absence from the N. chamber, both of a burnt deposit, and of animal bone. It is unfortunate that destructio . chambeS e th n nri remove l evidencdal buriaf eo rituald t i an l s a , would have been instructive to have discovered whether this chamber, having an orientation simila thao rt know f o t n chamber short-hornen si d cairns, differes it n di burial deposit from that of the northern. Although the few artifacts found make difficult any attempt to assign the three Locf o d h en Calde . precisN a cairne o rt th t es a cultura l horizon, their very paucity surely ma takee yb evidencs na e tha buriae th t t involvl rituano placind e edi th l f go grave goods wit deade hth chamberse t leasth a , n i t . artifacte Nonth f eo s founn di the chambers may properly be interpreted as grave furniture. There is of course no evidence of ritual which might have been observed in any hypothetical ossuary. The animal bones found mixed with human remains at Tulach an t-Sionnaich and Tulloch of Assery B have been interpreted as a viaticum, but it might equally be suggested that they represent the remains of funeral feasts, eaten prior to the placing of the burial deposi chamberse th n i t . Whatever interpretatio preferreds ni absence th , f eo animal bones from the northern chamber of Tulloch of Assery A contrasts with their abundance in the other two cairns. In this may be seen some variations in ritual observance. Such variation is perhaps most clearly demonstrated in the choice of cairn plan. In this the three cairns demonstrate in microcosm the variety of plan which is so marked amon Orkney-Cromarte cairne th gth f o s y group. More thaothey nan r single fact, perhaps, this rich variety abundantly proves that fertility of megalithic invention had not weakened by the time the practice of building chambered cairns d reacheha d northern Scotland. Acceptin e premisth g e thay e desigth an t f no structure devoted solely to cult activity is a conscious response to specific ritual needs, then this variety may similarly be accepted as evidence of differing cult emphasis. t seemI s improbable tha t wili t l eve possible b rmor o d o eet than speculate th n eo reasons which impelle groue don chooso pt circulaea r plan, anothe short-hornera d and a third a heel-shaped plan, or why some passages were short and others long. These were surely a matter of deliberate choice, and were not merely influenced by type buildinth f eo g stone available locally. Whatever symbolis havy mma e under- lain this choice must similarly remain hidden. t neverthelesI s remains possible that future excavatio reveay nma l significant inter-relations between tomb structure, e methoartifactth numbed d an dan s f o r burials. Absence of animal bone at Tulloch of Assery A and its abundance in the . PROCEEDING 2 SE 5 SOCIETYOTH F , 1964-66 regardeothee cairnb o y rtw pointer a examplesr ma s da fo , If . provet were i , b o et d that different types of cairn were in simultaneous use, then some hint of social or- ganisatio rituar no l variants migh presene tfuturee th emerge r th r thiFo t fo . s sBu i . it is not without interest to note that the close proximity of a long, a short-horned and rouna d cair paralleles ni t Skelpicda Sutherlandn ki . Skelpick Lona g s i (SU ) T53 long-horned cair Skelpicd nan k Round (SU ) appearT54 havo st epolygonaa l chamber. The type of chamber in the short-horned cairn, Skelpick South (SUT 55), is unknown. Three cairn . shors W nea Locf e eo th r h Calder, whil t groupeeno d quite as closely together as those on the N. shore, exhibit a similar diversity of cairn plan. These are a long cairn, Tulach Buaile Assery (CAT 59), a round cairn with a Camster- type chamber, Carriside (CAT 17), and a third cairn, Ton Ban na Cruagaich (CAT 56), which contain leas santechambeat one t chamberand r simila typthe e rto identifie d in Tulloch of Assery A. The detailed plan of the enclosing cairn is unknown; at present it appears to be oval, but may have been horned. Admittedly, these are not true analogues of the group at the northern end of Loch Calder, as there is a lack of precise correlation between chamber plan and cairn plan. It is of further interest, however noto t , e tha tthree eacth f eho long cairn almoss swa t certainl multif yo - period construction. Human skeletal remains from the three cairns described in this report suggest that age at death varied from infancy until the late forties, fifties or older. It is not possible from this small sampl f nineteeeo burialo s r no drao st w conclusiono t s sa life expectancy durin e Neolithigth f northerco n Scotland, althoug e evidenchth e shows thamortalite th t y evenlrats ewa y spread amon groupe gag s fro earle mth y teens upwards. Ther similarls ei evidenco yn suggeso et type tomf ton eo tha y ban t was restricted to the burial of a certain age group or of one sex. Ther soms ewa e evidenc diseasef eo . Osteo-arthritis appear havo st e been normal personalsn y i thirtyf oo ma hav t e s ag ,bu ovee e occurrerth least individuaa e n di ton l r lathe e n burialteense i th f suggestes o a , se froon my d b Tulach t-Sionnaich.n a Three individuals appea havo rt e suffered from osteo-myelitis t therevidenco bu n , s ei e that immediate disease th th s ewa e caus f deatheo possiblA . e tubercular tumous wa r identified in the vertebral column of'the larger individual from Tulach an t-Sionnaich, and the same individual appears to have suffered from a prolapsed iiitervertebral disc as well as osteo-arthritis. He died in his early thirties. Hypoplasia of the enamel of the upper left lateral incisor of a young adolescent suggests that this individual d suffereha d from some disease, suc s measlesha r possiblo , y from malnutrition ni early childhood at about the age of three or four years. One individual from Tulloch of Asser appearyB havo st e dieresula s da havinf o t g bee n nbace a shoth y kb n i t arrow (PI. XIV). dentitioe Studth f yo n reveale apparenn da t absenc thin f cariese i eo th sd an , burials from the three cairns appear to conform to the low incidence of caries typical of the Neolithic in Britain. On the other hand, there is considerable evidence of

attrition, som whicf e o sever oldes e th hwa rn ei individuals1 . bearina Thi s sha n go y consideratioan e basith f cno food-producing econom e peoplth f yo e concerned. , EmeryAntiquity,T. . G , xxxvii (1963), 277. 1 THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 53 Paradontal diseas identifies ewa numbea n di individualsf ro ; ther evidencs ewa f eo one cas chronif eo abscessesf co sinusitio tw d . san The animal bones from Tulach an t-Sionnaich and Tulloch of Assery B demonstrate that both herding and hunting played some part in the economy of the cairn builders. Huntin s alsgi o suggeste occurrence th y b d f arrowheadso e . Owino gt the difficulty of identifying fragmentary bones, it was not possible to distinguish with certainty between remain principa cattlo f s o deer d tw e an th , l ungulates represented. Thi turn si n prevent estimaty san e from being relativmade th f eo e import- anc huntinf eo herdind gan g withi econome nth wholea s e evidencya Th . e from dentition, however, suggests tha n Tulachi t t-Sionnaichn a remain cattlf so havy ema e been more numerous than thos deerf eo , wherea Tullocn si Asserf ho botyB h species may have been represente approximateln di y similar quantities cattle Th .botn ei h identifiebe cairn taurusBos smay as dlongifronsdee the Cervus as r and elaphus (Red deer). Neither bone r werteetg s no pi shee f ef ho o identifie r po Tulachn di t-Sionnaich,n a but both animals were certainly represented in Tulloch of Assery B, although in smaller quantities than were cattle and deer. It was not possible to attribute them specifio t c breeds sheee Th .p were almost certainly y domesticatedma g pi e th t bu , have been wild. Remain werg do ef o sfoun botn i d h cairns e specieth , s probably being Canis familiaris t suggestepalustris.no s i t I d thae remain werg th t do ef o spar f fooo t d deposits. It may be inferred from the one apparently complete skeleton at Tulach an t-Sionnaich that the animal was buried with human remains as part of the burial deposit. Fewer remains of dog were identified in Tulloch of Assery B. This was clearl ydomesticatea d animal, usefu boto t l h hunte herdsmand an r . Ther definito n s ei e evidence crop-raisinf o g fro three mth e cairns, eithee th n ri form of carbonised grain or of grain impressions on potsherds. The marked attrition of humae manth f yo n teeth fro l thremal e cairns, however indicaty ma , dieea t a t least partially composed of inadequately ground cereals. The diet also appears to have been supplemented by the flesh of both bird and fish. Evidence of mollusca further suggests that limpets and land snails were collected as food, more particularly by the users of Tulach an t-Sionnaich. assumee b o t t dno tha s contente i th t tI Neolithif so c burial mounds will necessarily provide an accurate indication of the local Neolithic economy. So much must have depended on ritual observance and local custom, insofar as they may have involved food remains. The absence of animal bone of any sort in the N. chamber of Tulloch of Assery A, and its occurrence in the other two cairns, is surely apposite in this context e evidenceTh . nevertheless suggests that addition i , huntino nt d gRe deer, the cairn builders possessed domesticated cattle and sheep, and possibly grew crops. Their basic economy may therefore have compared with that of other known chambered cairn group Britainn si . e paucitTh f artifact yo three th en i scairn s hinder interpretatioy an s e th f no material cultur theif eo r builders. Although skeletal remains attes e huntinth t f go deerd Re , antler, either unworke artifacts a r absents do wa , . There wer axeo en - 4 5 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , 1964-66 ; presence headsth t ye ,charcoalf dee d eo bonee Re th r f suggesd so an 1 t that some woodlangreano tat distancdlay e from Loch Calder mighIt . inferrebe t d that timber was used to some extent, certainly for fuel and artifacts, and possibly for building presenn O . t evidenc t possiblno s i offeo t et i r eithe reconstructioa r f no naturae th l environmen thif to stime cairnaree th eth t aa s were being y builtan r o indicatio changef no s brough econome th timee ty aboub th t f i y.o n i t 2 The paucity of artifacts again does not allow the relationship of the three cairns thoso t Britaif eo generaln ni thosd an ,northerf eo n Scotlan particularn di e b o t , established precisely finde Th .s from each cairn have been discussed separatelyt A . Tulloch of Assery B the scatter of Neolithic sherds predates the building of the cairn cannod an t therefor usee e b dat o dt construction s eit , althoug bees ha nt hi suggeste d evento tw tha e s werth t e separate greao n y tdb sherdperio o tw timef f e dso o Th . Beaker from Tulach t-Sionnaichn a were foun disturbea n di ds cairne parth wa f s o ta , the petit tranchet derivative arrowhead from Tulloch of Assery A, and again are of little valu attemptinn ei gprecisa e datinrespective th f go e cairns. Morphological parallel three r eacth sfo f e ho cairns have been discusseds i t I . prematur beyono g eo t entedo t thid r s intan discussio y oan typologicaf no l sequences. Tulloc Asserf ho neverthelesyB s appear offeo st r some suppor Piggott'o t s hypothesis that the stalled cairns of Orkney were derived from those of Camster type.3 As Miss Henshal shown,s ha l outee 4th r segmen normae th n i t l typ Camstef eo r chambes ri roofe lowea t da r level tha bees innere nha th n t I suggeste. d tha rooe Tullocf tth fo h of Asser tooy B fore barrel-vaulta kth f m o similaa d an , r for roofinf mo havy gma e been employed in the stalled cairn of Midhowe (ORK 37).s Reference has also been made to the 'benches' in the chamber of Tulloch of Assery B; they resemble those of stallee th d cairns. Finally interesf o s i t contras,i o t thie tth n burnt scatte Tullocf ro h of Asser wity B thicke e hth r deposit chambere somn si th f eo Camstef so re typth n eo mainland, suc s Camsteha r Round (CAT 13)n this I e deposi. th , f Tulloco t f ho Assery B compares with the thin layers found in some Orcadian cairns, which sometimes contained small fragments of calcined bone.6 One of the outstanding problems in the study of British chambered cairns as a whole s thai ,f originso t . Precise analogues outside northern Scotlane th d an d Northern Isle Locf s o canno d h three en Caldercite e th . b tr e N d cairnfo t e I .th t sa perhapy ma e assumeb s d that local invention playe a dconsiderabl e th par n i t evolutio plae th botf no f no h chambe cairnlimited a an ro T . d extene b t y thisma demonstrated by the apparent derivation of stalled cairns from cairns having chambers of Camster type. The origins of the latter are unknown, but future excavation and research may eventually yield traces of connections with areas to the south. In doing so, the cairn of Achnacree in N. Argyll may prove to be significant. This

appears to be the only cairn of which sufficient details are known at present t7 o offer Departmen e . Bretth W f . o t D r Botan1f M Universit o e t th f yo Glasgof yo w identified charcoa birchf o l , hazel, sorbus and willow. a For general discussion of the natural environment of Caithness during the Neolithic period, see Hen- shall, C.T.S., 59-60. 3 Piggott, §., Neolithic Cultures of the British Isles, Cambridge (1954), 240-2. 4 Henshall, C.T.S., 115. 6 ibid., 80-81. 6 ibid., 91. Smith . A.R , , P.S.A.S., ix (1870-2), 409-16. 7 THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 55 parallely an , admittedly imprecise thoso t , Canistef eo r typeNeolithie Th . c pottery from Achnacree includes carinated and lugged forms, and some with finger-tip fluting. Each of these features may be paralleled in the pottery from Tulloch of Asser. yB Of the origins of the short-horned and heel-shaped cairns it is impossible on present evidence to offer any useful comment. It may be suggested that, as in the Camstee casth f eo r type, Caithness Flagstone influence developmene dth locaf o t l building traditions. Beyond that one may simply include the chambers of all three cairns describe thidn i s paper withi broae nth d classificatio Passagf no e Graves, which appear to have exercised a strong influence on the development of chambered cairn traditions fro Cotswolde mth Shetlando st . APPENDIX A Human Remains Skeletal material from the three cairns was examined by Dr Archibald Young, T.D., M.A., M.B., CH.B., F.R.C.S. (GLASGOW e Departmenth f o ) f Anatomo t e Universitth n yi f Glasgowyo . Dentition was examined by Dr Dorothy A. Lunt, M.D.S., PH.D., H.D.D., of the Dental Hospital and School in Universitye th . This appendi bees xha n compiled from their identification presene th y b st writer (J.X.W.P.C.); Dr Lunt's contribution has been inserted verbatim in the appropriate section of the Appendix. Dr Lunt writes, 'The teeth are indicated in dental notation. The quadrant of the mouth to which a tooth belongs is indicated by a system of vertical and horizontal lines. Thus J_i maxillar_= y first incisolefe th t sidn o r e jjj = maxillary second premolar on the right side [3" = mandibular canine on the left side 7] = mandibular second righe molath tn rsido e Attritio bees nha n recorded accordin Broca'o gt s scale1: ist degree — facets on the enamel 2nd degree - dentine exposed at the cusps 3rd degree - exposed area of dentine coalescing 4th degree — dentine form e entirth s e occlusal surface Age has been assessed from the degree of attrition of the molar teeth, following Miles' table of values.2 This scal valuef eo workes swa frot dou m seriea Anglo-Saxof so appliee b nn skullsca d d an , otheo t r materia lassumptio e onlth f yi mads ni f comparableo thas diee th twa t e roughnessf I . there is any reason to believe that the Neolithic diet was considerably coarser, grittier or tougher tha nAnglo-Saxone thath f o t , the estimatee nag s should probabl lowerede yb t thermeano bu n , s ei s o fmuch tellinw ho I havy .g b e assumed meantime tha ratee th ttootf so h wear were similae th n i r two groups.'

Tulach an t-Sionnaich (a) Larger Individual Skull. Greate cranium e rbace th par th f kf o to , including part botf so h parietal bones, squamous part of the occipital bone, the major part of both temporal bones, but lacking the squamous parts lattere oth f . Right zygomatic bone, right maxilla halveo tw , mandiblef so . Dentition. righe Th t maxill splits ai , cleavin mid-line th t ga e suture anteriorly included an , e th s tuberosity posteriorly.

1 Broca, P., Bull. Sac. Anthrop. Paris, n (1879), 128. 2 Miles, A. E. W., in Brothwell, D. R., (editor), Dental Anthropology, Oxford (1963), 191. 6 5 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 The mandible has been broken in the [45 area, but the halves match well, with only slight post mortem loss of the alveolar process. The bone is of medium size and well formed, with a square chin, fairly broad ramu almost sse t verticall everten a bode d th yo an ydt angle with bony ridges suggesting strong muscle attachments. 8 654 I Teeth still presen• are t 7654 'I 2345678 732 | Teeth lost post mortem: 32 |i Teeth lost in vivo: i\ and possibly 8| Attrition. Many of the teeth show and degree attrition (dentine just exposed at the cusps), but sho degred w3r e attrition — d degreh —an ,4t e attrition, while — —hardle -ar y wor t allna . 70 I o i[ 2 | 8

e degreTh attritiof eo —=—.——f no , whil 36 . c e f attritioo suggest e ag less n i sa s pronouncen do 76 | (67 suggestd nearee 8 an . Thiag 28 coursf n . sra c o e means that functiot evenlno s ynwa distributed, but was heavier on the right side. Probably the true age would be somewhere between these extremes, perhaps 31-34. Pathology. Carie absens si t fro l thesmal e teeth. Ther s considerablei e evidenc f severeo e paradontal disease, with infectio e softh t f tissueo n s around the teeth, infection and resorption of the bone of the sockets, the formation of deep pockets beside the teeth and the loosening of the teeth. This is most marked in the molar regions, and re- sorptio alveolaf no r bee s bon severo ha n s 8 e roune67 tha| d7 t these teeth were almost certainly mobile, jjj may also have been loose. Though deep pockets have also formed round the roots of 6] and_6J, these teeth are still firmly held in their alveoli. Similar bone loss can be seen in the socket of7i~ e premolarsTh , canine lowed an s r incisort appea affectee diseasee no b th o o e t d sry b dTh . socke jajf o t, however, shows fairly severe o resorptiot e du e f b bone no e los y vivon f £i Th jso . ma paradontal diseas traumao t r eo . This toot obviousls hwa y lost some time before sockedeate th s ha t s healeha d over completely e t presenb no y ~8\e s therd sockets traco i it n an ma Th tf .s e i eo t I . that this tooth was present originally, but had been lost before death due to paradontal disease. On othee th r hand alss i t oi , possible thatoote congenitalls th t hwa y missing presene th n I .t statf eo bone impossibls lossi t i , decido et e whicmore th s ehi likely alternative, althoug vere hth y light wear on^j suggests that 8] was in fact missing. The mesial side of |8 shows normal wear, but the distal side is unworn, and this suggests that |8 was either absent or embedded. The difference in degree of attrition between the two sides is inter- totae th estingln i absenc t lefe bu ,th t f maxilleo conclusiono an reachede b n sca . Paradontal disease is more marked round |6 than round 6|, and it may simply be that the former tooth was too painful alloo t masticationf wo causee maxillae Th .th , n howeveri e .li y ma , Axial skeleton Vertebrae cervical, portions of Ci and C2; 07. thoracic, portion sixf so , including posterior uppen para f o t r thoracic, with evidence of disease, osteo-arthritis and probably a tubercular tumour. lumbar, 1,5 displaying partial sacrilisation, probably due to osteo-arthritis. sacrum, uppee uppeth d r pieces ro margian parsecone e tw bod e th n on ti th ,f f no yo d being fused, perhaps indicativ prolapsea f eo d intervertebral disc. Ribs fight, ist and 2nd and portions of at least four others. left, part of 2nd and portions of at least three or four others. THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 57 Scapula par rightf o t . Clavicles pair, almost complete, suggestin ga measuremen . . acros1c 9in f e shouldero tth s . The right clavicle is more heavily built than the left, suggesting a right-handed individual. Pelvis possible fragments. m Ar humerus, left, complete. radius, portions of right, including mid-shaft, and almost complete left. ulna, proximal end of right and portion of left. Hand scaphoid, part. metacarpals, III right complete, proximal half of a large III, distal half and part of shaft of unidentified metacarpal. Leg femur, evidenc f boto e h righ d leftan t, including distal ends. Apparently slightly asymmetrical. tibia, distal end and shaft of right, distal end of left. fibula, proximal and distal ends of right, almost whole of left. patella, both right and left, the former arthritic. Foot left calcaneum, talus and cuboid. portion metatarsal,V f so intermediatn a e phalanx I proxima d an l phalanx. Comment. Remains of the skull suggest a very broad-skulled individual with a prominent chin. Clearly a fully grown adult and probably male. Study of the dentition suggests an age at death of c. 31-34 years. Several vertebrae exhibit apparent arthritic changes in the spine, particularly in the lipping and fusion of the vertebrae. There was also evidence suggestive of a tubercular tumour of the spine and of a slipped intervertebral disc.

(b) Smaller Individual Skull. Part of right side of frontal bone, part of parietal bone, part of left spheno-parietal junction, right sphenoid bone, part of right temporal bone, part of occipital bone and four parts of vault. Dentition. This individual is represented by the loose teeth ———:—————-, which appear to belon same th eo gt person . " 7 5 I3 1

Attrition. show early and degree attrition— d an , ; show ist degree attrition. 3 5 76 amoune Th molare weaf th o t n o rs suggests an age of c. 18-20. Pathology. Carie absens si t fro l thesmal e teeth. Paradontal disease canno assessede b t absence th n i ,bonef eo . Ther attrition a s ei nmesiae faceth n o l t distae aspecth t f [8~ltoote o tbu par] th f s coverehi o t d with calculus (tartar), which indicates that it was not in occlusion. This may mean either that |8 wafullt sno y erupted t completelthar o ,no s t |8wa y erupted thar o , missings t |8wa . Fro mstuda y proximae ofth l attrition possiblfacets i |8d t ,i |f y an so e tha havy t |8ma e been lyinabnorman a n gi l position, tilted distally and possibly covered partially by a flap of soft tissue, and therefore incom- pletely erupted. This would account for the appearance of the occlusal surface. Axial skeleton Vertebrae cervical, most of Ca, C4 and 05 and possibly Cy. thoracic, posterior part almoso tw , t complete foud an ,r fragments. Ribs right, portion ribsx si fivf so r . eo left, portion f fivso e ribs. portionso Scapulatw . Clavicles approximately three-quarters righ d completan t e left, suggesting measuremenf o t approximately 16 in. across the shoulder. Pelvis fragments. 8 5 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 Arm humerus, portio rightf no , including proximal end. Almost complete left. radius, part rightf so . ulna, proximal and distal ends of right and parts of left. Hand portions of three carpal bones, one metacarpal, two complete and one-half proximal phalanges. Leg femur, part botf so h righ leftd tan , with evidenc osteo-arthritisf eo . tibia, parts of shaft and distal ends of right. Parts of shaft, proximal and distal ends of left. fibula, part of right and complete left. patella, par righf o tcompletd an t e left. Foot righ d lefan tt calcanea, left talus lefd an t navicular. metatarsals, . V d an part I I f so ; phalanges, one intermediate, two proximal and head of third. Comment. face Th t tha vertebrae th t e were completely formed, trace fulla f so y formed iliac crest and absence of cartilage, indicate that this was an adult. Study of dentition confirms this and shows tha youna t s thi t possiblswa g no adult s i determino t et I . e sex, althoug lightee hth r buil thif do s individual, compared with individual (a), might suggest a female. (c) Not attributed Skull. Par hyoif o t d bone. Small fragmen craniumf o t , possibl infant.f yo 1 Dentition. This perso representes ni d onlsmala y yb l fragmen lefe th t f mandibleo t . This fragment include a portios ascendine th f no molao g ramutw rd socketsan s . Anterio e molath o t rr sockets the bone rises sharply to form the posterior wall of another socket, possibly that of a premolar. The molar sockets are very shallow and the porosity of the bone suggests that here, too, paradontal disease had resulted in infection and resorption of bone. Evidently the premolar has not been so seriously affected by the condition, as have the molars. One of the molars is missing, but availabln o e evidenc neithes i t ei r possibl whicy sa o het toot absents hstati o t r e no whethe, s it r absence is due to in vivo loss or failure in formation. From the appearance of the bone, it seems that the body of the mandible was fairly shallow, and this would suggest that the individual was fairly old. Axial skeleton: first rib of adult and portions of rib. Part of shaft of left clavicle, possibly of an infant.2 o Hand: trapezium, part thref so e metacarpals (probabl proximae y on includin d an l ) phalanxgIV . Leg: parts of tibia and fibula. Comment. It is uncertain whether these bones, with the exception of the fragment of mandible elderln oa f ypossible persoth d nean remain infantn a f so , belonindividualo tw o gt s represented above or to third and fourth individuals. The fragment of mandible certainly belongs to a third individua molare nons a lth f eo s molare founth t dfi socket thif so s fragment similaA . r uncertainty applies to many unidentifiable fragments, particularly of long bones, including ends, possibly of humerus, ulna, femur and tibia, and skull fragments.

Tulloch of AsseryA Burial Deposit A (a) Adult Skull: part of crumbled mandible. Axial skeleton Vertebrae cervical, two, very large. lumbar, possible IV, part V, and part of third. sacrum, par uppef o t r right side.

Denston. B 1 . IdentifieC r .M y db Denston. B 2 . IdentifieC r .M y db THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER9 ,5 CAITHNESS Arm radius, right, par shaf f distad o t an t l end. ulna, somewhat squashed par rightf o t , proxima greated an d ren l par shaff to left f o t , showing lipping, suggestiv osteo-arthritisf eo . Hand fight, very large scaphoid, large cuneiform, metacarpals I-IV inclusive, large, apparently of an elderly person. proximal phalanges, II, III, IV and possibly V, large. Leg femur, upper end of right shaft, diseased. Foot right, cuneiform, large, left talus, cuboi partd d an navicular,f so metatarsal, II d an I s large, the former showing evidence of arthritic lipping. Comment. The remains suggest an elderly, rather rugged individual, possibly male, with very large hands and feet, with evidence of osteo-arthritis in arm and foot.

(6) Adolescent Skull. Part righf so lefd an tt temporal bones, par basi-occipitaf o t l bone, par maxillf o t a with teeth, part mandiblf so e with teeth. Skull struck heav knowt y blono t wnbu whether ante or post mortem. Dentition. fairlA y complete maxilla smala , l fragmen mandible th f o tsom d ean e loose teeth. The central suture of the palate is not yet united and this suggests that the individual was young. 8 67 3 | 3 4 T6 , 87 , Teet t h presentt : 54321|1237 46 5 2i|i2 45 ___ Teeth lost post mortem: Attrition. All the teeth show a very slight degree of attrition, dentine having just been exposed along the incisal edges of —:— and on one cusp of [6". It seems very probable that —:— had not

O IQ long eruptedroote th —f so d — an hav, e only just starte formo dt . Thi perhapf so suggest e ag sn a s

f\ I f\ interestins i 1r 14t 3o I . g that —7-—: show rather less attrition than migh expectee b t t thida s age. I 6 Pathology. Ther evidenco n othes ey i an carief f reo o pathologica r so l conditio survivine th n i g socketeethe base th 5]f f Th e.o o t , however, opens int olarga e abscess cavity, whic turn hi n opens into the floor of the maxillary sinus. This means that the pulp of the 5] must have become infected, either as a result of caries, or more probably because of traumatic damage to the tooth. Both third maxillary molars are embedded in their crypts, and while 18 appears to be in normal position, place8s i j d unusuall ybonee higth n h.i Ther evidenco n paradonta y s ei an f eo l condition.

Axial skeleton Vertebrae cervical, odontoid proces , 07C2 . f so thoracic, part, probably of Ti, part of right side of second and parts of four thoracic vertebrae. Three vertebral bodies and one vertebral epiphyseal plate. sacrum, part. fragments0 3 Ribs . Scapula part of left. Pelvis par righf to t regio Y-cartilagf no severad ean l fragments, par rathef o t r thin acetabulum, par righf o t t pubic ramu pard leff san o t t ilium with cartilage. m Ar humerus, fragment f lefto s . radius, par d leff seconf distao o f an t o t d d den len (presumably right) without epiphysis. Hand one metacarpal. o 6 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 Leg femur, fragments of shafpard an t t of distal femoral epiphysis. tibia, par f righo t d tlef shafan td dista proximad an t en l l epiphysis d parf an ,o t proximal head, side unknown. phalanges,o tw proximale Footon . Comment. Evidence fro attritioe m th teete th f h nf 1evidencd r o 14 3o suggesto an ,e ag n esa from the pelvis and the tibian epiphysis suggests that this was an individual whose age at death was between 14 and 16. A mean age of c. 14 years may therefore be accepted. Remains of skull indicate a rather flat face with broad skull, perhaps measuring approximately 22 cm. in width with a vertical heigh approximatelf o t y . 14cm 6

Attributed(c)Not Skull: fragments, including par zygomatif o t c bone. Axial skeleton: part of scapula. Long bones several fragments, including part femuf unidentifiable s o pard on f an r o t e long bone with trace osteo-myelitisf so . Foot par metacarpalf o t . Several unidentifiable fragments, including some calcined bone.

Burial DepositB Skull. Parts of right and left petrous temporal bone, other parts of temporal bone and part of mastoid process. Left articular process and other parts of mandible with teeth, fragment of right maxilla with teeth. Loose teeth. Dentition. Teeth present : 87654321] 345678 I f\ Attrition. — — are all heavily worn, showing advanced 3rd degree attrition. The incisors also 6 I 6 8,8 sho degred w3r e attrition e otheTh . r teeth show and degree attrition, wit e exceptiohth —f no — which show ist degree attrition. This amount of wear suggests tha individuae tth 38-4. c s 0lwa years old at death. Pathology. There is no evidence of caries. Bone infection cannot be studied properly, but there is some evidenc slighf eo t paradontal disease.

Axial skeleton Vertebrae cervical, parts of Ci, C2, and probably GS, C6 and Cj. Ca has evidence of arthritic enlargement. thoracic, thoracicw parlo f o t . Ribs fragments, with evidence of pitting. Pelvis greater part of broken ilium. Arm humerus, par rightf o t , greater par shaff o t left f o t , adult, build appropriat femaleo et . radius, greater part of left shaft, fairly light build, appropriate to female. ulna, greater par righf o t t shaft. Leg femur, middle part of right shaft with clear evidence of osteo-myelitis, the onset of which occurred some considerable time before death. shafd leff mi o tt femur, with relatively weak markings, appropriat femaleo et . right femu considerabls i r y thicker than leftresule th , osteo-myelitisf o t . Long bone fragments, unidentifiable, but with evidence of osteo-myelitis. Comment. Skeletal remains sugges aduln a t t femal evidencd ean dentaf eo l attrition suggests that the age at death was c. 38-40. THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 6l Burial Deposit C Axial skeleton, and pelvis parts, including possible part of ocetabulum in articulation with head of femur. Leg: femur, parts of possible shaft and part of proximal end in articulation with acetabulum. Small mas unidentifiablf so e bone. Comment. Fragments of long bones suggest a lightly built individual.

Burial DepositD Skull. Part leff so t temporal bone, including relatively large petrous temporal bone. Many fragments of relatively thick cranium with eroded outer surface. Loose teeth. I 3 Dentition. Teeth present: ———-^-z. At least two individuals are represented. I 345678 (a) Adolescent

I q probabls i t I e that -:—— represen fairla t y young individual show3 [ . s early and degree attrition,

while dentine is not yet exposed on [4^ An age of perhaps 16-18 could be suggested. [3 has a peculiar worm-eaten appearance resule th ,e twhicb o fy posthma mortem damage t mayI . , however, represent either very severe hypoplasia of the enamel, or resorption, if the tooth was unerupted. It possiblw no t decido eit sno e whic correce th s hi t interpretation. (b) Adult _ Three molar reasonabln ca s • assignee yb singla o dt e individual. |6 shows advanced d3r I °7°_ degree attritio d 17n8an both show and degree attrition e degreTh . f weaeo f ro suggeste ag n a s c. 36-38. Pathology. There is no evidence of caries. (c) Third individual (?) founs wa thin d5 i [ s depositA . This toot belonrathey s i (67e t h i ma th (b),f 8t o ro g t bu les s worn, and unless this individual had some abnormality of occlusion, it is perhaps more likely that this tooth belonged to an individual perhaps in the mid-twenties. Leg femur, fragment apparentlf o s y large proximal end. fibula, fragment of shaft. Comment. e skeletaTh l remains appea n adulte thosa b f o o et r , possibl e samyth e individual represente teety db h (b). Adolescen possible th t d (aean ) third individua e representear ) (c l y db teeth alone.

Burial DepositE Scapula small fragments. Pelvis to small fragments, probabl leff yo t side, relatively heavy. Arm ulna, fragments of right and almost intact left. radius, almost intact left. Hand carpus, both complete, apart from two cuneiforms and one pisiform. Metacarpals, two each (either complet fragmentaryr eo , III. II V , ,I d If Vo an ) phalanges,. V d proximal, , IIIan II eacV , ,o I I f htw o intermediate, three missing. distal, missingx si . Leg femur, part of right, greater part of left with patella attached in a position showing extreme flexion, and suggesting that leg muscles must have been cut. fibula, greater part of right, apart from slight erosion of proximal end. tibia, large parts of both right and left. 62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 Foot one phalanx and a possible metacarpal II, adhering to part of right tibia. Comment. positioe lefe Th th t f femuno patelld an r a show tha bode beed th t yha n tightly flexed in such a position that the leg muscles had probably been cut. This may suggest that the body had been tightly bound in the flexed position. remaine Th those fulla sar f eo y grown adult t possibl t deathno , a s ovei e year 0 t o eI t ag r2 . f so determin wit x certaintyy ese h an , althoug heave hth y pelvie buil suggesy th f dsma o malea t . Burial Deposit F 52 2 456 Dentition. Teeth present: -—————————. Ther fragmena s e i labia e th f o lt ename anothef lo r | 654 678' incisor. This collection of loose teeth has a uniform degree of wear and probably belongs to a single individual. Attrition. The all show early 2nd degree attrition, as does [2. The premolars and |y show 6 | 6 — ist degree attritio n- i.e . wear enameexposee faceto n th t n i s bu ld dentine thid san , suggests that these teeth had not long erupted. The post mortem destruction of nearly all the roots makes an exact assessmenwithio (t year e e non ag ) f ratheo t r more difficult than usualt seemi t bu s, tha roote th t s of 17 were fairly complete, and this indicates that the person could not have been much younger than 14. On the other hand, the very slight degree of attrition of all the teeth suggests that the individual could hardly have been older than 15. The [Fis quite unworn, had obviously not erupted, and only a little of its root appears to have formed, which also supports the suggested age of c. 14-15. Pathology. Ther carieso n s ei . On the crown of [2 two grooves are present indicating hypoplasia of the enamel. This means that the individual suffered either from famine or from a disease such as measles at two fairly close intervals and at the age of 3 or 4. The crown of aj is fragmentary but the same two lines of hypoplasia can just be distinguished. Arm humerus, righf o dista d t witen l h evidenc scoringf eo , possibly cause removay db f o l flesh (?) Hand part of scaphoid, part of either metacarpal IV or V, and proximal half of III. Two proximal phalanges, including III, relatively large. Leg femur, par shaff distad o t an t l end, including condyles f thicko , , heavy right femur, suggesting a large individual. Part of proximal end, side unknown. tibia, proxima rightf o d . en l Foot part of possible calcaneum. Comment. The bulk of this deposit may be attributed to a large, full grown adult, but the teeth are clearly those of an adolescent. Single Incisor Tooth. singlA e incisor ,founs disturbea [£ wa ,n e i d . th sid E f eo de th are n ao northern chamber, immediately orthostasoute th f ho t dividin antechambee gth r fro chambere mth . The tooth could belong to either the adult or the third individual represented in Burial Deposit D, but not the adult represented in Burial Deposit B. The tooth does not seem to be sufficiently worn belon o t adule th Buriamucf o o gto t to adolescens e hi l t th wor i Deposif t o belono ny bu t , an tD o gt individuals identified. It may belong to the problematical third individual of Burial Deposit D, represented solely by [5, or it could represent another individual altogether. Tulloch of Assery B From Inner Segment (principal deposit)

(a) Larger individual Skull. Broke t completnbu e from foramen magnu mglabello t a with many small fragments, suggesting that skul deposites wa l d whole vaule bone th thics Th f i t.eheavyo d kan . Greater part of maxilla, complete mandible. THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER3 ,6 CAITHNESS Dentition. maxille Th almoss ai t complete becoms ha t ebu , compressed, particularly posteriorly, due to loss of the palate. The mandible is of medium size, and is not heavily built. The ascending ramus is fairly short and not very wide, and is set at a slightly obtuse angle to the body. The chin is rather delicate and pointed. The angle is slightly everted and the muscle attachments seem to have been of moderate strength. _ 87 43 11234 6 Teeth present: ' ™ 8765432111234567 R a8 Teeth lost post8 mortem: r o 7 5 216 5 1 Teeth los vivo:n i t 8 r 1o 7

Attrition. Nearly all the teeth are heavily worn. —————————— show 4th degree attrition and 76 | 67 8 1 other teeth sho degred w3r e attrition, excep r fo t which show and degree attrition. o o I With advanced attrition suc thiss ha estimatioe lesth ,s i se reliableag f nfigura o t bu ,e 48-5o. fc 4 may be suggested. This may not be very accurate, but the individual was certainly at least middle- aged. Pathology. In the mandible there is slight evidence of paradontal disease and bone resorption around the roots of—:-;. Pocket formation is quite marked on the mesial root of 6J. There is also o|o very slight evidence of paradontal infection around 87). The other teeth appear to be reasonably healthy, and there is no evidence of caries. A large carious cavit presen s ymesiai e th n lo t involveaspecs ha |6f t I o t. dmesiae mosth f o tl crowe sidth f eo n fro occlusae mth l surface dowgingivae th o nt l margin toote pule s th f Th hp.ha o become infected and the infection has tracked through the apical foramina with the formation of two separate apical thes f lesionso e e bucca o lesionOn .tw formecauses s e l sha th ha root n d do san smala l punched-out hol appea o buccaee t th n i rl alveolar bone secone Th . d palatalesione th n o ,l root, has tracked up the side of the root instead of perforating the alveolar bone. Both of these lesions were probably chronic abscesses with sinuse sofe th t tissuen si s whic draiho t allowes n pu inte doth the oral cavity. 65(5 are unfortunately missing, but there is evidence of bone infection around these teeth, with formatio abscessef no 65]n t so seemI . s probable tha abscese palatae th tth n so l roof o t 6j has involved the maxillary sinus, and this would have resulted in a chronic sinusitis. There is also evidence of bone pathology in the region of aj. In the [78 area there is severe bone infection, thesf o e e on teet beed d hha an n los vivo.n i t impossiblIs i t decido et molaro etw d whice sha th f ho been lost. Axial skeleton Vertebrae sacrum with part of vertebra LS fused together. portio bode vera th f yf o yn o abraded vertebra with parflina f o tt arrowhea- dem t appearI bedde . it n dsi tha lowea t s thisrwa thoracic vertebr fulla f ao y grown adult and that the arrowhead entered from the rear and above. It is also probable that the wound inflicted by the arrowhead was the cause of death (PI. XIV).1

. SandisoT . Departmene gratefuA m th r a f 1D nI o o t l Pathologf o t Universite th n yi Glasgof yo r wfo this opinion. Dr Sandison and Dr Mary Catto arranged for radiographic photographs to be taken of the specimen in the hope that trabecular detail might allow a more precise identification to be made in the absence of external morphological features r SandisoD . litteris)n n(i informe thae dm t some radio-opaque material, possibly dus r eartho t , insid bone eth e structure prevented thise concludedH . , havin t dowgcu nsimilaa r vertebral body from an ancient Egyptian specimen and having compared it with that from Tulloch of Assery B, tha lattee probabls tth rwa ylowea r dorsal vertebral body tha d arrowheae an ,th t d must have entered from the posterior aspect and passed into the spinal cord through the intervertebral space. The arrow was probably infallina g trajector timee th t .ya 4 6 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 Pelvis right ischium, most of acetabulum and part of ilium. part of left ischial tuberosity. Leg femur, almost complete right, proximal end and part of shaft of left. tibia, large par shaff o tright f o t pard , lefdistaf an o t td shaften l .

(b) Smaller Individual Skull: mandible. Dentition. The mandible is fractured into four pieces which fit together accurately. The |i has been lost post othee th mortem,l r positio al n teeti t e hbu ar thein i r sockets mandible Th . larga s ei e heavd an y bone wit hdeea p body ascendine Th . g obtusrarnun a t a quit s est i anglse es i lon et gbu bodye mandible angle th th o Th f t t .ver eo no ys e i strongl y developed slightls i t I . y inverted dan musculae th rt pronounced ridgeno e sar chi e bees Th nha .n lost. teete alse Th har o large thisd an ,, together wit large hth e mandible, might sugges malea t . Teeth present: 87654321 \ 2345678 Teeth lost post mortem: \ i Attrition. 7616 sho degred w3r e attritioremainine th d nan g teet l shohal w and degree attrition, wit exceptioe hth 4)f no , whic vers hi y little wor nabnorman a becaus n i s i t ei l position outside eth arch degree Th . molaf eo r attritio 36-38. c nf o suggest e , althougag n sa anterioe hth r teeth show less wear than migh expectee b t t thada t age. 76(67 show the usual type of flat-topped occlusal wear, but in 8J8 there is a rather saucer-like hollowin occlusae th f go l surface. Pathology. There is no caries in any of the teeth. Deep pits are present in the occlusal surfaces of [78, but these are developmental, and caries does not seem to have started in them. There is a fairly heavy deposit of calculus (tartar) round the necks of the teeth. It is present on both buccal and lingual sides of the teeth. Some resorption of alveolar bone has occurred, particularly around the molars, as the result of a mild paradontal infection, but deep pockets and severe bone loss are not apparent. In spite of the large heavy mandible, there has not been sufficient room for the permanent dentitio crowdind nan anterioe th f go r teet occurreds hha n i e incisort se Th .canined t san no e sar even a nfirse curveth t d premolaran , s sho wtendenca pushee b o yt d buccally. Thi moss si t notice- righe ablth tn e i premolar , whic lyins hi g almost completel t beeyno n ni outsids ha arce d eth han proper occlusion secone Th . d molar e premolarth evenll e al sar d ys an spacecorrecn i d dan t alignment. Scapula par leff to t interior angle acromial proces pard spinesf an to . Pelvis left ilium and part of acetabulum, part pubis and part of ilium, probably right. Arm humerus, part of left shaft and distal end. ulna, part of left shaft and proximal end. radius, part of left shaft and proximal end and probable distal end, side unknown. Leg tibia, part of left shaft and distal end.

t Attributed(cNo ) Skull: probable fragments. Axial skeleton Vertebrae parts of several bodies, including one low thoracic or lumbar. Part of left auricular surface of sacrum. Ribs many fragments, includin froe gmon right mid-thorax wit fractured hol . Scapula left glenoid surface. Pelvis fragments, including part acetabulumf so . THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER5 ,6 CAITHNESS Arm humerus, par proximaf o t l end, side unknown. ulna, par righf o t t shaft. radius, probable distal end, side unknown. Leg femur, fragments of shaft, proximal and distal ends, side unknown. Large part of left. Foot talus,.right , lef metatarsalsV t d metatarsals, lefII an t d V phalanxI an I I (fit s metatarsal I).

From Middle Segment Dentition. An extremely fragmentary tooth, which seems to have been partially burnt. It can nevertheless be identified as [6. degree Th attritiof eo n suggest offe ag . n 18-20sa . Femur part of shaft. This was found in association with a deposit of animal bones, sherds and flints, beneath the paving and continuing under northern wall of chamber. Calcaneum left, probably adult, burnt.

From Outer Segment Skull probable fragments. Pelvis probable parts of os innominatum. Femur fragments, with evidence of osteo-myelitis. Left distal end, including both condyles, small t fullbu , y adult. Foot left talus, left metatarsal III, both adult, but relatively small. Proximal phalanx of immature person.

From Passage Dentition. Right half of a mandible at or shortly before birth. All the tooth germs have been lost from their crypts. Humerus possible fragments. Femur proximal end, probably right, fully grown adult, fairly heavy, probably male. Phalanxtarsae on l phalan pard flattenef xan o t d shaf carpaf o t l phalan. xI Metatarsal righ , adultIV t , relatively large. Comment. Wit exceptioe hth righe th f mandible tno halth f o fnewla f eo y born chil r foetudo s passagee founth n di singla , e proximal phalan immaturn a f xo e person outere founth n di segment molae th d r froan middle mth e segment humae th , n bone from Tulloc f Asserho appearyB o t s represen remaine th tmor o n f eso thaadultso ntw . Thi large trus sth i f ee o deposi innee th rn i t seg- scatterew fe e mentth d t remainbu , s fro othee segmentmo th passage tw th r d ean s coul alse db o attributed to the same two individuals.

APPENDIX B Faunal Remains Skeletal remains were examine r ArchibalD y db d Young, T.D., M.A., M.B., CH.B., F.R.C.S.(GLASGOW), followine th d an g summar bonef yo s represente bees dha n compile presene th y db t writer (J.X.W.P.G.) from Dr Young's identifications. On account of the very fragmentary nature of most of the faunal remains, it was not possible to attribute all of them to specific species. It must be emphasised that, with the exception of a few bones from the extremities, only portions of the bones listed were available for identification. For this reason evidence from dentition acquires an added significance, and r Lunt'D s identification d generaan , of sl comment e dentitioth , on s n compris ef thi o pars I I t Appendix. 66 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 Part I - Skeletal

Tulach an t-Sionnaich faunae Th l remains listed were found chambeeithee th n i r passager ro fror o , m positione th n si cairn where it was apparent that they had originally been placed in either chamber or passage.

Ruminantia (Bos taurus longifrons and Cervus elaphus} Skull portions of hyoid and melar bones. Vertebrae Ca, large thoracic of young animal, several other portions. Ribs various portions. Pelvis right ischium iliumd an . Fore-limb humerus, dista leftd en l, proxima rightd paren d l shaftf an , o t . Hind-limb femur, par shaftf o t , dista rightd en l . tibia, ?distal end. Long bones 7 humerusI femur, immature animal. ?radiusjtibia, portions, various portions of shaft. Extremities portions of two carpals, three metacarpals, one terminal phalanx and at least seven metacarpals/metatarsals. Comment. The problem of identification lies in distinguishing between Cervidae and Bovidae. Ruminantie teete th th f hf o o e Althougthion n ai t attributee sb bu cair taurus s y l hal nBo ma o dt longifrons, the presence in the main burial deposit of a single incisor of Cervus elaphus shows that this anima representes lwa d (cf. thi f paro s I Appendix)I t remaine secone Th . th f so d cervical vertebra, pelvis, humeru femud san r compare with those of Cervus. Other remain almose sar t certainly of Bos.

Canidae (Canis familiaris palustris) Skull almost intact skull of young animal. portions, includin r regionea portion o e gth tw , zygomatif so c arch. Vertebrae six cervical (C6/7) missing, thirteen thoracic, portions of three lumbar, and in- determinate parts. Portion sacruf so atlasd man . Bibs portions of several ribs. intacte Scapulaon , greate r par secondf o tportion o Tw . immaturf so e animal. Pelvis three portions, including os innominatum. Fore-limb humerus, left and right, adult, but ossification not quite complete Proximal end of humerus. radius, complete, and portions of second. ulna, portions of two. Hind-limb femur, completee on ,secondf distao d en l . tibia, two, epiphysis only just formed. fibula, one complete, greater part of second. patella, one. Extremities cuneiform, carpal calcaneao tw , , terminal phalange portiond san t leasa f so t eight metatarsals/metacarpals. Comment. Evidence fro skulle mth scapulad an s e shows thaindividualo tw t e representedar s . The greater part of the remains belong to a mature specimen. These remains were closely associated wit maie hth n burial deposi chambere th n seconi te Th . d specime immatur n thas na i f o t e animal, most clearly represented by the skull and parts of scapula.

Miscellaneous t possiblno s identifo t ewa t I mane th y y very small fragment f animao s l bone t wite bu , hth exceptio possiblf no e fragment bonef o s birf fishd so dan , they appea attributable b o t r e exclusively Ruminantio t Canidaed aan . THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 67 Tulloch ofAssery B Ruminantia (Bos taurus longifrons and Cenus elaphus) From the chamber Vertebrae parts of cervical of large animal, various portions of vertebrae. Part of upper thoracic of small ?deer. Ribs several portion ribsf so . Scapula large portion leff so t scapula, portion largf so e unidentified scapula Pelvis part, including acetabulum Scapula /pelvis part eithef so r scapul r pelvisao . Fore-limb humerus, portio shaff no relativelf o t y small right, portio leftf no , immature humerus. Proxima d distaan l l endd portionan s f shafo sf larg o t e humerus, probablf yo young animal. radius, portions of shaft of immature animal, greater part of right, probably of Cervus. ulna, distal end and large part of shaft of right adult ulna. radius/ulna, portions of right, fused, possibly of Bos. Hind-limb femur, proximal end portiond , distaan d shaftf en lso , possibl immaturf yo e animal. Portion leff so t femu adulf o r t animal. tibia, large portion of shaft of right, distal end of left, probably Bos, distal end, probably ofCervus, several portion brokef so distorted nan d tibiae. fibula, part shaftf so , possibly of Bos. patella, patellao tw e (one left). Long bones several unidentified portions. Extremities astragalus, possibly Cervus (or pig?). calcaneum, two large. metacarpals/metatarsals, at least four and several portions. proximal phalanx, small ?deer. From passagethe Vertebrae cervical, 03d Caan , apparently articulated. Portion bodief so largf so e vertebrae. fragmente on Ri, b?sheep/deer . Scapula part leftf so . Pelvis several portions, large animal. Fore-limb humerus, portion of proxima shafd an t d oflen immature Pdeer. Long bones portion endf so shaftd san lonf so g bones. Extremities calcaneum metacarpal/metatarsal phalanx, part. From area immediately JV. of passage Fore-limb humerus, portion of distal end. ulna, portiond distaan d shaff en lso leff o tt ulna, JCervus. Hind-limb tibia, distal end of right tibia, ?Bos. Extremities metacarpal, ?Cervus. cannon bone, immature ?Cervus. Near large buttress stone to JV. of passage Fore-limb radius, greater part, ICervus. Between core and revetment in S. sector of cairn Hind-limb tibia, distal end and large part of shaft of left tibia of immature Pdeer. Comment. Evidence from dentition (cf .f thi o pars I I Appendixt ) demonstrates that bots hBo taurus longifrons and Cervus elaphus are represented. 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, 1964-66 Sheep From chamberthe Possible portions of ribs, large portion of left scapula, possibly of sheep, portions of head and shaf f femuo t f ?sheepo r d portionan , f unidentifieo s d long boneo metacarpals/metatarsalsTw . , possibl sheepf yo .

From passagethe f Psheepo b Ri .

From the area immediately N. of passage phalangeso Tw , ?sheep/pig.

Canidae From chamberthe Skull portions, including parts of orbit, small ?dog. Temporal bone and possible temporal bone. Vertebrae portion f cervicalso , thoraci caudald can , som whicf eo h suggest immature animal. Ribs several portions. Scapula portions, including part righf so t scapul otherd aan younf so g animal. Pelvis various portions, including part of right, part of ilium, and two ischia of immature animal. Fore-limb humerus, two distal ends, one of young animal. radius, proxima portiod an d shaftf no en l . ulna, portio proximaf nshafto d an .d en l Hind-limb femur, proximal end, proximal and distal end of left and portion of shaft. tibia, proxima leff o t d tibiaen l , portion proximaf so portiond an d shaftf en lso . Long bones portion of shaft. Extremities metacarpus/metatarsus, phalanx and portion of shaft of cannon bone.

From passagethe Skull fragments, young animal. Vertebrae portion f cervicalo s , portio f uppeno r thoraci r f PsmalPlargo co g edo l deerw Lo . thoracic. Ribs portions. Scapula portion. Pelvis portion os innominatum, young animal. Fore-limb humerus, portion. radius, portio proximaf ngreateo d an d ren l par shaftf o t . ulna, portion heaf so shaftd dan . Long bones portio f shaftno . Extremities right and left calcanea, talus, portion of metatarsal, two metacarpals/metatarsals, condyl cannof eo n bone.

From areae th immediately JV. of passage Skull portions, including orbital walportiod an l sphenoif no younf do g animal. Ribs portions. Pelvis portion. Long bones portion shaftf so , young animal. Extremities calcaneum. THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 69 Near buttress stone to N. of passage Skull four fragments. Long bones portion of shaft of immature animal. Comment. Evidence from dentition (cf. part II of this Appendix) demonstrates the presence of both dog and fox. The dentition of the latter was found either in disturbed areas of the body of the cairn and in the upper parts of the passage and chamber. It is probable, therefore, that the remains of fox were intrusive and did not form part of the original burial deposit. Miscellaneous In addition to the skeletal remains listed above, there were many very small fragments of bone which could not be identified with certainty including possible bones of pig. There is no evidence to sugges attribute e speciete other b thao th t e f tro no son the y representeo dt y ma caire th y nn b di bone teethand s smalA . l numbe birof r d bones were chambefounthe in dpassage and r . These appear to belong to two types; the smaller approximates in size to that of pigeon or grouse, and the larger that of goose, gannet or gull.

Part II - Dentition

by DOROTHY A. LUNT, M.D.S., PH.D., H.D.D.,

Dentalofthe Hospital SchoolUniversitythe and in Glasgowof 1 Tulach t-Sionnaich*an taurusBos longifrons mandibulax Incisorssi r permanent incisors. Premolars one mandibular premolar, two maxillary premolars. Molars mandibular, deciduous, one first (?) and one third, and fragments of one third and one first (?) deciduous mandibular molars. permanent, four first or second and one third permanent mandibular molars. maxillary, deciduous, secone othee on on d rd (?deciduouan ) s maxillary molar. permanent, one first or second permanent maxillary molar. Doubtful possible premolars or deciduous molars of Bos. Cervus elaphus One mandibular incisor. Ruminantia Par mandiblf o t unidentifiabld ean e fragment cheef o s k teeth.

Canis familiaris palustris Skull young animal with three deciduous molars in situ on each side. The developing carnassials and first permanent molars can be seen lying in their crypts. Mandible almost complete adult mandible, with permanent teeth in situ, except for all six incisors, both third molars, and the first premolar on the right side.

shoulI d Clark. likS . thano et A e r Roya e koD f th l Scottish Museum . RolfI . , EdinburghD e . W r D d ,an Hunteriae oth f 1 n Museum, Universit f Glasgowyo their fo , r assistanc providinn ei withe gm comparative material from the collections under their care, and for their advice on the identification of the specimens. 2 In addition to the teeth listed here, Dr Lunt also identified the following: Sheep, part of mandible of a very young animal with three deciduous molars in situ. Pig, fragmentary maxillary molar. The mandible was found in the upper levels of cairn material, some eight feet to the N. of the chamber. The molar of pig was an isolated find from near the entrance to the passage. Neither sheep nor pig are otherwise represented in the cairn. It is probable, therefore, that these two finds do not belong to the main use of the cairn. (J.X.W.P.C.) 7O PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 Maxilla one fragment of left maxilla with three incisors, canine and two premolars in situ. Another fragment of left maxilla with fourth premolar (carnassial) and both molar situ.n si A third tiny fragment carries the remaining maxillary premolar. / Ther alse eoar loose teeth fro righe mth t maxill incisorso tw a- ,e caninth d ean first premolar. Doubtful possible buccal hal maxillarf fo y first permanent mola Canis.f ro

Tulloch of Assery B taurusBos longifrons From the chamber Incisors two mandibular incisors. Premolars one mandibular and one maxillary premolar. Molars mandibular, deciduous, worn mandibular third deciduous molar, two deciduous third mandibular molars. permanent, two developing permanent mandibular first or second molars.

Cervus elaphus From chamberthe mandibulao Incisorstw r incisors. Molars mandibular, fragmen leff o t t mandible with third deciduous mola situ,n ri maxillary, developing maxillary firs r secono t d permanent molar. From passagethe Molar developing maxillary first or second permanent molar.

Sheep From chamberthe Part of right mandible with three deciduous molars and one permanent molar in situ. Incisor and developing incisors and one deciduous maxillary molar. Doubtful ungulates From the chamber Crow ungulatf no e molar, possibl Cervus.f eo Small fragment of ungulate tooth, and three unidentifiable ungulate teeth. Pig From the chamber Portio maxillf no a with canine tussecond k an thir d dan d premolar situ.n si From the passage Incisor maxillary right first incisor. Canis familiaris palustris From passagethe Fragmen mandiblf o t e with worn fourth premolar. Worn mandibular left first permanent mola mandibulad ran r canine l froal , m same animal. Fox From chamberthe Par righf to t mandible with firssecond an t d permanent molar situ.n si THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER, CAITHNESS 'Jl Par leff to t mandibl younf eo g animal with permanent canine eruptin premolard gan s abouo t erupt. Portion of maxilla of young animal, probably fox, with three deciduous molars in situ. Canine one mandibular canine. Molar crown of mandibular left permanent first molar. From the passage Fragments of both sides of the maxilla of a young animal, with second and third deciduous molars in situ.

From area immediately JV. of passage Left mandible with three premolars and two molars in situ. Fragmen righf o t t mandible with fourth premola firsd ran t permanent mola situ.n ri

Near large buttress stone to N. of passage Right maxilla of young animal with second deciduous molar in situ, and fourth premolar just erupting.

Doubtful From chamberthe Isolated mandibular deciduous third molar, either of fox or dog.

From area immediately JV. of passage Fragment mandiblef so , dogr eitheo x , rfo wit h deciduous molar canined san .

Discussion of Animal Dentition by DOROTHY A. LUNT The animal teeth in the Loch Calder material belonged to members of three different groups of mammals ungulatese th : carnivoree th rodents,e th d f these O an sungulatee . th , mose ar s t fully represented, and they contribute the majority of the specimens. Ungulates The greater part of the ungulate material consists of isolated teeth which can be assigned to some species of Bos tawrus. Comparisons of these teeth with the dentitions of specimens of Bos taurus primigenius and Bos taurus longifrons in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, and in the Hunterian Museum, Universit Glasgowf yo , show tha Loce tth h Calder teeth match thos longifrons,es ofBo both morphologn i primigeniuss sizee teetn i Bo Th f d .ho y an (the large wild specie f cattleso , variously called Urus and Aurochs) are considerably larger than the Loch Calder teeth. Many of the Loch Calder animals appea havo rt e been quite young, since amon teete gth h ther three ear e developing and unerupted mandibular first or second permanent molars, two developing mandibular premolars, and nine deciduous molars, of which five are mandibular third deciduous molars. Worn permanent teeth include three specimens of mandibular first or second molars, three maxillary premolars, one mandibular third molar and one maxillary first or second molar, and eight mandibular incisors. Since the first permanent molars of cattle erupt at approximately 6 months and the second permanent molars at i-ij years, the presence of these teeth in developmental stages must indicate animals which were certainly less than i £ years old and perhaps less than 6 months old. The premolar thesn si e animals erupt betwee presencyearse 3 n th d o is ,j an worf eo n premolars suggests that some animals wer t leasea year2 t sthire oldTh d. permanent mola cattlf o r e Jerupt2 2- t sa wore yearth nd specimesan thif no s tooth indicates tha animae th t l concerne oves dyearwa r2 s old. Both adult and immature specimens are to be found among the Newstead bovine skulls, which 72 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 Ewart1 identifie longifronss Bo s r 'Celtida o c shorthorn' possibls i t I . fino exace t dth t counterpart to each of the Loch Calder teeth in these skulls from the Newstead excavations, and thus the identification of the Loch Calder cattle as the domesticated variety, Bos taunts longifrons, seems reasonably certain. Three developing cheek teeth, smalle sizn ri e tha teete nth longifrons,hs oBo f have been identified as developing maxillary permanent molars of a red deer. A mandibular third deciduous molar, whic alss howa smaller tha correspondine nth g toot longifrons,hs oBo f similarls i y identifie havins da g belonged to a young red deer. Three mandibular permanent incisors are also those of a red deer, probabl thesf adultn yo a l e Al teet. exactle har y simila sizmorphologn d ri ean correspondine th o yt g teet modera f ho deerd nre . Part of a small mandible, with three deciduous molars and one permanent molar in situ, has been identified as belonging to a sheep, of a breed similar in size to the modern Shetland sheep. The teeth and jaws of both the Loch Calder specimen and the Shetland sheep are smaller and more delicate than those of most modern breeds. The presence of the first permanent molar indicates that this animal was more than 3 months old. None of the deciduous molars has been lost: thus the sheep cannot have been more than i£ years old. The mandible is broken behind the first permanent stage molarth developmenf eo d an , secone th f to d permanent molar, which erupt t 9-1sa 2 months, cannot be ascertained. Other fragments of sheep are part of the mandible of a very young animal, less than I month old, whose deciduous molars were just erupting, an isolated maxillary deciduous molar and an isolated mandibular incisor. representes i g pi e threy Th db e specimens whicf o , largese hth fragmena s i tlefe th t f maxillo t a with the canine and two premolars in situ. The canine is quite well-worn, and is a relatively small tooth. Thiperhapy sma s indicat ee othe thaanima e Th sowa th rts . specimenwa l wora e nar s maxillary molar and a maxillary central incisor.

Carnivores All the carnivore teeth can be definitely assigned to the group Canidae. Two varieties of animal can be distinguished, one which has teeth similar in size to those of a modern greyhound and another with teet same hth e siz thoss ea modera f eo n fox. largee Th r typ animaidentifief e eo b n ca l d with certaint domesticatea s ya mucs i d t o I doghto . small to be a wolf. The adult is represented by one complete mandible, three small fragments of a maxilla which fortunatel carnassiae th s yha firsd an lt mola situ,n i r fragmena anothef o t r mandible bearing the fourth premolar, an isolated canine and an isolated mandibular carnassial tooth. There is also an almost complete skull and maxilla of a young animal, with the deciduous teeth in situ and

the first permanent molars still contained within their crypts. Degerbol studie2 skul e maxillard dth lan y dentitio dogn i Mesolithif so Neolithid can c dated ,an published a series of measurements made on the cranium and maxilla. Since there is no complete adult maxilla in the Loch Calder material, DegerboPs measurements cannot be repeated on this material, with the exception of the maxillary carnassial length. This measurement in the Loch Calde fallg rdo s withi range nth valuef eo s obtaine Degerboy db Neolithie th r lfo c dogs from Bunds0. A comparison was made between the jaws of the Loch Calder dog and those of the Bronze Age

discovereg do d durin excavatione gth Jarlshot sa Shetlandn fi lengtmandible e th th f n ho I d . ean specimeno teethe tw th size e f th th identical,o e sn ar i .Jarlsho e r reporPlatt,th he n n i o t f3 dog, stated that this animal was about 18 in. high at the shoulder and in general proportions resembled a terrier. She also remarked that the Jarlshof dog's skull seemed to be more closely related to the Stone Age type of Cams palustris than to the larger Canis inostranzewi of the Bronze Age. It seems possible therefore that the Loch Calder dog may of the Canis palustris variety. The smaller member of the family Canidae could represent a second smaller breed of dog, but the appearance of small additional cusps on some of the mandibular teeth suggests that it is more 1 Ewart , AppendiC. . ,J Animan xo l Remains Curien i ;Roman A , ,J. Frontier Post an People,s d Fortit e Th of Newstead Parishe th n i of Melrose, Glasgow (1911), 362. 2 Degerb01, M., P.P.S., xxvn (1961), 35-49. * Platt, M. I., P.S.A.S., LXVHI (1933-4), 224. THREE CAIRN T LOCA S H CALDER3 7 , CAITHNESS probably a fox, since these additional cusps can also be observed on the teeth of some modern foxes. The adult fox is represented in the Loch Calder material by parts of two mandibles bearing most of the mandibular teeth, and by isolated specimens of the mandibular carnassial (first molar) and canine. Ther alse ear o fragment maxillae th f o s thref eo e cub portiond mandibleso an tw f so s from young thesf animalso l eal specimen n I . deciduoue sth s dentitio stils ni situ. n i l

Rodents1 rodene Th t materia l belong al lgrou e distinco th volestw f o ps t o d t an ,specieidentified e b n sca . smallee Th r specie abous s i numbe e basie sizmousee a th f th tth f e o s o n columnf rO o . s forming molae th r teeth lace roof th ,k o t formatio thesn ni presence teethth additionan d a f an ,e o l postero- internal loop of tooth substance on the maxillary second molar, this species can be identified as the short-tailed vole. The larger species, which is about the size of a rat, is almost certainly the water vole. Loce th hn I Calder animal material ther three ear e maxillae mandibl e isolatee on ,on d dean incisoshort-tailee th f o r maxillae d on vole mandibl e d incisoe watee on an ,,th on f d ro r voleean . It is most probable that these burrowing rodents are recent intruders into the Neolithic cairns at Loch Calder.

The Loch Calder animal material is extremely fragmentary and it is almost impossible to give estimaty an numbee th f eo individual f o r s present jawg e do sar , dog e e excepcase th Th f th . e o n i t more complete than thos othef eo r species clearld ,an y indicat presenc pupe e eadultth o on .tw d f sean o

APPENDIXC The Secondary Cremation from Tulach an t-Sionnaich by C. B. DENSTON Duckworth Laboratory Physicalof Anthropology, Department Archaeologyof Anthropology,and University of Cambridge e examinatioTh materiae th f no l follow technique th s e use previoun do s occasion writere th y sb 2 bases i procedured n do an cremation si n report Lisowskiy s b Gejvall. y b d primare 3an n Th i 4 m yai studa determino t thi f y o y numbesd tr typageo an e t x e s th eindividuali f ,se ro s cremated.

Material Methodsand Cremated remains. e majorit Th remaine th f yo s were forwarde laboratore th o dt fairla n yi y clean condition, other fragments were embedded in small clumps of earth which necessitated soaking in wate fresmalleo e t rfragments e th e th f o r charcoao N . observeds wa l . Preparation of material. The cremated material was first washed in a sieve of a mm. mesh to get soiy an l f adhere o fragmente d th othe y ri o dt an floa o t f rf bone o sof lighd t an , t materiale Th . material was then allowed to dry and fragments of the various bones and teeth were sorted into groups. The remaining material was then sieved again to get rid of the dust, and picked free of small particles of earth and other foreign material. This residue of small bone fragments was then 1 Considerable skeletal remain rodentf so s were l threfounal n edi cairns l apparentlal , recenf yo t date. They hav t beeeno n listed individuall thin yi ) s C. report. W . X P . . (J . 2 Denston . B.) UnpublisheC ,(a , d ms. repor Duckwortn ti h Laboratory Archives (1962) — (i cremation)A from Stonea Barrow. (2) A cremation from Whiteditch Bridge, Feltwell, Norfolk; (b) 'The cremations from Pitnacree, Perthshire", P.P.S., xxxi (1965), 49-57. 3 Lisowski Poweln i , Danield P. lan . F , , Barclodiady Gawres, Liverpool (1956), 62-69; 'The Rath Crema- tion', J.R.S.A.I., LXXXIX (1959), 26—29. 1 Gejvall, N. G., 'Bestamning av branda ben fran forntida gravar', Fornvannen I (1947), 39~47- Gejvall, N. G., and Sahlstrom, K. E., 'Gravfaltet pa kyrkbacken i Horns socken Vastergotland. II Antropologisk del', Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antiknitets Akademiens Handl. Del. 60, 2 (1948), 153-80. 4 7 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F O S , 1964-66 classified after further inspectio unidentifiables na e variouTh . s group identifief so d material were then examined in detail in order to establish as far as possible the number of individuals cremated, fragmentw fe d age an A thei .f individua x o s se r l bones coul gluee db d together, though actual reconstruction of complete bones was out of the question. Estimation of number, sex and age. The number of individuals identified from material of a cremation is usually establishe presence th y db certaif eo n definite duplicated skeletal parts greaa r ,o t dissimi- larity in thickness of certain bones, or the fact that epiphyseal union has taken place in some bones, whil othen ei r similar bones epiphysea lt take uniono s n nplacha t allea n a . f Assessmeno x se e th f o t individual from cremated remains is a very precarious procedure unless there are preserved definite diagnostic portion bonf so ascertainede b fro n m diagnoseca e b x whicpossibl e n se Th e .ca hth x dese from the robustness of certain bones, but the conclusion is only a tentative one. A possible age at suggestee deatb n examination ha ca y db state th endocraniaf ef o n o ectocraniad lan l suture closure, by noting the fact that epiphyseal union was completed or had not started, by an examination of vertebraee th ,pubie statth f c o e eruptioe symphysisth teethe y wead th b nf an d o .r an ,Thes e features, however t havno ey survivema , combustione dth .

Results General description of the material. Total weight of the bone and teeth fragments was 397'5 gm. The fragments of bone were irregular and varied from minute fragments to 67 mm. in overall length. Their colour was predominantly white with a very small number of fragments black. Of largee th r fragments some were twiste distorted dan displayed dan d ellipticae th f lo cracksw fe A . skull fragments had the outer table split from the inner one. As the amount of material available was not very large, it was not possible to subject the data to a full quantitative analysis. Estimation of number, sex and age. Definite recognisable fragments of particular bones were very few, with no duplicate portion noted. The remains were possibly of one individual, there being nothing to suggest otherwise. The sex was possibly female. This conclusion was decided by the thicknes craniae th f so l fragments overale th d l an ,petrousiz a f eo s portio temporaa f no l bone which was fairly intact. Also the compact bone of the fragments of long bones were not thick, and a portion o shaffa tibia f o ta woulsmalo to f ldo proportion seee b mo t havo st e come fro mmala e individual. The age at death represented by the remains could not be ascertained, but possibly the individual wa adultn sa e slende Th . r evidenc thir ethas fo s i vera t y small portio craniuf no m displayed parf to a suture whic partialls hwa y fused. Some fragment teetf o s h were found amon remainse gth t bu , these were too fragmentary to be of any assistance in ascertaining the subject's age.

Details of Material Skull. There wer hundree eon foud dan r fragments rangin. lengtn gi mm 6 h4 froo t m. 10mm The largest piece was the petrous portion of the right temporal bone, and other recognisable fragments wer posterior-inferioe eth r righe anglth f t eo parieta l piecbonea d ean , that articulated with formee th r portio smala s nrighlwa e parth f t to mastoi d process. Other fragments wer eportioa f no a mandibular fossa of the cranium, and a possible fragment of an orbit. Fifteen cranial fragments displayed e restsuturesth , d numberinan , g eighty-four, were fragments which could have come from varying parts of the cranium, mainly the vault. Odontological remains. Possible root f maxillaro s y central incisor a maxillary, premolara d an , maxillary molar. There mor werw fe e e a fragmentar y root teetf so thest hbu e defied identification. Long bones. Very little of these remains could be identified as being portions of particular bones. Those which were identified were a portion of a shaft of a tibia which was the largest of the fragments and measured 62 mm. in length, a possible portion of a shaft of a fibula, and a fragmentary olecranon process of an ulna. Miscellaneous long bone. Numerous fragments, possibl hundreregioe o th tw n yf i n o d came under this category. ranged mm an , 5 lengtn 5 di o t . h fromm m7 Miscellaneous bone. These fragments could represent parts of any bones that make up the skeleton and ranged in length from 2 mm. to 29 mm. Animal bone. There was a fragment of bone among the remains measuring 71 mm. in length, THREE CAIRNS AT LOCH CALDER, CAITHNESS 75 and a few very small pieces which belonged to this same bone which definitely were not human. largee Th r fragmen bees ha tn identifie beins da g possibl yproximae thath f to ouln d n pigfa a .f len a o The weight and distribution of the total identified and unidentified cremated human remains:

Skeletal material gm. % Total Identified total 224-0 56-4 Unidentified total i?3'5 43'6

Total 397-5 i oo-o

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