Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-02068-9 — Boundaries, Communities and State-Making in West Africa Paul Nugent Index More Information

Index

Abéné, 41, 288 Adjei, Akua, 265 Ablode, 372 administration. See bureaucracy Aborigines Rights Protection Society (ARPS), Adomi bridge, 369–70 162 Adu Bofo, 74, 76 Abraham Commission, 388 Adzakpa war, 503 Abrams, Philip, 7 Adziawofetormedede festival, 510 Abri, Asafoatse, 305 Afede Asor II, Togbe of Asogli, 518 Accra Affary, Prince of Popo (Ofori Bomboneen), 59 Agotime origins, 56 Afife Rice project, 446 Asante, relations with, 75 Aflao, 57, 59, 479, 483, 539 British traders in, 135 Aflao-Ho road, 39 in World War II, 323 Africa industry in, 380 colonial state making, 151–3 migration to, 247, 532 continental unity, 315, 383 population of, 479 decolonization, 315–18 transport links, 261 partition of, 13–15, 18–21, 151–3, 525 Acheampong, Lt-Col. Ignatius Kutu, 442, studies of, new approaches, 12–13 446–7, 452, 455, 481, 538 Africa and the Victorians, 101 Ad Hoc Committee on Union Government, Africa Must Unite, 382 Ghana, 454 Agbamevoza festival, 41, 503–16, 523, 544 Ada, 56, 65, 69, 251 Agbodrafo (Porto Seguro), 62 Ada Manche, 135 Agbovi family, 215, 217, 221–3, 506, 511 Adabara, Etu, 267 Agbovi I, Nene, 144 Adaklu Batoumé, foundation of, 503 Agotime land case, 303–9, 311, 497, 500–1, German treaty, 138 507, 542 in Asante war, 75–6 Agotime, conflict with, 69, 134, 527 in headchief dispute, 216, 221–2 Agotime, settlement of, 55, 59–60, 67, 300, Agbovi IV, Nene of Kpetoe, 302–3, 306–7, 302 372 Ankrah, H.B., murder of, 498 Agoe clan, 66 boundary of, 214 Agotime German rule, 139, 142 Adaklu land case, 303–9, 311, 497, 500–1, in Asante invasion, 75, 77 507, 542 land tenure in, 298 Adaklu, relations with, 60, 501, 527 Adaklu-Waya, 215 Adangbe language, 56, 310, 497, 509 Adampe, 56, 59, 62 agriculture in, 446 Adangbe Akwamu, relations with, 55, 69–72, 74, 77 as traders, 62 Ando, relations with, 305, 309, 498, 542 in Agotime origins, 50, 57–8 Anlo settlers in, 542 language, 56, 58, 225, 307, 497, 509, 515, as imagined community, 225 521 as traders, 60–1, 65, 213, 294, 544 priesthood, 73 as warrior people, 55, 66, 213, 503, 544

582

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-02068-9 — Boundaries, Communities and State-Making in West Africa Paul Nugent Index More Information

Index 583

Asante, relations with, 61, 70, 74–7, 134, smuggling, 38–40, 227, 263–6, 390, 463 309 sources for, 49 Atikpui-Nyive war, 70–2, 74, 503 stereotypes of, 516, 518 border dynamics in, 515–22, 532 stools, ancestral, 73, 215, 218, 499 boundaries of, 67, 77, 214, 298 strangers in, 296, 307, 311, 480, 501, 542 British rule, 135–6, 138, 218–24 taxation in, 226 chieftancies in, 212, 215–18, 372, 505–7 war captives, 67–9, 526 cocoa cultivation, 250 warfare, 65–7, 70, 74–6, 309 cults, 73 women as captive wives, 69, 71–2, 77 Danish, relations with, 60–1, 64–5, 72 Agotime-Abenyirase, 38, 67 dipo initiation rites, 510 Agotime-Adame education in, 519 as Agotime town, 38, 214, 508 ethnicity of, 73, 297, 310–11, 521 cocoa cultivation in, 297 Ewe language in, 294, 310 festivals in, 512, 514 Ewe, relationship with, 38, 41, 294, 302, in Agotime-Hodzo dispute, 300, 302 311, 498, 503, 542 in Togo unification challenge, 373 festivals in, 503–16, 522, 543 Agotime-Adedome, 38, 60, 133, 307, 511 Franco-British partition of, 144–7, 153 Agotime-Adzakpa, 38, 146, 224, 508, 510 French administration, 218, 224–7, 311 Agotime-Afegame, 475 Fulani, clash with, 498, 503 Adangbe language in, 295, 497, 509 German administration, 212–13, 227, 294, Agotime origins, 38 496, 499, 530 as Agotime original home, 60, 502, 510, 521 German rule, 118, 138–9, 141–3 chiefs in, 70, 373, 506–7 German trade, 134 customs station in, 146 Ho alliance, 75–7 Ewe language in, 515 Hodzo dispute, 298, 300–3, 307, 373, 501, Fulani, relations with, 498 509 German rule, 142–3 identity of, 296–7, 310–11, 497, 521–2 in Agotime partition, 133, 145, 147, 215 in Togo unification challenge, 357, 371–4 in plebiscite of 1956, 374 kente weaving in, 247, 503–5, 510, 513, in Togo unification challenge, 371 523, 544 revolutionary justice in, 468 king lists, 73, 217–18 strangers in, 480 kinship in, 77 Todze family, 303 land litigation, 297–310 traditions in, 499 land tenure in, 252, 298 war captives in, 72, 74 maps of, 497 Agotime-Agohokpo, 38 markets in, 477, 497 Agotime-Agohome, 520 meaning of (ethnonym), 59, 73 Agotime-Agoudouvou, 38, 224 missionaries in, 215, 225 Agotime-Akpokope musketry, firing of, 503, 508, 511, 514 as Agotime town, 38 Nyive, relations with, 501 chiefs in, 506–7, 513, 518 oral traditions, 56–7, 299, 311 in Agotime partition, 251 origins of, 41, 56–9, 76, 509 in land disputes, 302 partition of, 50, 133, 225, 227, 298, 496–7, in plebiscite of 1956, 374 501 war captives in, 503 Peki, relationship with, 141 Agotime-Akumase, 38 power, structures of, 17, 72–3, 77–8, Agotime-Amoussoukope (Amoussoukodji) 215–18, 225 as Agotime town, 38 priests in, 215, 217 festivals in, 502 religion in, 297 French administration, 224, 226 revolutionary justice in, 468 in Agotime partition, 144 roads, 38–40 land use, 213 settlement of, 59–60, 544 market, 371, 477 slave trade, 65, 213–14, 294, 309, 526 origins of, 502 slavery, 55, 66–7 smuggling in, 267

584 Index

Agotime-Batoumé Agotime-Nyitoe Agbovi I in, 216, 503 as Agotime clients, 38, 60, 67, 73, 503 as Agotime town, 38 chiefs of, 512 chiefs in, 74 French rule, 224 festivals in, 503 German rule, 143 French administration, 224 in Hodzo land dispute, 302 in Agotime partition, 251 in Togo unification challenge, 373 in Agotime-Hodzo land dispute, 302 Agotime-Sarakope, 38, 505, 519 in Anglo-French border, 146–8, 226 Agotime-Wodome land use, 213 as border market, 476–7, 480 slave population in, 67, 69 festivals in, 510 smuggling, 266 in Hodzo land dispute, 302 Agotime-Bè, 38, 143, 266, 295–6, 308–9 kente weaving in, 505 Agotime-Bemla, 38, 148 strangers in, 38, 67, 296, 520 Agotime-Ibenyeme, 520 Agotime-Wusikope, 520 Agotime-Kpetoe Agotime-Wutegble, 38, 224, 226 Agoe clan in, 66 Agotime-Ziope District, 38 Agotime-Adaklu dispute, 308 Agotime-Zukpe agriculture in, 446 Adangbe language in, 497 Anlo in, 294–5, 311 as Agotime town, 38, 60, 521 as Agotime capital, 38, 508 chiefs in, 70 as border town, 226 festivals in, 502 as trading hub, 134, 213 French rule in, 224 Atsiati family, 303 German rule in, 143 chiefs in, 70, 215, 218, 220, 227, 373, 496, historical traditions in, 499 505 in Hodzo land dispute, 300–3 clan structure in, 77 in Togo unification challenge, 373 customs station in, 146 origins of, 502 development in, 371 re-location of, 67 Ewe language in, 295 transport links, 371, 475 festivals in, 502, 504–7, 510, 514, 522 Agricultural Settlement Farms, Ghana, 446 foundation of, 76, 303 agriculture German rule in, 143, 215 in Gambia, 230, 404, 538 Hausa community in, 480, 542 in Ghana, 444–7, 481, 538 health services in, 519 in Senegal, 400, 402, 414, 537 historical traditions in, 500 taxation of, 27 in partition of Agotime, 133, 144, 147 Agu, 499 in plebiscite of 1956, 374 Agotime, wars with, 53, 58–9, 67, 69, 71 kente weaving in, 510 cocoa cultivation in, 214 law and order in, 517 education in, 386 market in, 223, 371, 475, 477, 483, 539 in Anglo-French partition, 214 population of, 479, 532 in Hodzo land case, 300 rise of, 74 Le people in, 60 settlement of, 60 Agu, mount, 250 smuggling in, 264, 266, 268, 446, 475, Agu-Tomegbe, 215 539 Ahia, G.R., 389 state officials in, 519 Ahmadu Bamba, 95 stool, 499 Aidara, Samsedine Dino Néma, 489 strangers in, 296 Akan model of government, 73–4, 77, 454 war captives in, 72, 503 Akers, C.E., 138 Agotime-Kpodjahon, 38, 146, 224, 371, 475, Akome, 302 497 Akoto family, 216–17, 506, 511 Agotime-Lakwi, 38 Akoto Sah I of Kpetoe, Agotime leader, 75–6, Agotime-Letsukope, 38, 224, 302 138 Agotime-Nyigba, 302 Akoto Sah, Nene, 512

Index 585

Akoto, King of Akwamu, 71 French administration of, 224 akpetshie, 465 in Agotime partition, 520 Akpini, 220, 374 Anecho, 58, 170, 224, 250 Akposso, 297, 532 Anglo-French Convention of 1857 (Gambia), Akras, 66 109 Aku, 131, 230, 350 Angola, 65 Akuete, 38, 303, 305–7, 310 Angoulvant, Gabriel, 206, 208 Akuffo, Maj-Gen. Fred, 454 Ankrah, Alimo, 305 Akwamu Ankrah, H.B., murder of, 497 Agotime alliance, 49, 69–72 Ankrah, Nartey, 305, 307 as British protectorate, 135 Anlo as coercive social contract, 66 Agotime, relations with, 49, 58, 77, 542 as regional power, 53–7 as regional power, 69–71 as traders, 62 as settlers, 295 British relations with, 116 as traders, 213, 294, 311 Akwapim, 53, 72 British rule, 116, 135–6 Akyem, 69 Ewe uniﬁcation, 362 Akyem-Abuakwa, 164 festivals, 503 Alavanyo, 375 partition of, 251 Albreda, 108 Anloﬁa (Anlo chiefs), 294 alcohol Anloga, 61 Islam and, 164, 284 Antor, S.G., 364 smuggling, 390, 465, 474 Anyako, 215 al-Fadel, Mohamed, 277 Anyigbe, 374 Al-Hajj Umar Tal, 115 Apaloo IV, Togbe of Batoumé, 506, 518 Aliens (Deportation of Deserters) Regulations, Apatu-Plange, Justice, 309 Gambia, 240 Archer, Francis, 151 Aliens Compliance Order, Ghana, 439 Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), alkalos (akalolu), 196 454–6, 458, 538 appointment of, 198, 290 Armitage, Sir Cecil Hamilton, 232 as administrators, 355, 495 arms smuggling, 257, 262 as intelligence gatherers, 353 Asamoah, Obed, 470 in land settlements, 531 Asante in new settlements, 288 Agotime, relations with, 61, 74–6 land settlements, 287 as regional power, 69–70 landholding, 246 British invasion of, 116, 133–4, 152, 249 smuggling, 259 British relations with, 113, 135 strange farmers and, 186, 232–3 coastal states, claims over, 113 al-Koran Karamo festival, 486 ritual cycle in, 32, 270 Allahein river, 124–5, 286, 324 secession of tributary states, 114 All-Ewe Conference (AEC), 331, 361, 363, slave trade, 16 372 state development, 9 Almada, Alvares d’,80 taxes and tributes to, 31, 526 amalgamation policy, Captain C.C. Lilley, 219, territoriality of, 17 227, 250 trans-Volta invasion, 74, 77, 294, 299, 309, Amedzro, Albert, 268 541 Amegavi, 266 Ashanti, 186, 299, 366, 448 Amnesty International, 427 Asiwaju, A.I., 34, 190 Amu, Ephraim, 371 Asogli, 220, 222, 372, 496 Ando Asogli State Council, 305 Agotime, relations with, 60, 67, 305, 309 Asogli Traditional Area, 53 as Ewe people, 55 Assahun (Assahoun), 71, 214–15, 266, 371, as kente weavers, 505 476 as settlers, 297, 498, 501, 542 Association des Chefs Traditionnels du Togo as strangers, 296, 311 (ANCT), 450

586 Index

Atakpamé, 62, 140, 224 Banjul Atanha (Alangha), 124 health care, 406 Atigbe, 71, 214 imports to, 407 Atikpui, 53, 71, 214 infrastructure, 435 Atikpui-Nyive war, 70–2, 74 merchants in, 352 Atiyi, 224 migrants in, 428 Atlantic trade, 97, 526, 540 politics in, 408 Atshave, 71 re-export trade, 435, 535 Atsi, 60, 67 smuggling in, 356 Atsiati family, 303, 307 urbanism in, 539 Attipoe, Martin Silas, 266 banking interests, 161 Attipoe, William, 266 Bansang, 406 avafiawo, 98, 511, 513, 522, 530 Bantu migrations, 85 Avakeza festival, 502, 507, 511 Barra, 237, 340 Ave, 214 Barrett, Hazel, 407 Ave-Dzalele, 302 Basse, 429 Ave-Dzolo, 146 Bates, Robert, 27–8, 341, 343, 346, 377, 534 Ave-Have, 464 Bathurst Avenors, 505, 519 as administrative centre, 334 Aveyime Irrigation Project, 446 as entrepot, 191, 347 Avoidance of Discrimination Act, 381 colonial expenditure in, 182 Awatime, 220 cost of living in, 351 Axelsson, Linn, 472 customs collection in, 532 Ayeke, Kodzo, 389 elites in, 350 Azavi, 71 flood defences, 108–9 Azumah-Mensah, Juliana, 512 foundation of, 78, 89, 104 French merchants in, 109, 165, 192 Ba, Sarrah, 258 French takeover, proposal, 109 Babukusu, 317 growth of, 108 Badabani, chief of Zukpe, 214 Kombo, relations with, 41 Baddibu, 93, 339 liberated slaves in, 105, 107 Badiana, 286–7 missionaries in, 274 Badiara, 325 Muslim community in, 239 Badjie, Alieu, 292 population of, 105 Badjie, Kabayor, 292 refugee populations in, 116, 131, 201, 230 Badou, 479 Soninke-Marabout wars, 93 Bagisu, 317 taxation in, 109 Bagnounkoto, 132 Batome Junction, 38–9, 372, 474, 476, 479, Bainunks 515, 520 and Fodé Sylla, 96 Bator, 75 as autochthons, 41, 80 Batoumé. See Agotime-Batoumé Jola, merging with, 85–7 Bauché, M., 148 Mandinkization of, 82–3 Baum, Robert, 87, 91, 99, 283 settlements of, 132 Bawol, 115, 152 slavery, 82 Bayart, Jean-François, 13 Baji, Yannki, 198 Bayfield, C.M., 268 Bakakope, 146 Bè, 311 Bakau, 195, 487 Bè lagoon, 460 Bakel, 115 Beckley, A.J., 267 Balandine, 210 Bediako, Nortey, 305 Balanta people, 44, 280, 289, 293, 310, 526, Bemla. See Agotime-Bemla 541 Benin, 59, 385 Bandjikaky, 130, 257, 488 Bennett, Valerie, 442 Bangonolit, 287 Benquey, Administrator, 203–4, 206–7 Banjuku Biayi, Bainunk King, 83 Berending, 286

Index 587

Berlin, Conference of, 18, 117, 528 Boundary Commission (Gambia-Senegal), Bernasko, Col. Frank, 445 123–5 Berry, Sara, 249 Braddick, Captain, 146 Bignona Brassou, 281 border control in, 241–2 Brazzaville, 540 chiefs in, 209 Brazzaville conference, 326 French administration, 202, 208, 210 Brefet, 93, 122 French military in, 204, 207 Bremen mission, 215 Islamic schools in, 283 Brenner, Neil, 34 MFDC insurgency in, 487 Bretton Woods institutions, 412, 417 road network, 44 Brikama Binako, 279–80 as Kombo capital, 41, 88 Bintang, 86 as trading hub, 44, 434 Biørn, Andreas, 57–9, 61, 69 British administration of, 195 Bishop Herman College, 367 District Council, 291 Bitaké, 201 education in, 406 black pod disease, 457 festivals in, 490 Blackburne Committee, 334 Fodé Sylla in, 123, 129 Bliss, 84, 199–200, 202–3, 208–9, 493, 522 food shortages in, 324 Bloc Démocratique Sénégalais (BDS), 344 foundation of, 82–3 boekine (shrines), 91 land settlements, 287, 291 Bojang, 83 migrants in, 235, 429 Bojang family, 88, 196, 209 Muslim capture, 94 Bojang, Demba, 196 politics in, 408 Bojang, Fansu, 197 smuggling in, 409 Bojang, Fodi Musa, 196 Brikama-Mansakonko road, 340 Bojang, Landing, 292 Britain Bojang, Mambuna, 197 as fiscal state, 7 Bojang, Seyfo J.M., 291 coastal settlements, control of, 105 Bolibana, 430 German trade rivalry, 134 Bond of 1844 (Gold Coast), 22, 110, 164, 188 West Africa policy, 17–18 Bonnecarrère, Auguste, 147, 247 British Sphere of Togoland Administration Boone, Catherine, 28, 341, 347, 401, 403, 424, Ordinance, 250 432 British Togoland Bordeaux, 107, 117, 160 administration of, 218–24, 530 border equation, 157 chiefs, role of, 263, 296 Border Guards unit, Ghana, 389, 443 cocoa trade, 262, 370 borders creation of, 133 and state power, 396 customs regime, 261, 269 colonial, 4 demographic stability, 294 complexity of, 98 French border incidents, 146–8 conceptions of, 15–17, 100, 524 Ghana, unification with, 375 dynamics of, 4, 9, 524 Gold Coast, commercial ties with, 261 fuzziness of, 520 in World War II, 322 in development package, 329 land tenure in, 249–52 in post-colonial states, 33–4 plebiscite of 1956, 373–5, 535 mobility across, 229–30 traditional authorities in, 270, 541 ownership of, 519 unification challenge, 330, 357, 362, populations in, 325 367–70, 392, 535 scramble for Africa, 19–21, 118–19 British West Africa, 161 studies of, 3–4 Brocard, Paul, 279 Borno, 20 Brong-Ahafo, 448 Boundary Commission (British/French Brooks, George, 86 Togoland), 147–51 Brown, David, 452 Boundary Commission (Gambia), 126–7 Brunot, Richard, 205–6

588 Index

Bryars, W.H., 134 education in, 424 Buckle, Conrad, 268 ferries, 337 Buell, Leslie, 165, 168–9, 176, 178, 187 Franco-British border, 122 Buem, 220, 248, 250–1, 297, 370, 532 Franco-Portugese frontier, 120 Buem-Krachi District, 374 French administration in, 201–11, 290, 530 Bullock, 411 French military repression in, 206, 211 Buluf in World War II, 320, 323, 325 Bainunks in, 80–1 Islamicization of, 279–80 French administration in, 133, 205, 207 Jola migration in, 284 groundnut cultivation, 275 land policy in, 247 in MFDC insurgency, 487 migration in, 231, 234, 238, 242, 425, 428, Islamicization in, 275 531 Jola migration from, 274, 289, 490, 531 new religious communities, 274 population density, 231 politics in, 401 Bund der Deutsch Togolander (Togo Bund), refugees in, 426, 487 359 rice cultivation, 16, 255, 342, 424, 526 Bunto, 286 secessionist insurgency in, 395, 397, 422–4, Bureau of Muslim Affairs, 163 427–8, 434, 486–9, 543 bureaucracy Senegalese Army in, 489 Africanization of, 329, 367, 389 Senegalese state, relations with, 424 as ruling class, 343 settlement patterns, 41, 288–90 colonial, 163, 194 smuggling in, 259, 351, 409, 421, 431 Gambia, 406 taxation, resistance to, 203, 211 Ghana, 380–1, 442–3, 471 tourism, 412, 427 in development package, 328 traditional authorities in, 495 l’Afrique Occidentale Française (l’AOF), underdevelopment of, 192 163, 165 unification proposals, 348, 534 post-colonial states, 26–7 Case for African Freedom, The, 327 Senegal, 342, 402, 433 Casely-Hayford, J.E., 111 Togo, 385, 451 Catholic missionaries, 295 Burke, Tim, 265 cattle Burns, Alan, 358, 360 land for grazing, 284 Burukugue, 130 plague, 275, 280 Busia, Kofi Abrefa, 438–9, 441, 443, 447, 454, requisitioning of, 320, 352 480, 537 smuggling, 257, 259, 270 Busumbala, 88, 94, 129, 196 theft of, 495 Bwiam, 319 Ceded Mile, 113 cadastral maps, 1, 8, 10, 212 Cédile, Jean, 362 censuses, 2–3, 219, 226, 231 Cain, P.J., 14 Centres Régionaux d’Assistance et canton system (French Togoland), 224, 496 Développement (CRAD), 346 Cape Coast, 135 cereals, 414 capital cities, imperial, 11 Chabal, Patrick, 25, 27, 29, 165 Carabane, 131, 201 Chalfin, Brenda, 471 Carter, G.T., 121–4, 126 Cham, Fodi Madi, 197 cartographies, insurgent, 317 Cham, Kabba, 197 Cary, Arthur Joyce Lunel, 327 Cham, Karranta, 197 Casamance Cham, Mamadi, 197 agriculture in, 403, 537 Chambers of Commerce, 117, 145, 160, 175 as bread basket, 335, 424 Chambra, Yesufu, 265 as marginalized community, 424 Chamesedine, Chérif, 277 border anomalies, 411 Chapman, C.H., 361 Christianity in, 423 Chapman, Daniel, 331, 359–61, 363, 371 coercive social contract in, 211 Chartered companies, 19 colonial infrastructure, 44, 179 chefs de villages, 355, 495

Index 589

chiefs. See also traditional authorities colonial states British Togoland, 263 administration of, 163, 191–4 French Togoland, 263 African autonomy in, 158 Gold Coast, 164 as extractive states, 157 in Casamance, 202 as gatekeeping states, 157, 188 in colonial states, 24, 190 as minimalist states, 157 in new settlements, 288 as night watchmen states, 157 smuggling, role in, 259–61 as political entities, 161 Chiefs’ Conferences (Gambia), 355 border dynamics in, 4, 189, 192, 227–9, 253, child mortality, 406 269, 299, 525, 528, 531 China, economic influence of, 34, 434, 472, communities in, 4–6 540 competition between, 229, 531 Christianity, in colonial states, 272 consolidation of, 21 Churchill, Winston, 180 customs authorities in, 189 cigarettes, smuggling of, 410, 462, 466 democratization in, 328 circumcision, 485 development package in, 328, 533 civil service. See bureaucracy European interests in, 529 civilizing mission, colonialism as, 191 identity in, 272 Clozel, Marie François, 234 infrastructure, 176 coastal settlements (European) land policies in, 242 as frontiers, 102 legacy of, 13–14, 315 financial stringency, 105 mercantile interests in, 160 influence of, 18, 527 migration, control over, 269 merchant communities in, 528 mobility in, 272 military power of, 106 origins of, 103 public goods in, 527 post-war planning, 326 social composition, 102, 107 public goods, 158 taxation in, 23, 528 religion in, 272, 276 Coba, 204 retrenchment in, 32 cocoa rural interests in, 163 boom in 1920s, 186, 249, 251 scramble for Africa, 19–21, 118–19, 525 corruption, 383 smuggling in, 189 farmers, 143, 214, 248, 297, 377, 381, 532 social contracts in, 234, 276 in colonial infrastructure, 140 taxation in, 22–3, 155, 158–9, 161, 329, 529 in Gold Coast, 365 traditional authorities in, 190, 193–4, 228, in World War II, 321 270 revenues, 161, 170, 438, 529 tribal identity in, 361 seasonal workers, 440 violence, use of, 31, 190 smuggling, 330, 389, 441, 443, 448, 457, weakness of, 25 464–5 Combo-Fogny, 209–10 trade in, 262 Comité de l’Unité Togolaise (CUT), 331, 361, Cocoa Marketing Board (CMB), 365, 377, 383, 363, 383, 386 448 Commandants de Cercle, 194 coconut trade, 140 Committees for the Defence of the Revolution Coelho, Lemos, 80 (CDRs), 462, 465, 467–71, 473, 476 coercive social contracts, 31–2, 66, 211 Communes (Senegal), 21, 169, 178, 184, 343, Coez, M., 147 529 coffee trade, 170, 330 community, concept of, 36, 484, 521, 540 collective memories, 484–5 Compagnie Francaise de Développement des Colleys, 286 Fibres Textiles (CFDT), 402 Collin, Jean, 410 Compagnie Française de l’Afrique de l’Ouest Colonial Council, Senegal, 162, 169 (CFAO), 160, 268, 388 Colonial Development and Welfare (CDW), Compagnie Niger-France (CNF), 160 334, 340 composite social contracts, 346, 421, 437, Colonial Development and Welfare Act, 326 535–6

590 Index

Conféderation Nationale des Travailleurs du D’Arcy, Governor of the Gambia, 93 Sénégal (CNTS), 400 Dabo family, 196 Connerton, Paul, 484 Dagara, 16 conscription, military, 205, 234–5 Dagomba, 299, 362 Conseils des Notables (French Togoland), 162, Dahomey, 16, 31, 62, 73, 169, 178, 526 185, 224 Dakar, 21 Constitution of the Second Republic, Ghana, as federal capital, 331 453 as urban hub, 539 Convention People’s Party (CPP) battle for, 1940, 318 as urban interest party, 377 colonial expenditure in, 178 austerity measures, 379, 442 cost of living in, 351 bureaucracy, 375 customs revenue in, 166 composition of, 380, 467 infrastructure, 435 development agenda, 365, 392, 437, 444 markets in, 432 federalism, 375 political organization of, 162 in Togoland unification, 364, 367–71, 375, rice imports, 342 392, 535 taxation in, 346 NRC, continuities with, 443 urbanization in, 398–9 productive social contract, 376, 383 Vichy regime in, 323 public goods, 367 Dakar-Ziguinchor highway, 336 socialism, 375 Dakpa, 53 traditional authorities, relations with, 372, Dalakoglou, Dmitris, 38 375, 382, 391 Dalasi, valuation of, 416–17 Cooper, Fred, 157, 320, 528 Daloz, Jean-Pascal, 25, 27, 29, 165 co-operatives, 346, 398, 446, 448 Dambeld (Dambeli), Mansa, 81, 83, corruption 488 Ghana, 382, 389, 448, 455, 461–2, 469, 473, Dandoo, Joseph, 264, 266 481 Danish Gold Coast, 268–9 cession of claims, 116, 134, 136 Senegal, 346 merchants, 64–5 cosmetics, 539 sources, 49, 55–6, 60, 69, 499 Côte d’Ivoire, 110, 166, 320–1, 440 sphere of influence, 105–6, 110 Cotonou, 461 Danquah, Joseph Kwame, 454 cotton Dapaah clan, 294–5, 519 as agri-business, 414, 444 Dapaah, Nene, 294 plantations, 142 Darkon, King of Akwamu, 69 smuggling, 322 Daroussalaam, 279–80, 285, 486, 488 trade, 140, 142, 213, 256, 261, 321 Darrami, Kekote, 198 Coulandian, 201 Darsilami Coussey Committee, 363 as Kombo settlement, 41 Creole elites, 350 border anomalies in, 292, 411 crime, 257 Cheikh Mahfoudz in, 279 Crown land (Gambia), 244 migration to, 286 Customs Ordinance (1923), 264 population of, 289 Customs Preventive Officers (Gambia), 260 refugees in, 487 Customs Preventive Service (CPS), 146, 223, smuggling in, 431, 539 227, 263–70, 323, 389, 533 Touba, relations with, 286, 288, 293 Customs regimes Daunton, Martin, 8 colonial states, 24 Decalo, Samuel, 391, 448 post-colonial states, 25 decolonization Customs Service, Ghana, 389 Gold Coast as leader, 368 customs unions historiography of, 315–18 Senegambia, 349, 351, 356, 419, 534 Demba War Sall, 130 trans-Volta, 362, 384 Demba, Lonka, 210 Customs, Excise and Preventive Service Denton, Sir George Chardin, 258 (CEPS), 38, 471, 474, 478, 513–15 despotism, decentralized, 22, 24

Index 591

development Economic Community of West African States agenda, 24, 326–9, 358 (ECOWAS), 490 as social contract, 32, 326, 346–7 Economic Plan, Togo, 449 in border dynamics, 329 Economic Recovery Programme (ERP), in Gambia, 338 Gambia, 417 in Ghana, 367, 392, 436, 438, 444 education in Senegal, 346, 401 in Casamance, 424 in Togo, 386 in development package, 327, 330 Development Funds, 340 in Gambia, 338, 406 development maps, 2 in Ghana, 367 Dia, Mamadou, 344 in Senegal, 177 Diaban, N’Faly, 209 in Togo, 178, 362, 386 Diadhiou, Lan, 209 Islamic, 282 Dianki, 206 Egbe, 224 Diassi, Drame, 202 Egypt, 117, 191 Diatock, 286 Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah, 29 Diatta, Kemo, 282 electricity, 327 Diatta, Aline Sitoe, 321 elites Diatta, Ansoumane, 207, 275 in Senegambian uniﬁcation, 350 Diatta, Bourama, 209 post-colonial states, 330–1 Diatta, Joseph, 210 Ellershaw, H.C., 251 Diébaly, 41, 121, 131–2, 202, 204 Elmina, 479 Diedhiou, Dianku, 275 Emit (Emitai), 91 diffusionist interpretations of African history, Empire states, 11–12 85 enframing system, colonialism as, 191 Dimbaya, 41, 284, 287–8, 486 Enlarged Consultative Commission (ECC), Diouf, Abdou, 414–16, 420, 432 Togoland, 363 Diouloulou entrepôt states as administrative centre, 44, 202–3, 208, Gambia as, 356 210, 292 Togo as, 390, 392, 436, 449, 536 festivals in, 490 Esaloulou (Esulalu), 202 insurgencies in, 203, 489 espionage, 319 marabouts in, 282 ethnicity Diourbel, 431 concept of, 36, 484 dipo initiation rites, 58, 509–10 in colonial states, 272 District Commissioners, 194, 218 Europe, state development in, 7–9, 103, 525 Djinaki, 489 European Development Fund, 416 dollar crisis, 180 European import-export companies, 27 Dompre, Akyem Kotoku warlord, 75 Evans, Martin, 487 Donbondir, 280, 287 everyday states, 26 donkeys, in smuggling, 409, 431 Ewe douaniers, 147, 253, 257, 323, 325, 353, 409, Agotime, relations with, 38, 41, 503, 542 411, 431, 433 and Eyadéma regime, 482 drought as farmers, 55 in Ghana, 458 British relations with, 116 in Senegambia, 255, 280, 321 chieftancies of, 212, 227, 360 in trans-Volta, 322 Christianity, 295 Sahel, 397, 404, 537 cocoa farming, 370 Dual Mandate in Tropical Africa, 159 diversity of, 359 durbars, 270, 510–11, 513–14 education in, 360 Dutch gin, 164, 174, 262, 267, 532 elites, 361 Dzalele, 53, 302 ethnic identity, 77, 310, 357 Dzamesi, Koﬁ, 508 historiography, 49 Dzelukope, 135 in Atikpui-Nyive war, 71 Dzikpo, Lawrence Agrona, 221 in Ghana, 440, 442 Dzodze, 465–6, 479 in Togo, 450

592 Index

Ewe (cont.) British sphere of influence, 152 land tenure in, 252, 298 chiefdoms in, 209 language, 225, 294, 300, 307, 360, 515, 521 foundation of, 81 migration of, 59 Franco-British border agreement, 122, 125 movement restrictions on, 251 French administration of, 199, 208, 227 names, 307 French, relations with, 121 settlements of, 295, 302 historicity of, 489, 543 slave trade, 359 identity politics in, 311 Togoland unification, 330, 357, 359–65, Islamicization in, 283 371, 392, 535 Kalorn in, 493 trade, 360 Mandinka in, 495 Ewe Newsletter, 359, 362–3 Mangone Seye in, 131 extractive states, 157 population density, 231 Eyadéma, Etienne power, structure of, 88 economic policies, 448 slaving frontier in, 527 Ghana, relations with, 459, 496 Fogny-Jabangkunda association, 489, 522 infrastructure spending, 481–2, 538 Fogny-Kombo, 41 on Togo unification, 453 Foli Bebe (Ofori Bomboneen), 59 one-party rule, 449 Fon, 58 repression under, 460 Fonds d’Investissement pour le seizure of power, 390–1, 393 Développement Economique et Social statue of in Kpalimé, 502 (FIDES), 326, 335–6 Foni Berefet, 411 Fadeliyya order, 277 food aid, 413 Faidherbe, Louis, 108–9, 115 Food Distribution Corporation, 445 family land, 249, 252, 298 Food Production Corporation (FPC), Ghana, fank, 91 445–6 Fante, 110–11 foodstuffs, trade in, 255–7 Farababanta, 195 forced labour, 141, 143 Farmers’ Development Fund, 340 forest guards, 422, 487 Farque, Commandant, 132, 202 Fort James, 86 Fatton, Robert, 401 Fort Kongensteen, 55 Faye, J.C., 337 Fort Prindsensteen, 62 Feda, 302 Foucher, Vincent, 424, 427 festivals franc Agotime, 503–16, 523, 543 CFA, 384 and collective memories, 485 valuation of, 180, 253, 338 Kalorn, 509 France fetish, 73, 307 client states, establishment of, 115 field administration, 24 coastal settlements, control of, 105 Field Agricultural Service, Ghana, 389 colonial expenditure, 168 firearms, smuggling of, 257, 262 fall of, 1940, 318 fiscal states, 7–9 Gambia, territorial proposals, 109 Fisher, Humphrey, 283 groundnut subsidies, 398 fishing industry, 457 military repression in colonies, 204 Five Year Plan, Gambia, 404, 406 Navy, 119 Five-Year Development Plan, Ghana, 378, 444 scramble for Africa, 118 Flindt, Commandant, 62 trading houses, 107 Floops. See Kalorn, See Jola Trarza wars, 115 Flynn, Donna, 519 Franco, Robert, 457 Fogny East, 198 Frankema, Ewout, 157, 188 Fogny, French administration, 202, 205 Free French, 318, 320–2 Fogny-Jabangkunda Freetown, 104 Bainunk identity, 41, 85 French Togoland boundaries of, 78, 90, 210, 521 Adangbe minorities in, 310

Index 593

administration of, 169, 224 Gambia Agotime in, 311 administration of, 194–9, 290 as gatekeeper state, 170 agriculture in, 230, 404, 538 as productive social contract, 185 arms smuggling, 257 British border incidents, 146–8 as barnacle state, 433, 538 chiefs, role of, 263, 296 as colonial state, 151 colonial administration, 163, 165 as composite social contract, 356, 421 colonial expenditure in, 178–9 as entrepôt state, 356 creation of, 133 as minimal state, 416 customs regime, 269 as permissive social contract, 186, 261, 356, demographic stability, 294 395, 421, 434 education in, 178 as productive social contract, 186 Ghana, relations with, 383–5 as repressive social contract, 421 in World War II, 320–1, 533 border policing, 259 land tenure in, 249, 252 boundary agreements, 353 migration in, 532 British administration of, 210 military repression in, 185 bureaucracy in, 338, 352, 406, 417 political organization, 162 cattle smuggling, 257, 259 reunification proposals, 331 chiefs, role of, 290 sedition in, 262 child mortality in, 406 smuggling, 171, 262–3, 533 China, relations with, 435 taxation in, 170–2, 226, 529–30 colonial administration, 163, 165 traditional authorities in, 270, 496 colonial expenditure in, 179–81 unification proposals, 330, 362, 392, cost of living in, 356, 418, 421 535 cross-border trade, 173, 420 French Union, 358, 361, 535 currency crisis, 180 Frimpong-Ansah, Jonathan, 438 customs regime, 179, 260, 351, 409, 532 Front Nord, 428, 487 development projects in, 338, 404 Front Sud, 428 drought in, 255 frontiers economic policies, 347, 416–18, 420, 534 definition of, 15–17 education in, 338, 406 further frontiers, 103, 152 elites in, 350, 534 port cities, relations with, 102 entrepreneurship in, 406 proximate frontiers, 103, 112–14, 117, European firms in, 406 152 external debt, 416 scramble for Africa, 118–19 fiscal profile, 172–4 slave raiding in, 526 foodtuffs, trade in, 255–7 fruit cultivation, 286 Franco-British border agreement, 122–5 Fula people, 44, 289 French claims on, 109, 118, 120, 191, 236, Fuladu, 96 335–6 Fulani herders, 468, 498, 503 French interests in, 179–82, 253 Fuller, C.J., 26 health, 406 Fumbisi valley, 445 immigration to, 173, 237 Furley, J.T., 142, 144–5, 214, 216 import duties, 407, 417 further frontiers, 103, 152, 528 in World War II, 323–4, 533 Futa, 89 independence of, 349 Futa Toro, 114 infrastructure, 192, 334, 404, 435 Fye, Sheikh Omar, 239 Jola in, 493, 495, 501 Kalorn in, 492–3 G.B. Ollivant stores, 266, 532 land litigation, 542 Ga, 50, 71, 111, 521 land policies, 243–7 Gabriel’s shop, Wodome, 476–7 life expectancy in, 406 Gailey, Harry, 334, 338 local government, 355 Gallagher, Jack, 101, 117 market networks in, 407 Galloway, Winifred, 84, 88 medical services, 338

594 Index

Gambia (cont.) German Togo migrants, competition for, 173, 230–3, administration of, 139–41, 212–13, 227, 235–7, 240–2, 269, 284, 288, 428–9, 530, 541 495 borders of, 138–9, 192, 212 military, role of, 421, 434, 539 Franco-British partition of, 133, 144–6 parstatals in, 406 infrastructure, 140 politics in, 408 land tenure in, 248 population, 233, 236 legacy of, 185 public finances of, 334, 339–40, 417 maps, 299, 309 refugees in, 428–9, 487 territoriality in, 541 river system, 41–4, 191–2, 336 trade balance, 140 road building, 336, 347 traditional authorities in, 296 rural alliances in, 186 Germany self-sufficiency policies, 404 British trade rivalry, 134 Senegal, border agreements with, 415, 425 establishment of in Togo, 135–7 Senegal, border incidents, 411 scramble for Africa, 118 Senegal, competition with, 397 Gervais-Lambony, Philippe, 136 Senegal, integration with, 347, 350–2, 355 Geschiere, Peter, 230 Senegambian Union, 534 Ghana settlement patterns, 288–90 Agotimes in, 516 slavery in, 257–9 agriculture in, 444–7, 481, 538 smuggling, 253–61, 339, 356, 407–11, 421, as neo-liberal state, 459 429, 539 as one-party state, 381, 536 social contracts in, 334, 350, 432, 535, 539 austerity in, 392, 441, 536 strange farmers in, 231–3, 237, 242 authenticity, drive for, 454 taxation in, 159, 172, 237, 347, 529, 535 Border Guards, 462, 464, 466, 470, 476, 538 tourism in, 421 border policies, 383, 461, 470–1, 480 traditional authorities in, 210, 270, 290, British Togoland, unification with, 357, 375 353–4, 495 British traders in, 439 Gambia Commercial and Development Bank, bureaucracy in, 380–1, 389, 442–3, 471 416 China, relations with, 446 Gambia Co-operative Union (GCU), 416 constitutional government, 501 Gambia Oilseeds Marketing Board (GOMB), corruption in, 383, 389, 448, 455, 461–2, 340 469, 473, 481 Gambia Produce Marketing Board (GPMB), Customs Preventive Service, 471, 483 407, 416, 418 customs regime, 389 Gambia Protectorate Ordinance, 1902, 195 development agenda, 367, 392, 436, 439, Gambia river 444 as shared resource, 415 economic policies, 376, 387–8, 391–2, 437, as trade route, 347 442, 455–6, 480 bridge project, 415, 423 education in, 367 commerce in, 238 festivals, role in, 514 crossings, 534 French Togoland, relations with, 383–5 ferries, 318–19, 423 health services, 367, 377 gammo festival, 486 hoarding in, 455 Gardner, Leigh A., 187 independence movement in, 28 gatekeeping states, 157, 175, 188, 528 indigenization policies in, 439–40 Gbedema, Alice, 266 industrial action in, 379 Gbedemah, Komla, 389 industrialization, 381, 387, 392, 441 Gbeho, Phillip, 361 infrastructure, 378, 439, 456, 480 Gbekodji, 224 kalabule in, 454–6, 461, 538 Gbli, Agotime commander, 71, 74 kente weaving in, 505 Gbogbi Atsa V, Togbe, 303, 508 legal system, 300, 462, 482–3, 500, 516 Geba, river, 281 military rule in, 436, 442, 454–6, 480–1, 537 Geregia, 80 national map, 2

Index 595

parastatals in, 379, 391, 438, 443, 457, colonial administration, 163, 165 536–7 colonial expenditure in, 182 Police, 466, 469, 538 constitutional reform, 363, 366 privatization in, 472 customs regime, 174, 261–2 public finances, 377–8 decolonization in, 368 public goods, 377, 459 development agenda in, 365 refugees in, 461 education in, 182, 367 revolutionary politics in, 458–61, 467, 482, Ewe in, 362, 364 498 German arrival, 135–7 road building, 439 German Togo, friction with, 140 self-sufficiency policies, 446 health and medicine, 182, 367 smuggling in, 388–90, 437, 441, 443, 448, in World War II, 320 452–3, 455, 457, 461, 469, 472 independence of, 392 social contracts in, 381–2, 391–2, 454, 456, infrastructure, 261, 367, 529 481, 536 land tenure in, 298, 542 socialism in, 375 Legislative Council, 164 state institutions in, 375, 437, 445, 447, 454, mercantile interests in, 160 459, 480, 482, 497, 536–7 migration to, 247–8 strangers in, 464 municipal rates, 174 Structural Adjustment in, 458, 482–3 public finances of, 532 student protests, 452, 454 smuggling, 175 taxation in, 459, 471 social contract in, 365 Togo border closure, 387, 389–90, 392, 395, spacial divide in, 186 437, 441, 459, 498, 502, 536 taxation in, 159, 174, 186, 529 Togo, relations with, 452–3 Togoland unification, 358, 362–3, 367–70, trade liberalization in, 440 535 traditional authorities in, 458, 520, 523, traditional authorities in, 24, 270, 542 536 zongo populations in, 295, 542 urbanism in, 473, 478–80 Golub, Stephen, 421 volunteerism in, 445 Goma, 540 Ghana National Trading Corporation (GNTC), Gorée, 22, 105–8, 162 379, 383, 388 Goudiaby, Yussuf, 287 Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA), 471, 544 government, anthropological approach to, 26 Ghana Textile Printing Company (GTP), 465 grain trade, 114 Ghanaian Enterprises Decree, 439 Grand Marché, Lomé, 451 gin, 164, 174, 262, 266–7, 525, 532 Grand Popo, 58 Girard, Jean, 320 grasshoppers, plagues of, 131–2, 275 Gisenyi, 540 Gray, John Milner, 94, 260 Glji, 59 Great Depression Gnassingbé, Faure, 482 colonial regimes, effect on, 32, 177, 318 Godigbe festival, 508, 510, 515 colonial states, effect on, 189 Goeh-Akue, N’Bueké Adovi, 170 in French Togoland, 185 Gold Coast in Gold Coast, 175 Adangbe in, 310 in Senegal, 529 African labour in, 161 Great Depression, first, 117, 528 African representation in, 161, 164 great roads (Asante), 9 Anglo-German border, 138–9, 212 Grey, Sir George, 111 as federation, 541 Griffith, Brandford, 138 as gatekeeper state, 175 Groundnut Stabilization Fund, 345 as productive social contract, 186 groundnuts Asante, relations with, 135 cross-border trade, 173, 255–6 British courts in, 110 cultivation, 284, 286 British protectorate, 116 export boom, 115, 118 British taxation in, 111, 146 French interests in, 109, 160, 253, 398 coastal communities, 113–14 Gambia river trade, 191

596 Index

groundnuts (cont.) Heligoland Treaty, 139 Gambian public finances, 117 Herbst, Jeffrey, 17, 28 in Jola conversion, 275 Hilol, 203 in Senegambian integration, 356 History of the Gambia, 260 marketing of, 345 History of the Gold Coast and Asante,70 migrants, 230, 531 Ho Mouride brotherhood, 534 Ankrah, H.B., murder of, 498 prices, 338–9, 397, 416, 539 as administrative centre, 52, 213, 219, 261 smuggling, 330, 412, 418 CDRs in, 468 strange farmers, 231, 236, 238–40 chiefs in, 496 subsidies for, 408, 414 District Native Court, 300 taxes on, 408 German take-over, 139 World War II, 320 hoarding in, 388 Groupements Economiques du Sénégal (GES), in plebiscite of 1956, 374 401 land tenure in, 251 Grüner, Hans, 212, 217, 219, 249, 299, 309 market, 371, 477 Grunitzky, Nicolas, 391 missionaries in, 215 Guèye, Lamine, 344 prosperity of, 248 Guggisberg, Sir Frederick Gordon, 147, 159, Public Tribunals in, 461, 483 161, 174, 182 revolutionary politics in, 461, 467 Guibanga, destruction of, 126 roads in, 370 Guinea, 381, 426 smuggling in, 263, 475 Guinea-Bissau Ho-Aflao trunk road, 295, 305, 309, 475, 519 as MFDC base, 428, 486 Hobbes, Thomas, 31 cattle rustling, 259 Hodson, Sir Arthur, 358 Cheikh Mahfoudz in, 279, 486 Hodzo cross-border trade, 421 Agotime dispute, 298, 300–3, 307–8, 501 migration from, 238, 293, 426 Agotime, relations with, 53, 60, 214 rice cultivation in, 526 in Togo unification challenge, 375 smuggling, 257, 323, 409 Hogbetsotso festival, 504 gum trade, 107, 114–15 Hohoe, 215, 367 Gunjur, 41, 93–4, 130, 195, 291, 431 Ho-Lomé road, 295 battle of, 129 Honuta, 479 Ho-Nyive road, 473 habitants, Gorée and Saint-Louis, 107, 115 Hopkins, A.G., 14, 117 Hadrami, 280 Hopkinson, Dr, 254 Haidara, Al-Haji, 203, 206, 422, 488 Horton, Robin, 283 Hailey, William Malcolm, Baron, 327 Howard, Rhoda, 160 Halbwachs, Maurice, 484 Hughes, Arnold, 419 hammock roads, 143, 213 Humphrey-Smith, Gerald, 246 Hansen, Thomas Blom, 26–7 Hutchful, Eboe, 188, 481 Hargreaves, John, 18 hydroelectric power, 327, 368, 453 Harriss, John, 26 Hausas, 265, 295, 311, 480, 542 imperial preference, 262 head tax (l’impôt personnel) imperialism, European, 11–12 French Togoland, 226 import-export firms, 160 in Casamance, 530 imports, duties on, 23 in development package, 329 India, French, 117 in French Togoland, 170, 296, 532 industrialization, 33 in Senegal, 166, 173, 233, 238, 344 influenza pandemic, 275 health informants, 268–9 in coastal settlements, 108 infrastructure in development package, 327, 330 border dynamics, 329 in Gambia, 334, 406 development package, 326 in Ghana, 367, 377 Gambia, 192, 334, 404, 435

Index 597

German Togo, 140 arming of, 209, 211 Ghana, 378, 439, 456, 480 as farmers, 230–1 Senegal, 177, 335–8, 434 as traders, 128 Togo, 450, 481 as warriors, 92 initiation rites, 58, 90, 485, 509–10 Bainunks, relations with, 79–82, 85–6 ink-stain, analogy of administration, 193, 202 Boundary Commission, conﬂict with, 126 Inter-Ministerial Committee (Senegambia), etymology of, 87 347, 350 European stereotype of, 87, 120, 197–9, 273 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 391, 414, French rule, 133, 201, 204, 208, 211, 234–6, 418, 441, 458 530 interstitial spaces, 16–17, 20 in Casamance insurgencies, 321, 354, 423, irrigation, 346, 537–8 486, 493, 543 Isert (Danish trader), 56, 61, 64–5 in Gambian military, 421, 493, 539 Islam Islamicization of, 199, 273–4, 278–81, 283, education, 282 290, 293, 486, 541 in colonial states, 272–3 Kalorn, relations with, 493–4 regional networks, 280, 282 Kombo raids, 116 slavery, 96 lawlessness in, 197–9 Itou, 203 Mandinka, relations with, 86, 92, 197–9, ivory trade, 60 291, 427, 490–2, 522, 541 migrations of, 41, 284, 289, 310, 400, 495, Jabang, 83 501, 531, 541 Jabang clan, 81–3, 290 new model communities, 310 Jabang, Sana, 291 people, 44 Jabundos, 80 power, structures of, 22, 78, 88, 92 Jackson, Major F.W.F., 145, 248 priest kings, 91 jalang (shrines), 91, 284 requisitioning in, 320 Jammeh, Yahya, 420, 433–5, 493–4, 522, 539 rice cultivation, 85, 92, 526 MFDC insurgency, role in, 423, 486 shrines, 87 Jarjue, Paul, 491–2, 494 slavery, 87, 96, 276 Jarra, 95, 126 smuggling, 421 Jasikan, 367 sources for, 50 Jassey clan, 81 taxation of, 201, 205 Jatta family, 88, 196 village organization, 91 Jatta, Keluntang, 292 Wolof, relations with, 427 Jatta, Landing, 196, 286–7 Juapong Textiles (JTP), 465 Jatta, Sulung, 93 Juapong Textiles Limited (JTL), 445 Jawara, Dawda June 4 Movement (JFM), Ghana, 456, 458, commercial networks, 409, 433, 534 466–7 coup against, 420 JUVENTO, 386 customs union, 349, 351 development package, 404, 538 Kaba, Fodé economic policies, 356 and Cheikh Mahfoudz, 278 election victory, 331 death of, 128 political weakness, 417 European perceptions of, 119–20 public goods, 416 French, relations with, 127 Jeng, Alieu, 182, 245, 255, 270 Gambia, relations with, 198 Jiboro-Kuta, 96 Joint Boundary Commission, 126 Jiboro-Séléty border crossing, 44 legacy of, 95 Jobson, Richard, 92 rise of, 95 John Holt, 160, 165, 532 Kabadio, 41, 81–3, 202, 281 Joint Council for Togoland Affairs, 363, 373 kabilo, landholding, 245 Joint West Africa Committee, 175 Kabré, 390, 450 Jola Kabrousse, 321 agriculture, 243, 342 Kabu, 81, 88, 278

598 Index

Kafountine, 41 Kassakunda, 291 Boundary Commission, 124 Kassardjan, 306 communications, 44 Katamanso, battle of, 113 French rule, 121, 209 Katana, 81 peace festival, 490 Katzenellenbogen, Simon, 18 smuggling in, 421 Kayaba, Modi Sellou, 278 taxation in, 202 Kayes railway, 254 Kajambona, Diatta, 281 Kayong Kalorn, 492–4, 509, 521, 543 Kajoor, 115, 130–1, 152 Kea, Ray, 61–2, 70 kalabule, 454–6, 461, 538 Keese, Alexander, 135 Kalabule, Alhaji, 437, 467, 469, 475, 480 Kending, Lamine, 281 Kalajo river, 305 Kenney, Captain, 124 Kalamar, Mansa, 97, 278, 281, 488 kente cloth, 142, 247, 513 Kaloack-Fatick, 431 kente weaving, 41, 503–5, 511, 523, 544 kalol (Jola village wards), 91 Kenya, 157, 159, 167, 187, 317 Kalorn Keta, 59, 61, 134–5, 215 and traditional authorities, 495 Kete-Krachi, 462 ethnicity of, 491, 543 Keteku Caboceer, 61, 73 festivals, 492–3 Keteku family, 217 French rule, 133 Keteku II, Nene Noe (Nene Keteku XII), in Casamance insurgency, 493 221–3, 225–6, 264, 294, 372, 506 Islamicization of, 273 Keteku III, Nene Nuer Jola, relations with, 493–4 destoolment action against, 506 language, 494 in Agotime-Adaklu land case, 497 Mandinkization of, 84, 494 in durbar, 513 migrations of, 522 on Agotime as warriors, 66, 70 religion and identity, 493 on Agotime history, 52–6, 58, 75 Kalorn association, 492 on Agotime partition, 145 Kamasa, Kwasi, 467 on border dynamics, 516 Kamobeul, 207, 209 on festivals, 502, 511–12, 522 Kaniobo, 292 on kente weaving, 504, 507 Kansala, 235 on moral decline, 516 Kaolack, 409, 429 on rank and precedence, 505 Karenai, 197, 235, 421 on Togo, 496, 520 Karone on war captives, 72 as Jola, 41 Kévé, 53, 138, 214, 300, 518–19 as Kalorn, 84 Kiang, 80, 95 chiefs in, 209–10 Joint Boundary Commission, 126 French rule in, 199–200, 203, 207–9 Killick, Tony, 376, 379, 438 Kayong Kalorn in, 493, 522 Killingray, David, 320 priestly authority in, 202 Kimble, David, 111 Karoninka Kinshasa, 540 ethnicity of, 490, 543 Kitti, 41 French administration of, 211, 530 Klayo stream, 307, 500 in new model communities, 541 Klikor, 61 Islamicization of, 273, 310, 490 Klouto, 224, 297 Jola, rift with, 41, 490–2 Klutse, Air Commodore F.W.K., 468 Mandinka, relations with, 291, 293, 490–2 Knoll, Arthur, 213 migrations, 44, 231, 289, 509, 522 Kodje, 38, 224 warriors, 96 Koelle, S.W., 56, 65 Karte Von Togo, 2, 212, 214, 299, 500, 541, Koforidua, 261, 266 See also Sprigade map kola nuts, 172 Kartiak, 206, 279 Kolda, 203 Kartong, 41, 288, 290, 324, 410, 421 Kombo kaseba (initiation rite), 485 Bainunks in, 81–2

Index 599

boundaries of, 41, 78–81, 90, 521, 527, 543 British relations with, 116, 135, 138, 145 British administration of, 130–1, 152, German rule, 118, 139, 212 194–7, 227 historicity of, 53 British, relations with, 93, 116 slavery, 55 Europeans, ﬁrst contact with, 89 Krobo, 50, 58, 521 Franco-British border agreement, 122 Krunu, 71 French administration of, 202, 208 Kufuor, John, 472, 508 identity politics in, 310 Kujube in World War II, 324 Al-Haji Haidara in, 203 Islamicization of, 93–5, 280, 283 Alkalo of, 286–7 Kalorn in, 493 as Narang village, 41 land policy in, 245–6 Cheikh Mahfoudz in, 278 Mandinka identity, 85, 495 chiefs in, 202 migration in, 284 Fodé Sylla, resistance to, 97 politics in, 408 French rule, 121 power, structure of, 88, 90 Islamicization, 281 slavery in, 258 MFDC insurgency in, 487 sources for, 50 migration from, 201 taxation in, 88, 90 refugees in, 132 Kombo Afeet, 88 Kulungugu, 386 Kombo Central, 195, 291, 429 Kumasi, 9, 70, 133, 249, 377 Kombo Dambeli, 88 Kunkujang, 287 Kombo East, 195 Kwadzo Dei IV, Peki leader, 71, 75 Kombo Land Revenue Ordinance, 172 Kwahu, 69 Kombo North, 195–6 Kwahu traders, 60 Kombo Santo, 88 Kwatei Kodzo, 71 Kombo South, 195, 291 Kombo St. Mary, 195, 406, 429 l’Afrique Occidentale Française (l’AOF) Komla Gavor, 307 abolition of, 331, 341 Konors of Kpetoe, 496 as extractive state, 167 Kopytoff, Igor, 15–16, 51 as gatekeeper state, 167 koranic schools, 282 bureaucracy in, 163, 165 Koubanack, 121 customs duties, 167 Kowu Dade, 217 development package in, 329 Kpaleve, 71 Federal expenditure, 165 Kpalimé ﬁscal conservatism, 176 cocoa farming, 214, 321 land policies, 243 cotton cultivation, 142 military expenditure, 168 education in, 386 Senegambian unity, 335 Eyadéma statue in, 502 social contracts in, 184 French rule in, 248 taxation, 167–8, 172, 187, 254, 353 German rule, 192 taxation in, 158 in Agotime partition, 214 l’impôt personnel (head tax), 166, 168, 170, missionaries in, 215 173, 226, 233, 238, 344, 530, 532 population of, 478 l’Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du railway, 140, 170, 261 Fleuve Gambie (OMVG), 415 smuggling in, 268, 464 l’Organisation Pour La Mise en Valeur du Kpandu, 215, 219, 323, 367, 374 Fleuve Sénegal (OMVS), 420 Kpedze, 268, 297, 469, 475, 479–80 l’Union Progressiste Sénégalaise (UPS), 344 Kpele-Le, 58 labour service, African, 166, 172 Kpetoe. See Agotime-Kpetoe Kpodjahon. See Agotime-Kpodjahon Ladoku, 57–8, 73 Kpogadzi, 307 Laklitza, 147 Krepe Lama-Kara, 450 as victims of raiding, 65–6, 69, 77 land litigation, 297–310

600 Index

landlord stranger relationship, 269, 288, 290, Lugard, Frederick, 158–9, 271, 329 293, 296–7, 480, 498, 526, 541 lumos (border markets), 430, 485 landmines, 428 Laplène, Commandant, 132 M’Backe, Abdou Lahatte, 398 laptots (slave sailors), 107 Ma Ba Diakhou, 93 Law, Robin, 58 MacArthur, Julie, 3 Le (Leh) people MacCarthy, Sir Charles, 113 as traders, 62 Macdonald, Malcolm, 240 migration of, 59 MacGaffey, Janet, 34 origins of, 57–9 Maclean, George, 110 settlement of, 62, 69, 300, 302, 510 Macleod, Iain, 339 League of Nations Mandates, 145, 224, 251, Magistrates Courts, 250 294, 361 Mahama, John, 515 Lebanese traders, 160, 168, 256, 352, 400, 407, Mahamouda, 41, 281, 286, 487 411, 439 Mahfoudz, Cheikh, 277–84, 287, 310, 486, 541 Legislative Council, Gold Coast, 164 Mahmouda Chérife, 489 Lekpo, 59, 510 Mahoney, Florence, 107, 109, 112–13 Lekponguno, 56 Mahumansro XII, Nene of Afegame, 302, 373 Lentz, Carola, 16 Mahumansro XIII, Nene of Afegame, 468, 498, Letsukope. See Agotime-Letsukope 506 Lewis, J.M., 328 Mahumansro XIV, Nene of Afegame, 508 Likpe-Bala, 470 Mahumansro, Nene, 142, 147, 216, 220 Likpe-Mate, 443 Maier, Donna, 75–6 Lilley, Captain C.C., 148, 194, 219–21, maize cultivation, 322, 446, 457, 532 251 Ma-Jabang, 89 Limann, Hilla, 457–8 Makaku V, Nene, 506, 517 Linares, Olga, 283 Makola market, Accra, 455 liquor debate, 164, 174 Makuda, 41, 121, 130–1, 286, 289, 323 Little Popo (Anecho), 58, 62, 69 malaise paysan, 398 Llewelyn, R.B., 129 Mali, 231, 238, 464, 486 Lomé Mali Federation, 339, 341, 350 archives in, 499 Mali Union, 330 as entrepôt, 449, 473, 481 Mamdani, Mahmood, 13, 21, 24 as port, 170, 261–2 Manchester, 256 colonial expenditure in, 178 Manchuelle, François, 115 Conseils de Notables in, 224 Mandates, League of Nations, 145, 250, 261 dynamism of, 539 Mandina Ba, 130 foundation of, 136 Mandinka French rule, 144–5, 224 against Mangone Seye, 131 German rule, 134 as landlords, 231, 243 Ghana, trade with, 436 as refugees, 235 in World War II, 321–2 as slave traders, 87 infrastructure in, 451, 538 Bainunks, relations with, 79–82 markets in, 386, 451, 539 ceremonies, 485 political unrest in, 461 ethnicity of, 44, 495 population of, 478, 483 European stereotype of, 87, 120, 273 smuggling in, 171, 175, 266 in Casamance insurgencies, 423 taxation in, 170, 262 in Kombo, 197, 530 UAC in, 165 Islamicization of, 273, 281 urban chic in, 518 Jola, relations with, 197–9, 202, 208, 291, Lomé-Anecho railway, 140 490–2 Lomé-Kpalimé railway, 213, 263, 532 Kalorn, merging with, 84, 494 Lomé-Kpalimé road, 39, 263, 295 Karoninka clients, 289, 490–2 Lonsdale, John, 159 new model communities, 310 Louga, 431 politics of, 408

Index 601

polities of, 78 Mead, T.A., 221 power, structures of, 88 medical facilities religion in, 486 in coastal settlements, 108 slavery, 82, 274 in colonial states, 178 sources for, 50 in development package, 327, 330 towns, 41, 288, 290, 355, 485, 495, 522, in Gambia, 334, 406 541, 543 in Ghana, 367, 377 mangoes, 286 Medina, 115, 128 Mangone Seye, 131–2, 488 Meillassoux, Claude, 526 Manjago people, 44, 289, 291, 293, 310, 324, Mellacourie, 110 541 Mensah, Joseph Henry, 439 Manneh family, 290 merchants, European Mansa coastal settlements, control of, 105 as kings, 99 frontiersmen, as, 15–17 as magician, 90 in colonial states, 152, 160 powers of, 90 military power of, 106 retainers of, 90 punitive expeditions, advocates for, 113 succession to, 88 scramble for Africa, 118 Mansfield, Captain E.T., 147 taxation, attitudes to, 172 maps Methodism, 274 cadastral, 1–2, 8, 10, 212 métis populations, 107, 152 colonial, 2, 353, 528 migration countermapping, 3 as revolt, 190 insurgent cartographies, 317, 544 between colonial states, 23, 229 mind maps, 3 borders, creation of, 35–6 power of, 1 Miliband, Ralph, 6 marabouts militarism, curse of, 69 autonomous communities, 116, 431 military conscription, 205, 235, 270 Cheikh Mahfoudz and, 281–2, 284 Miller, Joseph, 65 French, relations with, 283 millet, 256, 260, 286 in independent Senegal, 344, 398 Milner-Simon Agreement, 144–5, 147 legacy of, 276 Mina women, 451 Soninke war, 92–4 mind maps, 3 Marguerat, Yves, 321 minimalist states, 157 Mark, Peter, 80, 282, 289 mining interests, 160–1, 175, 529 Market Trading Act, Ghana, 440 Misahöhe, 192, 212, 224 market women, 455, 538, See also Nana Benz mise en valeur, 403, 531 markets, mapping of, 3 missionaries, 161, 164, 215, 225, 274, 367 Marseilles, 117 Mister Johnson, 327 Marty, Paul, 274, 277, 280 Mitchell, Timothy, 7, 191 Ma-Sane (Sanneh), 89 Mlefi (Malfi), 61–2 Matam, 115 Mlomp, 206, 286 matches, trade in, 351, 410 Mobutu Sese Seko, 32–3, 481 materiality of the state, 10–11 Molo, Musa, 128, 278 Maurel et Prom, 160, 233 Moore, Francis, 79–80, 86–7 Mauritania Moorish warriors, 114 British merchants in, 105 Moreau, Lieutenant, 133, 201 Cheikh Mahfoudz in, 277–8, 284, 486 motor vehicles, smuggling of, 472 deep water port in, 419 Motte Kofi, Ho leader, 75 traders, 237, 352, 430, 432 Mouhidinne, Ibnou el-Arabi Aidara, Chérif, Mawuli secondary school, 367 277, 279 May, Ernesto, 457 Mouride brotherhood Mbaye, Ahmadou Aly, 421 as traders, 432 McCarthy Island, 238 economic rents, 403 McCaskie, T.C., 32 French, relations with, 22, 164, 184

602 Index

Mouride brotherhood (cont.) state institutions, 438 in independent Senegal, 344, 346, 433, 534 traditional authorities, relations with, 391 MFDC insurgency, role in, 423 National Liberation Movement (NLM), 365–6, urbanism, role in, 398, 537, 539 377, 382, 392 Moussa, Fodé, 130, 201 National Public Tribunal, Accra, 462 Mouvement des Forces Démocratiques de National Reconciliation Commission, Ghana, Casamance (MFDC), 422–4, 427, 486–9, 498 496, 522 National Redemption Council (NRC), 442–6 Movement for Justice in Africa-the Gambia National Trading Corporation (NTC), 407 (MOJA-G), 417 National Union of Ghanaian Students (NUGS), Movement for the Liberation of Western 442 Togoland (TOLIMO), 452 nationalist movements Moxon, James, 323 historiography, 315–18 musketry, firing of, 511, 514 social composition of, 27–8 Muslim brotherhoods. See Mouride native administration, 177–8 brotherhood courts, 250 mutinies, 320 French, 208, 211 Native Administration Ordinance, 220 N’Diaye, Birahim, 121 neo-patrimonialism, 25, 29–30, 482 N’Diaye, Gorgui, 203–4 Netherlands N’Dour, Youssou, 487 sphere of influence, 106 N’Jie, Alhaji Momodou, 352 textiles, 451, 472 N’Jie, Pierre Sarr, 331, 347 New Agricultural Policy (NAP), Senegal, 414 naming rites, 287–8 new model communities, 541, 543 Nana Benz, 437, 451, 472, 482, 539 New Patriotic Party (NPP), 513 Nana Ntsrifoa, 73 Newbury, C.W., 117 Nana Sir Ofori Atta I of Akyem-Abuakwa, 164 Ngo, Nate, 71, 74 Narang Niamone, 81 Bainunk identity, 85 Nigeria, 3, 159, 187, 377, 385, 458 boundaries of, 41, 90, 521 night watchmen states, 157, 175, 188 British, relations with, 78, 152 Ningo, 57 chiefdoms in, 209 Nioro, 353 depopulation of, 287 Niumi, 89, 113, 258, 339 Fodé Sylla in, 96, 124, 488 Nkrumah, Kwame French administration of, 121, 199, 204, Africanization policies, 456 207–8, 227 and state institutions, 375 identity politics in, 311 assassination attempt, 386 Islamicization in, 207, 278, 283 austerity measures, 379 Mandinka in, 495 authoritarianism of, 381 Mangone Seye in, 131 border policies, 383 migration in, 286, 289 coup against, 376, 390, 437, 537 population density, 231 industrial development policies, 536 power, structure of, 88 NRC, influence on, 443 slaving frontier in, 527 on corruption, 383 National Conference, Togo, 460 pan-Africanism, 383, 392, 536 National Democratic Congress (NDC), 512 political vision, 315, 454 National Domain law, Senegal, 427 Togo, relations with, 436, 536 National Investigation Committee (NIC), 461 traditional authorities, relations with, 373 National Liberation Council (NLC) unification challenge, 364, 368 and social contracts, 391 Nkwanta, 468 civil service, relations with, 391 Noepé, 146, 479 corruption, 383 Northern People’s Party (NPP), 366 indigenization policies, 439 Northern Region Integrated Project (NORRIP), legal reforms, 306 447 multi-party rule, 391 Noshie, George, 264

Index 603

Notsie, 59, 303 in Casamance, 231, 289, 339 Ntsrifoa fetish stool, 218 in Gold Coast, 116–17 Nyagamago Pattah IV, Togbe of Adzakpa, 504, in Togoland, 140, 170 506 in World War II, 321 Nyamago Pattah II, Togbe of Adzakpa, 499 pan-Africanism, 315, 383 Nyitoe. See Agotime-Nyitoe panyarring, 17, 64–5, 527 Nyive parastatals Agotime, relations with, 53, 214, 501 Gambia, 406 customs station in, 146 Ghana, 379, 391, 438, 443, 457, 536–7 in border trade, 479 in development agenda, 24 in Hodzo land case, 300 Senegal, 402, 413, 537 slavery, 55 Togo, 452, 481 smuggling in, 464 Parti Africain de l’Indépendance (PAI), 401 warfare in, 69, 71 Parti Démocratique Sénégalais (PDS), 401 Nyofelleh, 41, 286, 291 Parti Socialiste (PS), 401 Nzima, 383 Parti Togolais du Progrès (PTP), 364, 373 Partido Africano para a Independència da O’Brien, Donal Cruise, 343, 380 Guiné e Cabo Verde (PAIGC), 426, 428 O’Farrell, Commissioner, 235 partition of Africa, 13–15 Odikro Todze II, Nene of Wusikope, 520 Partitioned Africans,35 oeyi, 91 Peace Preservation Orders, 375 Office de la Commercialisation Agricole Peki (OCA), 345–6 Agotime as tributaries, 141 Office National de Coopération et d’Assistance Akan model of government in, 74 Pour le Développement (ONCAD), 413 Akwamu, relations with, 69 Office Togolais des Recettes (OTR), 472 as Krepe kingdom, 53 Ofori Bomboneen (Foli Bebe), 59 British rule, 136, 212 oil, price rises, 397, 413, 416, 537 Ewe in, 251, 362 Oku, King of Agotime, 70–1, 74 farmers, 249 Okunka, Komla, 264 People’s Defence Committees (PDC), 458, Old Ningo, 56 462, 464–7 Olympio, Sylvanus, 331, 361, 384–6, 390–2, People’s Militia, Ghana, 462, 466, 470, 473 535–6 People’s Progressive Party (PPP), 408 OPEC, 397, 413, 537 Permanent Mandates Commission, 170 Operation Counterpoint, 453 permissive social contracts, 32–3, 186, 261, Operation Feed Yourself (OFY), 444–5, 447, 356, 393, 395, 421, 434, 452, 482, 539 538 petroleum, smuggling of, 464–6 oral traditions, 51, 299, 303, 309, 311, 484 pharmaceuticals, smuggling of, 432 oranges, 286 Phillips, Lucie Colvin, 418, 421 Orcel, F., 233–4, 238, 254, 256 phosphates, 412, 449, 452, 481–2, 538 Osei, 66 Pineau, Captain, 124, 126 Ousmane, Sembène, 403 plebiscite of 1956, 373–5 Owusu, Maxwell, 453 Podor, 115 Ozanne, John Henry, 258 polities, definition of, 51 poll taxes, 329 pacification campaigns, rationale for, 112, 114 Polyglotta Africana,56 Pahane, 278 Ponty, William, 158 Pakao, 88, 281 Popo, 59 Pakoua, 278, 281 population statistics, 2–3 palaver, 64 port cities, 102, 117, 176, 188, 327, See also Palmer, Sir Herbert Richmond, 233 coastal settlements (European) Palmerston, Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount, Portendick, 105 112 Portuguese Guinea palm-oil trade Cheikh Mahfoudz in, 278–9 Agotime in, 142 colonial failure in, 189, 201, 531

604 Index

Portuguese Guinea (cont.) Darisalami, 487 French, relations with, 120 from slavery, 16 Jola insurgents in, 321 Gambia, 428–9, 487 migration from, 324–5, 531 Ghana, 461 Portuguese historical sources, 91 Mandinka, 235 post ofﬁces, 328 Regional Development Corporations, Ghana, post-colonial states 445 approaches to, 25 Regional tax (Senegal), 344 as political coalitions, 28 Reindorf, Carl, 70–1, 74, 499 as states, 25–9 religion in colonial states, 272 development agenda, 32 religious networks, mapping of, 3 diversity of, 26 repressive social contracts, 421 elites in, 330 Revolutionary Tribunals, Ghana, 461–6 neo-patrimonialism, 25, 29–30 rice repression, 33 cross-border trade, 532, 540 social contracts in, 533 distribution of, 407 Prampram, 57 imports in Senegambia, 255, 342 precious minerals, smuggling of, 464 in Ghanaian planning, 445–7 Preparatory Commission, 365 in Senegalese planning, 537 Presbyterian churches, 295 irrigation for, 402, 416 Presbyterian schools, 322 Jola as farmers of, 244, 284 prestation (labour service), 166 population densities, 85, 526 Preventive Detention Act, 303, 381 requisitioning of, 320 Preventive Service, Ghana, 389 smuggling of, 256, 259–61, 339, 407, 413, Price Control Decree, Ghana, 455 525 priest kings, Jola, 91 subsidies for, 414 priests, 73 Rice Mills Unit, 447 productive social contracts, 32, 184–7, 242, Rice, Berkeley, 352 376, 383, 452, 481–2, 534, 536 Richard Toll, 403 Programme for Work and Happiness, 381 Rimmer, Douglas, 380 Progress Party (PP), 437–9 Rip, 93 property rights, 64 roads protectionism in scramble for Africa, 117 Asante great roads, 9 Protectorate Ordinance No. 2 (Gambia), 172 Gold Coast, 261, 368 Protectorate Ordinances (Gambia), 244 hammock roads, 143, 213 Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC), in colonial state building, 176 458–60, 464, 466–8, 471 in Gambia, 192 proximate frontiers, 103, 112–14, 117, 152, Robinson, Ronald, 101, 117 528 Roche, Christian, 133 Public Lands Ordinance (Gambia), 244 Ross, Eric, 399 Public Tribunal Records, Ghana, 437, 474, 483 Rouen, 117 public works in development package, 328 Royal Navy, 104 Pya, 450 rubber trade, 116, 131, 201, 230 Ruﬁsque, 22, 162 railways, 140, 176, 254 rural development projects, 447 Rassemblement du Peuple Togolaise (RPT), Rwanda, 19–20 449–52 Rattray, R.S., 56, 71, 141 Saad Bou, Cheikh, 277–8, 282 Rawlings, Flt-Lt. Jerry, 454, 458–9, 466, 483, Sabaji (Sukuta), 93 496 Sabally, Illo, 291 Rawlings, Nana Agyeman, 504 sacred groves, 90, 93, 273 Reeve, Henry Fenwick, 179 Sahlins, Peter, 9 refugees Saint-Louis, 22, 105–7, 114–15, 162–3 Bathurst, 116, 131, 201, 230 Saloum, 258 Casamance, 426, 487 salt trade, 61–2

Index 605

Sambou, Kejang, 292 expenditure in, 176–8 Samory, 277 France, economic ties to, 534 San Pedro (Allahein) river, 124 French military repression in, 204 Sandaga market, Dakar, 432 French neo-colonialism in, 400–1, 408 Sandugu, 278 French take-over, 118 Sané, Sokhna, 257 Gambia, border agreements with, 415, 425 Sangadior, 126 Gambia, border incidents, 411 Sarakolle, 281 Gambia, competition with, 397 Sarakope. See Agotime-Sarakope Gambia, cross-border trade, 420 sardines, tinned, 457, 463, 465, 474, 525, Gambia, integration with, 347, 350–2, 355 539–40 globalization, 434 Sarr, Assane, 243 infrastructure, 177, 335–8, 434 Sassen, Saskia, 34 land policies, 243 Schlegel, Bernhard, 215 Mauritania, relations with, 419 Scott, James C., 1, 10, 23, 49, 86, 92, 191, 219, migrants, competition for, 230–2, 269, 284, 245, 526 288 scramble for Africa, 13–15, 18–21, 117, 151–3, migration in, 400, 426 525 military conscription, 240–2, 276 Searing, James, 107, 115, 168 military repression in, 427 secessionist movements, 316 missionaries in, 274 second colonial occupation, 328 Muslim brotherhoods in, 163, 401 secret societies, 90 national debt, 414 Section Française de l’International Ouvrière national self-sufﬁciency policies, 402, (SFIO), 344 413–14 Sédhiou, 132, 201, 208 parastatals in, 402, 413, 537 seed-nut reserve, 239–40 political liberalization, 415 Segbale, 303, 307, 309, 311 political organization of, 162 Se-Godze, 58, 62 post-independence crisis, 398 Séléty incidents, 203, 206, 422 press freedom in, 415 Senchi ferry, 261 religious authorities in, 399 Senchi-Bawku highway, 369 road building, 347 Senegal Senegambian union, 534 agriculture in, 346, 400, 402, 414, 537 slavery in, 257–9 as bifurcated state, 211 smuggling, 253–61, 323, 404, 409–11, 421, as composite social contract, 356 429, 431–3 as productive social contract, 184 social contracts in, 334, 344, 346–7, 432–3, as quasi-democracy, 401 534 border controls, 259, 413 state intervention, 433 boundary agreements, 353 student movement in, 400, 414, 537 bureaucracy in, 342, 352, 354, 402, 433 taxation in, 165, 238, 276, 344–6, 487, 529 business community, 342, 537 textile industry, 341 capitalism in, 403 tourism, 412, 427 cattle smuggling, 257, 259 trade networks in, 409–11 centres and margins, 184 traditional authorities in, 270, 353–4 China, relations with, 434 unemployment in, 399 colonial administration, 163, 177–8 urbanism, 346, 398–400 Communes, 21, 178, 184, 343, 529 Vichy regime in, 241–2, 318–21, 323 corruption in, 346 Woloﬁzation in, 426, 434, 496 Customs service, 257, 409–10, 422, 430, World War II, 325 532 Senegal river, 113, 115, 402 decentralizing reforms, 401, 425, 495 Senegalese Progressive Union (UPS), 401 development agenda in, 346 Senegambia economic policies, 402, 412–15 border dynamics in, 521 education in, 177 boundary agreements, 353 elites in, 331, 534 community in, 496

606 Index

Senegambia (cont.) Sine-Saloum, 234, 351, 409, 428, 430 customs regimes, 269 Sinou, Alain, 108 ethnicity in, 496 Sissala, 16 frontier zones in, 152 Sitwell, F.C., 128, 198 identity politics in, 310 Skinner, Kate, 363, 370, 384 Islamic networks in, 280, 282 Slater, Sir Alexander Ransford, 247 migrants, competition for, 531 Slave Coast, 62, 65 political elites, 333 slave trade reuniﬁcation proposals, 331, 333, 350–2 Agotime, 60–1, 213 slaving frontiers in, 527 end of, 17, 104, 112 smuggling, 253–61 polities, creation of, 65, 525–8 trade networks in, 352, 429, 432, 434, 478, slavery 485, 527, 532, 539 as tribute, 65 transport links, 336–8 in social structures, 69 uniﬁcation, proposals for, 335–6, 338–50, Islam, role in, 96 355, 395, 533 legacies of, 13 violence in, 531 social change, as driver of, 97 Senegambian Confederation, 397, 417–19, 433 sleeping sickness, 247–8 Senghor, Jeggan, 350 Smend, Lt., 143, 217 Senghor, Léopold Smith, K.G.S., 340, 347 authoritarian tendencies, 400 smuggling Casamance, attitude to, 424 Agotime, 39–40 federalism, 330 borderland studies, 4 France, relations with, 341 in colonial states, 23 Gambia, relations with, 410 in French Togoland, 171 Muslim brotherhoods, 346 in German Togo, 140 opposition to, 400 in Ghana, 443, 448, 455, 457, 461, 469 power struggles, 344 in post-colonial states, 33 retirement of, 414 in Senegal, 404 Senegambian unity, 333 in Senegambia, 253–61, 349, 356 social contracts, 356 in trans-Volta, 175, 262, 473–8 Senghore, George, 354 in World War II, 319, 322–3 Serekunda, 44, 408–9, 429, 434, 478, 539 social contracts settlement, rites of, 287 border dynamics, 33–4, 271, 313, 317, 524, Seva, 224 533, 540 Seven-Year Plan, Ghana, 378, 439 coercive, 31–2, 66, 211 Sevor, Agotime leader, 217 colonial, 234, 276 seyfos (seyfolu) composite, 346, 356, 421, 452, 535–6 as administrators, 355, 495 concept of, 30–1 as intelligence gatherers, 353 development, 326 in land settlements, 244, 287 military role in, 436 land settlements, 531 permissive, 32–3, 186, 261, 356, 393, 395, smuggling, 259 421, 434, 452, 482, 539 under British rule, 186, 195–8 post-colonial states, 537 Shia, 71, 146, 473, 479 productive, 32, 184–7, 242, 376, 383, 452, shipping interests, 161 481–2, 534, 536 shoe trade, 351 repressive, 421 Sierra Leone, 101 Société Commerciale Ouest Africaine (SCOA), Sifoe, 41, 82–3, 286, 485, 487 160, 268 Sika, 89 Société de Développement des Fibres Textiles Silva, F.E., 128 (SODEFITEX)., 402 silver dollar, 180 soil exhaustion, 398 Simpson, W.H., 135–6 Sokoto Caliphate, 20, 23, 32 Sinclair, Sir George, 369 Songhor Lagoon, 56, 59, 62 Sindian, 286 Soninke, 90, 116, 278

Index 607

Soninke-Marabout wars, 41, 92–4 Subversion Decree, Ghana, 443 Sonko, Lamine, 209 sugar cane, 402 Sonko, Malick, 209 sugar, smuggling of, 431, 464–5, 532 Sorkpor, Matti, 142, 146–7, 217, 221 Suhum, 307 Southern Rhodesia, 167 Sukuta, 195, 197, 334 Southern Togoland Council, 372 Suleyman, 89 Southorn, Thomas, 240 sunandiro, 485 Special Military Tribunals, Ghana, 443 Sunu Gaal, 401 spirit Supreme Military Council (SMC I), 452 cults, 69, 90, 307 Supreme Military Council (SMC II), shrines, 13, 91, 273, 283 454 spiritual power, 98, 202 Swindell, Kenneth, 182, 245, 255, 270 Sprigade map, 67, 299–300, 307, 309, 500, Sylla, Fodé 508 and Cheikh Mahfoudz, 278 St. Mary’s Island. See Bathurst as corruptor of Islam, 276, 278 Standing Consultative Commission (SCC), European perceptions of, 119–20 Togoland, 363 fall of, 41, 128–30 State Farms Corporation (SFC), Ghana, 379, Franco-British border agreement, 438, 445–6 121–5 State Fishing Corporation, Ghana, 379, 457 Jola, conversion of, 281 State Gold Mining Corporation (SGMC), Kujube, failure at, 97, 286 Ghana, 379 legacy of, 96, 130–2, 199, 210, 245 states Narang, depopulation of, 287 bifurcated, 14 plundering campaigns, 96, 116, 488 deﬁnition of, 6–7, 9–11 rise of, 94–5 Empire states, 11–12 rule, extent of, 152 idea of, 9–11, 104, 481 slavery, 258, 541 imaginary, 9–10 Syme, R.S., 256 materiality of, 10–11 power, limits of, 395 Takla, 53, 55, 300, 302 statistics, accuracy of, 2–3 Takoradi, 472 Stepputat, Finn, 26 talibés, 282, 344 Steyler Mission, 215 Tall, Moustapha, 431 stool land, 249, 252, 298, 382 Tamba, 209 Stool Lands Boundaries Settlement Tambacounda, 429–30 Commission, 500 Tanzania, 377, 382 stool, fetish, 73 Taviefe, 77, 134 strange farmers tax bargains, 30, 347 in Gambia, 186, 231–3, 237–9, 255, 340, tax state, 7–9 531 taxation in Senegal, 238, 270 colonial state making, 22–3 World War II in, 242, 319 in colonial state making, 152, 193 stranger tax, 238 in colonial states, 155 strangers in development package, 329 citizenship, 290, 293 resistance to, 203 in colonial states, 272 state development, 7 land tenure, 252 state formation, 10 Structural Adjustment Teh Doku III, Nene of Zukpe, 302, 506–7 deﬁnition of, 411 Tema, 267, 369, 380, 536 in Ghana, 458, 471, 482–3 Tendouk, 275 in Senegambia, 414, 417, 434 Ten-Year Development Plan, Gold Coast, 365, in Togo, 460 367, 370–1 trade networks, 540 territoriality,conceptions of, 99 student movements, 400, 414, 442, 452, 454, Teshie, 57 537 Tete, 62, 65

608 Index

textiles military rule in, 436, 450 in Ghana, 444 parastatals in, 452, 481 in import/export trade, 341 phosphates boom, 449, 452, 481–2, 538 industry, 536 plebiscite of 1956, 453 parastatals, 402 public goods in, 449 protectionism, 413 regional disparities, 386 smuggling, 262, 351, 451, 462, 465–6, 474, repression in, 450, 460, 518 481, 539 smuggling in, 388–90, 393, 473–8, 539 Thiès, 431 social contracts in, 386, 449, 452, 482, 519, Thiès-Kayes railway, 238 539 Thiès-Niger railway, 168 trade networks in, 451–2 Thionk-Essyl, 206 traditional authorities in, 386, 450, 482, 502, Third Development Plan, Senegal, 402–3 517, 520, 523 Third Republic, Ghana, 456 uniﬁcation issue, 452 Thomson, Steven, 491 urbanism in, 473, 478–80, 483 Thonning, Peter, 53, 60 Togo beach, 134 tiep bou dien, 342 Togoland Tijani brotherhood, 423 economic union, 362 Tilly, Charles, 8 hill communities, 77, 192 timber, smuggling of, 464–5 uniﬁcation movement, 357, 359–65, 535 Tiobon, 275 Togoland Congress (TC), 303, 364, 367–8, Tivouane, 282 372, 375, 384, 389, 392, 535 tobacco Togoland Union (TU), 363–4, 372 smuggling, 262, 264, 266, 268, 325, 351, Tomani Bojang, 94 410 torture, 427 trade, 261, 532 Touba (Casamance) Todje, 74–5 as Narang village, 41 Todze family, 303 Darsilami, relations with, 286, 288, 293 Todzie, river, 60, 145, 302, 308, 371, 475, 510 naming of, 287 Togo Touba (Mouride capital) Agotime settlements, 38 as trading hub, 409, 429, 431–3 Agotimes in, 518 urban growth, 398, 478, 539 allied invasion, 141 Touré, Ahmed Sekou, 381, 426 army in, 390–1 tourism, 412, 421, 427 as barnacle state, 437 tournée, 193–4, 201, 208, 212, 225 as entrepôt state, 390, 392, 436, 449, 536 Tové, 71, 138, 214 as one-party state, 450 Tové-Dzigbe model farm, 142 as permissive social contract, 393, 395 tractors, 447 as repressive state, 482 Trades Union Congress (TUC), Ghana, 376, as Swiss state, 385, 390, 392, 448, 536 379, 442, 536 austerity measures in, 386, 460 traditional authorities. See also chiefs bureaucracy, 385, 451 development package, 328 China, relations with, 472 in colonial states, 190, 193–4, 270 customs reforms, 472 Islamicisation in Senegal, 275 democratization in, 460 landholding, 243–5, 252 development in, 386 smuggling, role in, 259–61 economy of, 385–6, 437 taxation, 353–4 education in, 386 World War II, in, 318 festivals, role in, 514 Tranquille, 292, 411, 431 French alliance, 386 trans-Gambian highway, 336, 347–8, 354 Ghana border closure, 387, 389–90, 459, transport in development package, 327 502–3, 536 trans-Volta in West African integration, 472 border dynamics in, 543 independence of, 385–6 Christian villages in, 541 infrastructure projects, 450, 481, 539 drought in, 322

Index 609

German take-over, 118 Van Vollenhoven, Joost, 206 identity in, 311 Ve-Golokwati, 370 trade networks in, 473–8 Velor, 258 unification proposals, 533 Vichy regime, 318, 533 urbanism in, 478–80 villages Trans-Volta Togoland (TVT) region, 364, citizenship in, 293 369–70 foundation of, 288 Trarza raiders, 114 integration of settlers, 297 Travelling Commissioners, 193 violence Trawali. See Mansa Dambeld (Dambeli) control of, 66 Treaty of Association (Senegambia), 350 in colonial states, 31, 190 Trusteeship agreements, 368 in state making, 525 Trusteeship Council (UN), 358, 361 nineteenth century, 49 Tsadide Kofi, 303, 305 Vlisco, 444 Tsevié, 224 Volta Region Agricultural Development Tukolor, 281 Project (VORADEP), 447 Ture family, 196, 210, 290 Volta Region Public Tribunal (VRPT), 461–6, Ture, Malang, 291 469–71 Ture, Nianko, 291 Volta Region, smuggling in, 457 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 15 Volta river, 212, 358 Tuskegee Institute, 142 Volta River Project, 327, 364, 368, 378, 453, 535 Uganda, 317, 382, 440, 538 von Puttkamer, Jesko, 214 umma (community), 99, 290 Voyi, 278–9, 281 Union des Chefs et Populations du Nord-Togo (UCPN), 364 Waalo, kingdom of, 114 Union des Groupements Economiques du Wade, Abdoulaye, 401, 428, 432, 434, 487, Sénégal (UNIGES), 400 490 Union Government (Unigov), 453, 458 Walkden, John, 266 Union Nationale des Commerçants et Walther, Olivier, 540 Industriels du Sénégal (UNACOIS), 434 warfare in colonial state making, 152 Union Nationale des Travailleurs Sénégalais Washington, Booker T., 142 (UNTS), 400 Wasulu, 277 United Africa Company (UAC), 160, 165, 256, water supplies, Gold Coast, 368 388 Watts, Michael, 255 United Ghana Farmers’ Council (UGFC), 376, wax prints, 451, 466, 472, 474, 481, 504, 518, 536 544 United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), 365 Waya stream, 307, 500 United Nations wealth in people, 66 Administering Authorities, 361, 363 Weatherburn, C.M., 372 in Togo unification challenge, 375 Weber, Max, 25, 29 trusteeships, 358, 361 Welch, Claude, 331, 347 United Nations High Commission for Refugees welfare in development package, 327 (UNHCR), 487 Wenuam. See Agotime-Afegame United Party (UP), 331, 408, 438 Wesseling, H.L., 18 Upper Region Agricultural Development West African Control Board (WACB), 180 Project (URADEP), 447 West African Court of Appeal, 223, 246 urban planning, 108 West African Produce Control Board (WAPB), urbanism, 395, 537, 540 340 USA, in contraband trade, 108 West India and Guinea Company, 65 Utuka, Maj-Gen. Edward Kwaku, 443 West Indian Regiment, 129 Westphalia, Treaty of, 7 Vakpo, 38 Whydah (Girefe), 62 Value-Added Tax (VAT), 471 Wifeme clan, 58 Van Mook Report, 347, 349–51, 534 Wilks, Ivor, 9, 31

610 Index

Williams, C. Riby, 136 Wright, Donald, 85 Windley, Sir Edward, 338 Wulending, Queen of Karone, 84 Wodome. See Agotime-Wodome Wuli, Kingdom of, 113 Wolof people, 22, 31, 281 Wumenu, 303, 307 Woloﬁzation, 426, 434, 496, 543 Wutegble. See Agotime-Wutegble women Agotime, 77 Xala (ﬁlm), 403 as captive wives, 69, 71–2 as smugglers, 474 Yarbutenda, 337, 415 in MFDC insurgency, 487 yard tax, 159, 172–3, 195, 199, 233, 270, 293, market women, 386, 455, 538 531 Workers’ Defence Committees (WDCs), 458 Yaw Osekyere, 66 World Bank, 345, 406, 414, 418, 447, 452 Yewe, 73 World Customs Organization (WCO), 472 Yorubaland, 34 World Trade Organization (WTO), 472 Young, Crawford, 14–15, 103 World War I Yundum, 81 conscription in, 185 French rule, effect on, 203 Zaire, 481 Togo, invasion of, 141 Ziguinchor, 44, 81, 207–9, 427, 492 World War II Zimbabwe, 265 colonial states, impact on, 318–19, 325, 533 Ziope, 53, 146–7, 266 conscription in, 240 Zomayi, 302 manpower demands, 313 zongo populations, 295, 542 trans-Volta, 360 Zukpe. See Agotime-Zukpe