Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

Neolithic (New Stone Age)

Metal Age

Old stone Age

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age-- period before 10000 B.C

clevers choppers

chopping tools

side scrappers

burin Fakes

 Three phases on the basis of the nature of. Stone tools as well as due to the changes in the climate and environment.  lower Paleolithic phase---hand axes Cleavers Choppers Chopping tools  middle Paleolithic-----based upon flakes,  Upper Paleolithic------burins and scrapers

Rock paintings and carvings

 give us an insight into the subsistence pattern and social life of the Palaeolithic people.  The earliest paintings belong to Upper paleolithic age  Bhimbetka located on the Vindhyan range, is well known for continuous succession of paintings of different periods  Upper Paleolithic stage--paintings are done in green and dark red colours  paintings are predominantly of bisons elephants tigers rhinos boars  usually large animals  some measuring twenty three metres in length  hunting is reflected as the main subsistence pursuit in the carvings and paintings  sometimes possible to distinguish between men and women on the basis of anatomical features  painting also reflected that palaeolithic people lived in small band (small groups) societies whose subsistence economy was based on exploitation of resources in the form of both animal and plant products

General points

 These sites are generally located near water sources  lived rarely in huts made of leaves  famous sites  The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India  The Siwalik hills on the north India.  Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh  Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.  Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh  Attirampakkam near Chennai.  food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers  Hunter-gatherers.  used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals  Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite.  attempts to domesticate animals, make crude pots and grow some plants  few Old Stone Age paintings found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places  The oldest paintings are considered to be 30,000 years old  The colors used are vegetable colors which have endured through time because the drawings were generally made deep inside a niche or on inner walls  Linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge figures of animals such as bison, tigers and rhinoceroses.

Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age (10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C)

 began around 8000 BC  There was rise in temperature and the climate became warm and dry  The technology of producing tools also underwent change and the small stone tools were used  there was shift in the pattern of hunting from big game to small game hunting and to fishing and fowling  Material and ecological changes are also reflected in rock paintings.  The Mesolithic tools are microliths or small stone tools  very small in size  length ranges from 1 to 8 cm  Some microliths have even geometric forms.  Blade, core, point, triangle, lunate and trapeze are the main types of Mesolithic tools

 Palaeolithic tools like scraper, burin and even choppers also continue during the Mesolithic Age  Mesolithic Sites----  Pachpadra basin and the Sojat area (Rajasthan)  river Kothari is the largest Mesolithic site in India  The rivers Tapti, Narbada, Mahi and Sabarmati (Gujarat)  The Vindhyas and Setpuns are rich in Mesolithic sites  Bhimbetka is another significant Mesolithic site  coastal Konb and the idand plateau  Deccan basaltic plateau  The Chota Nagpur plateau  the coastal plains of Olisso  the Bengal delta  Brahmaputra valley  the Shillong plateau  Kuchai in Orissa  Scbalgiri-2 in Garo hills of Meghalaya  The Krishna and Bhima rivers  The Godavari delta is rich in microliths  The Kurnool area

The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters

 give us considerable idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people  Sites rich in Mesolithic art and paintings  Bhimbetka  Adamgarh  pratapgarh  Minapur  Hunting, food collection, fishing and other human activities are reflected in these paintings  Bhimbetka is extremely rich in paintings  Many animals like Boar Monkey Nilgai are frequentlydepicted  The paintings and engravings depict activities like  sexual union  child birth  rearing of child  burial ceremony  social organization had become more stable than in paleolithic times  It seems that the religious beliefs of the Mesolithic people are conditioned by ecological

General points

 Transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age  Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh and Bihar  The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people  In the sites of Mesolithic Age a different type of stone tools is found tiny stone artifacts often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths  hunting-gathering pattern seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing  The use of bow and arrow also began  began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area  domestication of animals horticulture primitive cultivation started  Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich  Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practiced

NEOLITHIC STAGE OF CULTURE 5500 B.C. to 3500 B.C

 one of the main characteristic is Domestication of plants and animals  Domestication of plants and animals led to

 emergence of village communities based on sedentary life  beginnings of agriculture technology  greater control over nature by exploitation of natural resources  the approximate time period in which domestication of plants and animals seems to have began

 The neolithic cultures of the sub-continent

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Main points  5500 B.C. to 3500 B.C-- Neolithic  permanent villages emerged.  Knowledge of wheat, barley, dates, cotton and sheep, goat and cattle  Evidences of mud houses  pottery  Craft-production found.

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

 as old as the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia  People living in these settlements did not know the use of iron.  3500 B.C to 2600 B.C.---Early Harappa Period  Settlements in hills and plains  Large number of villages  Use of copper  wheel and plough  granary  defensive walls  long distance trade  Emergence of uniformities in the pottery tradition throughout the Indus Valley  the origins of such motifs Pipal, Humped bulls, Cobras Horned deity etc  2600 B.C. to 1800 B.C----Mature Harappa Period  Emergence of large cities  uniform types of bricks  weights\  seals  beads  pottery  Planned township and long distance trade.  1800 B.C.—Onward----Late Harappan Period  Many Harappa sites abandoned  Interregional exchange declines  Writing and city life abandoned  The village cultures of Punjab, Sutlej-Yamuna divide and Gujarat imbibe the Harappa crafts and pottery traditions

Geographical space  Rajasthan  Punjab  Gujarat  Pakistan  and some of the surrounding areas.

Its features

 altered the origins of the Indian history  stretched it much further back so as to put it at par with the other oldest civilizations of the world namely Egypt 'and Mesopotamia  On the foundation of agricultural communities and small townships emerged the 'Harappa Civilization'  the presence and domination of large cities  the presence of specialized craftsmen,  long distance trade  the existence of rich and poor people  the presence of kings

Some particular features

 using the same written script  using the same sets of weights and measures  copper-bronze tools used by them were also uniform in design, shape and size  the bricks they used had a proportion 4:2: 1  The seals, shell (shank) bangles, carnelian beads and the disc beads of steatite were also uniformly designed  use of a pinkish pottery with bright red slip  This pottery had standard representations of trees, animals, birds and geometric motifs in black  Its area was larger than those of the contemporary Civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt  fastest means of transport was bullock-cart

Important centres

 Harappa  Mohenjodaro  Kalibangan  Lothal  Sutkagen-Dor

Harappa  first site to be excavated  located on the bank of the Ravi in Western Punjab  substantial section of the population was engaged in activities other than food production  activities could relate to  administration,  trade  craft work  religion  Since these people were not producing food for themselves someone else would have to do it for them  Productivity was Low and transportation was quite difficult  maintaining these non-food producers the community would have to mobilize a very large number of people for procuring and transporting food from the food producing areas  transportation of grains by bullock carts and boats  The location of Harappa in isolation can be explained by 'the fact that it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use  These routes connected Harappa with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu.

Mohenjo-Daro

 located in the Larkana district of Sind on the bank of the river Indus  largest site of the Harappa Civilization  town planning  housing  seals

Kalibangan

 Located in Rajasthan along the dried up bed of the river Ghaggar.  significant variation from Harappa in the sphere of religious beliefs  presence of distinct local traditions in pottery along with the Harappa pottery  Might have been a mediator between the Harappan cultural zone and the eastern provinces.

Lothal

 Gujarat settlements such as Rangapur Surkotada Lothal  Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay  seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary West Asian societies  dockyard

Sutkagen-Dor  located near the Makran coast which is close to the Pakistan-Iran border  citadel surrounded by a stone wall built for defence  the need of sea-port for trading.

Town-Planning

 remarkable unity of conception  houses, the temples, the granaries and the streets themselves will be almost identical to those of Mohenjodaro or any other Harappan town for that matter  the division of each town into two parts 1. citadel 2. lower city  citadel  rulers were staying  on the west side  built on a high podium of mud brick  seems to have contained large structures which might have functioned as administrative or ritual centers  Surrounded by a brick wall.

 a lower town  the ruled and the poor  'on the eastern side  Contained residential areas  streets run from north to south in the lower city cut at right angles  this kind of alignment of streets and houses represents conscious town planning  both the citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall--kalibangan  the resources of the town planners in those days would be very limited  In Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro baked bricks were used for buildings  In Kalibangan mud bricks were used.  In settlements like Kot Diji and Amri in Sind no fortification of the city  Site of Lothal in Gujarat , a very different layout.  rectangular settlement surrounded by a brick wall  did not have any internal division into citadel and lower city  Along the eastern side found a brick basin which has been identified as a dockyard  site of Surkotada  divided into two equal part  the building materials were basically mud bricks and lumps of mud  brick making was organised on a large scale Sanitation

 cities like Mohenjodaro showed excellent arrangements for sanitation  The waste water from houses would.pass through chutes connected with public drains aligned to the margin of the streets  indicates the presence of a civic administration which would take & spends for the sanitary requirements of all the townsmen

Great Bath’ of Mohenjo-Daro

 Brick built structure 12 m. by 7 m. 3 m. deep  approached at either end by flights of steps  The bed of the bath was made water tight by the use of bitumen  Water was supplied by a large well in an adjacent room  corbelled drain for disgorging water too  bath was surrounded by porticoes and sets of rooms

Granary

 consists of twenty seven blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by ventilation channels  Below the granary, the brick loading bays from which grains were raised into the citadel for storage long building

 To another side of the Great Bath (230 x 78 feet)  the residence of a very high official  includes an open court of 33 feet square on to which three verandas open

an assembly hall

 Another significant building  four rows of five brick plinths upon which wooden columns were erected  In a row of rooms to the west of it was found a seated male status

Great Granary

 series of brick platforms forming the base of two rows of six granaries  To the south of the granary rows of circular brick platform  they were used for threshing grains is clear from the fact that chaffs of wheat and barley were found in the crevices of the floors

The most significant discoveries

Kalibangan---fire altars

 series of brick platforms  On one of them was found a row of seven 'fire altars' as well as a pit containing animal bones and antlers

Housing Pattern

 average citizen  lived in the blocks of houses in the lower city  variations in the sizes of houses  single room tenements meant for slave  other houses complete with courtyards and Moving up to twelve room bigger houses were provided with private wells and toilets  houses had much the same plan  square courtyard around which were a number of rooms  entrances to the houses from the narrow lanes which cut the streets at right angle  No windows faced the street  the road ward facing of the house brick lines  Some of them bathed in an exclusive swimming pool (The Great Bath  who lived in larger houses belonged to the rich class  living in the barracks might have been part of a servile class of laborers  houses in the lower city also contained a large number of workshop  Potters kiln  dyers vat  shell ornament makers  bead maker

Pottery

 represents the blending of the ceramic traditions of Baluchistan and the cultures east of the Indus system  Most of Harappan pottery is plain  substantial part is treated with a red slip and black painted decoration  The painted decoration consist of  horizontal tines of varied thickness  leaf patterns  Scales  Chequer  lattice mark  palm and pipal tree  Birds  Fishes  animals  Among the notable shapes  Pedestal  Dishes  Goblet  cylindrical vessel  various kinds of bowl

Tools and Implements

 a striking degree of uniformity in designs and in technique of production  tools made of  copper  bronze  stone  basic tools types  flat axe  chisel  knives  spear heads  arch heads  dagger  flat tang  techniques of casting bronze and copper produced on a large scale in factory site Sukkur in Sind  sent to various urban centres  high level of competence and specialisation with little or no concern for beauty and innovation

Arts and Crafts

 bronze dancing nude figure discovered in Mohenjo-Daro  head drawn backward  drooping eye  the right arm on the hip  left arm hanging down the figure is in a dancing stance  She is wearing a large number of bangles  her hair is plaited in an elaborate fashion  a masterpiece of the Harappa art  bronze figurines of  buffalo  a ram  two little toy carts of bronze  one was discovered in Harappa  other at Chanhudaro a distance of over 650 km are identical in design  The stone sculpture  bearded head in Mohenjodaro  face is bearded  upper lip shaved  half closed eyes might indicate a state of meditation  Across the left shoulder is a cloak carved in relief with trefoil pattern  Two small male torsos discovered in Harappa  refined and wonderfully realistic modelling of the fleshy parts is extraordinary  However, the Harappans do not seem to have used stone or bronze for their artistic creations on a large scale  Terracotta figurines have been found in large numbers from the Harappan settlements  used as toys or cult figures  variety of birds and monkeys  Dogs  Sheep  Cattle  humped and hump-less bulls  male and female figurines  Various models of terracotta carts  the bullock carts used in those times are ancestors of the actual bullock carts used in modem times  remarkably beautiful beads made of precious and semi-precious stones  agate  turquoise  carnelian  steatite  making these beads are clear from the finds of a workshop in Chanhudaro  process— o stone was first sawn into an oblong bar o flaked into a cylindrical shape o polished o Finally it was bored either with chert drills or with bronze tubular drills  Gold and silver beads have also been found  The commonest material used for making beads was steatite  The barrel shaped beads with trefoil pattern are typically associated with the Harappa culture  Car-nelian beads are also quite common  In Mohenjodaro was also discovered a hoard of jewellery consisting of gold beads, fillets and other ornaments  Small dishes of silver too  Seals  More than 2000 seals have been found  the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient craftsmanship  generally square in shape  made of steatite  round seals have also been found  designs on the seals Wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script  Some seals have only scripts carved on them  some others bear human and semi-human forms  Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns  animal motifs o Indian bison o Brahman bull o Rhinoceros o tiger and elephant o series of composite animals are also shown o face of a man with trunk and tusks of an elephant o the horns of bull o the hind-quarters of a tiger  The seal of a homed deity sitting in a yoga posture and surrounded by animals has been identified with the god Pashupati.  artworks of the Harappans leave us a little disappointed  The finds are very limited in number  they do not seem to have the variety of expression seen in the contemporary Civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia  Stone sculptures was rare and undeveloped compared to those fashioned by the Egyptians  terracotta pieces also cannot compare with those of Mesopotamia in quality The Indus Script

 some form of writing.  still a mystery  we cannot read it  they used ideograms and wrote from right to left

Subsistence Pattern

 urbanism was based on agricultural production  Horse seems to have been unknown to the Harappans  Two varieties of wheat  Barley has been frequently found  dates  varieties of leguminous plants, such as peas  mustard  sesamum  At Lothal and Rangapur , rice husk  At Mohenjodaro, a fragment of a cotton cloth  mastered the art of growing cotton and wearing cloth  evidence of a furrowed field in Kalibangan  some sort of wooden plough  pattern of crossed furrows widely spaced in one direction and closely spaced in another, is still followed in this area  sowing horse gram or sesamum in one direction and mustard in another  Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a fairly wide range of crops, domesticated animals and wild animals  They were probably already growing two crops annually. They also grew two or more kind of crops simultaneously. This provided the strength to the economy to support the large population which lived in the cities and did not produce its own food.

Domesticated and hunted animals

 sheep and goat  humped cattle  boars  buffaloes  elephants and camel  fowls  deer  rhinoceros  tortoise

Dress Styles

 Their faces, complexion and height were more or less similar to the present day people living in those areas  did not wear the shirts and trousers or Salwar-Kameej like the modern men and women  Men are mostly shown  wearing a dress which would be wrapped round the lower half of the body  with one end worn over the left shoulder  under the right arm-like the modern saree  other dress was a kilt and a shirt worn by both men and women  men arranged their hair in various ways sometimes making buns and using headbands  men used many ,more ornaments than the modem Indians  They would be wearing ring, bracelets .and ornaments round their neck and hands  Growing beard was fashionable but they would shave their moustaches  Women  used ornaments on their waist  wore a large number of necklaces  Bangles too were in fashion  no end to the number of ways in which hair was arranged  Men and women alike had long hair  they used cotton clothes also that in one sculpture  cloth was shown as having trefoil pattern and red colors

Food Habits

 wheat and barley as their staple food  supply of fat and oil from sesame seeds, mustard and possibly Ghee  honey to sweeten their food  jujube and dates  bananas, pomegranates, melons, lemons, figs and of course mangoes  eating pea  non-vegetarian food ---deer, bears, sheep and goats  neither tea nor potato-chips

Warfare

 they played dice  Many copper and bronze weapons Places of Worship

 most of the large stone sculptures were found  In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large building has been discovered  This building has a monumental entrance  a double stairway leading to, a raised platform on which was found a stone sculpture  16 1/2 inches high.  a seated man with hands on knees.  a bearded face with a fillet passing over a receding forehead and hanging down in two strands at the back  Another stone statue was discovered in the same building  some ritual significance  'The Great Bath was not simply a swimming pool but that it had a great ritual significance

Objects of Worship

 a deity who has been identified as proto-Siva  a deity , wearing a buffalo-homed head-drek is shown sitting in a yogic posture  The deity is surrounded by animals like goats, elephants, tiger and antelope  In several instances he has a sprouting plant emerging between his horns  In another case a deity with horns and flowing hair is standing nude between the’ branches of a Pipal tree  A worshipper is kneeling in front of it  Behind the worshipper is a man-faced goat and seven other human figure have long pigtails and tall head-dresses  one seal are shown snakes accompanying the yogic figure  the phallic emblem of Siva (Lingam) has been found  Mother Goddess  Tree Spirit  Some Mythical Heroes  Animal Worship  Mythical Beasts  The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious practices  At Kalibangan in the citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms crowned with 'fire altars'  some kind of ritual centre where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire rituals were performed  the Harappans staying in different geographical areas followed - different religious practices  fire ritual was central to the Vedic religion The Burial of the Dead

 life and life after death  not yielded any monuments for the dead which could equal the pyramids of Egypt or the Royal cemetery of the Mesopotamian city of Ur, in its grandeur  many graves have been discovered  Dead bodies were generally placed in a north-south orientation  Bodies were laid on their back  A large number of earthen pots were placed in the grave  In some cases the dead were buried with ornaments like shell bangles, necklace, and an ear ring  In some cases copper mirrors, mother of pearl shells, antimony sticks etc. were kept in the grave  A number of graves were constructed with bricks  A coffin burial has been found at Harappa  Kalibangan some other kinds of burial practices  Small circular pits containing large urns and accompanied by pottery have been found  From Lothal some examples of pairs of skeletons with a male and a female in each case buried together.  Fire worship was prevalent in Kalibangan and Lothal but unknown in Harappa and Mohenjodaro  Ritual bathing evidenced at Mohenjodaro might have been absent in Harappa  Diversity of religious beliefs and practices even in the same settlement reflects the compell nature of the urban centres.  Unlike tribal societies where every member of the tribe follows similar kinds of religious practices, the urban centres are characterised by the presence of people following different kinds of religious practices.  This apparently means that urban centres were formed by the political and economic integration of varied social groups.  An urban centre means the presence of traders from different regions with their own religious practices.  These groups retained their social mores and customs but lost their political and economic independence

WHAT SURVIVES FROM HARAPPA

 The cults of Pasupati (Siva)  mother goddess  phallic worship have come down to us from the Harappan tradition.  the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity in the subsequent historic civilization of India.  fire worship and sacrifice in Kalihgan and Lothal is significant  Many aspects of domestic life  the house plans  disposition of water supply  attention to bathing  traditional weigh  currency system of India based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit  The techniques of making potter's wheel in modern India is similar to those used by the Harappans  Bullock carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan citie

CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY IRON AGE-I

 the Banas culture (located in the Banas basin) in Rajasthan  Kayatha culture (type site Kayatha on the bank of river Kalisindh, an affluent of the Chambal) and represented by other sites in central India (in the Narmada, Tapi and Mahi valleys)  Malwa culture (Malwa, and extending into other parts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra),  The Jorwe culture (Maharashtra).

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture) BLACK AND RED WARE CULTURE

Pottery

 black colour inside near the rim on outside  red colour, over the rest of the body  it is believed, has been produced by inverted firing  pottery is mostly wheel turned, though some pots are also handmade.  made of t he clay and has a fine fabric with thin walls  Black and Red Ware pottery with paintings has also been found at sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal  But in the BRW of the doab area there is absence of paintings Other Objects

 Atranjikhera-- fragments of stones, waste flakes, chips; cores of quartz, chalcedony, agate and carnelian  No stone or metal tools have been found

PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE

 first discovery of Painted Grey,Ware (PGW) at Ahichchhatra  30 sites have been excavated  well known excavated sites Rupar (Punjab), Bhagwanpura (Haryana), Noh (Rajasthan) Alamgirpur, Ahichchhatra, Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, Jakhera and Mathura (all in Uttar Pradesh).  mostly small villages (1 to 4 hectares) with the exception of Bhukari (Ambala district, Haryana) which is an extensive settlement covering 96,193 sq.m

Pottery

 wheel made  out of well lavigated clay  thin core  smooth surface  grey to ash-grey in color  painted in black and sometimes in a deep chocolate color on the outer as well as inner surface.  nearly 42 designs  most common types-- bowls and dishes

Structures

 structures were of wattle and daub  first phase indicate circular and rectangular huts  the second phase, one house has 13 rooms with a comdor between the two sets of rooms. This house also has a courtyard

Other Objects

 copper, iron, glass and bone  axes, chisels, fish hooks and arrowheads  Spearheads are made only of iron  Among the agricultural implements only a sickle and a hoe, made of iron  Iron objects are found at all the sites except Hastinapura

Beads

 terracotta  agate  jaspar  carnelian  chalcedony  lapis lazuli,  glass and bone  glass bangles at Hastinapura  copper bangles have been found at Jakhera  The terracotta objects comprise human (male and female) and animal (bull and horse) figurines, discs, balls, potter's stamps, etc.

Trade

 Agate and chalcedony are found in Kashrnir, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh  lapis lazuli is to be found in Badakshan province in Afghanistan

NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE CULTURE

 distinctive pottery  first discovered at Taxila  two phases  Phase I: predefence phase absence of punch marked coins and burnt brick structures represented in Atranjikhera, Sravasti and Prahladpur  Phase II: Pottery specimens belonging to BRW and PGW are not found NBP Ware is of poor quality (thicker in fabric) and is found in smaller numbers. A coarse grey ware comes into greater use Punch marked coins and burnt bricks make their first appearance represented in Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, Sravasti I1 and Prahladpur  Houses were made of burnt bricks  use of timber in house construction  The roofs of houses were covered with tile  The rooms were square as well as 'n rectangular  at Hastinapura which have revealed an elaborate drainage system  Some of the settlements were fortified with a mud or brick wall and moats were also constructed encircling the fortification  The fortification wall at Kausambi had guard rooms, towers and gates at regular intervals  the fortifications signify defensive measures against invasion and speak of political tensions  The drainage system, not only indicates the concern of the people towards hygiene but also the advance they had made in this regard  Large buildings like the fortifications require that a large number of people participate in construction activities. This might need an authority to mobilize the workers Pottery

 glossy surface  Turned on a fast wheel and is made of well levigated clay.  core of the pottery in some cases is as thin as 1.5mm  NBP was a luxury ware not accessible to everybody and suggests to us that in the society in which NBP Ware was used society was divided into unequal groups.  Though NBP ware is generally unpainted, some painted shreds to occur  Painting is done using yellow and light vermilion colours  The common designs are simple' bands, wavy lines, dots, concentric and intersecting circles, semi-circles, arches and loops  most common pottery shapes arc bowls are different kinds of dishes

Other Objects

 tools, weapons, ornaments and other objects made of copper, iron, gold, silver, stone, glass and bone  ' The copper objects chisels, knives, borers, pins, neyes, antimony rods, nail parers, ferrules, reels and bangles.  Iron objects The site of Kausambi alone has yielded 1,115 iron objects Agricultural implements like hoes and sickles, and tools of craftsman such as axes, adzes, chisels and screw rods Weapons like arrowheads, javelin heads and spearheads Miscellaneous objects, which include knives, handles of different kinds, hooks, nails, rivets, fishplates, rings and miniature bells are found  Silver punch-marked coins  a possible shift from barter system to a system of exchange of goods through metallic currency

Ornaments

 semi-precious stones, glass, clay, copper shell and bone  usual shapes Circular, spherical, biconical, cylindrical, barrel and square.  A single bead of gold is known from Kausambi  use of ornaments in that society  existence of specialised craftsmen to make them  level of technology for making them  Trade or exchange activities with other regions to procure various semi-precious stones.

Terracotta Figurines  human and animal figurine  Male figurines are usually plain excepting a few with a head dress  Female figurines have elaborate head dress, ear ornaments necklaces and girdles  Animal figurine Horse, bull, Ram and elephant  miscellaneous terracotta objects Toy carts, simple and animal headed gamesman; discs, balls, flesh rubbers and potter's stamps.

Subsistence Economy and Trade

 rice, wheat, barley, millet, pea and black gram were cultivated  cattle, sheep, goat, pig and fish  trade links existed between Taxila, Hastinapura, Ahichchhara, Sravasti and Kausambi during Ca. 600 B.C. to 200 B.C

CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF WESTERN, CENTRAL AND EASTERN INDIA

 painted pottery, which is mostly black-on-red  a highly specialized stone blade/flake industry of siliceous stones.  Copper was known but its use was on a limited scale as the metal was scarce  settlements consisted of circular and rectangular huts and in some cases pit dwellings  The economy was based on farming and animal husbandry. Pottery: -Diagnostic Features

 Kayatha ware is characterized by three fabrics  a thick and sturdy red slipped ware painted with designs in dark brown  a red painted buff ware (this ware is thin with a fine fabric)  a combed ware having incised patterns, and generally without a slip.  The Malwa ware is to some extent coarse in fabric and has a thick black slip over which patterns are executed in black or dark brown colour  The Prabhas and Rangpur wares are both derived from the Harappan black-on-red painted ware. since the latter has a gloss it is referred to as the lustrous Red Ware.  The Jorwe Ware is painted black-on-red, and has a matt surface treated with a red wash.  all these cultures have other associated wares which are mostly red or grey.  pottery is wheel made but there are also handmade forms.  pottery shapes bowls, basins, globular jars with concave necks, dishes, Iotas  A distinctive feature of the Malwa pottery is seen in the series of small goblets on solid pedestals  the distinctive forms of the Jorwe culture are carinated bowls, spouted jars with flaring mouths, and high necked globular vases

Economy

 flourished is the zone of black cotton soil  climate is semi-arid and the rainfall varies between 400 to 1000 mm  agriculture and stock-raising  Cultivated Crop barley, wheat,, rice, bajra, jowar, lentil, horsegram, haycinth bean, grass pea, pea, black gram and green gram. Other plants utilized were Jamun, Behada, wild date, ber, Myrobalan etc  Barley was the principal cereal  Inamgaon Artificial irrigation Practice of crop rotation Harvesting of summer and winter crops A massive embankment (240 m long and 2.40 m wide) was built at Inamgaon during Early Jorwe period (Ca. 1400 - 1000 B.C.) to divert the flood water through a channel (200 m long, 4m wide and 3.5 m deep).  Animals: Domesticated animals -- cattle, sheep, goat, dog, pig, and horse found The wild species--- black buck, four homed antelope, Niligai, barasingha, sambar, chital, wild buffalo, and one homed rhinoceros. Fish, waterfowl, turtle and rodents Cooked in open fire.

Houses and Habitations

 Rectangular and circular houses with mud walls and thatched roofs are the most common type  variations in house size from site to site  Savalda culture  single roomed rectangular house  some with two or three rooms  Ahar  houses on plinths made of schist  Walls were built on these plinths with mud or mud brick  walls were decorated with quartz cobble  floors were made of burnt clay or clay mixed with river gravels  The sizes of the Ahar houses ranged between 7m X 5m and 3m X 3m  longest house measured more than 10m in lengt  Bigger houses had partition walls, and chulahs (hearths) and quartzite saddle quems in the kitche  The Malwa  found at Navadatoli, Parkash, Daimabad and Inamgaon were quite large  at Inamgaon  majority were aligned in a roughly east-west orientation  these houses were built close to each other  intervening space of about I-2m in between  houses at Inamgaon were large (7m X 5m) rectangular structures  Partition wall.  houses had a low mud wall and gabled roof  inside the house was a large oval fire pit with raised sides for keeping the fire under control  at Navadatoli  were provided with one or two mouthed chullahs in the kitchen  grain was stored in deep pit silos  Circular mud platforms  The Jorwe culture  houses of the artisans such as the potter, the goldsmith, the lapidary, the ivory- carver etc. were located on the western periphery of the principal habitation area  well-to-do farmers were in the central part  size of the artisans houses is smaller than those of the well-to-do  The position and size of houses demonstrate social differentiation in terms of a lower position for artisans in the society.  Some of these chalcolithic sites have fortification walls around the settlement. For example Eran and Nagda (Madhya Pradesh) of the Malwa Culture, and Inamgaon (during Jorwe period) have a fortified mud wall with stone rubble bastions and ditch around the habitation.  At Inamgaon has been noticed a change in house types from Early Jorwe (1400 - 1000 B.C.) to late Jorwe period (1000 - 700 B.C.):  The Early Jowe houses  Large rectangular structures with low mud walls (about 30 cm. high) surrounded by wattle-and-daub constructions  laid out in rows with their longer axis in a roughly east-west orientation  open space in between (approximately 1.5m wide) which might have served as a road or lane  Late Jorwe houses  A picture of poverty.  Large rectangular huts were no more  small round huts (with a low mud wall) in clusters of three or four  pit silos were replaced by a four lagged storage jar supported on four flat stones  decline in agriculture as a result of drop in rainfall  A drastic climatic change in this region that led to increasing aridity forcing the people to resort to a semi-nomadic existence.  Increasing aridity during the Late Jorwe period led to the decline of agriculture, and economy based on farming changed over to sheep/goat pastoralism.

The tools

 include long parallel sided blades, blunted back blades, serrated blades, pen'knives, lutes, triangles and trapezes  Some of these blade tools have a shine on the sharp edge suggesting that they were used for hawking  Polished stone axes, which are typical of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures of Karmataka-Andhra, have also been found  Copper objects flat axes or celts with convex cutting edges arrovheads, spearheads, chisels, fish hooks, mid-ribbed swords, blades, bangles, rings and beads.  beads made of carnelian, jasper, chalcedony, agate, shell, etc. A necklace made of 40,000 microbeads of steatite has been found in a pot belonging to the Kayatha culture At Inamgaon were found beads of gold and ivory, a spiral ear ring of gold and anklets of copper

Terracotta objects are

 found mainly at majority of these sites.  form of human and animal figurines.  stylized terracotta bulls  hump, some with horns twisted backward, and some with the horns projecting forward horizontally, are of special interest  bull was a sacred animal  the possibility that some of them could have been toys cannot be ruled out

The Daimabad Hoard

 1.2m thick belonging to the Jorwe period  massive, all solid cast, and weigh over 60 kg

Elephant  heaviest (25 cm in height X 27 cm in length)  stands on a cast copper platform with four brackets beneath, pierced, to take axles.

Rhinoceros  slightly smaller, and also stands on a cast platform  brackets contain two solid copper axles with cast wheels attached  rhinoceros recalls the one inscribed on the Indus seals

Two Wheeled Chariot with a Ride

 The chariot is attached by a long pole to the yoked oxen which stand on two cast copper strips, but there are no brackets for wheels.  The chariot has two uprights supporting a cross-bar behind which the rider stands.

Buffalo  Has wheels and axle in position.  some parallels in the figures of buffalo in both terracotta and case copper or bronze found from Mohenjodaro  it is unalloyed by tin or other metals

Religion Belief Systems

 Mother Goddesses  Gods  painted jar of Malwa period (1600 B.C.) is considered to be of some religious significance Pot has two panel Upper panel--painted a scene depicting a human figure wearing a garment of twigs covering the loin, and is surrounded by stylized animals such as stag, deer, peacocks etc. lower panel----springing tigers or panthers, which are also stylized probably meant for some ritualistic use.

Burial Practices:

 Disposal of the dead by burial was a common custom.  usually buried in a north-south orientation  the head towards the north and the legs towards the south  Adults were, in a majority of cases, buried in an extended position  Children were buried in urn-burials-either in single pots or, more often, in two pots- placed horizontally mouth-to-mouth in a pit.  Adults, and also children, were buried in a pit which was dug into the house floor, r and rarely in the courtyard of the house

Interesting

During the Jorwe period,

 the case of adults,  The portion below the ankle was purposely chopped off.  practices like burying the dead within the precincts of the house, and chopping off the feet could possibly suggest a belief in which the dead were restrained from turning into ghosts, who could become malevolent  adult burials in several cases contain offerings

Unusual burials at Inamgaon

 four legged urn-burial made of unbaked clay  southern face resembles a human body  This urn (80 cm. in height and 50 crn. in width), which has a wide mouth with a featureless rim, contained the skeleton of a male, of about 30 to 40 years old, in a sitting posture  the portion below the ankle is not chopped off  burial offerings were a spouted pot with the painting of a boat design having long oars  boat design reminds one is the present day Hindu belief that the departed soul has to cross waters in a ferry to reach the heavenly abode

CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY IRON AGE -11  three broad phase  Phase I 2500-1800 B.C  a polished stone axe industry  blade industry  handmade pottery  In pottery, grey or buff-brown ware is most common  A ware, which is less common, has a black or red burnished slip, often with purple painted decoration  Maski and Brahmagiri have all revealed the first phase of settlements of these agro-pastoral communities

Phase II: 1800-1500 B.C.

 Phase-I continues without any change  settlements were still made on top of granitic hills  or on levelled surfaces on the hillsides.  some important developments  circular hutments of wattle and daub  the larger pits at Naga rjuna-Konda (in coastal Andhradesa) which are circular, oval, oblong and irregular,  semi-subterranean pit dwellings  Pit dwellings were also found at Paiyampalli and Veerapuram  new pottery types--- perforated and spouted vessel reveals contacts with regions in the north as similar pottery types have been found there  technique of roughening the outer surface of pottery during this phase is reminiscent of technique employed in the early Harappan period.  The polished stone axe and Made industries proliferate  Copper and bronze objects were also discovered  Piklihal  Brahmagiri,  Sanganakallu  Tekkalakota,  Hallur  T. Narsipur.

Phase III 1400-1050 B.C.

 Increase in the number of copper and bronze tools  increase is seen at Tekkalakota Hallur Piklihal Sanganakallu Brahmagiri Paiyampalli  In pottery a new grey and buff ware with a harder surface becomes common.  Another ceramic type which is wheel made, unfurnished and with purple paint also appears

Subsistence Economy

 millets and pulses were the main cultivated crops  various kinds of millet, horse gram, green gram  black gram. Hyacinth bean and barley have been recently identified at Ramapuram.  The domesticated species cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl.  at Veerapuram, cattle represent 48.68% of the domesticated animals sheep/goat form only 5.4.9'0  the economy of these communities was a combination of agriculture and &animal husbandry (cattle predominantly and sheep/goat to some extent), it can be termed agro- pastoral.  wild species porcupine black naped hare, nilgai, chinkara blackbuck sarnbar chital

stone tools

 Many stone tools were also polished.  Most common type of the polished or ground stone axe industry is the triangular axe with a pointed buff and oval cross section.  other forms are adges, scrappers, wedges, chisels and pointed tools  flat axes and chisels which are reminiscent of those of Malwa and Mahatashtra  A fish hook has been recovered from Hallu  The site Tekkalakota has yielded a spiral ear ring of gold. Beads and Temcotta figurine

 Beads made of semi-precious stones have occasionally been found at some of the excavated site  circular disc beads of paste and steatite were discovered at Nagarjunakonda.  Terracotta figurine---humped cattle  context of paintings, cattle around the settlements at Kupgal, Maski, Piklihal paintings show cattle singly and in groups depict humped bulls long homed cattle cattle with decorated horns.

Burial Practices

 commonly buried within the houses  Adult burial practices include extended inhumation.  Infants were buried in urns.  The offerings for the dead (grave goods) usually consisted of pots, including spouted vessels, and in some cases stone axes and stone blades.

The south Indian Neolithic

 associated with Stone axe clusters Ash mounds  stone axe clusters---wooded hill ranges of Tamil Nadu  Ash mounds which are distributed in the semi-arid parts of the Bhima-Krishna Tungabhadra doab.  these mounds were produced by the burning of cow dung by the Neolithic communities, and that they were the sites of cattle pens where dung was allowed to accumulate,  Burning probably had ritualistic significance.

IRON AGE IN SOUTH INDIA  began - sometime around 1100 B.C

 burial pits at Brahmagiri  burials yielded the first iron objects  Black-and-red ware, and a matt painted buff and red ware.  burials at Tekwada (Maharastra)

Megalithic Cultures

 The megaliths usually refer to burials amidst stones in graveyards away from the habitation area  In south India this kind of elaborate burial came with Iron Age  Maharashtra (around Nagpur  Karnataka (sites like Maski)  Andhra Pradesh (Nagatjunakonda)  Tamil Nadu (Adichanallur)  Kerala.  showed a variety of methods for the disposal of the dead

Pottery-- black-and-red ware

Iron and other metal object

 Iron objects have been found universally in all the megalithic sites right from Junapani near Nagpur in Vidharbha (central India) down to Adichanallur in the south: a distance of nearly 1500 km.  use of identical tools  Mentioned in the Sangam literature. Some of the graves have yielded Roman Coins which suggests their entry into history and their participation in trade networks spread over a large area.

THE EARLY VEDIC SOCIETY 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C  The Rig-Veda is considered to be earliest collection of hymns available  The core geographical area Sapta-Sindhava or the land of seven rivers The whole of Punjab and its neighbouring region Haryana But Rigvedic geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan and southern Jammu and Kashmir  Indo-Aryan migration from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent  four Vedas Rig-Veda Samaveda Yajurveda and Atharvaveda  Rig-Veda is the earliest text  Veda'----Vid’ which means 'to know'.  a compilation of prayers and hymns, offered by different families of poets and sages to various gods  These four Vedas are also 'Samhitas---sense that they represent the oral tradition of the time  not written when they were but composed

.

Rig-Veda Samhita

 10 books or "Mandalas  I1 to VII--earliest  I, VIII, IX and X--- later additions  similarities in the language used in the Rigveda and the Avesta , oldest Iranian texts, older to the Rig-Veda

ECONOMY

 pastoral  cattle rearing  Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau)  inter-tribal fights and conflicts.  cattle was the bone of contention

The Panis enemies of the Vedic people, are stated in the Rigveda to have hidden their wealth, mostly cows, in the mountains and forests vedic god Indra was invoked to release these cattle.

 Reference suggests that cattle raids were common.  raja or the chief --the 'gopati' ---one who protects cows  Godhuli----a measure of time  Gavyuti---Distance  Duhitr----daughter  gotra.---Kinship units  agricultural activities find very few reference  Yava' or barley, no other grains are mentioned  did not use iron technology  Copper, with which they were familiar, did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements.  Fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practised  The evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggests that the people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic.  moved out of their villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their cattle  mobile character of the population is seen in the term 'vis implied a settlement Punar (vis), --(asettlement Upa (vis) –re entering (a settlement Pra (vis) --coming back (to the settlement).  Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the society  Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e. bali, to the victorious chiefs by the defeated or the subordinate groups.  The rest of the clansmen of the victorious tribe had a share in the spoils and booty won in the war.  The chief fed and gave gifts to his clansmen during ceremonial occasions to acquire prestige.  no concept of private property based on land-ownership

SOCIETY

 tribal society  not divided according to caste lines  tribe was referred to as the jana  gopati. ---office, was not based on heredity, but he was selected from amongst the clansmen  The basic social unit  the Kula--the family  Kulapa--one who protects the family' --the eldest male member or the head of the family. Tribe (Jana),  Tribal Unit (Vis),  Village (Grama),  patriarchal  birth of a son was the common desire  desire for a son is a constant prayer  women had also important position in it  educated and they had access to the assemblies  instances of women who composed hymns  right to choose their partners,  marry late  However women were always thought to be dependent on their fathers, brothers or husbands  distinguished themselves from other groups---Dasas and Dasyus  Dasas—  dark-  full-lipped—  snub-mosed  worshippers of the phallus and  of hostile speech  rich in cattle  lived in fortified strongholds  the Panis  wealthy in cattle treasures  associated with merchants and wealth in the subsequent ages  Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smith, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, priests etc  chariot makers occupied a special social status  no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rig-Veda  However, society was economically stratified, and we do find references to rich people possessing chariots, cattle, etc. and making generous gifts of them.

POLITY

 not completely egalitarian  Rajanyas, or those who fought the wars---the senior linegage  Rest of the clansmen --- junior lineage.  The clans held large yajnas or sacrifices to help the warrior groups in the wars  In these yajnas officiating priest or the purohita acted as the mediator between his clansmen and the gods  Initially, the whole clan participated in these yajnas on an equal footing  Large scale distribution of wealth, food, etc. was made during these sacrifices and members got an equal share.  growing incidence of conflicts and fights, yajnas or sacrifices  purohita assumed a special status in the society  Division between the senior and the junior lineages became sharper.  10th book of the Rigveda contains the "Purusha-Sukta  took place after 1000 B.C  Sabha---council of select clan members  Samiti---- comprised the whole clan.  These assemblies performed the functions of the government and administration and were also involved in the selection of the raja from amongst the clansmen  thus kept the power of the warriors in check

RELIGION

 The natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire etc.) which they could not control, and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms, which were mostly masculine.  Very few female deities  Indra was the god of strength, who was invoked to destroy the enemies God of thunder Rainmaker Thunder and rain (natural phenomena) were related with strength, which was personified in a masculine form, represented in the god Indra.  Agni---god of fire Intermediary between heaven and earth i.e., between gods and men The importance of Agni can be related to that of the yajna or sacrifice It was supposed that the oblations offered to Agni were carried to the gods in the form of smoke  Varuna personified water, and he was the upholder of the natural order of the universe  Yama---- god of death and had an important place  many other gods Surya Soma (also a drink), Savitri Rudra  celestial beings Gandharvas Apsaras Maruts  The ritual of sacrifice also led to the growth and development in the knowledge of mathematics and animal anatomy.  Elementary mathematics was necessary to make the calculations which were required to establish the positions of various objects in the sacrificial area  Frequent sacrifices of animals led to a knowledge of their anatomy.  Gods were not worshipped for the spiritual upliftment of the people, nor for any other abstract philosophical concept, but were invoked to grant material gains.  Sacrificial religion is a religion of the pastoral people  Animal sacrifice is rampant in the pastoral society, where the older animals who can no longer produce milk or meat, or used for breeding purposes, i.e. those who are no longer economically viable, are killed in order to lessen the burden on their owner  Hence animal sacrifice was one way of destroying the old animals and thus had an important role in the society.  In the agrarian society however older animals are employed in the fields, used for traction purposes and hence the destruction of animals is frowned upon by a society which primarily depends on agricultural activities.  Thus the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchal pastoral society and was materialistic in perspective.

LATER VEDIC PHASE

 10th Mandala to the Rigveda Samhita the Sama the Yaju assigned to the later vedic phase  Sama Veda--book of prayers and chants which are from the Rigveda, modified and set to tune for the explicit purpose of singing them during rituals.  The Yajur -veda---elaborates the rituals which accompany the recitation of hymns  The Artharvaveda---the folk tradition of this period and represents popular religion.  followed by a series of texts called the Brahmanas  Brahmanas,---commentaries on the Vedas---explain the social and religious aspects of the rituals and throw light on the Vedic society

THE ECONOMY

 growth of agriculture  the introduction of rice as the staple diet of the people  Vrihi, Tandula and Sali, all denoting rice.  elaborate sacrifices of this period e.g. the rajasuya, include offerings of grain along with milk, ghee and animals  The twelve sacrifices prescribed in the Atharvaveda for acquiring material benefits 1. the gifts of cows 2. calves 3. oxen 4. gold 5. cooked rice 6. thatched houses 7. well cultivated fields to the brahmanas 8. plough cultivation was familiar  Pastoralism Declines  Mixed farming  Agricultural activities in this phase were not labour intensive.  more substantial houses with earth walls  durable materials were being used for house construction owing to the adoption of a sedentary life style

Rituals

 only the rich could perform them  spirit of collectivity was reduced  Sacrifices were performed to ensure control over rest of the tribe  Gifts were no longer given to the entire tribe  The chief gave gifts to the Brahmans who performed sacrifices for him.  rituals were so complicated that it needed expert Brahmans to perform it since a wrong incantation could bring disaster to the performer  The performer of sacrifices was supposed to grant super-human status to the chiefs meaning that they were superior to rest of the tribe  For this service the chief passed on a large part of his wealth to the Brahman priest.  the rituals became a mechanism for ensuring the material and spiritual superiority of the chiefs and the Brahmans

Importance of Land

 Land was cultivated through family labour and the help of domestic servants and slaves.  initially land was owned by the clan or the vis  When clan ownership gradually changed to family ownership the gnhapati or householder became a man of wealth  The vaisyas (those who originally belonged to the vis) were the producing class in the society and they became the source of wealth and subsistence for the Kshatriyas and the Brahmanas who did not actively participate in food production  vaisyas had to give prestations to the Kshatriyas in lieu of the latter protecting their lands, and dana and dakshina to the priests for their moral upliftment  The vis/vaisya, characterizing the house holding economy, became the mainstay of economy  No references to the sale of land.  Visvakarma Bhauvana, a ruler, was rebuked by Prithvi (the earth) when he tried to make a grant of land.

Polity

 concept of janapada emerged  Janapada ---area where the tribe settled  The Kuru--formed from the union between two major Vedic tribes Bharatas and the Purus occupying the area in the upper portion of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab  the Panchalas---people who occupied the middle portion of the Doab, called the Panchala desa.  tribal identities were merging with territorial identities

Tribal chiefs and warriors

 emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled.  became the 'Kshatriya' i,e. those who held power over dominions, which is the literal meaning of the word 'Kshatriya  The "visn had to pay prestations to the Kshatriya, in lieu of the latter's protection and thus the status of the vis was progressively subordinated to the Kshatriya lineage  Bali and Bhaga no longer meant prestations given at will, but gradually assumed the forms of regular tributes and taxes.  sabha became more important than the samiti during this period.  Tribal Assemblies--the sabha--helped the king in his duties  Office of the raja or the chief was not based solely on birth but the choice of rajafaas restricted to the Kshatriyas.  rituals became very important for the ruler in order to assert this authority Ceremonial sacrifices rajasuya asvamedha vajapeya were performed on lavish scale  Tribal Conflicts--- no longer mere skirmishes over cattle  now the acquisition of land was an1 important element in these disputes  Necessity of increasing territory can be connected with the growth of population within the tribes.  Iron weapons and light wheeled chariots driven by horses raised the efficiency of the fighters  The status of the officiating priests became at par with the gods, in the later period.  The channel of redistribution was between the two higher status group, and political supremacy was slowly becoming the dominion of the Kshatriya.

Society

 declining status of the vis  Ascendancy of the Kshatriyas and the Brahmanas.  the origin of the four varnas,

Brahmana

Kshatriya

Vaisya the Sudra

 fiom the body of the universal creator, Rajapati.  In social life Brahmans were considered the highest Vama because society could communicate with gods with the help of Brahmans only  The Sudras on the other hand performed menial tasks and included slave’s captrured in wars.  The system of vama had the follolwing feature  status by birth  a hierarchical ordering of the varna  rules of endogamy and ritual purity  The division of social groups was based on occupation alone, and society was still flexible, where one's occupations did not depend on birth.  Even in the later times i.e., post-Vedic, the varnadhanna described the ritual status of each group  'The notion of untouchability for instance is absent.  Gotra--(literally meaning-cow pen--descent from a common ancestor and marriages could not take place between couples belonging to the same gem  Tbree stages of life-- Three ashramas 1. the brahmachari (studentship) 2. grihastha (householder) 3. vanaprasthi (partial retirement from house holding life by living in the forest) 4. the fourth i.e. the sanyasa (or complete retirement from active participation in the world) stage of life was not known till the time that the upanishads were written

RELIGION

1. the Vedic 2. the non-vedic or perhaps the folk tradition extensively documented in the Atharvaveda  The Vedic, which is documented in the Sama and Yajweda. samhitas and the Brahmans, and  Indra and Agni lost their importance  Prajapati the creator became important  creation myths are important in the agrarian groups  Rudra, a minor deity in the Rigveda, became important now  Vishnu was conceived as the creator and protector of the universe  Pushan who protected cattle in the former period now became the god of the Sudras  Folk Tradition—The Atharvaveda—information regarding the folk tradition  radically different from the Vedic sacrificial religion  concerned more with magic  cover different aspects of human life  hymns deal with:  cure for diseases  prayers for health  charms for the prosperity of home and children  cattle and field  charms to produce harmony  charms concerned with love and marriage or conversely rivalry and jealousy etc  The Atharvaveda thus documents the kinds of superstition and beliefs which were prevalent.  Atharvan ndicates a magical formula  Towards the end of this period strong reaction against the priestly domination  Against the complexities involved in the yajnas resulted in the formulation of a philosophical doctrine which is enunciated in the Upanisads.  Upanishads----These texts emphasized  The knowledge of the atma or the soul as against ritualistic practices and the wasteful expenditure which accompanied sacrifices.  materialistic aspect of the religion was discarded and religion was raised to the realm of philosophy  The Upanishads emphasized the changelessness and indestructibility of the soul

JANAPADAS AND MAHAJANAPADAS—600 to 400 BC

Various texts referred to janapadas and Mahajanapadas

Brahmanas – category of text deals with methods of performing rituals

Upanishads – Philosophical problems(part of vedic literature)-800 onwards.

Buddhist texts—

o Vinaya pitaka – Rules of order o Sutta pitaka – Buddhist ceremons o Abhidhama pitaka – problems of metaphysics

Jatakas  Part of sutta pitaka  Deals with stories of previous birth of Buddha  Graphic descriptions of contemporary society  Clear reference to various regions and geographical society

Janapadas

 Unit of settlement  Literal meaning- where people place their feet  Agricultural settlements  Iron axes and ploughs used  Gahapati – Master of an individual house hold which owned land  Setthi- A person having best—Merchants-lived in cities and towns  Ruler- chief of lineage but ruling over territory had emerged  Regular taxation and army  Krsaka – peasants who paid taxes  Praja paid taxes to raja  Bhagadugha== collected Bhaga  Rajugahakka== official who surveyed land  Army maintained by revenue collected from cultivators

Mahajanapadas  Large janapadas  Kosala janapada = sakya + kashi janapada  Story of jivaka – physician of Bhmibisara  Grama – basic unit of settlement  Sangrama – Two Gramas came together for battle  Labors – Dasas, Karmakaras, Porisas  Kassaka & Ksetriya = sudra jati  Gamini – Leader of villages, soldiers, Elephants and horse trainers, stage managers and other crafts  Kings ruled from cities  Cities dominated by kings and Merchants  Anguttara Nikaya – part of sutta pitaka- mentioned 16 mahajanapadas

  The period starting with the sixth century B.C. saw the emergence of cities in ancient India for the second time  The Buddha and Mahavira were preaching to urban audiences most of the time.  Aitareya Brahmana--roughly be dated to the 8th-7th century B.C--the story of King Harishchandra famous for his truthfulness and keeping his vows  It is not only big cities which emerged at this time. Along with agriculture-based villages, there existed market centers, small towns, big towns and other types of settlements  Use of Iron and Wet Rice Cultivation  By about 1000 B.C. Indians had learnt the art of smelting iron  Iron weapons in , particular have been found in large numbers  Iron weapons also increased their desire for war, conquest and booty.  iron axes could be used to clear forests and iron plough shares could facilitate agricultural operations  The Vedic sacrifices meant that most of the surplus accumulated by the chiefs was gifted away at the time of performing sacrifices  In the areas of the middle Gangetic Valley, Vedic rituals and sacrifices did not have the kind of hold as in the upper Gangetic Valley.  the surpluses which were collected by the chiefs were not spent away during sacrifices  The groups that grew up controlling this surplus wealth became the ruling class of the newly emergent kingdoms  on the foundation of this wealth were born the cities of the sixth century B.C  The earliest script of ancient India is called the Brahmi script.  the Paribrajakas and Sramanas.--Wandering Ascetics --people who had renounced their homes-travelled from place to place and held discussions on the meaning of life, society and spirituality  Condition of Women The meek slave like wife was considered the ideal wife However. This was true of the wives of the rich. For them the main function of a wife was producing legitimate heirs. . Women were looked down in comparison to men Described as incapable of sitting in a public assembly They are permanently in the charge of men-father, brother or son. Even if they join the Samgha they were treated as inferior to men  Suttanipata--Buddhists insisted on the protection of cattle--states that they should not be slaughtered because they constituted a source of grain and strength The preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.  the animals were not only used for draught and the plough of fields but a section of the society was also probably non-vegetarian  Kahapana (Karsapana--ordinary medium of exchange was a coin  copper and silver and marks were punched on it by merchants or ruler's guilds, guaranteeing its standard  Banks were unknown  surplus money was either converted into ornament  Hoarded in jars and buried in the ground, or put in the custody of a friend.

 Buddha and Mahavira, were by no means, the first to criticize the existing religious beliefs  Many religious preachers before them  Kapila  Makkali Gosala  Ajita Kesakambalin  Pakuda Kachchayan already highlighted the evils of the Vedic religion  it was Buddha and Mahavira, who provided an alternative religious order.

Buddhism

 founded by Gautama Buddha  name Siddharth  father Suddhodana---chief of the Sakya clan  mother was Maya, princess of the Koliya clan  born in the Lumbini grove (modem Rumindei) in Nepal Tarai  date of birth---566 B.C  left home at the age of 29  Dharmachakra Pravartana--first sermon at Sarnath near Varinasi (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma  first five disciples of Buddha 1. Asvajit 2. Upali 3. Mogallana 4. Sari-putr 5. Anada  At the age of 80 (486 B.C.) he died at Kusinagara in Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh), the capital of the Mallas

TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA

Four Noble Truths

Eight Fold Path

Four Noble Truth

 world is full of sufferings  All sufferings have a cause desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of sufferings  suffering could be removed by destroying its cause  In order to end sufferings one must know the right path

This path is the Eight Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga).

Eight Fold Path

1. right view 2. Right aim 3. Right speech 4. Right action 5. Right livelihood 6. Right effort 7. Right mindfulness 8. Right concentration  great emphasis --law of 'karma-- present is determined by the past actions  If an individual has no sins, he is not born again  the doctrine of karma is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha  'nirvana--the ultimate goal in the life of a man-finally leads to freedom from rebirth  laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual  Prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire  neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God  did not believe in the existence of soul  Love and 'ahimsa' (non-killing)-not emphasized as much as in Jainism  the middle path--both severe asceticism as well as luxurious life are to be avoided  a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas  attracted the people of all sections  attack on the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmin  rejected the authority of the Vedas and condemned animal sacrifices

The Buddhist canons (collection of teachings)

Three sections

1. Sutta Pitaka 2. Vinaya Pitaka 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka  Sutta Pitaka consists of five sections(nikayas)--religious discourses and sayings of Buddha fifth section-- Jataka tales (birth stories of Buddha).  Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of monastic discipline  Abhidhamma Pitaka contains the philosophical ideas of teachings of Buddha  It is written in the form of questions and answers.  Asoka and Kanishka made Buddhism state religion and it spread into central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka.

The Sangha

 religious order of the Buddhists  well organized and powerful institution which popularised Buddhism  Membership-above fifteen years of age  not given admission to Criminals, lepers and persons affected by infectious diseases  Initially Buddha was not in favor of admitting women in the Sangha  admitted them at the repeated requests of chief disciple Ananda and foster mother Mahapajapati Gotami  On admission monks had to ceremonially shave their head Wear yellow or saffron robes Go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism and seek alms  the retreat or 'vasa- During the four months of the rainy season A fixed abode and meditated  Sanghas also promoted education among the people  non-Brahmins who were deprived of education got access to education  governed by democratic principles  code of conduct  Sangha had the power to punish the erring members

Buddhist Cauncils

 after the death of Buddha  first Buddhist Council was held in 483 B.C. in the Saptapmi cave near Rajagriha Mahakassapa presided over the assembly The text of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali Sutta Pitaka was settled under the leadership of Ananda.  The second Council Vaisali in 383 B.C monks of Vaisali and Pataliputra had accepted certain rules contrary to the teaching of Buddha by the monks of Kausarnbi and Avanti. Council failed to bring about a compromise between the two opposing groups council ended in a permanent split Sthaviravadins-- the orthodox Vinaya Pitaka Mahasangikas.--favoured the new rules and their further relaxation  third Council at Pataliputra during the reign of Asoka chairmanship of Moggaliputta Tissa. the philosophical interpretations of the doctrines of Buddha were collected into the third Pitaka called Abhidhamma Pitaka.  fourth Council during the reign of Kanishka in Kashrnir gathering of Hinayanists of North India It decided certain controversial questions of differences that arose between the Sarvastivada teachers of Kashrnir and Gandhara.

Buddhist Schools

1. Sthaviravadins 2. Mahasangikas  Sthaviravadin---strict monastic life--rigid disciplinary laws as originally prescribed  Mahasangikas.--modified disciplinary rules  Mahayanism developed after the fourth Buddhist Council opposition to the group (Hinayana sect) who believed in orthodox teaching of Buddha who accepted the new ideas were called the Mahayana sect the Mahayana sect made an image of Buddha and worshipped it as god

JAINISM

 twenty four Tirthankaras were responsible for the origin and development of Jaina religion and philosophy  first twenty two are of doubtful historicity  the last two, 1. Parsvanatha 2. Mahavira, Confirm their historicity  even before Mahavira some kind of Jaina faith existed Parsvanatha believed in the eternity of ‘matter’ Followers of Parsvanatha wore a white garment

Mahavira

 The twenty-fourth Tirthankara  born in Kundagrama (Basukunda), a suburb of Vaisali (Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in 540 B.C.  father, Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan  mother was Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess  married to Yashoda had a daughter  At the age of thirty left his home and became an ascetic  At first wore a single garment  After 13 months -- 'naked monk'.  at the age of 42 attained the 'supreme knowledge  Mahavir'--the supreme hero  'Jina'---the conqueror  'Nugrantha' --free from fetters  Died at Pawa (near Rajagriha) in Patna district at the age of 72 (468 B.C.).  Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha and made some alterations and additions

Parsvanatha advocated

four principles

1. truth 2. non violence 3. non-possession 4. not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given

Mahavira added

5. Celibacy (brahmacharya).  Mahavira believed--soul (jiva) and matter (ajiva) are two basic existing elements..  the soul can be relieved of bondage  Liberation (moksha) of the soul becomes 'the pure soul'.  man is the creator of his own destiny  Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by observing the following three principles (ratnatraya 1. Right belief. 2. right knowledge 3. Right action.  Believed the world was not created by any supreme creator  world functions according to an eternal law of decay and development  all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul and feel pain or the influence of injury  code of conduct both for householders and for monks  householder non-injury non-stealing non-adultery , speaking the truth non-possession. lay worshippers should not take to agriculture, since this involved the destruction of plants and insects  A monk strict rules. abandon all worldly possessions root out every hair of his head by his own hands walk only during the day taking care that he did not kill or injure any being  believed that the monastic life was essential to attain salvation and a householder could not attain it.  the original doctrines taught by Mahavira-14 old texts known as 'purvas'  first Council at Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra divided the Jaina canon into 12 'angas' or sections accepted by Svetambaras. Digambaras refused to accept this claiming that all the old scriptures were lost  second Council held at Vallabhi new additions were made in the fom of 'Upangas' or minor sections. Among the 12 angas Acharanga sutta--the code of conduct which a Jaina monk is required to follow Bhagavati sutta--Jaina doctrines in a comprehensive manner.  eleven disciples known as Ganadharas or heads of schools  Arya Sudharma only Ganadhara who survived Mahavira  the first 'Thera' (chief preceptor) of the Jaina order died 20 years after Mahavira's death  days of the late Nanda King Sambhutavijaya Bhadrabahu  sixth Thera was Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of the Maurya King Chandragupta Maurya.  Chiindragupta Maurya was a follower of Jainism  he migrated with Bhadrabahu to the South and spread Jainism  During 'the early centuries of the Christian era Mathura and Ujjain became great centres of Jainism  Towards the close of Chandragupta Maurya's rule terrible famine broke out in South Bihar lasted for about 12 years Bhadrabahu and his disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola in Karnataka Other Jains remained in Magadha with Sthulabhadra as their leader.  second Jain Council Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 5 12 A.D presided over by Devardhi Kshemasarmana 12th anga drawn at the first Council was lost Bhadrabahu, after their return from Sravanabelgola to Magadha refused to acknowledge the canon holding that all the 14 purvas were lost a wide gulf had developed between those who emigrated and those who stayed in Magadha who stayed in Magadha++accustomed to wearing white garments and made a departure from Mahavira's teachings who emigrated ++continued going naked and strictly followed his teachings.  first split in the Jaina order the Digambaras (sky clad or naked) Svetambaras (clad in white)  further splits Terapanthis among the Svetambaras -- renounced idol worship altogether and devoted itself to the worship of the scriptures. Samaiyas among the Digambaras.

Ajivikas

 sudra sanyasins  established by Nanda Vachcha  followed by Kisa Sankichcha  third religious chief--Makkali Gosala, who popularised this sect.  denied the theory of 'karma'  believed the thought and deed are predetermined (decided before birth)  did not believe in human effort and held that all creatures were helpless against destiny

Charvakas

 complete materialism  individual's body is formed of matter and finally would end in matter  The aim of human life should be to enjoy all the material pleasures of life.

Doctrine of Akriya or non-action.

 Purana Kassapa preached  a Brahman teacher  action did not lead to either merit or demerit

Ajita Kesakambalin

 Preached that everything ended with death and there is no further life after death.  did not believe in the fruits of good or bad acts  Nothing wrong in enjoying the pleasures of the world, and there is no sin in killing.

Pakudha Kachchayna

 The doctrine of Asasvatavada.  there are seven elements  immutable and do not in any way contribute to pleasure or pain  The body is ultimately dissolved into these seven elements

MAGADHA Magadhan TERRITORIAL EXPANSION

why early Magadhan kings did not choose to have their capital. in the most fertile plains of the Ganges Valley but in a comparatively isolated region ?

 strategic location  it lay in the vicinity of iron-encrusted outcrops  its accessibility to copper as well as the forests of the present-day southern Bihar region  The capital of Magadha did however, shift to Pataliputra (originally Pataligramma). situated on the confluence of several rivers like thc Ganga, Gandak, Son and Pun Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha under the Mauryas

Avanti

 became a serious competitor of Magadha for quite some time and was also located not far from the iron mines in eastern Madhya Pradesh.

Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa compiled in Sri Lanka---Buddhist chronicles

Divyavadana (which is preserved outside India in the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources)

Megasthenes

 visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya  Megasthenes is, however, known to us only through quotation in later = Greek writings of Strabo and Diodorus of the first century B.C

Arthasastra of Kautilya

 important sources of information for the Mauryan period  the minister of Chandragupta- kautilya  The coins of this period do not bear names of kings, called punch-marked coins because different symbols are punched on them separately  this type of coin is known from roughly about the fifth century B.C  the Mauryan punch-marked series probably issued by a central authority as is indicated by the uniformity of the symbols used

Asoka Maurya's rule

 fourteen major edicts  seven minor rock edicts  seven pillar edicts  other inscriptions Bimbisara

 first important ruler of magadha  Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son Ajatasatru who is said to have starved him to death

Ajatasatru

 ruled from 492 B.C. to 460 B.C  Succeeded by Udayin (460-444 B.C.

Udayin's

 reign the Magadhan kingdom extended in the north to the Himalayan ranges and in the south to the Chhota Nagpur hills

Shishunaga,

 a viceroy at Banaras, was placed on the throne in 413 B.C.  Shishunaga dynasty too was of short duration and gave way to the rule of the Nanda dynasty

Nanda dynasty (326 BC to 321 BC)

 headed by the usurper Mahapadma Nanda  during the rule of the Nandas in Magadha and the Ganga Plains invasion of Alexander took place in north-west India in 326 B.C  The Nandas are first empire-builders of India  The Greek classical writings describe the might of the Nanda empire  vast arnly which is said to have consisted of 20,000 cavalry  200,000 infantry  2000 chariots  3000 elephants  no encounter between the Kingdom of Magadha and the Greek conqueror  Nanda rule came to an end by 321 B.C.  Nine Nanda kings-ares said to have ruled and by the end of their rule they are said to have become very unpopular

Chandragupta Maurya

 took advantage of this situation to ascend the throne of Magadha.  Deeper reasons for the success of Magadha  advantageous geographical location  access to the iron mines  The control it had come to exercise over important land and river trade routes  Sandrakottus—Chandragupta-- described to be of low origin  Chandragupta accession to the throne in around 321 B.C  the first major achievements of Chandragupta Maurya on the military front  contact with Seleucus Nikator who ruled over the area west of the Indus around 305 B.C  In the war that ensued Chandragupta is said to have turned out victorious and eventually peace was established  In return for 500 elephants Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus  The Satrapies thus called were Arachosia, Paropanisadae, Aria and Gedrosi  marriage alliance was also concluded  Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megasthenes who lived in the court of Chandragupta for many years  only parts left out of his empire  present day Kerala  Tamil Nadu  parts of North-eastern India

Bindusara

 son of Chandragupta  ascended the throne in 297 B.C  latter he is known as Amitrochate  he had contacts with the Seleucid king of Syria  requested to send-him sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist  Bindusara is called "slayer of foes",  probably in Bindusara's reign that the Mauryan control of the Deccan, and the Mysore plateau in particular, was firmly entrenched  Asoka who conquered only Kalinga (Orissa)  Bindusara religious leanings are said to have been towards the Ajivikas  the death of Bindusara -- 273-272 B.C  After his death there was a struggle for succession among his sons for about four years.  around 269-268 B.C. Asoka was Bindusara's successor.

Asoka

 Kalinga War  During his father reign  served as a Viceroy at Ujjain and also at Taxila  sent to Taxila for a special purpose, namely, to quell a revolt.  two.children Mahinda and Sanghamita, had a great influence in turning Asoka towards buddhism  extremely wicked king before his conversion to Buddhism is undoubtedly exaggerated in Buddhist accounts so as to enhance his piety as a Buddhist  Kalinga, i.e., the present-day State of Orissa had to be brought under Mauryan control.

Why kalinga war ?

 strategic importance as it controlled routes to South India both by land and sea  One hundred thousand were slain  On the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse which then ultimately turned him towards Dhamma.  A policy of conquest through war was given up and replaced by a policy of conquest through Dhamrnavijaya

In the South

 the Cholas  Pandyas  Sataputras  Keralaputras

Are living outside the Mauryan empire.

Inside the empire

 people of diverse origins and diverse cultures  north-west are mentioned the Kambojas and Yavanas  the Bhojas, Pitinikas, Andhras and Pulindas who can be located in parts of western India and the Deccan  The extension of the principle of nonviolence to state policy was a unique experiment that was never repeated in the annals of the political history of India.

Descriptions by Megasthenes

 well organised administration of towns  large concentration of population in these centres  Megasthenes speaks of wooden structures at the Mauryan capital, Pataliputra  Houses were made also of timber  The hallmark of the structural development is extensive use of ringwells and burnt bricks  Sophisticated techniques of making different kinds of iron were also known, as can be gleaned from the Arthasastra.

Arthasastra

 advocates that the King should maintain s monopoly over certain kinds of mining  Arthasastra suggests that new villages could be formed also by inducing foreigners to immigrate to them  Other groups like carpenters and merchants were also probably settled in a similar manner  The sudra settlers were expected to be given some fiscal concessions and also a supply of cattle and seeds along with implement  In many cases the newly settled areas formed part of the crown lands, known as the sita lands  during the Mauryan period the two major pre-requisites 1. the use and control of raw materials 2. manpower made

process of settlement

 janapadanivesa,  sound and stable resource base for the State to extract taxes and the land tax formed the bulk of it  Megasthenes in his account of the Indian society and its division into seven classes 1. the philosophers 2. the farmers 3. the soldiers

Megasthenes also maintains that the peasants were left untouched during war

 sitadhyaksa-- superintendent of agriculture is mentioned who probably supervised the cultivation works  The most important reason for the success of agriculture in the state owned lands was the facility of irrigation provided by the State.  rules for the regulation of - water supply for the benefit of agriculturists  Megasthenes informs us that a number of officers were employed who measured the land and inspected sluices by which water was distributed into the branch channels  irrigation cess amounting to a fifth, a fourth or a third of the produce in the Arthasastra Pushyagupta

 one of the governors of Chandragupta Maurya, is said to have built a dam for creating a reservoir of water near Girnar in Saurashtra. known as Sudarshana tadaga (water tank)

 Mauryan rule constitutes a landmark in the history of the improvement of system of taxation in ancient India  Samsharta--highest officer in charge--assessment of land revenue  Sannidhata--chief custodian of the State treasury.  Since the revenue was also collected in kind, providing storage facilities was also the duty  1/4th of the produce was paid in tax by the peasants  a tribute was paid by them  Land tax (bhaga) was the main item of revenue--rate of 1/6th of the produce  Sharecropping was another way by which the State collected agricultural resources  The sharecroppers were in the first place provided with seeds, oxen, etc., and received arable land for cultivation.  peasants probably gave half of the produce to the State  The above taxes were further supplemented by a large number of customary dues  Economy of the M.ury.n Empire that the peasants had to pay  Pindakara--peasants paid a tax--paid by husbandsmen  hiranya is also not known, but it was probably a tax paid in cash because hiranya literally means gold  Bali, the traditionally known levy from the Vedic times, continued under the Mauryas  must have burdened the peasantry considerably  pranaya--the levy --literally meant a gift of affection  It3 or '14 of the produce according to the nature of the soil  The State's policy particularly under Bindusara and Asoka to have peaceful and friendly relations with the Greeks gave fillip to foreign trade as well.  Artisans like. armourers, shipbuilders, builders in stone, etc exempt from payment of tax because they rendered compulsory labour service to the State  Other artisans like spinners, weavers, miners etc., who worked for the State were liable to tax

panyadhyaksa

samsthadhyaksa pautavadbyaksa

panyadhyaksa--superintendent of commerce whose duty was to fix prices of goods and also to interfere if there was a glut in any commodity samsthadhyaksa--looked after the markets was infact to check the wrong practices of the traders superintendent of weights and measures exerted a strict control on maintaining standard weights and measures

navadhyaksa-State boats that facilitated transport were put under the charge regulating river transport and collecting ferry charges

All traders had to pay taxes and custom's dues ranging from '15th to '125th of the value of good sulkadhyaksa.-- superintendent of tolls

Megasthenes' detailed description of the Mauryan capital

 Pataliputra was administered by thirty officials  divided into six Committees of five members each  Of these six Committees  four were related to economic activity  Committees dealing with industrial arts, trade and commerce, the supervision of the public sale of manufactured goods and the collection of tax on articles sold.  Other two. committees were concerned with the welfare of foreigners and the registration of ' births and deaths  general administration of law and order in the cities was thus important to ensure the proper functioning of its economic activities  the importance of cash in the economy can be gauged from the fact that it was probably used to pay salaries of the officials  For such a powerful cash economy to function the minting of coins and the supply of metals like silver and copper required to do so were of prime importance

Akaradhyaksa--superintendent of mines--look for new mines and re?pen old ones

Like mining metals another area of State monopoly was mining salt atavikas, aranyacafas--Controlling of the forest tribes was important from two points of view

 it was necessary for new agrarian settlements to be secure as disturbances from tribes would interrupt their economic development  trade routes often bordered or passed through tribal regions and these had to be made secure.  The Mauryan Empire had many major administrative units like the centre and the regions which had various sub-units down to the village  All these units had their own administrative set up but they came under the central authority.  Gramika had judicial powers at the village level there were also courts at the level of Janapada and the centre.  Dharmasthiya i.e. courts which decided personal disputes  Kanhkmaba i.e., courts which decided upon matters related to individuals and the state

sources of law

 the penalties in Arthasastra were based on Varna hierarchies meaning that for the same kind of offence a Brahmana was punished much less severely than a Sudra medical treatment

 ordinary physicians (Chikitsakah)  midwives (Garbhavyadhi)  state also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines, , etc  Arthasastra mentions that the King should look after orphans, old unattended women, etc

Provincial Administration

 Kumara (royal prince) who used to govern the province as the King's representative.  kumara was in turn assisted by Mahamatyas (Mahamatras during Asoka's period) and a council of " ministers.  four provincial capitals- Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north)

Demiachos as a successor to Megasthenes in the Mauryan court

ASOKA'S POLICY OF DHAMMA

 Dhamma related to norms of social behaviour and activities in a very general sense  Asoka used the medium of his Edicts to expound the policy of Dhamm  Asoka was trying to establish direct communication with his subjects  inscriptions can be divided into two categories 1. Smaller group of these inscriptions reveal that the king was a follower of Buddhism and were addressed to the Buddhist Church or the Samgha. 2. Inscriptions of the other category are known as the Major and Minor Rock Edicts which were inscribed on rock surfaces included also the Pillar Edicts inscribed on specially erected pillars.  Distinction between Asoka’s policy of Dhamma which stressed on social responsibility and Asoka's own commitment as a Buddhist.  Asoka on the one hand declared his personal association with the Buddhist order and on the other he tried to teach, through the policy of Dhamma, the importance of social responsibility and toleration amongst different members of the society  The principles of Dhamma emphasised on toleration and general behavior stressed on dual toleration-it emphasised on toleration of people themselves and also an toleration of their various beliefs and ideas a stress on the notion of showing consideration towards slaves and servants; stress also on ~bedience to elders generosity towards the needy pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of harmony. stress on non-violence a restraint on the killing of animals. welfare measures, like planting of trees, digging of wells, etc  Asoka attacked ceremonies and ‘sacrifices practiced regularly on various occasions as meaningless.  Dhamma mahamattah--group of officers --instituted to implement and publicise the various aspects of Dhamma  a monk in a king's garb--Asoka's Dhamma also an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporary situation  not anti-Brahmanical , proved by the fact fiat respect for the Brahmanas and Sramans is an integral part of his Dhamma  emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state  addressing the forest tribes he warns them that although he hates to use coercion he may be required to resort to force if they continue to create trouble  In deep south he was on friendly terms with the Cholas and Pandyas  Sri Lanka was an admiring ally  By the time Asoka stopped war, the entire Indian sub-continent was under his control  The plea for tolerance was a wise course of action in an ethnically diverse, religiously varied and class divided society.  A5oka's empire was a conglomerate of diverse groups  farmers, pastoral r~omads and hunter-gatherers, there were Greeks, Kambojas and Bhojas and hundreds of groups having divergent traditions  In this situation a plea for tolerance was the need of the hour.  Asoka tried to transcend the parochial cultural traditions by a broad set of ethical principles  Asoka's Dhamma could not survive him  it was a failure.  However, we should remember that he was not establishing a new religion. He was simply trying to Impress upon the society the need for ethical and moral principles  he imperial authority of the Mauryas began to weaken with ae death of Asoka (232 B.C.) and finally collapsed in 180 B.C  Asoka died in 232 B.C.  the Mauryan rulers continued to rule for about half a century after his death  after Asoka the empire got fragmented and that there was quick succession of rulers.  The quick succession of rulers weakened the imperial control over administration.  e disorder that emerged in the administrative machinery after the death of Asoka is regarded as one of the important factors for the disintegration of the Mauryan empire  final blow to the last of the Mauryan Kings was rendered by Pushyarnitra Sunga in about 180 B.C  from about 200 B.C  witnessed the emergence of a number of political regions in north and north- western India

more prominent dynastie

Sungas, the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas, the Parthians and the Kushanas

NORTHERN-WESTERN AND NORTHERN INDIA

THE SUNGAS

 The Sungas, a brahmana family  belonged to the region of Ujjain in Western India  worked as officials under the Maurya Kings.  Pushyamitra Sunga  Assassinated the last of the Maurya Kings Brihadratha in 180 B.C.  Pushyamitra appears to have been a keen supporter of Brahmanism and is known to have undertaken the performance of the asvamedha or horse sacrifice, a Vedic ritual symbolising royal glory Divyavadan  Buddhist tradition  succeeded by his son Agnimitra.  last Sunga King was Devabhuti.  author of Harsha-Charita --- Banabhatta  the Sunga line came to an end around 75 B.C.  From about 200 B.C. a series of movements across the north western borders of the Indian sub-continent took place. the first to cross the Hindukush were the Greeks

 who ruled Bactria  south of the Oxus river in the area covered by North Afghanistan  The mingling of the two cultures came about in the second century B.C. through the ~rkek kings of Bactria who moved into northwest India and came to be called the Indo - Greeks.  The Greek rulers faced a severe threat from the Scythian tribes  With the construction of the Chinese Wall the Scythians could not move towards China and in turn attacked the Greeks and Parthian  Pushed by the Scythian tribes the Bactrian Greeks were forced to move towards India  These invasions had begun by the end of the Mauryan rule  From the first half of the second century B.C. the Indo -Greeks occupied a large part of north western India  undertook occasional expeditions to the Ganga basin and other parts of the country and they came as far as Panchala, Saketa and Pataliputra  the most famous Indo - Greek rulers was Menander or Milinda  During the period of his rule, the Indo -Greek power extended from the Swat Valley to Punjab as far as the Ravi river  He had his capital at Sakala (modem Sialkot) in Punjab.  conversion to Buddhism by Nagasena, a Buddhist monk and philosopher  Menander's coins have been located as far as Kabul in the north and Mathura near Delhi  The Indo - Greeks are also important for their introduction of Hellenistic art features in north-western India which culminated in the Gandhara art style

THE SAKAS

 Sakas are referred to also as Scythians  Sakas poured into India through the Bolan Pass  first settled in lower Indus region  One branch is believed to have settled in Afghanistan  another that ruled from Mathura.  fourth branch was that which established itself in Western and Central India from where they continued their rule till about the fourth century A.D.  Sakas were successful in destroying the Greek suzerainty over Bactria  They belonged to the nomad hordes of Central Asia.  Sakas were forced by another Central Asian tribe, the Yueh -chi to leave their habitat on the Bactrian border and follow the Greeks into India.  Sakas gradually spread their supremacy over the northern and north-western regions of India at the expense of the local Indo - Greek rulers  The first Saka King in India--Maues or Moga  established Saka power in Gandhara  succeeded by Azes who successfully attacked the last of the Greek kings in Northern India, Hippostratos.  Junagadh inscription, written in 150 A.D.  the first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit

Rudradaman I (C. A. D. 130 -152).

 The Sakas along with the Parthians introduced the Satrap system of government  similar to that of the Achaemenid and Seleucid systems in Iran  kingdom was divided into provinces each under a military governor called Mahakshatrapa (great Satrap)  Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas (Satraps)  These governors issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own coins.  The Saka kings used such prestigious titles as 'king of kings' (rajadhiraja) in addition to 'great king' (Maharaja) which they took over from the Greeks. THE PARTHIANS

 The rule of the Sakas and Parthians was simultaneous in different pockets of north western and northern India.  The Parthians originated in Iran and families of Parthian rulers may have moved into Indo- Iranian borderlands and into north-westem India as representatives of Parthian rulers  he ' Sakas of Seistan were in close contact with the Parthians and this is why we find among the Indian Sakas amixture of original Scythian and Iranian Parthian elements.  The most prominent Parthian King was Gondophaes  Kabul to Punjab and possibly included certain Iranian areas of the Parthian empire  His name is believed to be associated with that of St. Thomas.  Abdagases appears to have been the immediate successor of Gondophaes

THE KUSHANAS

 succeeded the Parthians in the extreme north-west and spread themselves in successive stages in the regions of Northern India  Kushanas are also referred to as Yueh-chis or Tocharian  belonged to one of the five clans of the Yueh-chi tribe  nomadic people, originally from the steppes of North Central Asia, living in the vicinity of China  responsible for ousting the Sakas in Bactria and also the Parthians in the Gandhara region  Although their empire lasted for about one century and a little more, connection with India, their assimilation into Indian society as well as their contribution to Indian culture left a deep impression on the Indian mind  The Kushanas were particularly important their empire became a meeting point of civilizations of the Mediterranean world, Westem Asia, Central Asia, China and India.  The first line was started by Kujula Kadphises  Kujula Kadphises minted different types of coins in copper and one type of his coins has a Roman-style male bust on it  Kujula Kadphises was succeeded by Vima Kadphises  Vima introduced a new phase of coinage in India  practice of issuing gold coins by Indian rulers regularly started with him  He minted different types of gold coins which broadly followed the weitht system of Roman gold coins and this system continued, with certain modifications, till the Gupta period  Kadphises rulers were succeeded by Kanishka I, who is the best known Kushana ruler in Indian history, particularly because of his association with Buddhism.

Kanishka I  sponsored the fourth Buddhist council  doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized at the council  during his period, Buddhist monks started travelling to Central Asia and to China  Kanishka was also a patron of art and Sanskrit literature  the Sassanian power which began in Iran.  Peshawar and Taxila were lost to the Sassanians and the Kushanas were reduced to the position of subordinates of these rulers. –

LOCAL POWERS OF NORTH INDIA

 between 200 B.C. - 300 A.D.  the Kanvas or the Kanvayanas. rule was founded by Vasudeva after the Sungas power was shortlived and perhaps confined only to Magadha.  Audumbaras --between the upper courses of Ravi and the Beas  Kunindas-- upper courses of the Beas and the Yamuna  Trigartas--between the rivers Ravi and Sutlej,  Yaudheyas--between Sutlej and Yamuna and parts of eastern Rajasthan  Arjunayanas, Malavas and Sibis distributed in different parts of Rajasthan  The Maharneghavahanas were descended from the ancient line of the Chedis--Kalinga in Orissa.  Kharavela, the third ruler of this line, is known from his Hathigumpha inscription which was engraved on the Udayagiri hills near Bhuvaneswa  inscription which gives year-wise account of his reign till its thirteenth year shows that Kharavela was a great king with military victories in north India, western India and south India to his credit  many public works for his subjects and as a practising jaina,  excavated cave-shelters for jaina monks on the Udayagiri hills.

the impact of Central Asian contacts--Trade and Technology

 Trade contacts with Afghanistan were already existing  now Central Asia also opened up to trade with new routes  One of these routes became famous as the old Silk Route  . One result of trade movements --communication with China improved.  The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started from China and passed through Central Asia and Afghanistan and Western Asia  route was a source of great income to the Kushanas.  levied tolls from the traders  India received a good deal of gold from the Altai mountains in Central Asia  Gold could also have been received from trade with the Roman Empire  New elements in cavalry and techniques of war were introduced in India by the Sakas and the Kushanas.  Horse riding gained popularity  popularized the use of reins and saddles  The Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by the warriors.  This military technology became popular in North West India.  The Saka-Kushana phase is demonstrative of an advance in building activities  use of burnt bricks for both the floor and the roof.  Brick wells  The pottery of this period is red ware, both plain and polished, with sometimes medium and sometimes fine fabric.  Some of the coins of the Kushanas borrowed many features of Roman coins  Saka coins in many cases were adaptations from those of the Indo-Greeks,  The Sakas and the Kushana put great emphasis on the notion of the divine origin of kingship.  Kushana kings were referred to as Sons of God.  This title may have been borrowed from the Chinese.  Indian version of the Roman title Ceasar

Religion and Art Forms

 Menander and Kanishka were converted to Buddhism  Some Kushana rulers worshipped both Siva and Buddha and the images of these two Gods appeared on some of the Kushana coins  the process of assimilation into Indian cultural patterns  the foreign rulers were also patrons of Indian art and literature  masons and other artisans coming from outside interacted with local workers  Indian craftsmen thus came into contact with those skilled in Greek and Roman craftmanship.  example  Gandhara in which images of the Buddha were sculpted in a style which was typical of the synthesis of many cultural elements present in the region  The influence of Gandhara art spread to Mathura.  Mathura also has given us many beautiful images of the Buddha and other specimens of art of this period.  maritime trade started during the Mauryan period. early centuries of the Christian era.

 In the west was the mighty Roman empire  in the east was the Han empire in China the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

 Greek text written by an anonymous sailor in the first century A.D  contains an account of the ports that he visited during his travels between the Red Sea and India.  the commodities that were traded at each port from his account.  two major ports to which trade goods were sent from the centres of north India  Barbarikon at the mouth of the Indus  Bhamch at the mouth of the Narmada.  The Romans are famous for the technological improvements that they made in the manufacture of glass.  highly valued in many countries including India and China

Frankincense

 gum-resin produced by a tree indigenous to Arabia  used as an incense and also for medicinal purposes

Why was Chinese silk traded through India rather than being sent directly?

The reason

 the political situation  Parthians were powerful rulers along the north-westem boundary of the Indian sub- continent.  There was constant hostility between them and the Roman Empire  result, overland routes between China and the west were disrupted.

 It is generally accepted that together with merchants Buddhism also spread to Central Asia and China around the first century B.C. - first century A.D.  A series of Buddhist caves were made along the northern route to Central Asia from the first century A.D. onwards and from the third century A.D. many Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese.  Buddhism provided encouragement to traders and was also patronised by a large number of occupational groups.  the important Buddhist monasteries were located along the trade routes at this time  A major centre was the region around Taxila where several Buddhist monasteries were located.  Here a'distinct style of art known as Gandhara art developed under the Kusanas.  A second stronghold of Buddhism was the region around Mathura which was equally famous as a centre of art also  Another large Buddhist centre was at Sanchi present day Bhopal  Merchants from many centres in the , Deccan and the north travelled to Sanchi and make donation  donations of money and land added to the wealth of the monasteries and led to a change in the role of the Buddhist Samgha in society  When Buddhism originated around the fifth century B.C. monks led a very simple life.  With the growth of the influence of Buddhism  specific groups of Buddhist sects and teachers became very wealthy  by the Kushana period we find that certain Buddhist monastic centres possessed money and land and there are many instances of monks and nuns themselves making donations of money.  One of the reasons for the division of the Buddhist Samgha  dispute that arose about the interpretation of certain rules  whether monks could own property or not  Another question the defication of the Buddha and the worship of his image  By the first century A.D. Buddhist Sarngha had split into two major schools 1. Mahayana 2. Hinayana  the Hinayana--more conservative  The worship of the Buddha image led to an increase in ritual observances.  Monasteries now required oil for lighting lamps, incense for fragrance and silk banners for decorating the Stupas  Once monks started living permanently in monasteries, they required clothes  now owned land and money and were no longer dependent on begging for their food and other necessities  gradually they became one of the major consumers of many of the items traded at this time  The growth of Buddhism had suffered a minor setback during the Sunga-Kanva period. This was because both the Sungas and the Kanvas who succeeded the Mauryas in Magadha professed Brahmanical faith.  Buddhist work Divyavadana accuses Pushyarnitra Sunga as a vertible enemy of Buddhism  According to this source he also fixed a prize of 100 dinaras for the head of every monk.  it does not mean that social support to Buddhism declined on any significant scale  the Bharhut Stupa in Central India was built during the rule of the Sungas  The Sanchi Stupa was enlarged twice its size and the gateways (torana) and the railings were added in their period  Among the Indo-Greek kings Menander who figures prominently as the ruler who was drawn towards the doctrines of Buddhism  Many Kushana kings adopted Buddhism  Kujula Kadphises and Kaniska-I were followers of Buddhism  Fourth Buddhist Council Vasumitra acted as its president

EARLY STATE FORMATION IN THE DECCAN  The major power  Satavahana dynasty also known as the Andhras  began their rule around the first cetury B.C  Mauryas were primarily interested in exploiting the mineral resources of the Deccan peninsula  gold, diamonds and gems from the mines in Karnataka and Andhra were transported to Magadha in the north through a series of land and coastal routes  Market centres Dharanikota on the banks of the Krishna in the Guntur district of Andhra Karad in Satara district of Maharashtra  maharathis became important in several scattered pockets  it was under the Satavahanas who were related by marriage to the maharathis that the first state emerged in the Deccan  Deccan peninsula The plateau region The coastal plains Hill ranges of the Eastern and Western Ghats  Andhra coast is much wider than the Konkan coast to the west  general slope of the plateau is to the east  result --the major rivers the Mahanadi Godavari Krishna flow eastwards into the Bay of Bengal  deltas and valleysof the rivers provide fertile areas for settlements  the hill ranges of the plateau Carl be crossed only along the passes THE SATAVAHANA DYNASTY  Simuka Satavahana established Satavahana power.  Kanha or Krishna, his brother, from an inscription at Nasik  theNanaghat inscription of Queen Nayanika  lists several rulers of the dynasty  Queen Nayanika, the widowed queen of Satakarni performed Vedic sacrifices  Nanaghat--major pass connecting Junnar with the coast  Gautamiputra Satakarni  An inscription of his mother engraved on the entrance to a cave at Nasik,  major achievement of Gautamiputra Satakarni defeat of the Kshatrapas of western Deccan and Gujarat  After his victory, Gautamiputra counterstruck silver coins of the Kshatrapa Nahapana with his own legend and symbols  control of the lucrative foreign trade, one of the causes for the conflict.  Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Pulumavi ,time that the Satavahanas consolidated their power in the eastern Deccan  Satavahana inscriptions outside the western Deccan at Amaravati  the last important Satavahana ruler--Yajnasri Satakarni  later Satavahanas coins with bilingual leqends were issued Prakrit south Indian languag  early Satavahana (ruler) contend with the power of Kharavela from Orissa or Kalinga.  Satavahanas began their rule in the western Deccan  the Western and the Eastern Ghats  covered the entire Deccan  divided into aharas or districts  Govardhana-ahara centre around Nasik  Soparaka-ahara--west coast  Mamala-ahara--hilly portions of the Pune and Satara districts  Satavahanihara--Bellery district of Karnataka  Kapurachara—Gujarat west coast  series of ports at Bharuch Kalyan Sopara Chaul continuing further south all along the Konkan coast  Inland Settlements major concentrations of settlements were around Nasik; Junnar; within a 30 Km. radius dKarle; further south in the upper Krishna basin around Kolhapur  agriculturally rich and fertile  valuable resource base for the ports on the west coast  ports handled much of the trade in the first century A.D. between India and the Mediterranean regiop  also linked by the overland transpeninsular route across the Deccan to centres in Andhra and along the east coast.  Bharuch to Paithan and Ter and further east to centres in Andhra.  ancient site of Paithan spreads over 4 sq. km  Ter--major cotton produaing region of the Deccan ivory figurine very similar to the specimen found at Pompeii brick caitya subsequently converted into a Brahmanical temple.  Deccan linked Ujjain to Maheshwar on the Narmada and past the caves at Ajanta and Pitalkhora to Bhokardan and Paithan  Bhokardan major bead-making centre known for shell and ivory-working inhabitants of Bhokardan or Bhogavardhana are known to have made donations at the Buddhist caves of Bharhut and Sanchi in central India.  south in the upper Krishna valley  Karad is an early centre referred to in Buddhist inscriptions, located in the same region is Kolhapur  the statuette of Poseidon were clearly imports  Belgaum is the site of Vadgaon ~~1y8blcfap.tb.i~~sa Madhavpu  the site of Banavasi known as the find-spot of one of the Satayahana inscription.  a fortified settlement as there are indications of a fortification wall and a moat  Karimnagar region important centre being that of Kondapur about 70 Km north-west of Hyderabad. rich collection of coins and terracottas and several structures of brick of various sizes laid in mud mortar  Peddabankur is a small village now but was an important settlement during the Satavahana period extending over a 30 hectare area.  About 10 km. from Peddabankur was the fortified site of Shulikatta  surrounded by a mud-rampart  a large brick structure at the site  only during the Satavahana period fortified settlements develop in the Deccan  excavations indicate a marked improvement in the quality of construction  The Bhorghat is still the only pass across the Western Ghats connecting Pune to Bombay past a series of early Buddhist caves such as Shelarwadi Bedsa Bhaja Karle Ambivale Kondane  Administration , much simpler that under the Mauryas  ministers were appointed directly by the king  not seem to have been hereditary  paid in money from the revenue collected by the state.  collected taxes both from (agriculture and trade  One of the practice started by Satavahana rulers in the first century A.D. donating revenue of a village to , either a Brahmana or the Buddhist Sangha  practice became much more widespread under the Gupta rulers  nigama-sabha--an assembly record donations of land-- written down either on a copper-plate or cloth by an officer or minister record was then delivered to the donee to whom the grant had been made keeper of records  anyone who cleared the forest and tilled a plot could claim ownership of the land much of the trade was handled by guilds who also acted as bankers.  Highways were made secure and rest-houses were constructed along them

The social structure of the Deccan under the Satavahanas

 different from those prescribed in thedanskrit texts such as the Manusnuti  many inscriptions mention the names of their mothers rather than those of their fathers, such as Gautamiputra Satakarni or Satakarni, son of Gautami not in keeping with the Dharmasastras which state that in the approved forms of marriage the bride acquires the gotra of her husband and loses that of the father.  Satavahanas refer to themselves as unique Brahmanas who crushed the pride of the Kshatriyas.  According to the Brahmanical texts it was only the Kshatriyas who had the right to rule.  people were known by their occupations rather than their castes  Another category-yavanas or foreigners.  originally denoted an Ionian Greek, but around the Christian era it was used indiscriminately for any foreigner  Women frequently made gifts either on their own or sometimes with their husbands or sons.  not governed by rules laid down by the Brahmanical texts.  Satavahana kings donated large sums of money and land to the Buddhist monasteries  crucial factor was the expansion of overland and maritime trade networks

EARLY STATE FORMATION IN SOUTH INDIA (TAMILAHAM)

 land in between the hills of Venkatam and Kanyakumari  includes the whole of modem Tamil Nadu and Kerala  Three principal chiefdoms 1. the Cheras 2. Cholas 3. Pandyas  Cheras had Karur in the interior and Muciris. the well known ancient port, on the west coast  Cholas had Uraijur in the interior and Puhar on the coromandel coast as their strongholds  the Pandyas had Madurai and Korkar as their interior headquarters and port respectively  reflected in ancient Tamil poetry  ecological differences of the region  the form of the concept of aintinai or five eco-zones  Tamilaham is portrayed as a comb~nation of five tinais 1. kurinji (hilly backwoods) 2. palai (arid zone 3. mullai (pastoral tracts) 4. marutam (wet-land) 5. neital (sea coast  The mode of human adaptation varied from tinai to tinai depending on its ecological conditions.  The soc~al groups also varied  people of Kurinji -- hunting and gathering  Palai --lifting and plundering  Mullai--animal husbandry and shifting cultivation  Marutam--plough agriculture  Neital--fishing and salt making  different forms of subsistence as determined by the ecological conditions of the five tinais  The small, self-sustaining tinai is grew up into larger eco-zones through interaction and interdependence  larger zones of productivity as well as non-productivity  zones of better productivity had a relatively developed social division of labour  zones of lesser productivity society was essentially simple and consisted of clans  By and large the peoples of Tamilaham represented a complex society of unevenly developed components which shared a common culture  political level of the society varied from the simple chiefdom of clans to complex chiefdom of ruling houses  in the poems chiefs of clan-chiefdoms-- the great son (perumakan chiefly son (KO-makan  larger chiefdoms of complex nature born out of conquests and subjugation Marriage alliance real basis of the enlargement of chiefdoms was their wealth  Chiefdoms with large agricultural areas constituted the most powerful ones  three different kinds of chiefdoms in Tamilaham 1. kizar (little chiefs 2. velir (bigger chiefs 3. vedar (the biggest chiefs)  Kizar-- headmen of small villages (Ur) generally bound by kinship in the poems. They are referred to by being prefixed with the name of their respective villages Arnkantur-kizar or UrnturKizar may be cited as example Poems refer to Kiza doing vidutozil (obligatory services) to bigger chiefs like Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in their campaigns bigger chiefs in their turn rewarded the kizar through gifts which included grant of predatory control over the subjugated village  velir were mostly hill chieftains though there were velir controlling low-lands tohill chief mere hunter chief Venkatamalai, (the hills ofVenkatam Nanjilmalai (the high ranges south of Travancore) parampuralai (probably modem parampikkulam reserve forest near pollachchi) potyilmalai (high ranges in the modem Madurai district) some of the important centres of the hill chiefs of the period  Muvendar\ the three cendar The Chera, Chola and Pandya several lesser chiefs under their service and paying tributes (tiarai)  no notion of a preasely demarcated temtory  The political authority functioned through control over peoples rather than privileges over basic resources. Example the control over the peoples like Kuravar, or vetar or vettuvar by their chiefs made them chiefs  Compared to the chiefs of agricultural areas, the pastoral and hunter chiefs were less powerful.  powerful chiefs tried to subjugate lesser ones and extracted tributes from them.  Plunder raid was the characteristic feature of comtemporary political practice.  Chiefs of all kinds indulged in plundering against one another  Lesser chiefs joined hands with the big ones in plunder campaigns and obtained their shares of booty  Cattle and grain constituted the routine items of booty  The bards of the period sing about the gifts of elephants, horses, golden lotuses, chariots, gems and muslin  Sometimes the raids of bigger chiefs involved subjugation of villages beyond their control  In such cases the lesser chiefs assisting the bigger ones got the subjugated villages  not the land of the village that was granted but the control over the people there  With the coming of the period of Indo-Roman trade control over strategic centres and trade goods added to the importance of the chiefs  Pari of Parambumalai (near Pollachchi Ariyar of Podiyilmalai (Madurai) Andiran of Nanjilmalai (south of Travancore Irunko-vel of Kodunbai (Pudukkottai) some of the prominent velir chiefs mentioned in the poems.  Velir Chiefs controlling such strategic centres had to face severe challenges from the superior chiefs like Muvendar  Apart from direct combats, the bigger chiefs tried to gain access to the velir domains through marriage relations also.  Traditional assembly of elders transacted the day to day affairs in every settlement  The assembly site was called manram, a raised seating around the foot of a tree It was also called podiyil.  The chief was assisted by a council of elders called avai (Sabha  aimperumkuzu or the five great groups  enperayam or the eight great groups

Satavahana period (lst Century B.C. to the 3rd Century A,D.)

 Iron ore war available in the areas of Karirnnagar and Warnagal  Iron working in these areas indicated as early as the megalithic period.  Gold working also is attested to in the Deccan in the Satavahana period  There developmentr rhow that metallurgy had progressed in thew areas  Irrigation facilitier were known in the form of tankr and wells.  The water wheel was ud for lifting water  Digging tanks and wellr was conddered to be a meritoriow act.  had the knowledge of paddy transplantation  Cotton was grown in the black soil areas and the cotton products of Andhra became famous even in foreign countries  The cultivation of coconut trees went a long way in the development of the coastal areas  The source of labour in the Deccan included waged labourers and slave  The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea states that slaves were brought from Arabia

Society in Tamilaham

 tribal in character with its kinship  landed vellalar and the velala peasants constituted the basic producing groups in the agrarian settlements.  Craft specialization was only rudimentary and subsidiary to agricultural production blacksmiths (Kdlao) Carpenters (tech@. Weaving was another profession.  Religious worship and cult practices of the village folk followed old tribal rituals which necessitated the presence of ritual groups such as Velan, Venttuvan etc  looked after the supernatural elements and their management  society was not 'priest-dominated'.  considerable surplus which led to the prosperity of trading groups  Towards the end of our period traders were accommodated within the varna order which had by that time taken roots in the far south.  Tokappiyam earliest available work on Tamil grammar, portrays the Tamil Society as consisting of our varna divisions According to this text , traders belonged to the vaisya group  In the deep south, especially in the Madurai and Tirunelveli regions the Pandya country, these traders are found associated with some heterodox religious groups  chiefly groups established their centres in the agrarian tracts marutam for the reason that surplus resources necessary for the sustenance of a non-producing group were available there only  The chieftains of the marutam agricultural tracts started claiming descent from Suryavamsa (Solar line) or Chandravamsa (Umar line) as the Kshatriya of north India did  In the Sangam poems war and the warlike qualities of the warrior heroes were glorified The function of the Pana singers Viral1 dancers was to glorify the heroes and their heroism  the society in the agrarian Marutam-- region of ancient Tamilaham -- an amalgamation of old tribal prrictices and of Brahmanical ideals and ideology Soclety In the Deccan

 all the three major religious slystems  . Brahmani~m, Buddhism and Jainism enjoyed large following.  Sdtavahana ruler8 extended their patronage to Vedic ritualism Example Naganika, an early queen of the Satavahana family performed several Vedic rituals and made gift mentioned in the Vedic texts  some of the famous teachers of the Dlgambara sect flourislhed in this period Kondakundacharya,--the founder of the Mulasangha which became popular in the South, lived in the region  The Mahayana eect of Buddhism enjoyed good popularity  Ruling authoritie8, rich men and workere donated liberally to the viratas and stupas  Acharya Naga juna the greatest exponent of Mahayana faith flourished in the Deccan  Some foreign elements Yavanor Saka Pahlavaa embraced either the Brahmanical or the Buddhist religion.  the period witnessed the fusion of variou8 cultural elements in society  The rulers of foreign descent used prakrit and later on Sanskrit, in their inscriptions and even adopted Indian personal and family names.  four-fold division of society was familiar in the Deccan  The practice of calling people according to their profession was popular Halaka (ploughman) golika (shepherd) vardhakl (carpenter) kolika (weaver tilapisaka (oil presser) Kamara (smith)  Joint family system was the normal feature  Sometimes some are found accepting titles of their husbands Bhojiki, Maharathini, Mahasenapatini etc

SOCIAL CHANGE

 first appearance the agrarian order  Satavahana and Kshatrapa rulers donated plots of land and even entire villages to religious beneficiaries such as Buddhist monks and Brahmanas.  Along with land, certain economic privileges in the form of the right to collect revenue from the village and to enjoy the right over mines were also transferred • to the grantees  In the past many grants to individuals had been temporary. But now the trend was to make the grant perpetual.  These new developments in the agrarian sector brought about serious and far-reaching changes in the land system and economy  the religious beneficiaries became powerful authorities of the villages received by them with the new economic and administrative privileges in addition to the spiritual control which they exercised.  land grants to monks and priests created a new class of non-cultivating land owners.  The actual tillers were thus separated from ' the land and its produce  this type of private ownership abolished earlier collective rights over forests, pastures, fisheries, and reservoirs.  the beneficiaries enjoyed the rights dot only over land but also over peasants who worked on land.  led to an erosion of the rights of the peasants who became servile  the practice of land grant contributed, with several other features, to the creation of a social order which is described by some scholars as "Indian feudalism  From the close of the first century B.C. demand for Indian goods brought merchants and ships from the Roman world in the west in close contact with peninsular India  All these again are associated with the growth of crafts specialization or growth of skill in producing crafts items which were required for members of the society either in local exchange or for long-distance trade  . Loan was not unknown in the barter system of the Tamil south.  Kurietirppai-A loan of a fixed quantity of an article could be taken to be repaid in the same kind and quantity at a later date  Paddy and salt were the only two items for which a set exchange rate was known in the barter system of the far south  Dakshinapatha-- a route which ran from the Ganga valley to the Godavari Valley  Indian items such as spices, precious and semi-precious stones, timber, ivory and many other articles were in great demand in the western countries.  The main source of these articles was south India  articles were shipped to the west from very early times  Direct trade with the Roman world, of which we have, evidence from the close of the first century B.C. Proved to very significant for the economy and society of peninsular India.  two stages in the commercial contact of Rome with peninsular India. 1. early stage with the Arabs as middlemen 2. second stage in which direct contact was established with the knowledge of the monsoon winds  long period navigation in the Arabian sea was coastal. Tedious and expensive Arabs had established commercial connections with India, making the Sea as a highway of trade before the beginning of the Christian era. geographical positionof the Arabs was favourable to them in enjoying the monopoly in the East-West trade had some knowledge of the wind systems in the Arabian sea and they kept it as a trade secret. Thus the Arabs played the role of middlemen and raised considerable profit out of the trade with peninsular India  the 'discovery' of the monsoon wind attributed to a navigator named Hippalus  direct contact was established by the Romans with India  This marked the beginning of a period of increase in commerce between Rome and peninsular India  The Romans paid for the Indian articles mainly in gold  South India had commercial connections with Sri Lanka and South East Asia  inscriptions written in Tamil Brahmi Characters which refer to those who come from Elam (Sri Lanka).  Fishing and Salt making were done exclusively by the community of Paratavas mentioned in the Sangam as living in the naval (coastal) region  salt merchants were known as umanas in Tamilaham  In the territories under the Satavahanas The main route to the Deccan from the north came from Ujjaini to the city of Pratishthana (Paithan) the capital of the Satavahanas  From Pratishthana it passed across the Deccan Plateau to the lower Krishna and then went further south to reach the famous southern cities of Kanchi and Madurai  A network of roads developed early in the Christian era from this old route linking the producing areas in the interior with inland markets and towns and the port towns on the western coast  fertile river valleys of Godavari and Krishna also had such network of routes to connect the interior with the coastal towns  interesting to note that some of the famous ancient Buddhist cave sites and religious centres in the Deccan were situated on such trade routes  religious centres were helpful in many ways to the merchant-caravans  Besides providing food and shelter they even issued loans  rulers also showed interest in the conditions of the routes.  donated liberally to Buddhist religious establishments which were located on the routes  constructed rest houses at port towns and established watersheds on the routes.  Officials also were appointed for the upkeep of them  Local Coins--Kasu, Kanam, Pon and Ven Pon.  In the Deccan, inscriptions refer to the use of Kahapanas which were silver coins locally minted and tosuvarnas which refer to gold coins either of the Romans or the Kushans  copper and silver were in use.  From the second century B.C. Kings of small localities of members of the important,Maharathi and other families started minting coins in their own name.  of these were added coins of Satavahana rulers minted in different metals, possibly from the first century B.C. onward  Ancient Tamil literature refers to Yavana (Roman) ships bringing large quantities of gold to Tamilaham to be exchanged for pepper  The Roman emperor Tiberius wrote to the Senate in 22 A.D the wealth of the empire was being drained off to foreign lands in exchange of petty things  In the 1st Century A.D Pliny, the author of The Natural History, complained that every year a huge amount of Roman wealth went out to India, China and Arabia for luxury articles.  These statements are well supported by the large number of Roman Coins found in hoards in various places of peninsular India like Andhra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala  Roman coins are mostly in gold and silver  Copper coins are extremely rare  In the Deccan, land was measured in terms of nivartanas  grain was measured in ambanam, probably a large measure  In the Deccan wealth and prosperity of the artisans, craftsman and traders are reflected in their donations to the Buddhist monasteries.  The guild organisations of artisans and traders were instrumental in breaking old kinship ties and introducing a new type of relations in production of handicrafts and in - . . trading ventures  The relationship between rulers, commercial groups and Buddhist monastic establishments was responsible in introducing important changes in society and economy of the Deccan

GROWTH OF TAMIL LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

 Tamil had become literary language i.e., a full-blown language with its own system of writing, at least by third century B.C. if not earlier  The earliest evidence, the Tamil literary tradition i.e. the tradition of writings in the language comes from the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions in the Jain and Buddhist caves from the Tamil Brahmi hills.  The major centres of these label inscriptions Arittappatti (Mauylam, Madurai) Karungalakkuti (Melur, Madurai) Kongarpuliyamkulam(Madurai), zakarmalai (Madurai  Many Tamil words along with the local adaptations of Sanskrit and Prakrit and pali occur in the labels.  Tamil language used in these labels was different to the literary Tamil  The difference was due to the Jain and Buddhist immigrants from the north who were introducing a (considerable member) of Sanskrit and Prakrit pali terms  These terms were adapted to suit the linguistic structure of the Tamil language  The Tamil heroic poems, popularly called the Sangam literature  the major evidence for the old Tamil literary tradition  The Tamil heroic poems are called the Sangam literature since they were collected and classified by the Sangam  the Sangam-an academy of scholars  . The poems were, in fact, much earlier than the Sangam  there were originally three Sangams  last one alone have survived  they were constituted by scholars in literature  The time lag between the Sangam and the heroic poems shows that the name Sangam literature is a misonmer.  the Tamil heroic poems were the products of the folk  They signify the tradition of bards who roamed about singing the praise of their patron chiefs  all the poetic compositions were not of wandering bards  Some of them were composed'by scholarly poets who followed the bardic tradition Kapilar Paranar Avvayar and Gautamanar  some of the well known poets of the period  scholarly bards, namely the pulavar as distinguished from the common bards, namely the panar  It is thus not the literature of any particular social group but part of a common way of life.  Classification Ettuttogai or the eight collections of poems Pattupattu or the ten idylls  two categories of anthologies that comprise the heroic poems  Narrinai Kuruntokai Ainkurunuru Patirruppattu few examples of anthologies grouped under Ettuttokai  Mullaippattu Madurikkan Kurunjippattu example of anthologies under Pattupattu  anthologies are divided into akam  dealing with themes of subjective experience like love or affection,  puram dealing with themes of objectification like raid or plunder  Both the above categories of anthologies comprise collections of poems based on akam.and puram themes.  Purananuru, a similar collection based on puram themes  two examples of Ettuttogai category.  In the same manner there are examples of both akam and puram anthologies in the Pattupattu category  Apart from the heroic anthologies classified corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, a treatise on Tamil grammar Patinenkizkanakku, the eighteen didactic texts  Both Tolkappiya and Patinenkizkanakku were composed after most of the Ettuttogai and Pattupattu poems had been composed  The diction and the techniques of composition of the heroic anthologies keep them distinct from other texts that are later.  Techniques of Composition composed on the principles of oral bardic literature  use of stock phrases and expressions is the most important feature  Stock phrases or expressions are readymade expressions or phrases current among the people of those times  bards just had to master such ready-made expressions and their contexts  This is not to minimise the individual poetic talents completely  But by and large, the most important aspect was not the individual style or expressions of the poets  The hereditarily transmitted stock phrases leave the bulk of heroic poems full of Growth or Tamil Language and Literalure old memory  The two fundamental aspects of the traditional Tamil poetic  divisions of compositions intoakam and puram genres  Akam is subdivided into five stages of love in relation to the five tinai  Each tinai is associated with a particular mood of lov  For instance, the palai is associated with the sentiment of separation of the lovers  puram genre of poems have their own tinais (situations) and turais (contexts)  as many as nine tinais and sixty three turais which the poets could opt for the compositions  Each akam poem had to follow the notion of tinai which had its own deity, biological organisms, subsistence pattern, musical instruments and song  each puram poem had to abide by the restrictions associated with tn? variety of tinais or situations of behaviour  Some of the bards like Gautamanar, Paranar and Kapilar were Brahmana  Gautamanar is mentioned to have effeciated many velvi (Yajna or Vedic sacrifice) for his patron Celkezu Kuttuvan, Chera chief.  Epic and puranic ideas are also seen in the Tamil heroic poems  While praising the patron chiefs, the poets refer to the farmer's participation in the Mahabharata battle  Many puranic deities are equated to their Tamil Counterparts  Mayon (the black god) well known in the poems as the Tamil counterpart of Krishna is one example  original aspect of the Tamil language and literature does not owe to Sanskrit for its origin  But its growth and development toward linguistic and literary perfection certainly owes to the influences of Aryan culture  linguistic maturity achieved by the Tamils by the 3rd century  The basic parts of Tolkappiyam and some of the Kizkanakku texts constitute the other compositions here  other compositions because they do not belong to the bardic tradition of heroic poem  not far removed from the literary background of the bardic tradition  poruladikaram part of Tolkappiyam that deals with the akam and puram conventions of old Tamil is close to the period of heroic poems.  Similarly, the tinai texts and works like Kalavazi are relatively earlier.

GUPTAS

 beginning of the fourth century A.D.  the Satavahana state had disappeared before the middle of the third century A.D.  Allahabad pillar inscription--earliest inscription recording the achievements of an early Gupta ruler, Samudragupta, comes from this region  In the closing decades of the 3rd century A.D. the Guptas were . subordinates of a branch of the later Kushanas ruling in north-western India  Srigupta was the first king  Ghatotkacha was the next  Chandragupta-I was the first independent king with the title Maharajadhiraja.  After declaring his independence in Magadha, he with the help of a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis, enlarged his kingdom  Special category of coins  coins have Chandragupta and his queen Kumaradevi engraved on the obverse  a seated goddess on the reverse with a legend Lichchhavayah (i.e. the Lichchhavis).  coins were made of gold  the Guptas followed the weight system of Kushana gold coins  parts of Bihar, U.P. and Bengal.  during the times of his son Samudragupta that the kingdom grew into an empire

Samudragupta

 Prayagaprasasti) An inscription engraved (at a later date) on the Asokan pillar at Allahabad information about Samudragupta's accession and conquests.  Harishena important official of the state, had composed 33 lines which were engraved on the pillar  For the expansion and consolidation of the Gupta power Samudragupta adopted an aggressive policy of conquests  This initiated a process which culminated in the formation of the Gupta empire

Chandragupta-I1

 Samudragupta's successor  He entered into matrimonial alliances with the Nagas by manying princess Kuberanaga whose daughter Prabhavati was later on married to Rudrasena-I1 of the Vakataka family defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha-I11 and annexed his kingdom brought an end to Saka Kshatrapa rule in western India and added the regions of Gujarat, Kathiawad and west Malwa to the Gupta empire

Two inscriptions

Udayagiri caves near Sanchi one inscription at Sanchi eferring to Chandragupta I1 and to his subordinate rulers and military officials, also suggest that he was present in eastern Malwa for some time preparing for the campaigns

The Guptas, from the time of Chandragupta, started minting Saka-type silver coins-for this region. only added their own distinct symbols on these coins; otherwise, the coins were like Saka coins in circulation till then

This definitely shows that the Saka areas came within the control of Chandragupta-11

success of Chandragupta-I1 against the Sakas seems to have developed later on into the tradition of Sakari Vikramaditya, that is, of 'Vikramaditya, who was an enemy of the Sakas'

Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription located in the Qutab-Minar complex in Delhi

'King Chandra' whose exploits have been mentioned

According to this inscription

Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bactria)

The Mehrauli inscription also mentions Chandragupta's victory over enemies from Vanga (Bengal)

An important incident which took place during this period the visit of Fa-Hien, a Chinese pilgrim, who came to India in search of Buddhist texts. he has given a vivid tle\cription of the places he visited certain social and administrative aspects related to them oes not mention the name of the King in his accounts speaks highly of the King of Madhya-desa, region which was directly ruled by the Gupta Rise and Growth of Guptas monarch in this period

under whom the people were prosperous and happy.

Chandragupta-I1 known for his patronage to men of letters ruled till about 415-16 A.D.

KUMARAGUPTA-I

Chandragupta-I1 was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta. ruled over Magadha and Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the west owards the last year of his reign the Gupta empire faced foreign invasion which was checked by the efforts of his son Skandagupta maintained cordial relationship with the Vakatakas which had been established through matrimonial alliances earlier

SKANDAGUPTA ucceeded Kumaragupta-I last powerful Gupta monarch

he had to fight the Pushyamitra country faced Huna invasion from across the frontiers in the northwest

Skandagupta was successful in throwing the Huns back. these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire, and the gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to that. n comparison to the gold coins of the earlier rulers the types of gold coins minted by Skandagupta were limited. y his coins had less gold in them than earlier coins

he appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in western Indi

the Junagadh inscription of his reign he public works undertaken during his times

The Sudarsana lake

(originally built during the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains

in the early part of his rule his governor Pamadatta got it repaired

Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D.

DISINTEGRATION OF THE GUPTA EMPIR

Huna Invasions towards the end of the fifth century A.D

Huna chief Tormana was able to establish his authority over large parts of western India and in central India

Mihirakula, his son, further extended the dominions

Administrative Weaknesses local chiefs would reestablish their independent authority Sarnanta system in which the Samantas or minor rulers, who ruled as subordinates to the central authority, started to consolidate itself in the Gupta period.

Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta escribes him as "equal to the gods: Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna (Sea-God), Indra and Antaka (Vama), who had no antagonist of equal power in the world

Like the King who has been given a divine status in the Smriti scriptures the Gupta monarchs too came to be considered a divinity on earth.

Udayagiri inscription of the time of Chandragupta-I1

Virasena Saba

, the minister for war and peace, was holding this office by inheritance

The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien states capital punishment was not given at all. existed an espionage system as in the earlier period

The army was paid in cash and its needs were well looked after by an officer-in-charge of stores called Ranabhandagarika

Amongst other duties this officer was to look after the supply of offensive and defensive weapons such as battle-axes, bows and arrows, spear pikes, swords, lances, javelins, etc

Both Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti stat one-sixth of the produce should be claimed as the royal revenue

Uparikara

levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another

organization of traders had to pay a certain commercial tax (Sulka) non-payment of which resulted in cancellation of the right to trade and a fine amounting to eight times of the original Sulka

King had a right to forced labour (Visthi), Bali and many other types of contributions King's income from royal lands and forests was considered as his personal income

Nagarasresthi

(head of city merchants).

Sarthavaha (Caravan-leader).

Prathama-Kulika (head of the artisan community

Prathama Kayastha (head of the Kayastha community)

In villages where there was a headman called Gramapati or Gr3madhayaksha.

The village disputes were also settled by these (bodies) with the help of Grama-vriddhas or village elders

Sudarsana reservoir (Tadaga) in Saurashtra in Gujarat. Originally built in the Maurya period, this reservoir was thoroughly repaired when it was extensively damaged in the time of Mahakshatrapa

Rudradaman (middle of the second century A.D.).

again severely damaged in the time of Skandagupta.

Parnadatta, his newly appointed governor of Saurashtra and Parnadatta's son Chakrapalita, undertook the repair of the reservoir this time

ghati-yantra araghatta. tie a number of pots to a chain

the chain with the pots reached down to the water of the hull by making the chain and the pots rotate ensured that the pots would continuously fill with water and empty i

Harshacharita of Banabhatta course written in the seventh century A.D. very charming description of how cultivated fields, producing crops like sugarcane, were being irrigated with the help of ghati-yantra

In regions like Bengal, rainwater was collected in ponds and other types of reservoirs; in peninsular India tank irrigation became gradually the norm

the number of ruling families had vastly increased and thus the number of persons who received land but did not cultivate themselves went on increasing

The virtues of giving land were highly praised and those who took away gifted land were threatened with many evil consequences.

All this led to the appearance, in society, of a class of people who enjoyed superior rights over land and by virtue of these rights and by belonging to higher varnas had high economic and social status domestic female slaves were cruelly exploited a text like the Kamasutra which was probably written in the Gupta period tells us how much hardship they had to go through at the hands of their masters. different varieties of silk cloth

Kshauma

Pattavastr mentioned in the texts of this period

Amarakosha

Brihat Samhita

Texts generally dated to this period

list many items

It seems that in comparison with crafts production in the preceding Saka Kushana period, crafts production in the Gupta period suffered some setback

Dharmasastras written by the brahmanas in this period.

Dharmasastras assign different ranks to different groups of craftsmen, although in their scheme the craftsmen and artisans held a status lower than that of the brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaisyas. Dharmasastras also suggest that each group of craftsmen formed a jati or caste

the Kumbhakaras or potters formed one caste, the Suvarnakaras or goldsmiths formed another caste generally the trend among.craftsmen was that persons following one craft formed a jati or a caste

Crafts

11) divided into four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra) each varna performing the set of functions prescribed for it and enjoying whatever rights were given to it. ideal social order and the state was expected to preserve it.

Brahmanas came to exert considerable influence on the kings from the Gupta period and this is quite clear from the way they received land from the kings and others. the number of brahmana settlements variously called Brshmadiyas, Agraharas and so on started increasing and they started spreading, among other things, the idea of a varna-divided social order. t was assumed that the varnas would perform theif:&tIes; in reality, they may not have done so suggest that real society was dikr!%tftifi&#'the ideal society and this was also recognized by the brahmana writers of the%@##&%tras.

tried to determine the status of various castes or jatis in s&@t$%$~lGlh~fictitious explanations of their origin e semi-kshatriya status (vratya Kshatriaya)

fictitious origins were thought of for tribal groups who came to he absorbed into the Brahmanical society.

The Dharmasastras also speak apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods of distress varnas take to professions and duties not assigned to them when they found it necessary to do so with the spread of the Brahmanas to different parts of India, the so~ii~l structure came to be very complex. The new society had to absort many social groups thus. the actual social structure came to vary from region to region, although certain ideas were common to them

Brahmanas highest varna four varnas the antyajas or untouchable considered impure even their touch was considered impure their physical presence in areas where higher varnas lived and moved was not allowed

The Chandala the Charmakara similar groups were considered impure and outzastes position of woman or higher varnas was low not all women were so privileged

Although we hear or' personalities like the Vakataka queen Prabhavatigupta who wielded considerable power

to function mainly as an ideal wife and ideal mother

In many Brahmana texts, women we're even considered, for various reasons, to be of the same category as the Sudras

The ideal city-dweller was the nagaraka, i.e. the urbanite who, because of his affluence, lived a life of pleasure and refined culture

POST-GUPTA KINGDOMS IN NORTH INDIA

Yasodharman

Yasodharman's Mandasor Inscription

Two stone pillar inscriptions from I Mandasor in Madhya Pradesh, one of which is dated in 532 A.D., refer to a powerful king Yasodharman

The Maukharis we find references to them in Patanjali's work and in other early documents

Harsha inscription of 554 A.D. mentions the rise of Yajnavarman from Gaya during this period

tirst three Maukhari kings

Yagnavarman

Sardulavarman

Anantavarman

Some of these kings held simply the title of Samanta which indicates that they were acting as kings under the over-lordship of the Guptas

From the Asirgarh Copper seal

Harivannan,

Adityavarman

Isvaravarma sanavarmi~

Isanavarmi~

Sarvavarman,

ruled over Kanauj in U.P first three kings had the title of Maharaja

Isanavarman is called Maharajadhiraja

Later Guptas

From around the middle of sixth century A.D. till about 675 A.D the kings who ruled Magadha were known as Magadha Guptas or Later Guptas

Aphsad inscriptio names of 8 Gupta Monarchs from Gaya

Krishnagupta Harshagupta

Jivitagupta

Kumaragupta

Damodaragupta

Mahasenagupta,

Madhavagupta

Adityasena.

Their most powerful ruler was Adityasena,

ruled in Magadha in 672 A.D

Later Gupta power survived the empire of Harshavardhana and Adityasena signalised his accession to power by the performance of a horse sacrifice

According to the Aphsad inscription

his empire included Magadha, Anga and Bengal.

Parama-Bhagavata got a temple of Vishnu constructed.

Later Gupta line came to an end with the expansion of the power of the Gaudas of Bengal westward

But the Gaudas themselves were subdued by Yasovarman of Kanauj.

The centuries between the eighth and the thirteenth

prominent from the point of view of from the point of view of

making of cultural traditions in India

most arresting feature of thew traditions is regionalism

reflected in

reflected in

formation of political power ts

development of art

transformations in languages and literature even religious manifestation

Andhr

, Assam

Benga

Gujara

Karnataka

Karnataka

Maharashtm

Orissa

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu, outcome of significant material changes.

outcome of significant material changes.

developments in the no!?-agrarian sector were setting the tone of feud socio-economic formation the cultural the cultural

The Mudrakshasa

The Mudrakshasa

play writtcn in Sanskrlt by Vishakhadatta ascribed to the fifth century speaks of different regions whose inhabitants differ in customs, clothing and language

The identity of some kind of subnational groups is recognized by the Chinese pilgrim Hsiuan- Tsang who visited India in the first half of the seventh century and mentions several nationalities

Kuvalayamala a Jain text of the eighth century largely concerned with western India existence of 18 major nationalities and describes the anthropologcal character of sixteen peoples pointing out their psychological features citing the examples of their language

The Brabmavaivarta Purana the thirteenth century Bengal

explicates

deshabheda

differences based on regions/territories.

differences based on regions/territories. differences based on regions/territories. wide chronological and geographical horizon the simple beginnings at Sanchi in the fifth century of the Christian era

to the great edifices at

Kanchi

Jhanjaw

Jhanjaw

Madura

Madurai

Madurai story of more than a millennium

Shilpashastras

deal with the subject of temple architecture

Mayamata,

Manasam

Shilparatna

Shilparatna

Kamikagama

Kamikagama

Kashyapasbipa

Kashyapasbipa

Ishanagurudevapaddbati geographical distribution differentiation from the point of view of shapes presiding deities and castes. Major Styles

Nagara

Dravida

Dravida typological features of temples geographical distribution

square octagonal

apsidal ground plans

respectively regulate the vertical profile of the structure

Nagara an*, Dravida

generally identified with the northern and southern temple styles respectively

generally identified with the northern and southern temple styles respectively

All of northern India

from the foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with temples in the northern style

from the foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with temples in the northern style of course, certain regional variations in the great expanse of this area of course, certain regional variations in the great expanse of this area

mentions Lati and Vaimti (Gujarat and Rajasthan respectively) as separate styles

mentions Lati and Vaimti (Gujarat and Rajasthan respectively) as separate styles

Orissa style temples he Rehka

Bhadra Kharkhara

Gaudiya

The ~ravida or southern style confined to the most southemly portions of the sub-continent, specially between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari

Vesara

vagueness location of which is uncertain

Some of the text ascribe the Vesara style to the country between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna

but there are texts placing it 'between the Vindhyas and the Agastya

Since the temples of the Nagara type are found as far south as Dharwad (in Karnataka) and those of the Dravidian type as far north as Ellora (in Maharashtra), a narrow and compartmentalised geographical classification is misleading

Since the temples of the Nagara type are found as far south as Dharwad (in Karnataka) and those of the Dravidian type as far north as Ellora (in Maharashtra), a narrow and compartmentalised geographical classification is misleading the temples of the early Chalukyas whose kingdom was strategically positioned in the middle of the peninsula in the seventh and eighth centuries.

Kandariya Mahideva temple in Khajuraho striking exanfple where the vMous architectural elements 'combined into an integrated whole. striking exanfple where the vMous architectural elements 'combined into an integrated whole.

, the Kerala temples displa display variety in their plan t@s. display variety in their plan t@s.

Square, circular or apsideended buildings are utilized. earlibt examples in Kerala go back to the twelfth century.

Presiding Deities not only to two great gods of the Brahmanical pantheon, viz., Shiva and Vihqu

Great Mother Goddess

Great Mother Goddess benevolent and malevolent benevolent and malevolent atmospheric .and heavenly atmospheric .and heavenly countless folk deities such as vakshas, vakshis,' apsaras and kinnaris even animal or bird 'vehicles' (vahanas) of these divinities

Nmdi, the agriculiural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the god's sexuality

Nmdi, the agriculiural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the god's sexuality

The river goddesses, Ganga and Yamma are identified by their vahanas, vii, crocodile and tortbise respectively

Lakshmi's association with elephants, lotus flowers and water not only symbolise her popularity as the goddess of fortune but more importantly as a divinity conveying the magical power of agricultural fertility

Swan canying Saraswati typified not only her grace and elegance but classic Kshira-nira i viveka - the tremendous intellectual discerning capacity which is an integral . I -1 element of this goddess of learning.

Swan canying Saraswati typified not only her grace and elegance but classic Kshira-nira i viveka - the tremendous intellectual discerning capacity which is an integral . I -1 element of this goddess of learning.

The Kashyapashilpa has a chapter on the deities to be enshrined in the principal styles peaceful, calm and serene deities)

to be installed in Nagara couples or moving deities in vesara shrines heroic, dancing or enjoying deities in the Dravidg structures.

Shapes, Plans and Language of Temples

Shapes, Plans and Language of Temples

Each temple style has its own distinctive technical language common common

The sanctuary, which is the main part

where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding deity is located

where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding deity is located the shikhrua

The part surmounting the vimana

other elements of ground plan

mandapa

pavilion for the assembly of devotee antaral antaral

pradakshiapath,

circumarnbulatory passage surrounding these

circumarnbulatory passage surrounding these natmandi natmandi

dance hall

bhogamandapa were evolved subsequently the Nagara typ exterior exterior

characterized by horizontal tier

as in the jagamohan or porch in front of the sanctum of the Ligaraj temple at Bhubaneswa

the viman, is usually circular in plan

Fundamentally, there is no structural similarity between the Brahmanical and the Jain temples in the North

except that the need for housing the various Tirthankaras dominates the disposition of space in the latter

The ~rivida styl polygona

often octagonal ohikhara

often octagonal ohikhara

pyramidal a pyramidal vimana, which is rectangular in plan

notable for the towering gopurams or gatetowers of the additional mandapas

From the days of Ganesh ratha of the Pallava times (seventh ceniury) at Mahabalipuram (near Madras to the gigantic Brihadishvara temple (c.985-1012 A.D.) of the Cholas at Thanjavur: to the gigantic Brihadishvara temple (c.985-1012 A.D.) of the Cholas at Thanjavur: e Dravida style took many strides ------Foxit Reader ------Internal application error. ------OK ------

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Ecological Setting, Raw Materials and Regionalisation

Ecological Setting

Ecological Setting

temples have sloping tiled roof

giving rise to timber gables

To overcome the hazards of snow and hai

wooden sloped roofs are also 1 employed in the temples of the Himalayan bel

. In genera the hotter and drier the climate, the flatter the roof

open porches provide shaded seating

open porches provide shaded seating pierced stone. I .screens are utilised to fiter the ligh

such features which are noticeable in the famous Ladkhan temple of the Chalukyas at Ahole (north Karnataka) are direct adaptations of thatch and timber village and community hall

>The distribution of space in Jain shrines was affected by their placements on high hill

These structures are characterized by an air of seclusion and aloofnes

typical examples

typical examples e Shatrunjaya and Palitana hills in Gujara

the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu in southern Rajasthan

the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu in southern Rajasthan e availability of raw materials e transition from wood to stone attributed to the Mauryas of the third century B.C. was in itself a great step forwar

local raw materials played a dominant role in techniques of construction and carving

the Pallava Kin g Mahendravarman (early seventh century) vichitra-chitta (curious minded

because he discarded conventional perishable materials such as brick, timber and mortar and used the hardest rock surfact (granite) for his cave temples at Mahabalipuram

Hard and crystalline rocks prevented detailed carvin

, whereas soft and sedimentary stone permitted great precision

Friable and schistlike stones, such as those by the Hoyshal architects and craftsmen at Belur and Halebid (Karnataka) in the twelvth and thirteenth centuries promoted the carving of mouldings created by sharp and angled incision

. Brick building traditions continued I to survive where there was an absence of good stone and techniques of moulding and carving bricks doubtless influenced the style of temples in these area

e.g. the temples at Bishnupur in Bengal

e.g. the temples at Bishnupur in Bengal

influence of timber and bamboo techniques of construction represent a unique architectural development in north eastern state of Assam

Almost no stone temples are found in the Himalayan valleys of Kulu, Kangra and Chamb

obvious that timber and brick building traditions dominate temple f~rms in these areas

sloping and gabled roofs which are preserved only in stone in the temples of Kashrnir can be seen in these areas in pure wooden conrext

sloping and gabled roofs which are preserved only in stone in the temples of Kashrnir can be seen in these areas in pure wooden conrext

. In the ninth celitury or s

, a remarkable multi-towered temple was excavated into a natura escarpm :nt at Masrur in Kangra

Role of Decorative Elements

evolution of vadious styles in tenns of decorations, ornamentations and other embellishments is a natural phenomenon these elements did not affect the basic structure of temples these elements did not affect the basic structure of temples growth of pillars from simple oblong shafts in early Pallava structures to extremely finely chiselled (almost giving the impressioh of lathe work) columns in Hoyshala temples. growth of pillars from simple oblong shafts in early Pallava structures to extremely finely chiselled (almost giving the impressioh of lathe work) columns in Hoyshala temples.

Later still, the temples of Madurai and Rameshvaram give extraordinary place to long corridors studded with animals based caryatids

Later still, the temples of Madurai and Rameshvaram give extraordinary place to long corridors studded with animals based caryatids

In general, the tendency is to make constant indrease in embellishments

the kudu which at the Mahabalipuram monuments has a plain shovel-headed firial lion head in the Chola monuments

process of excessive ornamentation is noticeable in North India too

Shikharas, ceilings and other walls receive great attention of artisans and craftsmen

Extremely exquisite catvings in marble in the ceilings at Dilwara Jain temples at Mt. Abu do not serve any structural purpose and are purely decorative multiplication of roofs constitutes a distinctive feature of temples of Malabar, Bengal and the eastern and western Himalayas

In a west coast or Malabar temple walls resemble a wooden railing in structure and were made of wood, though stone bpies from about the fourteenth century also exist.

exampl& Vadakkunath temple at Trichur - 15th-16th century) may have either a simple pitched roof of overlapping slabs, or they may have a series of pitched roofs one above another, which bear an obvious resemblance to the multiple pitched roofs of Chinese and Nepalese temples.

In the Kashmir Valley of the western Himalayas

temples bear two or three roofs which were also copiled from the usual wooden roofs

temples bear two or three roofs which were also copiled from the usual wooden roofs

In the wooden examples interval between the two roofs seems to have been left open for light and air in the stone buildings it is dosed with ornaments in the stone buildings it is dosed with ornaments ll these roofs are relieved by types of windows comparable to those found i6 medieval buildings in Europe

Example of such roofs in Kashmir

Shiva temple at Pandrethan

Shiva temple at Pandrethan

Sun temple at Martand

In Rengal,

temples have been identiaed which have been borrowed from leaf-huts that are very common in the region

In this form of temple with curved caves we also find the same tendency to a multiplication of roofs one above another.

The temples at Bishnuvir such as the famous Keshta Raya (17th century) are built with a variety of roofs forms on square and rectangular plans.

The temples at Bishnuvir such as the famous Keshta Raya (17th century) are built with a variety of roofs forms on square and rectangular plans. ORGANISATION OF BUILDING PROGRAMIME

In the erection of the structural temple an organised building programme was fonowed

Bricks were baked either on or near the site stone was mostly quarried locally stone was mostly quarried locally stone was mostly quarried locally

At the site the masons roughly shaped the stone blocks which were then hoisted into position by rope pulleys on scaffolding

Ramps were a!so constructed of timber and sand to facilitate the placing of extremely heavy stone pieces in place example the stone constituting the huge shikhara of the Brihadishvar temple at Thanjavur.

Whis shilchara weighing about 80 tonnes is popularly believed to have been raised to it6 present height of about 200 feet by being dragged on an inclined plane, whichhad its base about seven kilometres, away at Sarapallan (literally, meaning 'elevation from depression') Occasionally, as in Konarka, iron beams (For iron beams see Illustration No. 21) were used in the sanctuary and hall

The architects, artisans and workmen engaged in the various activities associated with the building of a temple were organised into groups which functioned as guilds

Kdnarka temple manuscript lists the workmen, their salaries and rules of conduct and provides an account over several years of the various building operations. an eleventh century panel from Khajuraho shows cuttings, chiselling and transporting stone for temples.

CHRONOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL , SPREAD OF INDIAN TEMPLE

CHRONOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL , SPREAD OF INDIAN TEMPLE

THE NORTHERN.STYLE

Northern, Central and Western India (Fifth-seventh centuries)

The Pawati temple at Nachna (South-east of Khajuraho, M.P.) he Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.(Jhansi District, U.P.); the brick temple at Bhitaragon (Kanpur District, u.P.); ihe Vishnu temple at Gop (Gyarat);

Mundeshwari temple (an unusual example of octagonal plan) at Ramgarh (Bihar)

temples at Sanchi and Jigawa (both in Madhya Pradesh).

The Deccan and Central India (Sixth-eighth centuries)

Cave temples at Ellora (near Aurangabad in Maharashtra, see Illustration No. 22)

Elephanta (near Bombay)

Badarni (north Karnataka; Early Chalukyan temples) in north Karnataka at Btdami, Aihole (Ladkhan temples), and Pattadakal

(Papanatha and Galganatha temples).

Western and Central India (Eighth - thirteenth centuries

Harihara and other temples at Osian (North of Jodhpur, Rajasthan)

Jelika Mandir (Gwalior); Chandella temples at Khajuraho (specially, Lakshman, Kandariya Mahadev and Vishvanatha); temples at Roda (North of Modhera in Gujarat);

Sun temple at Modhera (Gujarat)

Marble temples of the Jains at Mt. Abu (Rajasthan)

Eastern India (Ei&th - thirteenth centuries)

Parashurameshvar Vaital Deul

Mukteshvar

Lingaraj and Rajarani temples (all at Bhubaneshwar)

Sun temple at Konarka (Orissa the jagannatha temple at Puri (Orissa)

The Himalayan belt (Eighth century pnwards)

Sun temple at Martand

Shiva temple at Pandrethan

Vishnu temple at Aventesvamin (all in Kashmir) temple at Masrur (Kangara, Himachal Pradesh brahmanical temples in Nepal (Kathmandu, Patan and Bhadgaon)

THE SOUTHERN STYLE

The Deccan and Tamil Nadu (Sih-tenth centuries)

Cave temples, the Rathas and the 'Shore' templepf~he Pallavas at Mahabalipuram (near Madras); (See Illustration No. 23) the Vdikunthaperumal and Kailasanatha temples at Kanchipuram (also near Madras

Chalukyan stqctures at Aihole (~eguti temple)

Badami (Malegitti Shiva temple)

Pattadakal (Virup@csKa temple) the Kailas temple at Bllora carved out under the patronage of the RashtrakuJas Karnataka, Tgmil Nadu and Kerala (~enth-seymieenth centuries)

Brihadishvar temples of the Cholas at Jhanjaw

Ganga;! 6ndacholapuram

Hoyshal temples at Belur

Halebid and Somnathpur (all irl Karnataka) later Chalukya temples in -ataka (at Lakkundi and Gadag) the Pampati temple of the Pandyas at Vijaynagw

the Shrirangam (near Trichinopoly, Tamil Nadu)

Minakshi temples (Madurai, Tamil Nadu,See Illustration Nos. 24,25)

the Kattilmadam (at Chalpurarn, District Palghat, Kerala) temple

~arasguram temple at Tiruvallam (near Trivandrum).

THE VESARA STYLE

The Buddhist Chaitya halls the western ghats in the modem state of Maharashtra may be said to be prototypes of this style.

most conspicuous feature-is the apsidal ground plan certain vagueness about its essential components and geographical distribution

early examples

(seventh-tenth centuries) can be cited the structures at Chezarla (Andhra Pradesh)

Aihole (Durga temple),

Mahabalipuram (Sahdeva and Draupali rathas

Kerala (Shiva temples at Trikkandiyur and Tiruvannur

classic post-tenth century examples include the Nataraja shrine at Chidambaram (Tamil Nadu

the Vamana temple at Kizhavellur (District Kottayam, Kerala)

TEMPLES AND IND~N CULTURAL mOS symbalised the very mundane urges of humans and were for varied activities of the community as a whole

symbalised the very mundane urges of humans and were for varied activities of the community as a whole general education within the temple was of great importance

Many endowments to temples were specifically made for establishment of colleg&which were incorporated into temple complexes

Teaching of such subjects as s gramm'ar astrology s recital and teaching of texts such as

Vedas

the Epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas were encouraged

Music and dance generally formad part of the daily ritual of the temples

during special celebrations

and annual festivals

these played a particularly dominant role

Large temples wouldpaintab their own musicians

both vocal and instrumenta

together with dancers, actors and teachers of performing arts

The life-size delineations of I such musicians in a tenth-century temple at Khajuraho (See Illustration No. 26) as well as in the Sun temple at Konarka nata mandir (dancing hall) forming an absolutely integral element in the Orissan and other temples also provide eloquent testimonies to that effec of course who can forget the performance of the great cosmic-dance of the Mahadeva Shiva himself at the Chidambaram temple s the institution of devadasi

These teruple maidens played a significant role in dancing as well as in singing of devotional hymns by which the temple god was entemed

The fact that the Chola emperor Rajaraja 1 (984-1-012) constructed two long street s for the accommodation of four hundred dancing women attached to the Brihadishvar temple (Thanjavur

Many temples had regular festivals which provided opportunities for mingling of mythology and folklore

the annual hthayatra of the Jagarinatha temple at Pun

The undertaking of pilgrimage (tirthayatra) is yet another mechanism through which the participation of the community in temple activities was facilitated

As temples prdvided work and the means of livelihood for a large number of persons, they were able to exert great influence upon the economic life of people.

Even small temples needed the services of priests

garland-makers

suppliers of clarified butter milk and oil

One of the most detailed accounts that have been preserved of the number of people who were supported by a temple and the wages they received is that given in an inscription on the above- mentioned Thanjawr temple, and dated 1011 A.D.

The list includes cooks, gardeners, dance-masters, garland-makers, musicians, wood-carvers, painters, choir- groups for singing h@ns in Sanskrit and Tamil, accountants, watchmen and a host of other officials and servants of temples, totalling more than six hundred persons

SCULPTURES: STONE AND METAL IMAGES

regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well

regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well

regional spirit asserting itself is seen in sculptural arts as well

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