The Relation of Theoretical and Appl ied Li ngu istics TOPICS IN LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS Series Editors Thomas A. Sebeok and Albert Valdman Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana

THE GRAMMAR OF DISCOURSE Robert E. Longarce

ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL BILINGUAL EDUCATION The Role of the Vernacular Edited by Beverly Hartford, Albert Valdman, and Charles R. Foster

LINGUISTICS AND LITERACY Edited by William Frawley

THE RELATION OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS Edited by Olga Miseska Tomic and Roger W. Shuy The Relation of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics

Edited by OLGA MISESKA TOMle University of Skopje Skopje, Yugoslavia

and ROGER W. SHUY Georgetown University Washington, D.C.

Plenum Press • New York and London Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The Relation of theoretical and applied linguistics. "The papers in this volume originated at ... the 7th Congress of Applied Linguistics held in Brussels in August 1984"-Pref. Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Linguistics. 2. Applied linguistics. I. Tomic, Olga Mi~eska. II. Shuy, Roger W. III. International Congress of Applied Linguistics (7th: 1984: Brussels, Belgium) P33.R45 1987 410 87-16198 ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9069-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-1923-8 DOT: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1923-8

© 1987 Plenum Press, New York Softcove.· reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Contributors

Ranko Bugarski, Department of English, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Yugoslavia

Dumitru Chitoran, Department of English, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alan Davies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland

Stig Eliasson, Department of Linguistics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

Bruce Fraser, Department of English, School of Education, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

Gilles Gagne, Faculte des Sciences de I'Education, Universite de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Wolfgang Kiihlwein, Department of Linguistics, University of Trier, Trier, Federal Republic of Germany

Roger W. Shuy, Linguistics Department, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

Olga Miseska Tomic, Department of English, University of Skopje, YU 91000 Skopje, Yugoslavia

v Preface

The relationship of theoretical and applied linguistics has lately prompted numer• ous debates. This volume originated at one of them. The essence of most of the chapters, of all of them except Fraser's and Davies's, was actually presented at the Round Table on "The Relationships of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics," organized during the 7th World Congress of Applied Linguistics, held in Brus• sels, in August 1984. Individually and collectively the chapters assembled here offer support to the idea that applied linguistics should not be juxtaposed to theoretical linguistics; it is a field of research with theoretical as well as applied aspects. Written by different authors from a wide variety of different countries, the chapters may at times express views that are not totally consistent. Nevertheless, we believe that the variability of viewpoints counts among the merits (rather than the defaults) of this internationally written and edited volume. It is our hope that it will prove stimulating to linguists and practitioners in related fields and instructive to students. We wish to express our thanks to Albert Valdman for the interest he has shown in the volume and to record our appreciation to our editors, in particular Eliot Werner and Declan Scully, for their tolerance and patience.

OLGA MISESKA TOMIC ROGER W. SHUY

vii Contents

Introduction ...... xv Olga Miseska Tomic and Roger W. Shuy

PART I The Place of Applied Linguistics in the Science of Language

Chapter 1 Applied linguistics as linguistics Applied 3 Ranko Bugarski Applied Linguistics or Applicable Linguistics? ...... 3 The Scope of Linguistics ...... 4 "Non-Applied" versus "Applied" Linguistics ...... 8 The Meaning of "Linguistics" ...... 9 Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, and Applied Linguistics ...... 11 The Term "Applied Linguistics" ...... 13 Theory in Applied Linguistics ...... 14 Toward an Integrated Applicable Linguistics ...... 16 References ...... I 8

CHAPTER 2 The Interrelations between Theoretical and Applied linguistics 21 Stig Eliasson Preamble ...... 2 I Basic Dimensions in the Classification of Scientific Subdisciplines 22

ix x CONTENTS

Limitations of Scope of Current Linguistic Theory ...... 27 Implications for Applied Linguistics of Lacunae in Contemporary Linguistic Theory ...... 28 Applied Linguistics as a Generator of Non-Applied Insight ...... 29 An Avenue toward a Sharper Delimitation of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics ...... 30 An Illustration of the Division from Contrastive Analysis ...... 32 The Essence of Application ...... 34 Concepts Related to Application ...... 36 Application versus Conceptual Borrowing ...... 37 Application versus Applicability ...... 37 Application versus Practice or Use ...... 37 The Position of Applied Linguistics within Linguistics as a Whole...... 39 The Boundary between Pure and Applied Linguistics ...... 42 The Branching and the Matrix Model of the Organization of Linguistics ...... 43 Disciplinary Autonomy and Interdisciplinarity ...... 45 Summation ...... 47 References...... 47

CHAPTER 3 The Need for Integration of Applied and Theoretical Linguistics: Research Objects, Research Goals...... 51 Wolfgang Kuhlwein Background and Present State: Linguistics, Science, and the Human Sciences ...... 51 Non Convergent Types of Relationship ...... 54 Paradigmatic Relationship ...... 54 Inclusive Relationship ...... 55 Derivative Relationship ...... 55 Adversary Relationship ...... 56 Goal-Oriented Relationship: A First Step toward Convergency ..... 58 Integral Relationship ...... 60 Substantiation ...... 63 Concluding Remark: Between Scientism and Relativism ...... 72 References ...... 73 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER 4 The Integrity of Applied Linguistics 75 Olga Miseska Tomic The Growth of Applied Linguistics ...... 76 Levels of Application ...... 77 Theory, Description, Application ...... 80 Opposition and Interdependencies ...... 82 A Case in Point ...... 86 Application and Use...... 90 Conclusion ...... 92 References ...... 93

PART II From Application to Theory

CHAPTER 5 Practice into Theory versus Theory into Practice 99 Roger W. Shuy Past Relationships of Theory and Application ...... 99 Abductive Approaches ...... 102 Social Constructivism...... 103 Examples from Applied Linguistics in a Law Court Setting ...... 104 Hierarchical Inferencing ...... 105 The Speech Act of Complaining ...... 108 Conclusion ...... 111 References ...... 112

CHAPTER 6 The Erosion of the Boundaries between Theoretical and Applied Linguistics: Evidence from Speech Act Theory ...... 115 Dumitru Chiloran Preliminaries ...... 115 Speech Act Theory at the Interface of TL and AL ...... 117 xii CONTENTS

The Interaction Between the Cooperation Principle and the Politeness Principle ...... 119 The Social Dimension of Speech Acts as the Object of Microsociolinguistics ...... 122 Individual Communicative Competence as the Object of Psycholinguistics ...... 129 On Language Structure and Language Use...... 130 Conclusions...... 137 References...... 138

CHAPTER 7 Linguistics and Mother Tongue Education 139 Gilles Gagne The Influence of Traditional Linguistics on MTE ...... 140 Linguistics Applied to MTE ...... 140 Theoretical Works ...... 141 Classroom Applications ...... 141 Causes of the Set-Back of Applied Linguistics ...... 144 The Paradigm Shift in the Study of Language ...... 146 Renewal of MTE ...... 146 Diversity of Applications ...... 147 The Pendulum Syndrome...... 147 MTE: A Distinct Field of Study ...... 149 The "Application" Perspective...... 149 The "Utilization" Perspective ...... 150 MTE as a Field Study ...... lSI References ...... 154

CHAPTER 8 How Language Planning Theory Can Assist First-Language Teaching...... 157 Alan Davies Language Planning Theory ...... 158 Nationalism and Nationism ...... 158 Language Planning in Applied Linguistics ...... 159 The Status of L 1 Language Teaching ...... 159 The Stages of Standardization ...... 162 Selection ...... 162 Codification ...... 163 CONTENTS xiii

Elaboration 163 Acceptance ...... 164 What are the L I Problems? ...... 164 Four Disputable Areas ...... 165 Literature ...... 166 Creativity ...... 166 Critical Discrimination ...... 166 Classroom Language ...... 167 The Language Planner's Approach to These Dispute Areas ...... 167 Creativity Revisited ...... 168 Critical Discrimination Revisited ...... 168 Classroom Talk ...... 168 Results of Two Language Planners Views of These Disputes ...... 169 The Proper Concerns of First-Language Teaching ...... 172 References ...... 174

CHAPTER 9 Disputing: The Challenge of Adversative Discourse to the Cooperative Principle...... 177 Bruce Fraser The Inadequacy of the Cooperative Principle for Dispute Resolution 177 Sources of Miscommunication ...... 179 The Context of Adversative Discourse ...... 180 The Phases of Negotiation ...... 181 Approach to Negotiation ...... 183 Linguistic Aspects of Negotiation ...... 184 Conclusion ...... 186 References ...... 187

Index...... 189 Introduction

Until the end of the last century the theoretical and applied aspects of language study were closely interwoven. The ultimate target of linguistics was correct speech and writing, and theoretical considerations were geared toward it. Struc• turallinguists, however, made language description an end in itself; generative grammarians, in their turn, expressed specific interest in philosophical and sci• entific issues and distanced theoretical research from all practical concerns. During the forties, in order to take care of the practical aspects of language study, a new linguistic discipline-applied linguistics-was introduced. For some time it catered only to the application of the results of language study in foreign• language teaching and all the related tasks, such as course planning and the preparation of teaching materials. With the advent of generativism, however, the scope of applied linguistics widened. In an endeavor to secure for linguistics membership in the distinguished society of exact sciences, generative gram• marians devoted their energies to the study of the linguistic competence of the ideal language user and relegated to applied linguistics all issues suspected of being theoretically "impure." As a consequence, the scope of applied linguistics widened, growing into a complex of activities largely concerned with language aquisition and language use. Nevertheless, linguists could not forever restrict their interest to idealized language. Linguistic theory has to reflect linguistic reality and, consequently, requires reliance on studies of the psyche and the society, interlanguage com• parison, analyses of speaker and hearer errors and of variations in speech. In spite of itself, theoretical linguistics has had to make use of data produced through research which, in fits of theoretical purism, it had abandoned and left to be dealt with by applied linguistics. This has made it clear that the complex of activities that goes under the name of applied linguistics is not an antipode to studies concerned with language theory and has prompted debates on the rela• tionship of theoretical and applied linguistics. The ultimate goal of these debates being to define and delimit the scope of applied linguistics, it is not surprising that they have become a remarkable feature of many professional gatherings

xv xvi INTRODUCTION devoted to applied linguistics topics, such as the 7th World Congress of Applied Linguistics, where the papers in this volume originated. The authors of these papers attempt to come to grips with the phenomenon called "applied linguistics." Is it a part of general linguistics? Is it a separate entity entirely? Is it something totally different? When scholars "apply" lin• guistics are they doing linguistics at all? Can applied linguistics work actually develop or contribute to linguistic theory? Is there a difference between theory, description and application? The book is actually framed in two parts. The first four papers are essen• tially definitional, attempting to locate applied linguistics in its appropriate niche among currently recognizable subdivisions of the field. The remaining five papers show how current areas of linguistic work, when grounded in real-life problems and settings, rather than in abstract principles or theories, can lead to better insights about both theory and application. Ranko Bugarski, in his paper "Applied Linguistics as Linguistics Applied," pleading for an integrated applicable linguistics, points out that the status of applied linguistics should be examined on two levels; the pragmatic and the theoretical. While pragmatically applied linguistics constitutes a complex of socially relevant activities, widely recognized through national and international associations and congresses, projects and publications, theoretically its scope and content are open to dispute. The term applied linguistics arose as a historical accident but has acquired currency and will continue to be used, although, as Bugaski points out, it would make more sense to talk about various external applications instead. Assessing the situation in an introspective and perspective light, he suggests that applied linguistics should be visualized as linguistics which is applied or applicable. This by no means should imply that applied linguistics is a set of practical procedures or techniques. By any reasonable interpretation, this is a scholarly endeavor based on theories of its own. What then, of psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics? Do they belong to applied linguistics or are they sufficiently self-contained to split into theoretical and applied parts? While recognizing that these two disciplines do show some degree of oscillation between the status of branches of linguistics and autonomous interdisciplinary studies, Bugarski cautions that actual autonomy of the independence-seeking type would at present be premature and harmful both to themselves and to linguistics in general. Likewise, though the already extensive institutional infrastructure of applied linguistics benefits from the implication that this field has an identity distinct from that of linguistics, it is quite clear that applied linguistics must, above all, be good linguistics in terms of intellectual content. Stig Eliasson in his paper "The Integration between Theoretical and Applied INTRODUCTION xvii

Linguistics" approaches the task of defining linguistics through a dichotomy between modes of inquiry involving a distinction between theory, description, history and application on the one hand, and facets of subject matter, referring to different properties or qualities of the subject itself, on the other. Taken together, facets of subject matter and modes of inquiry allow for a classification of research into various subdisciplines. In defining these subdisciplines, facets or subject matter often serve as the most basic criterion, leaving vast areas of research referred to as psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and neurolinguistics. But mode of inquiry can also become the primary basis of division, and then we may begin to talk about (theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics as special branches of linguistic inquiry. For reasons having to do with disciplinary history and the logic of scientific evolution, contemporary linguistic theory is first and foremost a theory of syn• chronic linguistic structure; however, systems of theoretical knowledge emerging from applied linguistic work can be and are being classified as branches of theoretical linguistics. Thus, alongside theortical linguistic structure, psycho• linguistic, sociolinguistic and contrastive linguistic principles have been arising and the scope of linguistics is gradually expanding over its entire proper domain, with the ultimate, though presently elusive goal of the construction of a unified science of language. Not only within applied linguistics, but also within linguistics in general, a constant interplay occurs. Consequently, the notions of theory and application can be taken essentially at face value and the problem of distinguishing between theory and application becomes not merely a problem within applied linguistics, but a problem within the entire unified science of language. In his contribution entitled "The Need for Integration of Applied and Theoretical Linguistics: Research Objects, Research Goals" Wolfgang Kiihlwein views (theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics as an integral whole engaged in giving scientific explanation of language related phenomena of human inter• action and providing problem-solving strategies and cues, thereby reflecting the ever-changing outlooks of social philosophies and the equally changing means, media, conceptual and methodological tools for dealing with individual phe• nomena. The opposition of theoretical linguistics to applied linguistics has, according to Kiihlwein, come as a result of the desire to follow relationships in natural sciences. Research into language cannot, however, be carried out by complete analogy to research in the domains of natural science. Because of the highly complex nature of language as system, knowledge, behaviour and art, its study is simultaneously part of (natural) science, social sciences and the humanities. To counterbalance the objections that much of the work done under the title linguistic offered a reduced view of language, twenty years ago Association xviii INTRODUCTION

International Linguistique Applique (AILA) was fonned-primarily by"linguists'.' The fact that linguists were central to AILA led to a paradox: applied linguistics sought to concern itself with practice, but in which to do so all too often turned out to be far too theoretical for many practitioners. The recent history of language study illustrates that linguistics and applied linguistics are finally converging: what has within these twenty years come to be called applied linguistics is actually linguistics in its entirety of research fields and research goals. Rather than distinguishing between linguistics and applied linguistics, some suggest that we should differentiate between linguistics and theoretical linguistics. Hence the modifier theoretical refers not only to theories describing language as a system but also to theories depicting language-related human interaction for purposes of finding problem-solving strategies and cues. Thus, science becomes a vehicle forapplication and scientific reasoning is no'ionger alienated from but is rather an integral part of the human world. Olga Miseska Tomic believes that the scope of linguistics should extend over its entire proper domain and thus encompass the activities of applied lin• guistics; nevertheless, she maintains that we should not break with tradition and forsake altogether applied linguistics, such as we have it today. In her paper entitled "The Integrity of Applied Linguistics" Tomic like Eliasson and Kiihl• wein, charts the growth of applied linguistics from a discipline referring to linguistic application in foreign language pedagogy to a complex of activities without clearly delimitable scope, which includes all intellectual undertakings engaged in the solution of language problems other than those referring to theory and description of language structure. The linguistic disciplines which make up this complex vary in many respects; yet, the complex as a whole has integrity being concerned as it is with problems arising in the language of a specific individual in a specific society. Therefore it is in definite contrast with "pure" or abstract linguistics, which deals with the language of idealized language users. The applied linguistic disciplines have developed or are developing their own theories and thus have a theoretical and a descriptive aspect, as has abstract linguistics. In addition, they are closely involved in designing solutions for real world problems. Thus, while within abstract linguistics we can speak of theory and description, in the applied linguistics complex we distinguish between theory, description and application. Roger Shuy's paper, "Practice into Theory versus Theory into Practice" begins with the existence of the dichotomies described by the earlier papers in this volume and addresses the question: "How does applied linguistics lead to theoretical developments?" Shuy takes his examples from his recent experiences with using linguistic knowledge to analyze tape recorded evidence in criminal law cases and shows that if analysts were to follow only the available deductive or inductive research paradigms, they would miss the important insights provided INTRODUCTION xix by an abductive, or, experience to theory, approach. For example, although much has been said about the role of inferencing in conversation, the concept of hierarchical steps in the inferencing process has not been clarified by theorists, largely because they have not worked with real-life, human inferencing problems. In his second example Shuy points out how the felicity conditions for the speech act of complaining were also derived from the actual writing of sixth grade children and how such analysis can lead to a better understanding of language learning. Dumitru Chiloran starts his paper entitled "The Erosion of the Boundaries between Theoretical and Applied Linguistics: Evidence from Speech Act Theory" by pointing out that no conceptually clear cut-off line between theoretical lin• guistics and applied linguistics can be drawn. On one hand, any applied linguistic study needs a linguistic theory as a basis, as a conceptual framework. On the other hand, developments in the field of language study over the last fifteen years have shown in an increasingly convincing manner that theoretical linguistics is applied linguistics in the sense that it must necessarily share the functional concerns and empirical methodology of applied linguistics. In the greater portion of his paper, Chitoran shows how any account of speech acts necessarily forces theoretical linguistics to merge with applied lin• guistics. He concludes by stating that the difference between theoretical and applied linguistics is a matter of degree rather than kind, and can be determined within particular re~earch contexts by taking into account the objectives, struc• tures and methodology of research and relation to other sciences. The activities involved in both theoretical and applied linguistics make up a scientific enterprise which sets out to describe language per se, and is distinct from studies of language of the "instrumental type," which merely uses the results obtained in linguistics for the solution of practical problems. Gilles Gagne, in his paper "Linguistics and Mother Tongue Education" continues the themes of how applied linguistics can lead to theoretical insights. Because of the vast complications involved in the learning and teaching of one's native language, Gagne sees the phenomenon not as one of mere applied lin• guistics, but as an entirely different field of study, composed of both teaching or learning aspects (pedagogy, educational technology, curiculum, psychology, etc.) and language components (theoretical linguistics, psycholinguistics, socio• linguistics, discourse analysis, etc.). He proposes that instead of treating mother tongue education as an application of linguistics, it be considered the utilization of linguistics, along with a number of other fields of study. Alan Davies addresses a different type of theoretical issue, one that is technically outside of linguistic theory proper, and shows how first language teaching can benefit from it. The focus of his paper "How Language Planning Theory can Assist First-Language Teaching" is broader than that of the other papers in this volume, but its point is essentially similar: the concern of applied xx INTRODUCTION linguistics is not separable from the concern of theory. Davies creates a scenario for language planning in the United Kingdom and walks the reader through the sequential steps and problems in the process. Among these steps are what one may call "the stages of standardization": selection of the variety to be standardized; codification, the language rules; elaboration, making the selected and codified variety available; and acceptance, the extent to which a variety is received. The English teaching profession is largely unin• terested in these issues, much to its own disadvantage. Instead, teachers of English (and teachers of mother tongue, in general) carryon their practice in four areas: literature teaching, creativity, critical discrimination and classroom spoken language. Davies describes how language planning theory could be applied to these four areas of practice. Next, Davies contrasts what English teachers say they do with what an actual survey of classroom practice demonstrates that they do. The differences are dramatic, leading Davies to conclude that the United Kingdom might be better off, from a first-language teaching perspective, if it were considered a bilingual rather than monolingual nation. By ignoring its role as language plan• ners, the English teaching profession in the United Kingdom has expanded far beyond its boundaries and is in danger of making the endeavor meaningless. Finally, Bruce Fraser's paper "Disputing: The Challenge of Adversative Discourse to the Cooperative Principle" offers another example of how working with real-life problems can lead to theoretical developments. By examining how arbitrators, mediators and dispute resolvers actually work, Fraser is able to determine that Grice's concept of the cooperative principle is simply not enough. Not all conversational events, in fact, are cooperative. The analysis of the dispute resolutions which he has observed and in which he has participated, has led Fraser to conclude that a type of communication which he calls adversative discourse has been totally overlooked by theoreticians of language. Once again the framework of real-life problems provides new theoretical insights. The act of doing applied linguistics unveils theory. Fraser outlines the major types of language miscommunication involved in disputes and demonstrates how an analysis of different approaches to nego• tiation as an adversative interaction can pave the ways to the resolution of problems which state-of-the-art knowledge of spech acts cannot handle. Also crucial to the negotiation process are the more familiar linguistic categories of dialect, style, politeness routines and verbal performance. Linguistics is at the core of all this because dispute resolution is, indeed, a language event. Overall, the papers in this volume lead to the indisputable conclusion that linguistics and applied linguistics, once so hopelessly separated, are now moving steadily toward unification. Every field of study needs theory, but not a theory that is removed from usefulness. Likewise, every field of study has significance INTRODUCTION xxi for the world, things it can do to make life more livable. But the separation of theory from application is, in the long run, impractical and perhaps even impos• sible. The ebb and flow of human thought and human communication draws them back together whenever they stray too far apart. Applied linguistics, as Tomic observes, cannot long endure without theory just as theoretical linguistics cannot survive without application. The authors of the papers, not surprisingly, do not always agree on the precise position of role of whatever it is that is called applied linguistics. But neither are they willing to accept a unidirectional flow from theory to application. As Shuy and Fraser both point out, applied issues can and do lead to the devel• opment of theory. The flow goes both directions. The thinking and analysis represented here clearly points to change in how applied linguistics is being regarded. OLGA MISESKA TOMIC ROGER W. SHUY