NEW APPROACHES FOR TEACHING ABOUT THE CONTINENT

IROHIN TAKING AFRICA TO THE CLASSROOM 2017

Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie editor Stephanie Hatchett design and layout TAB LE OF CONTENTS

Center for African Studies Outreach Program 3

Understanding the Size of Africa 4

New Look for Africa on ‘Corrected’ Boston School Maps 5 LISA VIVES

Repainting the Mental Picture of Africa 6 KRISTIE AYERS

Teaching with a Global Perspective 8 MORGAN SKYLER CARLTON

The Importance of Language Education in Africa 12 KIRSTEN FLAMMAND

The History and Attitudes of African-American English in the U.S. 16 SABRINA CASTRO

Pan Africanism: Its Genesis and Evolution 18 RUTHA KARIUKI

Tourism Trends in Sub-Sahara Africa 20 LAURA ASHLEY

African Textiles: Royal Cloth 23 DANESHA ANGLIN

The Cultural Significance of West African Hairstyles 25 MORGAN BONCORE

A New Great Leap: China’s Rise in Africa 27 CHARLENE XU

Child Soldiers and How to Intengrate them Back into Society 30 KAYLEA BOLLINGER

Works Cited 32 CAS OUTREACH PROGRAM

The Center for African Studies (CAS) is partially funded under Title VI of the Federal Higher Education Act as a Na- tional Resource Center on Africa. One of only 9 in the U.S., Florida’s is the only Center located in the southeastern United States. The Center directs, develops, and coordinates interdisciplinary instruction, research, and outreach on Africa. The Outreach Program includes a variety of activities whose objective is to improve the teaching of Africa in primary and secondary schools, colleges, universities and local communities. The following are some of the regular activities which fall under the Outreach Program:

Jambo! Community & School Presentations Each summer the Center holds a high school language Faculty and graduate students make presentations on Africa program to introduce the students to an African language. to local communities and schools.

Publications Teachers’ Workshops The Center publishes and distributes teaching resources The Center offers in-service workshops for K-12 teachers including Irohin, a publication for K-12 teachers. about instruction on Africa throughout the school year.

Summer Institutes Summer Institutes Each summer, the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida hosts a K-12 Teachers Institute. The objective of the institute is to help teachers increase their knowledge about Africa and develop lesson plans to use in their classrooms. The creative lesson plans and articles in this issue of Irohin were written by participants in the 2016 institute. Please feel free to use these materials in your teaching and share them with other teachers. Write or call the Center for African Studies for additional copies or download this issue, as well as previous ones, in PDF format at http://www.africa.ufl.edu/outreach. The Summer Institute is free to teachers. To apply for next year, see the application on the back page.

These articles were written by the K-12 teachers in the picture who participated in the 2016 Summer Institute: (L-R back row) Fezile Mtsetfwa (Graduate assistant), Rutha Kariuki, Kaylea Bollinger, Danesha Anglin, Sabrina Castro, Laura Ashley, Morgan Boncore, Dr. Agnes Leslie (Institute director), (L-R front row) Dr. Rose Lugano (Presenter), Morgan Carlton, Kristie Ayers, Charlene Xu and Kirsten Flammand.

IROHIN | 3 UNDERSTANDING THE SIZE OF AFRICA Africa is more than three times the size of the contiguous United States; there are more than 500 extant languages spoken across more than 50 countries; and the landscape spans from desert to rainforest. Languages, cultures, scenery and even the hemispheres change as you traverse Africa. This map may help us understand the true size of Africa and it's diversity.

IROHIN | 4 NEW LOOK FOR AFRICA ON ‘CORRECTED’ BOSTON SCHOOL MAPS LISA VIVES

Mar. 20, 2017 (GIN) - In an age of “fake news” and “alternative facts”, authorities in the city of Boston believe their new school map offers something closer to the geographical truth than that of traditional maps, and hope it can serve an example to schools across the nation and even the world. The school district will drop the Mercator projection, which physically diminished Africa and South America, for the Peters, which cuts the devel- oped world down to size. The Gall-Peters projection shows land masses in their correct propor- tions by area, putting the relative sizes of Africa and North America in per- The Sallie-Peter projection shows correct proportions putting the right size of Africa. spective. When Boston public schools introduced a new standard map of the smaller. Alaska looks bigger than also amazingly interesting to see them world this week, some young students Mexico and Germany is in the middle questioning what they thought they felt their world had changed. of the picture, not to the north. knew.” The USA was small. Europe The switch to the Gall-Peters too had suddenly shrunk. Africa and Projection sees Boston's public schools South America appeared narrower follow the lead of the United Nations, but also much larger than usual. And which has advocated the map as a what had happened to Alaska? more 'fair', less Eurocentric represen- For almost 500 years, the Mer- tation of the world, as have several aid cator projection – designed to aid navi- agencies. gation along colonial trade routes - has Teachers in the 2nd, 7th and been the norm for maps of the world. 11th grades have already received In the Mercator system, North their new maps, and say the reaction America and Europe appear big- from their students has been fasci- ger than South America and Africa. nating. “It’s “interesting to watch the Western Europe is in the middle of his students saying ‘Wow’ and ‘No, really? map. Look at Africa, it’s bigger’”, Natacha South America is made to look Scott, director of history and social about the same size as Europe, when studies at Boston public schools, told The Mercator projection, the map most commonly in fact it is almost twice as large, and The Guardian. seen hanging in classrooms and in textbooks, gives Greenland looks roughly the size of Af- “Some of their reactions were the right shapes of land masses, but at the cost of rica when it is actually about 14 times quite funny,” she added, “but it was distorting their sizes in favor of the lands to the north. IROHIN | 5 REPAINTING THE MENTAL PICTURE OF AFRICA KRISTIE AYERS

being spoken as well. The climate in Luanda is mild with a low humidity, despite its coastal beauty. The coldest time of year is in July, and the mildest is January. According to an article written in 2015, The African Economist ranked Luanda as the wealthiest city in Africa. Tourist activities are typical to other coastal areas, but Luanda also houses numerous museums, night clubs, high end restaurants, and an impressive shopping opportunities. Getting around will be simple as the government has been purposeful in making travel to and around Luanda user friendly. There is a six lane highway, complex rail system that goes all through the capital and beyond, and a large international Luanda, Angola is ranked as one of the wealthiest cities in Africa. Photo By David Stanely airport to make getting to the city easy. Visitors may be surprised at the Introduction amount of salsa style music that fills If I told a group of people to close perspective as part of our daily the air and the obvious influence of their eyes and paint a visual picture language. The rural images referred to Brazil on this African country. Smiling of Africa, I am sure that the universal above may still exist in some parts of is considered a must to be a polite theme would include elephants, African countries, however there are traveler in Luanda, it is a non-verbal zebras, huts, village people playing also numerous urban hubs decorating sign of respect. drums and similar images that are this rich and diverse continent. Leg two of our African Urban ingrained in our psyche. Part of this Today’s students are exposed to a Journey will take us to Lagos, Nigeria, image still existing today is due to how much broader global society than their which is a coastal city in Western African countries are portrayed in the predecessors, and we owe it to them Africa. Stylish travelers will make it media. If one Google searches “African to guide thinking beyond stereotypical a point to head over during one of Vacation” the results boast various Africa. How do we do that?. Let’s look the world’s biggest fashion events: safaris and “rugged getaways”. If I told briefly at two of the booming spots on Nigerian Fashion Week. Big style is people to imagine I was on a vacation this dynamic continent. important is this big African city, so with urban cities that hug lovely fashionistas will want to hit the local oceans with majestic mountains in the Urban Snapshot mega mall as well. background, then asked where they The first stop on our trip will be Tourists won’t have much trouble thought I was, Africa would probably to southern Luanda, Angola, which is interacting with locals as English is not be the first answer. located in Central Africa. The residuals the primary language spoken. While In 21st century classroom of colonialism are still in effect here as the climate is mild and typically enjoys we are challenged, more than ever, the dominant language is Portuguese, temperatures in the 70s, be aware that to incorporate a multicultural with Bantu and other local dialects

IROHIN | 6 then create a museum walk to teach the rest of the students about their countries. 3. Have students create a travel brochure that focuses on a metropolitan African city. Make sure to have them check out the official U.S. Government website for passport information, country regulations, immunization requirements, and travel warnings.

High School Level 1. Have students research what the life of teenagers is like in urban African areas. They should focus on technology used, cellular phones, dating, school, family roles and any other areas of personal interest. An open air market in Accra, Ghana. Photo by Jennifer Boylan 2. Students can research African innovators within an area that they the rainy season does go from May are three ways per school level to are personally interested. The students through October. incorporate Urban Africa into your can make an iMovie presentation While in Lagos, there is classroom. about their famous person. something for everyone to do. There 3. Have students create a game are several renowned art museums, Elementary Level that teaches their peers uncommon including the Nike Art Museum. 1. Hang up a world map and facts about Africa. This would be a History lovers will enjoy touring some periodically talk about the continents fantastic ongoing project through the stunning houses of worship, Christian and countries. Make sure to include year to fill in those odd gaps of time. and Muslim, historical museums and a star to show younger friends where When everyone is finished they get a several national monuments. Prefer they live in relation to the rest of the fun class game day! the great outdoors? No problem at all! world. Talk about how places today

Naturalist visiting Nigeria have options are similar instead of focusing on Conclusion that span from snorkeling and fishing differences. While my commentary on the at Tarkwa Bay Beach to hiking and 2. When you read a book about diversity Africa has been brief, the riding cable cars through the majestic Africa, if it focusses on more of hope is that a door has been opened Obudu Mountains. traditional life and practices, take a that the reader is curious to walk Pause for a moment, if you will. few minutes to show pictures of what through. The world is ever changing Think about how Africa is presented life is like in that area today. and professional educators should be by the media. When is the last time 3. Make a virtual field trip that on the forefront of that change. Part you heard a positive story about the highlights more modern elements of of helping our students navigate the second largest continent? Did you Africa. Make sure to include current rough waters of life means that we know that Africa has some of the music trends (don’t go to the easy become more proactive in broadening wealthiest countries in the world? Did drum music), high fashion, and show their view of the world. Maybe the dream vacations we highlighted modern living. choosing one of the above activities fit the stereotype of starving children can help your class take a baby step to and wild safaris? Now, let’s think Middle Grades focusing on African ‘big city” life and about ways professional educators can 1. Strategies may be as simple help repaint some mental pictures to combat the norm. as using bell ringers/ warm ups to include more current realities. highlight Africans who are innovators

Classroom Application in the world of technology, such as In our classrooms, we have Bozoma Saint John. a unique opportunity to shine a 2. Have students randomly modern light on Africa; this can be choose 2 African countries to compare accomplished in a variety of ways. and contrast. As part of their project Some may prove simple while others they can research what life was like in are considerably more in depth. Here 1916 versus 2016. The classes could

IROHIN | 7 TEACHING WITH A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE: A NEW APPROACH TO TEACHING MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION MORGAN SKYLER CARLTON

Literature is one way of bringing about multiculturalism in the classroom.

Until recently, if you asked me In the summer of 2016, I a warped view of this large portion about the culture of Africa I would had the incredible opportunity of of our Earth? Furthermore, if my have told you that it was a hot participating in an African Institute at education of an entire continent can savanna full of elephants, lions, zebra, the University of Florida. Through this be so drastically altered in a handful of and antelope. I would have told you program, I was exposed to the diversity days, what other cultures have I been that the people are dark skinned and and depth of African culture. I learned wrongfully stereotyping? of a tribal nature living in huts and about the language, geography, As an educator, I began to worry off of the land. Unfortunately, a good literature, politics, arts, music, dance, about the way I’ve been looking at and percentage of the American population religion and more. The education I presenting cultures to my students. shares a similar view of the continent received had a dynamic effect on not Have I immersed myself enough in of Africa, which by the way is not a only on my knowledge of the continent these cultures to be able to teach country, as most consider it. Africa is of Africa, but it has completely with the depth and diversity that actually the second largest continent transformed my viewpoint of this the cultures of the world deserve? in the world and the most diverse, amazingly diverse place. It makes Ultimately, am I giving my students yet it is also the most generally me reflect. After 19 years of public a single stereotypical viewpoint of stereotyped. education and obtaining a Masters individual cultures or am I truly degree, how have I developed such teaching them a global perspective?

IROHIN | 8 considered the land of immigrants because they are already naturally Current Multicultural Education in and cultural diversity, and our making connections between their Schools nation’s ever changing demographics cultural backgrounds and what Multicultural education is an attests to this. Yearly, our nation you are teaching. However, the real important aspect of student education. and schools become more racially challenge we pose to educators is It begins to teach the perspectives and linguistically different.” (Ford, how to teach students with limited of all students within the group, 2014) Students of today do not fall diversity in their cultural background and provide social empowerment into easily identifiable categories that or current community how to have a to students from diverse cultures. can be taught as separate entities. global perspective. Luckily, the global “All students should be encouraged The United States has always been approach to multicultural education to affirm themselves as unique considered a ‘melting pot’ of cultures does not rely on the diversity of the individuals and they should accept and today it is true now more than group you are teaching. The question and respect the differences shaping ever. Individuals identify with multiple is, what does this look like in practice individual identities of other cultures, multiple races, and speak within a current classroom? students.” (Koppleman, 2011) It was multiple languages. Asking your Thankfully, we don’t need also developed as a way to educate students “...simple questions such to completely rewrite our current students about unfamiliar cultures to as 'Where are you from?' or 'What is curriculum and infuse new specifically create more accepting and culturally your nationality?' can be very difficult cultural lesson plans to be teaching tolerant individuals. “Tolerance is the questions to answer in certain schools. with a global perspective. We simply virtue that teaches us to live with the Such students may have parents need to be aware of the format in different. It teaches us to learn from of different nationalities, cultures, which we present information to our and respect the different” (Freire, languages and even belonging to students. We need to start analyzing 1998) Multicultural education even different religions. It is also difficult to the content we are teaching with an goes beyond tolerance by teaching say which their real 'home country' is.” alternative mindset. Through asking about the need for mutual respect (Salgur, 2015) In order to be culturally ourselves different questions in lesson between people belonging to diverse sensitive to our students, we need planning, we can use the current groups (Koppleman, 2011). to develop a new outlook on how we curriculum and make meaningful While the initial ideas behind approach multicultural education. connections that provide cultural the concept of multicultural education uggggggggggggggggggggggggggggg awareness and a global perspective to remain the same, often, the means New Global Approach to our students. by which these ideals are expressed Multicultural Education When developing lesson plans in current education do not promote Educators need to transition we are prompted to answer questions the inclusion of multiple cultures, from teaching cultural facts to such as: What is my objective? but rather single each culture out cultural awareness through examining How will I differentiate this lesson? and point out the differences. As cultures and identifying not only What are my higher order thinking educators, we tend to show a single the differences, but the similarities. questions? To make ourselves think perspective of a culture - the most In doing so, we can achieve a new globally, we also need to be deliberate well known, which leads to student approach to multicultural education in asking ourselves questions that education riddled with stereotypes. that will benefit the current culture reflect the culture of our topics… While stereotypes do stem from truth, of our diverse student populations. Where did this originate? What they are oversimplified and too narrow We will be able to alter our student’s cultures use this? How can I connect of a viewpoint to properly show a thought process when it comes to this across multiple cultures? How culture in it’s entirety. My previous viewing the cultures of the world can I connect this to my student’s viewpoint of Africa for example, was around them. culture and make it relevant to their such a simplistic view that it is almost Some educators may ask, how do life experiences? offensive and degrading of such an I incorporate multicultural education It’s the language that we use amazingly diverse culture. meaningfully in classrooms with no and the questions that we ask that apparent racial, ethnic, or cultural will transform our classrooms from Why Change our Perspective on diversity? (Derman-Sparks & Ramsey, being multicultural and showing the Teaching Multicultural education? 2005) Even though a classroom or differences between cultures, to having In today’s society, due to the even community may not be culturally a global perspective and showing how changing demographics of the United diverse, it should have no impact on we are all interconnected. States and blending of cultures, we teaching your students with a global can’t simply teach the facts of each perspective. It’s much easier to teach culture and call it multicultural students multicultural education education. “The United States is who can relate to multiple cultures,

IROHIN | 9 For example, when teaching about the African author, Wangari Maathai, we should focus on her specific personal background, culture, life experiences, and context for writing. We cannot generalize to say these are the viewpoints and experiences of all Africans. The language in which we present authors to our students is very important as well. We should not generalize to say this is an ‘African author’, but rather put the individual first by saying for example ‘this is Wangari Maathai from Kenya’. When reading a text with your students, initially have students consider: Where is this text from? What time period was it written in? What was the context that the text was written from? What did this specific author expect to achieve by writing this text? If a student is comparing a text from another culture to their current culture, and it is from a different time period completely, they will have a narrow view of the culture that the text is drawn from. For example, if an author is writing about colonial Africa, you need to make sure that your students are aware of the time period and can accurately connect it to colonial America. If they try to compare the people, attitudes, and actions of colonial Africans to modern day Americans they are going Ensure that you bring a global approach in your class. Photo by Royalty-Free/Corbis to develop a very corrupt impression of What does a Global Approach look from and have a diverse collection the current African culture. like in a classroom? of authors, ranging in cultural Additionally, when teaching I have chosen three specific backgrounds, gender, religious about texts that seemingly come from subject areas to focus on and viewpoints, etc. While this may seem our culture we should dive a little demonstrate how to bring a global obvious in the upper grade levels, deeper into the roots of the text’s perspective into your current teaching it is even more important in early origin. For example, African folktales practices within your classroom. Using childhood education. Students need to laid the foundation for American the diverse continent of Africa as my see that various cultures and genders, nursery rhymes, which would be a example, I will demonstrate how to including their own, are represented great connection to show to your alter your mindset on teaching and through authors. If young children do students. Also, many stories that have ultimately how to change the way not see something presented to them, found their way into American culture, your students think about cultures of then they will not see it as a possibility originated in Africa. Our classic the world. for their own future. story of ‘Chicken Little’ is a prime In analyzing texts, point out example of a story that found it’s way Literature: the origin of the works. Have your to America told by slaves (Holloway, When teaching literature, we students analyze a text based on the 2010). It’s connections such as these should ensure that we are not simply culture and perspective of the author. that make the peculiarity of Africa teaching authors that originate from However, we need to be careful not to begin to disappear and our students our country. We need to diversify generalize authors into categories or start to realize the similarities among the cultures that we pull our texts stereotypes of their country or culture. themselves and those children of other

IROHIN | 10 cultures. should explore specific cultures and week and rotate around the world analyze them deeper to see how they daily. Whichever way you choose to Geography: all relate. Specifically looking at Africa, incorporate worldly music into your Geography seems like an easy each student in a class could have classroom, it will be an experience topic in which to bring in cultures their own country to study and share that can reach all students in an aural and teach diversity. However, today with the class. Alternatively, each learning style of a global perspective. we are still teaching misconceptions student could study a specific culture about the geography of our Earth. within a country and find connections Conclusion Until last summer I was not aware of or differences between them. Multicultural education is the actual enormous mass of Africa. growing as important factor in My ignorance stemmed from viewing Music: education today. It is up to us as the most common map representation Music is not a topic typically educators to choose how we will of our Earth, the Mercator projection. taught in a general education incorporate it. Will we show the facts While this map representation is classroom. Yet, by incorporating and diversities between cultures, or the one primarily seen in schools, simple practices you can expose your take a global perspective? I believe we it only shows the correct shapes of students to a broader view of music should view multicultural education land masses, at the cost of distorting around the world. In my classroom, I as a puzzle. Rather than teaching each their true sizes. For instance, North often have background music playing individual puzzle piece of culture, we America looks larger than Africa, but during our morning work time (before should focus on the complete picture in reality Africa is three times bigger the bell), or during quiet independent and how the parts fit together to than North America. Theoretically, work time. I usually play some make a whole of the human race. We you can fit North America into form of classical music or modern need to remember, and remind future Africa and still have space for India, instrumental songs; through altering generations, that people are people. Argentina, Tunisia and have some what I play on a daily basis it is an We all originated from a single point left over (Zolfagharifard, 2014). I was easy change to open my students of origin, in Africa, and we all have astonished to realize I didn’t even up to a more global perspective. similarities among us. know the true comparative size of Hearing sounds and music that may the continents. As educators, we be peculiar and allowing my students can make sure that our students are to become familiar and comfortable aware of the distortion that occurs with them will consequently make my when cartographers attempt to students more globally exposed. portray a spherical world on a flat It is important to be deliberate in map. We can introduce them to the choosing the specific cultural music Gall-Peters projection, which provides that you play in your classroom. the correct proportion of land mass Originally, I thought that African to the continents (even though the music was all about drumming. Alas, image becomes slightly stretched now that I have been exposed to a near the poles and equator). Through variety of music from Africa I have showing students the accurate come to realize there is an extreme sizes of countries they may be able diversity in the genres of music from to develop a better understanding this continent. It ranges from hip of the population, land space, and hop, to gospel, to reggae, to modern culture that resides there. Personally, lyrical, and then to traditional music knowing that Africa is of such an with drums. In choosing the global enormous mass, leads me to a better music we play, once again, we need understanding of how it can hold to be careful to not fall into the trap so many diverse cultures within: of stereotypes. Nevertheless, if you 55 countries, over 2,000 different deliberately choose the music you languages and 3,000 distinct ethnic play to show a depth of our worldly groups (“Beautiful and Diverse”, 2001). cultures there are multiple ways to Through teaching Geography, share this with your students. You we can have students spend more time could ‘travel’ to a different region of comparing and contrasting different the earth each month and explore cultures. Rather than grouping the different types of music there. Or, countries together into regions and you could show a different song from making generalizations, students a different continent each day of the

IROHIN | 11 THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE EDUCATION: MULTILINGUALISM IS THE WORLD’S NORM KIRSTEN FLAMMAND

Kanga material worn in East Africa is a great way to learn the Swahili language. They have proverbs printed on the cloth such as: “Akili ni Nywele Kila Mtu Ana Zake” (Wisdom is like hair, everyone has his/her own. Celebrate your diversity/uniqueness/singularity/individualism). Photo by http://www.designindaba.com/articles/ creative-work/swahili-proverbs-21st-century

“Elimu ni mali ambayo adui hawezi African language education, it be- Ibrahim of the British Council who kuiteka” came immediately obvious to me that observes that monolingualism is not Swahili Proverb: Education is a pos- much of the recent research focuses the norm in the world. He writes that session that no enemy can capture. on the negative: where African educa- “over 50 percent of the world’s popula- tion is failing. This article focuses on tion function in two or more languages The modern African world is not why language education in Africa is on a daily basis.” In other words, just a haphazard collection of impov- so important, some of Africa’s historic multilingualism is actually the world’s erished “failed states.” It is an enor- strengths and challenges, and the norm. Wow! I have been working for mous amazing continent, rich in many policies that some countries (especially many years in the American public cultures and traditions, and whose South Africa) are creating in order to high school system where the norm is people speak over 2,000 beautiful lan- ensure better futures for their chil- “It is just too difficult to teach stu- guages. This diverse human tapestry dren. dents a second language, so we should spans many thousands of years. And The fact that struck me the most stop pushing it.” Is it possible that yet, as I began my study on current during my research was from Nayr American education could learn some-

IROHIN | 12 thing from the millions of multilingual ing the problems arising from group "Mtu hauzi kabila yaki." people in Africa? domination seems especially crucial in Swahili Proverb: Be faithful to your Let’s first look at why language is Africa, given its reality of so many lan- people. important. Language is never simply guages and its history of almost total a neutral instrument to convey simple European colonial control. In Swazi- Tony Calderbank, who serves meaning, but, according to Prof. Kitula land, for example, the governmental as Director of the British Council in King’ei of Kenyatta University, it is awareness of the problem of language South Sudan, describes the follow- far more complex. Language is an domination is a factor that has led it ing problem as common throughout organic, incredibly complex culturally toward a language education policy of Africa. He writes that a young child is subjective system reflecting peoples’ total English immersion from the earli- generally taught in his home language worldview. He explains how language est grades. until age 10 or 11. Around that time, symbolizes not only simple messages, Indeed, according to Sociology’s his school lessons switch completely but the common beliefs and psycho- Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic to English (or one of the other colonial logical make-up of its community. So- relativity, our entire idea of reality languages), at which point the child ciologists and historians know that no depends largely upon our language. naturally gets more confused and frus- meaningful change can occur without Our ability to see and comprehend trated. When he begins to fall behind the full participation of the masses. our world is completely limited by our in his studies, he starts to assume Thus, the importance of speaking to ability to use language. Language is that he is just not very smart. He people in their own languages, and necessary, first, to form our thoughts, also assumes that his home language the ability for them to communicate both the mundane and the transcen- is lesser and inferior, and therefore clearly with each other, cannot be dent, and then, to precisely commu- begins to label his own home culture over-emphasized. nicate our thoughts with others. This as lesser and inferior. This story of Not only is language essential theory clearly explains the “intertwin- “linguistic confusion,” according to for the future of Africa, but it is clear ing” effect of language on all parts of Calderbank, “is played out across Sub- that language, especially the oral culture as claimed by Dr. Jordan. For Saharan Africa every day” and is often tradition, was incredibly important in example, it is commonly told that early considered a root cause of African Africa’s past. Most ethnic groups trea- Christian missionaries to Africa were children not achieving their academic sured a tradition of public debate—a dismayed because the Africans had no potential. Some have called this political format of sorts—on group word to express the idea of a single, psychological problem “colonizing the issues, where the expectation was, all-powerful God. It is easy to see how mind,” and they assert that every time not necessarily to vote, but to reach the inability to translate just this one an African child uses English instead consensus together. Many ancient word could create insurmountable of his own language, he is further African cultures stress the importance communication and philosophical enriching another culture rather than of this tradition. Additionally, Maria challenges between cultures. his own. Calderbank writes that many Ngrosz-Ngate, an anthropologist with Therefore, since language has international groups have studied this African Studies at Indiana University, proven to be so important in every problem, including the African Acade- describes the high-status bards (or human culture, we need to look care- my of Languages (ACALAN), UNESCO, griots) in many African cultures, who fully at issues of teaching and learn- and the British Council. “memorized the royal genealogies, ing language in African schools. The transmitted family traditions, and reality in Africa today includes rural "Akili ni mali." sang the praises of those who stood ethnic groups who communicate pri- Swahili Proverb: Ability is Wealth. out through their actions.” Much marily in their African home language, has been written about the many other plus urban regions who communicate At the same time we must look ethnic groups whose rich oral tradi- primarily in another language. Un- at the positive effects of multilin- tions include poetry, riddles, proverbs, derstandably, we find a constant gual education; today most urban drama and song, in addition to each tension between two opposing truths: Africans are effectively multilingual. group’s legends and folklore. First, for many good reasons, children Indeed, in some areas, such as in the Sociologists have long under- should be taught in schools which use Swahili-speaking region, people often stood that language is intertwined and respect their home languages. become“tri-lingual,” by first learning with all other aspects of culture. This And yet, for many other good reasons, their home language in their fam- includes deepening cultural bonds, as children should be taught the prevail- ily and neighborhood, then learning described above, as well as drawing ing regional languages of economic Swahili (the regional language) in lines of division; language can increase and political power. secondary school, and finally learning the cultural power and dominance of English in college. Neuropsychologists one group over another, according to point out that this vigorous neuro- Dr. Terry G. Jordan of UTA. Study- development in the brain positively

IROHIN | 13 affects multilinguists’ brains and forward-looking constitution, which failing a language class means failing personalities. Writer and educator Mia claims 11 official national languages. an entire grade. This policy impacts Nacamulli reports in her TEDed talk Merely including these traditional every single student in South African “The Benefits of the Bilingual Brain” languages in the actual constitution schools. that one of the brain areas most af- is a huge step forward toward cultural And yet despite this written fected by multilingualism is the dorso- inclusion. Another important policy commitment to multilingualism, the lateral prefrontal cortex, which is document, South Africa’s National reality in the school system does not associated with executive function, or Education Policy Act of 1996, operates yet totally reflect the country’s multi- an increased ability to make decisions, according to these statements: “our lingual nature. Most schools are still to multi-task, to move quickly from cultural diversity is a valuable national taught mainly in English, especially one train of thought to another, and to asset and hence (we are) tasked to pro- after the primary grades, because of make mature judgments. Undoubtedly mote multilingualism, the development various financial, infrastructure, and all these qualities would be extremely of the official languages, and respect teaching resource reasons. Addition- valuable for anyone to thrive and suc- for all languages….The new language ally, many parents who speak African ceed in complex modern Africa. policy is a…necessary…strategy of languages still choose English for their So, which is it? Does the child in building a non-racial nation….to facili- children, seeing it as the path toward multilingual Africa suffer from “lin- tate communication across the barri- economic power, perhaps not realizing guistic confusion,” or does she benefit ers of colour, language and region… that it is also a path that leads away from increased neurological develop- respect for languages other than one’s from their ethnic culture. Another ment and better executive function? own…(accepting) a wide spectrum of… unfortunate reality is that, according The answer, of course, is not simple, locally viable approaches toward mul- to a 2002 survey by the Pan South but many countries are working in tilingual education….” South Africa African Language Board (PanSALB) various ways to try to decide how to appears to be serious about encourag- only 22% of these second language best educate their children to nurture ing multilingualism. English speaking students are able to their brains and their personalities. One recent action is the cur- fully understand political, policy and One country which is making a rent effort made to require even first administrative related speeches and serious research-based attempt to get language speakers of English and statements made in English. In other language education right for its chil- Afrikaans (the two official interna- words, the South African children dren is South Africa. There is a great tional languages) to learn at least one educated in English-speaking schools deal of literature written on the topic of the nine other official native Afri- may be giving up their home language, of South Africa’s language education can languages. This attempt is truly while at the same time, not yet achiev- philosophy, along their successes and progressive, partly because of the ing fluency in English. Fortunately, challenges. South Africa’s “language of known effects of language on cultural there seems to be an intentional effort power,” according to J. Olivier, is Eng- understanding and political unity, and to study the results and provide re- lish, which is associated with political could help South Africa’s next genera- sources to keep working toward better power and prosperity. It is the lan- tion to recover more quickly from the solutions of this incredibly complex guage most often used by politicians, emotional and systemic scars of the challenge. government officials, in the workplace, Apartheid system. For me, the most striking thing in colleges, and by the media. The Great philosophical theories may I learned while researching this topic 2011 official census shows that in a sound noble, but the real challenge is is the fact that “multilingualism is the country of over 50 million people, less finding workable strategies and tac- international norm.” I feel like I have than 10%, or about 5 million speak tics in the actual schools. The South been working in the American high English as their first language, while African Language-in-Education Policy school system under the delusion that there are well over two million who is guided by the following statements: “learning a second language is sim- have chosen English as their second It proclaims the right of each parent ply too difficult for the average high language. The use of English is grow- to decide which language their child school student, and so we shouldn’t ing, which helps unity and national should be taught in.This choice must bother.” This idea is widespread in the identify, but South Africa acknowl- be made when the child first enters USA. There have been at least three edges the importance of preserving its school. Then each school’s leaders legislative moves in this direction in local African languages as well. must take the requests into account my state within the past decade. First, One reason that South Africa is and work towards multilingualism in the previous high school graduation very intentional about its language ed- their school. Decisions are made based requirement of two years of a foreign ucation is its painful history of Apart- on certain percentages of parental language training has been reduced, heid. Overcoming that system led to a requests, as well as on resources avail- so that more students now graduate new democratic government, and now able. The document also states that without ever studying another lan- to the careful development of a new language learning is so important that guage besides English. Next, there’s

IROHIN | 14 Kanga is a popular cloth worn in East Africa. It always has Swahili words printed on it such as the following and provides a way to learn the language: MUNGU TUPE FURAHA NA MAISHA MEMA. -GOD GIVE US HAPPINESS, JOY AND BETTER LIFE (lit. trans) currently a conversation about allow- ation. While it is probably true that ing American Sign Language studies to our American economy needs more take the place of the foreign language computer literate employees, it is even requirement. While we can agree that more true that our global community learning ASL is a lovely thing, it is needs multilingual citizens. Neither simply not the equivalent studying the the lowering of graduation require- complex historically developed lan- ments, nor replacing ASL, nor better guages of another culture. In addition, computer literacy can compare to the less than .2% of Americans are deaf, personal, cultural, and international while over 20% of children in American benefits of studying foreign languages. schools speak another home language Somehow, American schools besides English. Besides the criti- need to figure out how to achieve what cal importance of helping this 20% of African multilingual schools are work- children within our schools, we must ing on so deliberately and so hard: consider the crucial challenges of their how to raise multilingual children who place in a future world of inevitable maintain their ethnic identity while globalization. Therefore, ASL should functioning and succeeding in our in- no take the place of learning a foreign creasingly global community. Perhaps language. It would be wonderful if mil- someday the successful educational lions of American children could learn experiments of The Rainbow Nation ASL—but not if it means those same can lead all of us toward more unity in children lose valuable exposure to the the reality of our Rainbow World. language of another culture. A third political movement in my state is to al- "Education is the most powerful low Computer Programming classes to weapon we can use to change the take the place of the foreign language world." requirement for high school gradu- -Nelson Mandela

IROHIN | 15 THE HISTORY AND ATTITUDES OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN ENGLISH IN AMERICA SABRINA CASTRO

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade In order to discuss African- American English, we must revisit the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Between 1441 and 1888, millions of Africans were enslaved. European and African nations used Africans as a means of economic advantage and global strength. (Hood, 2010) Traders left European ports to travel to Africa’s west coast for the first leg of the tri- angular trading route. This is where people from the West African countries including, Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires were exchanged for goods such as glass beads, whiskey, ivory, and guns. Not only were the enslaved Africans traded for goods, but many were kidnapped from their homes. Aside from being profitable for the European colonizers, the demand for cheap labor on plantations increased and slaves were considered “Black Gold”. (Sylvester, 1998) During the infamous Middle Pas- sage, or the second leg of the triangu- lar route, enslaved Africans suffered a Dr. Lorenzo Dow Turner, Roosevelt College, 1949. His studies were the first to show that people of African treacherous trip from the west coast heritage retained and passed on their cultural identity and language, despite slavery. Photo By AP of Africa to the Americas. Enslaved Africans who actually survived the As of 2015, English is the official or rejected as a dialect of the English voyage were sold and began their lives language of 88 countries spanning language. This paper addresses the as slaves. Without enslaved Africans, across six continents. Each country influence of West African languages the Americas would not have been a has its own unique set of dialects that on Black English in America and the successful economic venture for Euro- are spoken by its citizens. The United attitudes of Americans today of what peans. States alone has about 25 dialects scholars refer to as African-American The first Africans were brought to within its area of 3.8 million square Vernacular English. Throughout the Jamestown, Virginia port in 1619, and miles. (Geography & Branch, 2012) article, Black English, African-Ameri- by 1860, the population had grown There has been a great debate among can Vernacular English, and Ebonics to 3,950,528, 13% of the popula- linguists and scholars on whether is used interchangeably. tion (Hood, 2010). The language the Black English, or Ebonics, is accepted people spoke did not seem important

IROHIN | 16 to European slave owners, but within recognized it as the ‘primary’ lan- of ethnicity and gender, have different a century, the language variety of en- guage of its African-American students cognitive and behavioral capabilities, slaved Africans had developed and was (Rockford, 2012). There is a signifi- I do think it is important to recog- distinct (McCollie-Lewis, 1998). cant difference between Northern and nize AAVE as its own form of English. The mistreatment, abuse, and Southern AAVE, but research suggests African-American writers such as torture of enslaved Africans forced that AAVE is uniform throughout the Langston Hughes and Melville Herkov- them to find ways to escape enslave- Northern United States and that AAVE itz acknowledge the African culture ment. The Underground Railroad is an oversimplified version of stan- and the linguistic connection between was a “loosely-knit network of free dard American English (Ash, 2003). African-Americans (Harris, 2003). blacks and sympathetic whites who Key characteristics of what was There is an abundance of history that assisted enslaved Africans to escape called Ebonics are double negatives, accompanies AAVE, as well as cultural from slavery in the South to freedom such as ’isn’t no’, dropping initial significance, that should be celebrated in the North” (Hood, 2010). and final sounds like saying ‘pacific’ and acknowledged. instead of ‘specific’, or ‘baf’ instead of African Roots of Africa-American ‘bath, similarly to the Gullah language. Vernacular English Another feature of African-American There are one to two thousand English is the usage of the very languages on the continent of Af- “be” in place of “is” (McCollie-Lewis, rica. Languages such as Swahili and 1998). Hausa are spoken by the majority of the population, while smaller ethnic Current Attitudes towards African- languages are spoken by few (Harris, American English Vernacular in 2003). Since enslaved Africans were America mainly from West Africa, West African Since language is learned, languages have had a major influ- geographic, socioeconomics, and ence on African American Vernacular ecologic factors influence whether a English Most enslaved Africans are Black American is exposed to Ebonics from the Niger-Congo region of Africa. (Ndemanu, 2015). Speakers of African- African languages were primarily oral. American English Vernacular (AAEV) The presence of Gullah in North are perceived as less credible com- Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia pared to standard American English is the clearest example of African lan- (SAE) even though AAEV serves all guages present in the United States in communication functions (Billings, the twenty first century. Although the 2005). Even African-American teach- origin of Gullah is debated, African- ers have a negative view of AAEV. American linguist Lorenzo Turner Sounding “black” and “white” has been identified African language roots. For used to judge both White and African- example, the inner-dental fricative Americans. Billings conducted a study “th” does not exist in neither Gullah where 261 Black and White partici- or in the West African language. Also, pants determined how American Eng- both Gullah and West African speakers lish and Black English were perceived substitute ‘d’ and ‘t’ (Harris, 2003). on 20 credibility measures. His study concluded that standard American African-American English Vernacu- English was perceived as more credible lar and Ebonics than Black English, but “speaker dia- According to the Linguistic Soci- lect did not alter perceived trustwor- ety of America, Ebonics is defined as thiness and likability” (Billings, 2005). “black speech”. The word Ebonics is Some argue that recognizing Ebonics the blend of the words ebony, meaning or AAEV as a different language from black, and phonics, meaning sounds. SAE supports the argument that Black The term Ebonics was created in 1973 Americans are fundamentally differ- by black scholars, but the term was ent than White Americans in terms of rarely used due to the negative conno- cognitive abilities and behavior. tations associated with it. Ebonics be- Although I do not believe that came a household term in 1996 when African-Americans and White Ameri- the Oakland, California School Board cans, or any human being regardless

IROHIN | 17 PAN AFRICANISM: ITS GENESIS AND EVOLUTION RUTHA KARIUKI

Introduction Pan-African is an ideology that all people of African descent, world- wide, should make a bold stand together to address their common interest. This movement originated through people of African heritage, who were born or lived in other parts of the world other than Africa. The ob- jective of the movement was to address political and cultural challenges faced by the African diaspora.

African Diaspora Over the course of Africa’s histo- ry, dating about 100,000 years, there were about five major migration events occurring at different times. However, from the 15th century through the 19th century, the fourth major migra tion event took about 200,000 Afri- W.E.B. Du Bois with first Ghanian President, Kwame Nkrumah, Accra Ghana, in 1962. cans from Western and Central Africa to various parts of Europe, and about apart the culture and values of Afri- throughout primarily black colonies 12 million to different territories in can people. Pan Africanists believed and the Americas (Bandele). The sec- the Caribbean and in the Americas that people of African descent must ond congressional meeting established (Palmer, 1998). be “interconnected” in order to stand a declaration named London Manifes- Most Africans of the diaspora a better chance of redeeming their to. The third congressional meeting in longed for home. Therefore, Africans of culture and values, and gaining jus- 1923, many delegates were not in at- the diaspora maintained part of their tice and equality. In the early 20th tendance. But, those in attendance de- culture in their new societies. African century, Pan Africanists held several liberated on issues such as, abolishing folklore, music, language, food, art, conferences to discuss liberation of colonization in Kenya, Rhodesia, and and clothing were infused with the African countries from the colonialist South Africa (BBC). Notably, they de- western lifestyle. The need to connect powers. The participants were mainly manded implementation of laws in the with Africa resonated in diasporic Af- the African intellectuals from Europe, U.S. to protect black people from mob ricans for generations. However, it was North America, and Africa (Adejumobi, lynches. In 1927, the fourth congress not until the late 18th century that a 2001). was held with an agenda of promoting movement arose to connect the com- The first Pan-African congres- independence and self-governance in munities of the diaspora back home sional meeting, held in 1919, was Africa (Campbell). to Africa. organized by WEB Du Bois. The The fifth congressional meeting, objective of the meeting was to appeal held in Manchester in England, was Pan-Africanism Congresses to the Versailles Peace Conference considered one of the most significant Pan-Africanist philosophy held by addressing suppressive political of the conferences. Eighty-seven del- that slavery and colonialism tore and economic conditions taking place egates attended, representing over 50

IROHIN | 18 organizations from the Caribbean, Caribbean, Latin America, and Africa United States, south Asia, and Africa. (History, 2009). Pan Africanism today The meeting was touted as having W.E.B. Du Bois was the first During the initial stages of the the largest turnout of African political African American male to graduate Pan-African movement, Africa and the figures. According to W.E.B. Du Bois, from Harvard University. He founded diaspora pan African organizations who travelled from the United States at the NAACP, a world-renowned organi- collaborated closely in advocating for age 77 and was the founder of the first zation created to advance the interest the main issues that affected them at congressional conference, described of black people in the United States. the time. However, most modern Pan- the 5th congress as a ‘decisive year However, he was one of the most African diasporic organizations focus in determining the freedom of Africa’. radically criticized civil right activist. on the needs of their specific diaspora, Topics deliberated at the conference He protested against the injustices or focus in connecting organizations included racism in Britain, oppression of Africans of the diaspora and Afri- in Africa, but most do not collaborate in South Africa, and problems in the cans suffering from colonialism and among themselves. The spirit of unity Caribbean. challenged European and American is not as common. United States orga- The Pan-African Congresses governments to revise oppressive laws. nizations such as World African Dias- achieved the esteem of a peace-maker However, it was not until 1900 that Du pora Union, Pan-African Association, movement for decolonization in Africa Bois became globally known to Africa and Collective Black People Movement and the British West Indies. Also, it and the diaspora after organizing the are successful in maintaining their af- commanded an end to colonial rule first Pan-African congress. Du Bois filiation with Africa. and racial discrimination. This con- remained active in the movement and World African Diaspora Union veyed the push toward the progres- a keynote figure. He organized con- is an organization based in Atlanta, sive battle against imperialism, and gresses and created ties with numer- Georgia and their vision is the unifica- racial inequalities of African people. ous African leaders. In his last years, tion and restoration of African people Du Bois relocated to Ghana under and their mission is the liberation, Significant leaders in the Pan-Afri- the leadership and invitational stay of unification and empowerment of Afri- canism Movement President Kwame Nkrumah. can people, with one central govern- Throughout many regions of the Kwame Nkrumah, a native of a ment in Africa. They desire to work world, Pan-African leaders sprouted Ghana, attended college in the United closely with African organizations to up advocate unity among Africans and States from 1939–1943.This is where form political unity between all people people of African descent. This uni- he began to gain interest in various of African descent (World African Dias- fied energy was most significant in European philosophers, economist, pora Union). the United States, Caribbean, and in and political figures, and advocacy for Pan-African Association is a Africa. the freedom of Africa against Euro- Chicago, Illinois mission to enable Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican pean imperialism. In 1945, Nkrumah Chicago’s refugees and immigrants to native, began his movement called attended and helped organize his come together as a cohesive, sup- Universal Negro Improvement Associa- first Pan-Africanist congress, which portive group. Also, it encourages all tion or UNIA in 1914. He was known was the fifth congressional meeting. refugees and immigrants to express for his advocacy for the economic Throughout his time in Britain, he and maintain their cultural heritage growth in black communities and for remained active in the movement and as they adapt to life in the United his polarized ‘Back to Africa’ move- become the president of West African States. Pan-African Association is a ment. In 1917, Garvey relocated the Student Union, an independent insti- place where Africans, those of African UNIA to New York City, where he was tution driven by politically radical stu- descent and the greater community influential in three continents through dents. In the 1950s and 60s, Nkrumah can come together and participate in his speeches and his newspaper, the played an important role of progres- African culture (Pan-African Associa- Negro World. Garvey’s main goal was sion of the movement in Africa. One of tion). to return the millions of black people his main objectives was dismantling Collective Black People Move- in the new world back to Africa using elitism, imperialism, and tribalism in ment (CBPM) is an international or- ships that he called ships the Black the people of Africa. He believed unify- ganization that has 118 organizations Star Line. Though his vision failed due ing African nations and encouraging in the following places: Africa, Middle to bankruptcy and misappropriation political-economic equality were the East, Asia, Pacific Region, Carib- of funds, Garvey began one the most best strategies for defeating colonial- bean, Central America, Europe, South radical movements of Pan-African his- ist powers. This strongly aligned with America, and North America. Their tory. His widespread influence is often his vision of a ‘United States of Africa’ mission is to gather, document, and referred to as ‘Garveyism’ because initiative, but to no prevail (Aziki- organize the skills, talents, and educa- of the widespread influence on black we). tion of African people for the purpose communities in the United States, of self-help and collective development

IROHIN | 19 TOURISM TRENDS IN SUB SAHARA AFRICA LAURA ASHLEY

Lively African dances attract tourists throughout the continent. Photo by Amanda Edgell Worldwide, tourism contributes tourism. It is predicted that interna- rica’s 48 countries presently have the more than 9 percent of global GDP, 5.8 tional hotel chains will spend hun- capability for tourism success if given percent of exports, and 4.5 percent of dreds of millions of dollars in Africa strong political support and draws investment. Africa has the second fast- in the near future to satisfy Africa’s greater private investment. “Africa’s est growing tourism sector in the world international tourists and its own private companies are increasingly after East Asia and the Pacific. Even rapidly growing middle class (Christie attracting regional and international during an economic slowdown between et al., 2014). investment and the returns on invest- 2009 and 2010, international tourist Sub-Saharan Africa is outper- ing in Africa are among the highest in arrivals in Africa increased almost 8 forming other regions in tourism the world,” says Makhtar Diop, World percent. Even with the Ebola outbreak growth, and revenues from tourism Bank Vice President for Africa. in West Africa in 2014, 65.3 million already represent more than double Some countries including Mada- tourists visited the continent. This is the amount of donor aid. According to gascar, Mozambique, and South Africa an increase of 200,000 from the previ- the World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa’s have eased visa requirements and ous year and a leap from 1990 of 17.4 tourism industry will directly employ tourism has swelled. Countries that million visitors. In 2016, 1 in every 20 6.7 million people by 2021. It is sug- have adopted a regional visa coopera- jobs in Africa was related to travel and gested that 33 of Sub-Saharan Af- tion approach have experienced great

IROHIN | 20 economic rewards. The East African the sector. The World Travel & Tour- life back to the people by using a sys- Community (EAC) has included three ism Council estimates that 3.8 million tem of community-based management. of its six countries in its East African jobs (including 2.4 million indirect This system consists of 79 communal Visa: Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda. jobs) could be created by the tourism conservancies covering 20% of Africa. The Southern African Development industry in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) The idea is to give benefits and create Community (SADC) participated in a over the next 10 years. jobs through hunting and tourism. pilot program from November 2014 One conservancy now earns about to May 2015 using World Bank grant Top 10 African Countries $172,000 a year and has created jobs money to form the KAZA Visa between The World Economic Forum 2015 for more than 30 area residents. Zambia and Zimbabwe. This visa is lists the top 10 most tourism-ready These conservancies are legally the first step in an idea dating back economies in Africa. In order from recognized by the government and run to 1998 when leaders of the SADC most ready are South Africa, Sey- by local communities that protect the expressed an interest in establish- chelles, Mauritius, Namibia, Kenya, wildlife for tourists and hunters. The ing a UNIVISA which would include Cape Verde, Botswana, Tanzania, conservancies aren’t parks. More than all fifteen countries in the SADC. Dr. Rwanda, and Zambia. These countries 400,000 Namibian people live inside Charles Leyeka Lufumpa of the African have created a positive climate for in- the unfenced conservancies and keep Development Bank Group states, “At- vestment by simplifying their tourism watchful eyes out for poachers. Most tempts to encourage free intra-African policies, opening air transport and ex- residents continue to work herding trade and movement of people in the panding tourism while guarding their livestock but they set aside a portion ECOWAS sub-region must also be ad- communities and environments. of their common land, 30 percent for dressed. It is through free trade and The World Travel and Tourism example, exclusively for wildlife. Over- ease of access that tourism will thrive.” Council (WTTC) has compiled a list all, conservancies earned about $5.3 ECOWAS is a regional group of fifteen of the top 10 countries in the world million in direct income and generated West African countries. tipped for a tourist boom. Out of the about $40 million for the Namibian The New Partnership for Africa’s 10 countries, 4 are African. Namibia is economy in 2009. Trophy hunting is Development (NEPAD) is an economic listed at number 10, Mozambique at 7, typically the first source of revenue. development program of the African Tanzania 6, and Zambia 4. The government sets limits based on Union whose beliefs include African sustainability. Trophy fees range from self-reliance and international partner- Namibia leading in Tourism $1,000 for a kudu up to $25,000 for ships. It created its Tourism Action Namibia is a country that is an elephant, so Namibian people are Plan in 2004, with the belief that tour- leading the way in attractive tourism aware of the value of wildlife. Poaching ism is one method that can revive the practices. Over 1 million tourists have is socially unacceptable because it is development of Africa, although it has been visiting Namibia since 2011. viewed as taking money from a neigh- not yet been fully implemented. This Namibia is rich with wildlife, coastline, bor instead of the government. came after the approval, in 2000, of rivers, deserts, saltpans, mountains, As a result, where Kenya and the Yamoussoukro Decision (named and grassy plains in addition to its many other African nations are quickly after the city in Côte d’Ivoire where it cities and villages. Its red sand dunes losing their wildlife, Namibia has was approved in 1999), which intend- are some of the most photographed in shown a significant increase. Namib- ed to open up the continent’s airline the world. One of the reasons tourism ian animals once considered endan- sector to competition. This initiative is is projected to boom there is because gered (including the black rhino) have also known as “Open Skies for Africa”. of the rise of sustainable tourism. seen population grow since the na- Although it too has not been fully According to the UN World Tourism tion’s conservation efforts began. Be- implemented, it is expected to create Organization (UNWTO), sustainable cause of this success, the Ministry of 155,000 new jobs and contribute $1.3 tourism is tourism development with Environment and Tourism frequently billion to the continent’s GDP. a balance between environmental, relocates animals, sometimes critically According the African Develop- economic and socio-cultural aspects. endangered black rhinos, from over- ment Bank Group, Africa has the A proper balance must be established crowded national parks onto unfenced world’s youngest population. Within between these three dimensions to conservancy land, where they have the continent, 70% of the population guarantee its long term sustainability. room to recover to their past num- is under the age of 25. Young men After Namibia gained indepen- bers. The communal conservancies and women make up 37% of the work dence from South Africa in 1990, it have the world’s largest population of force, but constitute 60% of unemploy- was among the first countries in the free-roaming black rhino, and expand- ment. For this reason, the ADB aims world to include plans for conservation ing populations of lion, elephant and to promote tourism in order to raise in its constitution. More than 42% of cheetah. The community conservancy the incomes of these youth, who form its land is protected by the govern- system has been successful in Namib- a high percentage of the job holders in ment. It turned ownership of its wild- ia because only 2.1 million people live

IROHIN | 21 there (it is twice the size of California). as a model for their own. The World unspoiled destination. The summit will Six people per square mile mix better Wildlife Fund has applauded Namibia place Namibia on the world tourism with wildlife than the 158 in Kenya, or for its conservation efforts which are map, and we are here to affect how the 94 in neighboring South Africa. related to sustainable tourism. The tourism works in the future.” WWF, local tribes, the federal govern- Liberation Politics Critical ment, local lodge owners, and oth- Liberation politics played a criti- ers are working together to see that cal role in the conservancy system. a tourist’s money actually benefits Before 1990, Namibia was controlled everyone, not just one party. Tourism by South Africa’s apartheid govern- doesn’t always protect wildlife, locals, ment. Predominantly white private and business interests. landowners had the right to exploit the The Adventure World Trade Sum- wildlife on their properties since the mit (AWTS) is an annual event that 1970s. Following independence, com- promotes responsible and sustainable munity ownership was aligned with tourism. In 2013, it was held in Africa the views of SWAPO, the former libera- for the first time. More specifically, Na- tion movement that is now Namibia’s mibia. The organizer of the event spoke dominant political party. (Conniff, at the podium to answer the ques- 2011). tion, “Why Namibia?” She explained, More than 20 other countries “Imagine the world in 50 years’ time: have now visited Namibia to learn from the loss of species, habitat and cul- its success and some have started ture. Namibia has the opportunity to using Namibia’s conservation policies become an example to the world as an

The Victoria falls in Livingstone, Zambia, one of the seven natural wonders of the world is a popular tourist destination.

IROHIN | 22 AFRICAN TEXTILES: THE ROYAL CLOTH DANESHA ANGLIN

African culture plays a big role in The kente and adinkra cloth American society today but due to lack are two locally produced ntoma in of knowledge it goes unnoticed most the Ashanti region. Both adinkra and of the time by many people including kente cloth were viewed as expres- myself. I have recently grown fond of sions of cultural identity by many. the different fabrics which are African Adinkra fabric is a symbol of mourn- commonly known as African wax and ing and is filled with symbolic designs. non-wax prints. Through the summer On the other hand, kente cloth more institute I learned a great deal about specifically represents a highly desired African textiles and now I know that symbol of status (Gott 2010). Due to the broad umbrella these cloths and the widespread use of kente cloth this fabrics are so commonly placed under article will delve into some of the his- does not deliver their full significance. tory of the cloth and explore how the “Dress as symbol reflects the wearer’s usage of kente has evolved throughout social status. Dress within a fashion the years and how it has spread to the system may signify “in fashion” or “out United States and many other coun- of fashion,” (Rabine, 2002, p. 32). This tries in the fashion industry. quote highlights the importance of S3 wo b3 ka me hu as3m a fa akonya tinase (Stool) dress in African cultures versus fash- The Kente Cloth ‘If you want to talk about me, take a stool and sit ion today in the United States where “Traditional African cloths, while down.’ (author). African textiles are used as a fashion visually stunning in themselves, can eration to the next and it tends to be a statement. As the fashion industry be most fully appreciated if viewed family business (Asmah 2008). grows globally the origins of fabrics with an understanding of the materials According to LaGamma (2010), and cloths also evolve simultaneously. and technologies used in their cre- “Richly elaborated and costly kente The Asante term used for the ation” (LaGamma, 2008, p. 25). When textiles, identified with wealth and most valued category of ensemble you are able to connect with some- status, are attributes of prestige worn fabrics is “ntoma” which translates to thing on a deeper level it is more likely to mark special occasions in both Ewe the English word “cloth”. There are that you will appreciate it even more. and Asante societies” (p. 36). It is cus- three different types of ntoma: kente, When you know the history of certain tomary for the Akan people to reserve adinkra, and African-print cloth. An things it makes you more aware and the use of kente cloth to be worn by important trait of African-print cloth it is more likely that you will value it royalty during important occasions which helps to differentiate this textile more. The word kente has roots with and ceremonial events. Boateng (2011) from all other manufactured fabrics is the word kenten which means basket, says she viewed kente cloth as a sym- that they are given a “name”. When and it was given the name because bol that represented coming-of-age worn this particular cloth can deliver it resembles the woven design of a because women attained the cloth ei- a message or commentary depending basket (Asmah, 2008). Kente cloth is ther through marriage or by acquiring on the choice of fabric (Gott, 2010). is a handwoven silk, rayon or cotton enough economic independence to buy The print featured below is just one strip cloth, once the stripes are woven it for themselves. In addition, some example of African-print cloth. This on a loom they are then stitched to- women attained kente cloth by inherit- particular print is called S3 wo b3 ka gether to make a larger piece of cloth. ing it from a deceased family member, me hu as3m a fa akonya tinase (Stool), The knowledge and art of weaving the and that was viewed as a wealth trans- which simply suggest that, ‘If you want kente cloth has been practiced for ference by many. to talk about me, take a stool and sit years in Ghana. The skill is one that Kente designs and patterns are down.’ has been passed down from one gen- unique and they each have a lot of

IROHIN | 23 symbolism and significance in Ghana. the school officials to Each kente pattern has its own name retreat (p. 151). and all cloths are made with vibrant During graduation colors. In Ghanaian culture colors are ceremonies it is com- highly symbolic, therefore the colors mon to see students used in each cloth are chosen based adorned in stole that on the message or story the cloth is resemble kente cloth. meant to transmit. Asmah (2008) The photo above shows states, “In a total cultural context, an example of the stole I kente is more important than just wore to graduation that a cloth. It is a visual representation I received for my involve- of history, philosophy, ethics, oral ment with the Black Stu- literature, moral values, social code dent Union at the Uni- of conduct, religious belief, politi- versity of Florida. Karen cal thought and aesthetic principles” Smith-Phillips stated, ‘I (p.275). Kente cloth has become very think perhaps I stand up popular globally and the uses of the a little taller when I wear cloth have even evolved throughout kente,’ (Ross, 1998, p. the continent of Africa but it still holds 262). She continues to great meaning amongst the African speak about the sense of countries. Although the true meaning pride that is felt by many of the cloth may not always be clear, when wearing something there are still some cases in the U.S. form the Motherland. The author, Danesha Anglin, wearing Kente stole at her graduation where you will witness kente cloth be- Kente cloth has become from the University of Florida. ing used to symbolize a connection to a symbol of achievement history and status. in the African- American you may have some cloth at home, community and many students wear or you may know someone who owns Students’ Pride the cloth on their stole as a form of Kente cloth. Then introduce your stu- The use of kente cloth during recognition as they have risen to the dents to some of the history of kente a graduation ceremony dates back challenge of college and defeated the cloth, such as the way it is made, the to 1963 when W. E. B. Du Bois and odds. uniqueness of each strip and how members of the faculty of Ghana had they all have a different meaning. their picture taken at the presenta- In Conclusion Also, teach them about the symbolic tion of an honorary degree to the Jennings (2015) stated that meaning of the different colors used American scholar. Ghanaians can be no matter how much fashion varied in kente. For the hands-on portion found wearing kente during gradu- across the continent and within the students will get to weave their own ations ranging from pre-school all countries, they have remained united kente cloth and then write about the the way to college (Ross 1998). Marie across place and time by the cultural significance and meaning of their cloth Kristos views kente cloth as something importance that they place on appear- including why they chose certain col- that “brings more Black pride into ance and adornment. Kente cloth has ors and markings. Resource: https:// the community,” and she said, “it’s evolved in many aspects but no matter www.youtube.com/watch?time_ something that everyone can relate how diverse it becomes in fashion continue=2&v=QL6QTVvDTgc to” (Ross 1998, p. 260). According to it will always hold its true meaning 2. Teach students about the Ross (1998), in 1996 school officials across the continent of Africa. The history of the kente cloth. Watch the in Muskogee, Oklahoma withheld cloth is now worn in everyday fash- Ghanaian Goldilocks on YouTube three graduating seniors diplomas ion across the globe and can be seen and then compare this story to the and transcripts because they violated in variety of things such as dresses, intricate manner in which kente dress code. Two of the three students purses, jewelry and even shoes. As the cloth is woven. In the story there is wore kente stoles while the other one fashion industry continues to grow so a lot of West African culture seam- carried an eagle flag. The students does the use of the kente cloth and the lessly weaved throughout and that had to spend twenty-four days in the depth of its roots. makes for a compare/contrast lesson Muskogee Alternative Program as a between the two. Resource: https:// form of punishment before they could Lesson Ideas www.youtube.com/watch?time_ receive their diplomas and transcripts, 1. Begin by introducing your stu- continue=4&v=MWhSlX66fSw but they refused. The American Civil dents to kente cloth. There is a hands- Rights Union intervened and it forced on collection at the Harn Museum,

IROHIN | 24 THE CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WEST AFRICAN HAIRSTYLES MORGAN BONCORE

“If a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her; for her hair is given to her for a covering.” 1 Cor- inthians 11:15

The Greek word for “glory” as used in this Bible verse carries weight—it means “honor” or “un- spoken manifestation of God”. Upon considering this verse, I think to myself, “How can hair be a woman’s “glory”? Yes, I like my hair to look nice, but I have never considered hair to be an “unspoken manifestation of God”. According to Mohamed Mbodj, associ- ate professor of history at Columbia The influence of Fulani style on contemporary hairstyles today. Photo by Afrika Museum, Berg en University, in many West African eth- Dal nic groups such as the Mende people of Sierra Leone, hair is seen as just someone’s death or exhibit aesthetic agree with my mother’s choice in style that—something with spiritual quali- appeal. Hair was one’s social, spiritual, for me, it was definitely easier to do ties, as “the hair is the most elevated artistic, and physical identity (Byrd, my hair in the morning when it was point on your body, which means it 2001). “A woman's hair is a sign of bobbed. Throughout my life, facility is closest to the divine.” A woman’s femininity. Both thickness and length has been the driving influence on my spirit was thought to dwell in her hair. are elements that are admired by the hairstyle or cut; there has rarely been Although many American women like Mende. Thickness means the woman significant meaning to my hairstyle me might say that their hair is a part has more individual strands of hair decisions beyond wanting to look good of their identity, many do not consider and the length is proof of strength. It or make things easier. In West African the cultural weight that hair has in takes time, care and patience to grow culture, hairstyle goes beyond wanting other in other parts of the world. a beautiful, full head of hair,” wrote to look good or make life easier; it was Sylvia Ardyn Boone, an anthropologist and continues to be laced with mean- The Meaning of Hair Among the specializing in Mende culture. ing. Mende When I was a child, my mother Among many West African ethnic The Mende people saw hair and I went to the Hair Cuttery one groups there is not a hairstyle choice as having many purposes beyond time and the hairdresser asked what made without conscious reasoning. If spiritual meaning, as did most West syle I wanted. My mother told the I had grown up as a Mende woman, African ethnic groups. Hair protects woman (who was a stranger to me) to I would have changed my hairstyle the scalp from the sun and by look- cut my hair into a bob style. By the often—once every few weeks. My hair ing at it, one could ascertain another’s end of the 20-minute process, my would have had to be well-groomed, ethnicity, age, marital status, social hair looked the same as it did before, oiled, and clean at all times. Each status, wealth, fertility, and religion. except it was about 4 inches shorter time I wanted a new style, I would go Hair could indicate a person’s sur- and shorter in the back than it was to a trusted woman friend or rela- name or geographic origins. Hair in the front. I kept this same cut all tive who was looked upon in my area could exhibit one’s personal taste or throughout elementary school—for to have the almost spiritual ability of place in the cycle of life. It could honor years. Although I did not necessarily hairstyling. Styling would have taken IROHIN | 25 hours, and the women in my family back thousands of years illustrate the and friends would gather to socialize attention Africans have paid to their while it took place. My choice of style hair. Braids were etched into the back would have depended on my stage in of the head of the majestic sphinx" life, my social standing in the group, (Peters, 1992). events or rituals that were taking place Others say the tradition of in my area, my age, whether or not I cornrow styling has remained popular was in mourning, or whether or not I among West African societies since was pregnant. The styles would have the Stone Age. “Depictions of women ranged from “minimal to elaborately with cornrows have been found in detailed” (Sieber & Herreman, 2000). Stone Age paintings in the Tassili "Hairstyling sessions were a bonding Plateau of the Sahara, and have been time for women. A hairstylist always dated as far back as 3000 B.C.” (Wil- held a prominent position in these laert, 2008). communities. The complicated and Among all West African ethnic time-consuming task of hair groom- groups throughout history, historians ing included washing, combing, oiling, agree on one thing—the act of braid- braiding, twisting, and/or decorating ing has always been said to transmit the hair with any number of adorn- cultural values between generations ments including cloth, beads, and and express bonds between friends. shells. The process could last sev- eral hours, sometimes several days” Trends of Today African hair styles keep evolving and reflect a per- (Hawkins, 2010). This process is In my journey to discover the son's taste and status. indubitably more time-consuming and evolution of West African hairstyles, hairstyles are still discouraged in the meaningful than the 20-minute stop I soon came to the realization that, workplace, Azi Oyourou (the owner of to the Hair Cuttery I took when I was “just as there is not one single type of a hair salon in the Ivory Coast) says young. African, there is not one single type that there is a natural hair movement of African hair”. (Byrd, 2001) There going on within West Africa known as Hairstory: The History of Hair have been countless unique trends “Nappys de Babi”. “More people want throughout the region of West Africa to know about their traditions.” Oy- throughout history and “what was ourou told CNN that, to many women popular a week, a year, or perhaps as from Ivory Coast, natural styling is long as a generation ago gives way to seen a way to take back their sense new forms, which themselves will one of identity that was associated with day be replaced.” (Sieber & Herreman, one’s hair generations ago (Carrington, 2000). Hairstyle trends within eth- 2015). nic groups change as cultural tradi- Although there have been a di- tions change. But, many West African verse range of West African hairstyles hairstyles from the past can be seen evolving throughout the history of our among today’s contemporary styles. changing world, the one constant West Styles of the Fulani people in Africans share when it comes to hair Photo by http://medievalpoc.tumblr.com/ Niger, who arguably have among the is “the social and cultural significance post/79894449659/the-african-context-of-hair-in- most diverse hairstyles of West African intrinsic to each beautiful strand.” ancient-egypt ethnic groups, are still worn today. (Byrd, 2001) As styles and trends Many of the women and girls wear a come and go, the cultural significance The evidenced history of West Af- braid on each side with the crown and of hair remains through the genera- rican hairstyles dates back to Ancient bang hair sculpted carefully on the top tions. Egypt (another part of the continent of their head. Other Fulani influence is altogether) or, as some argue, as far seen in contemporary Nigerien hair- back as The Stone Age. Peters says styles and in other countries’ styles that evidence of African hairstyles around the world. There are now hair began when Ancient Egyptians with salons in the United States dedicated dreadlocks were discovered from ar- to the many Fulani styles. chaeological sites. As Peters writes in In many West African coun- her essay on black hairstyle history: tries today, there is a trend toward "Hieroglyphs and sculptures dating more natural styles. Although natural

IROHIN | 26 A NEW GREAT LEAP: CHINA’S RISE IN AFRICA CHARLENE XU

In 2000, The Economist pub- 1955, as quoted in (Waldron, 2008, p. ostracized China for the Tiananmen lished a cover story on Africa titled v) Square massacre, China turned to Af- “The hopeless continent,” reflecting the Sino-African relations can be rica for support. Africa was an obvious West’s perception of Africa. A decade traced back to the Ming Dynasty place for China to begin re-establish- would pass before The Economist when, in 1415, Admiral Zheng, known ing their diplomatic relationships; not would correct their misevaluation, as the “Admiral of the Western Sea” only did the continent hold more than publishing another cover story titled visited more than 30 African coun- a quarter of the votes in the UN’s gen- “Africa rising”. However, the West’s tries, including what is today Kenya eral assembly, but African elites also ideas about Africa still read like they (Waldron, 2008, p. v). Relations were sought a stronger relationship with have been taken out of Joseph Con- further strengthened in 1421 when China as they faced the “emergence of rad’s Heart of Darkness, a condition Emperor Zhu Di invited a number of a stronger democratic movement on perpetuated by the media’s skewed dignitaries from Africa for the inau- the continent” (Rotberg, 2008, p. 69). reporting of African news. The West guration of Beijing as the new capital These African elites sided with China views Africa as a tumultuous conti- of the Ming Dynasty (Waldron, 2008, after the Tiananmen Square massacre, nent of starving children, interethnic p. v). China often cites these early and the Chinese were reminded of the conflicts, and meaningless violence instances of Sino-African contact to benefits of courting the Africans. (Rot- (China Safari, p. 2) and ignores Af- emphasize that China’s relationship berg, 2008, p. 69). rica’s growth and development in 21st with Africa predates that of the West. Several other key milestones century. Unfortunately, Chinese exploration of have influenced China’s current rela- The same year The Economist Africa stalled after Zheng’s death in tions with Africa. In 1995, China’s published the cover story they would 1533 and would remain stagnant for State Council ordered that aid, trade later come to regret also marked the half a millennium (Michel & Beuret, credits, and development finance to first Forum on China-Africa Coopera- 2009, p. 65). Africa to be tied to Chinese commercial tion in Beijing. The event was greeted It was not until 1949, when the interests (Brown, 2012, p. 2). China’s with relative indifference internation- Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao president at the time, Jiang Zemin, ally (China Safari, p. 12), but was a ZeDong, came into power and reestab- encouraged the Chinese business com- key milestone in developing the close lished Chinese-African relations. The munity to go abroad with their ven- Sino-African ties, which exist today. People’s Republic supported African tures. Once again, Africa became an Consequently, while the West contin- countries in their efforts to gain free- obvious place to start. In 2000, China ues to struggle with an archaic image dom from colonial powers, presenting started its triennial Heads of State of Africa, China has forged ahead to their suppport as a “moral impera- summits with Africa. By this time, develop strong ties with the world’s tive to help the oppressed” (Michel & infrastructure projects in Africa were second largest continent. Beuret, 2009, p. 67). However, China receiving full government backing from was also actively trying to garner Beijing, as well as financial backing A History of China and Africa support from African countries in from the Exim Bank of China (Michel “There exists common ground the United Nations to isolate Taiwan. & Beuret, 2009, p. 69). Today, China’s among the Asian and African countries China’s aid to Africa steadily increased president Xi Jinping, like his prede- the basis of which is that the over- through the 1960s and 1970s but cessors, has continued China’s desire whelming Asian and African countries waned after Mao’s death in 1976. This to go abroad. In 2016, more than one and their peoples have suffered and time, relations did not resume until million Chinese migrants were resident are still suffering from the calamities the mid-1980s when Mao’s successor in Africa. of colonialism.” -Chinese Premier Zhou Deng Xiaoping established his Open Enlai during the Bandung Summit in Door policy. In 1989, as the interna- tional community condemned and

IROHIN | 27 break diplomatic ties was Gambia in 2013. As of 2016, three African coun- tries continued to recognize Taiwan over the People’s Republic of China: Swaziland, São Tomé and Principe, and Burkina Faso (Guest, 2013). China refers to its relation- ship with Africa as one with “mutual benefits” (Brown, 2012, p. 10). Indeed, the relationship has been mutually beneficial in various aspects. China’s presence in Africa has led to heavy investments in the continent’s infra- structure. For instance, in 2014, the China Railway Construction Corp signed a deal worth nearly $12 bil- lion with Nigeria to build a 1,402 km railway that will link Lagos in the west with Calabar in the east (Oirere, 2014). China has also invested heavily in Africa’s hydropower, and has built

China built the headquarters for the African Union in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. numerous ports, roads, and bridges throughout the continent. Aside from

economic investments, China also China in Africa continent to fuel its growing economy. offers more than 4,000 scholarships “The twenty-first century is the China also recognizes the potential in to African students each year. As of century for China to lead the world. Africa’s emerging market. In contrast 2011, there are at least 22 Confucius And when you are leading the world, to the West, China sees Africa as a Institutes in 19 African countries that we want to be close behind you. When “growing, one-billion person market, aim to teach the Chinese language, you are going to the moon, we don’t with increasing disposable income and culture, and history (Brown, 2012, p. want to be left behind.” -Nigerian an expanding middle class” (Brown, 41). Beijing also funds sports teams President Olusegun Obasanjo, speak- 2012, p. 8). China also hopes that, by and provides equipment for aspiring ing to Chinese President Hu Jintao, investing in Africa, its own economy African Olympians. Finally, like the Nigeria, 2006, as quoted in (Michael & can be structured away from low-cost, United States, China has created an Beuret, 2009, p. 11) labor-inensive, and/or heavily pollut- “International Visitors Program” where China’s investment in Africa is ing indsutries (Brown, 2012, p. 8). members of parliament, local entre- based on four policies: accessing natu- China also has political motives peneurs, and well-placed government ral resources, tapping Africa’s emerg- for its interest in Africa. Africa consti- officials are identified and trained ing market, garnering UN support, and tutes a sizable force in the UN, with its in exchange programs with Beijing isolating Taiwan. In contrast from the countries accounting for 28% of all UN (Brown, 2012, p. 42). Maoist and post-Maoist periods, the members (Brown, 2012, p. 8). Through While it appears China has first two economic interests have taken strenghtening its relationships with the upper hand in negotiations with precedence over the latter two political African countries, China hopes to the continent, Africa is not without its interests: Beijing now recognizes that lean on the continent for support in strengths. Africa’s most powerful nego- national security can be guaranteed an international forum (Brown, 2012, tiating tool lies in its wealth of natural through economic strength (Brown, p. 8). This was demonstrated in 2008 resources—resources that are in high 2012, p. 2). According to David E. during the UN Human Rights Council, demand in China. In Africa and China Brown (2012), China’s desire for a when China relied on African nations (2015), Lucy Corkin discusses how An- strategic partnership with Africa can to remain silent or even make support- gola has used China’s growing desper- also be seen as its desire to peacefully ive statements in regards to China’s ation for petroleum as a bartering chip rise as a global superpower (p. 9). Tibetan conflict (Brown, 2012, p. 8). in negotiations between the two coun- China’s greatest interest in Africa The People’s Republic also seeks to tries (p. 71). When President Hu Jintao is to secure the continent’s abundance end Taiwan’s official diplomatic pres- became president in 2003, he focused of natural resources (Brown, 2012, p. ence in Africa; currently, African states on China’s need to internationalize 7). To accommodate its rapid industri- that recognize Taiwan receive no aid and diversify their oil supplies. This alization and expanding consumer so- from mainland China (Kishi & Raleigh, led to a shift toward African, and, ciety, China has turned to the African 2015). The last African country to

IROHIN | 28 more specifically, Angolan resources. internationally for its non-interference When it comes to Africa, the West Corkin states, ‘the gradual importance policy in its relationship with African has also been “locked into a humani- assumed by Angola in China’s foreign countries which ignores undemocratic tarian vision.” Mauro di Lorenzo, a policy started to tilt the “disparity of regimes focusing on its own objectives. research analyst at the American En- attention”’ (p. 71). Angola is now one of terprise Institute once said, “We West- China’s largest sources of oil imports: “Rogue Aid” erners…want to lick Africans’ wounds, China’s dependence on oil and An- “What do you call it again, that thing help them, cry with them because they gola’s abundant supply have resulted of yours where everyone decides and have AIDS and are poor and innocent. in the larger country becoming the nothing works?” But humanitarianism is also a means significantly more dependent party “Um . . . you mean democracy” of control; it maintains the power between the two (Corkin, 2015, p. 71). “Yeah, that’s it. We don’t need it in relationship” (Michel & Beuret, 2009, China’s desire for strong relations with China, and we don’t need it in Africa.” p. 33). China has no such humanitar- Africa has also led to Beijing’s commit- -Conversation with businessman Roy ian inhibitions and, as China contin- ment to ending the legal sale of ivory Zhang, Lagos, April 2007, as quoted in ues its expansion in Africa, the West in China, the world’s largest consumer (Michel & Beuret, 2009, p. 29) needs to re-evaluate its role in Africa’s of the good. China decided to imple- China’s aid in Africa has become development. Specifically, the United ment the ban after repeated calls from a topic of contention for scholars and States needs to work pro-actively to international and African conserva- policymakers alike. While financial aid improve economic diplomacy with the tionists (Patey & Chun, 2015). from the West typically requires condi- continent. This can be accomplished While China’s economic expan- tions for disbursement (i.e. governance through bi-annual presidential sum- sion in Africa has benefited both par- reform, democratization, human rights mits with African heads of state and ties, there have also been conflicts be- adherence, etc.), China’s financial sup- through increasing U.S. export pro- tween the country and the continent. port is based on a “non-interference” motion in Africa (Brown, 2012, p. For instance, many have criticized policy. The focus of Chinese donors is 106). Additionally, the United States China’s practice of importing labor not on present and future institutional needs to open more American Cultural instead of hiring African locals (Brauti- change; instead, Chinese donors’ Centers in Africa, as China has with gam, 2009, p. 227). In China’s Second agendas include accessing resources, its Confucius Centers. It is time for Continent, Howard French (2014) dis- creating new markets, and building in- the West to put aside their outdated cusses an urban legend that has risen ternational coalitions through stronger impressions of continent and to join from China’s practice of hiring their ties with non-Western states (Kishi & China in raising Africa. own: many Africans now believe that Raleigh, 2016, p. 4). However, crit- Chinese companies are using prison ics have become concerned about the Classroom Connections labor to carry out their projects in Af- effect of this “rogue aid” on the good •Macroeconomics: China’s relationship rica. While there has been no evidence governance of African countries. In with Africa can be used to demon- to support this rumor, its existence one study, researchers found a direct strate the complexity of economic has impeded a necessary discussion link between Chinese official finance relationships between countries and on China’s hiring techniques. Many and state repression upon citizens and continents. countries in the continent already suf- competitors (Kishi & Raleigh, 2016, p. •World History: Compare and contrast fer from levels of unemployment that 2). While it is not the intent of China China’s presence in Africa with tradi- are higher than usual for developing or Chinese assistance to contribute to tional colonialism. countries (French, 2014, p. 53). More unrest in unstable African countries, •Politics: Explore the effects of China’s signifcantly, China’s hiring practices it has nevertheless become a con- non-interference policy when providing inhibits a transfer of skills as Chinese sequence of Chinese aid. aid to African countries. businesses continue to use foreign •Balance of Power: Discuss the poten- workers, even for the most rudimen- Implications for the West tial consequences of Africa’s support of tary of jobs (French, 2014, p. 53). “[China and the United States] China in the United Nations. Several other concerns have also will be on a collision course if China emerged as a result of China’s aggres- continues to pursue energy deals in sive expansion in Africa. Environmen- countries like Iran or Sudan. . . The tal degradation has become a concern Chinese will have to decide if they for the continent due to China’s min- want to pay the price.” - Robert Zoel- ing projects, as well as several reports lick, deputy secretary of state, Sep- of oil spills across Africa. Complaints tember 2005, as quoted in (Michel & have also surfaced about China taking Beuret, 2009, p. 183) over land belonging to local Africans. Finally, China has been criticized

IROHIN | 29 CHILD SOLDIERS AND HOW TO INTEGRATE THEM BACK INTO SOCIETY KAYLEA BOLLINGER

to take excessive risks — according to one rebel commander in the Demo- cratic Republic of Congo, "[children] make good fighters because they’re young and want to show off. They think it’s all a game, so they’re fear- less” (Maslen, 2000, paragraph 7). The term immaturity in this context needs to be used very loosely, because children are not supposed to be mature and wise yet. It makes sense that a child under the age of 18 would take fighting as a game because they are not trained, nor are they told the severity of what they are getting themselves into. However, T.W. Ben- nett mentions maturity in her article as well. “Not only are young people ill-equipped to cope with the physi- UNICEF estimates that in South Sudan state militias have recruited 12,000 children. Photo by AFP cal dangers they encounter, but their immaturity poses a threat to the safety Child soldiers are minors un- Overview Of Child Soldiers Across of other combatants” (Bennett, 1998). der the age of 18 who have who have Africa This shows that maturity, or lack recruited in armies to participate in According to a report in the there of, needs to be taken into con- various capacities, mostly in countries “Coalition to Stop the Use of Child sideration when dealing with recruit- undergoing civil war. Rebel armies Soldiers” more than 120,000 chil- ing soldiers. In America, the legal age in countries like Uganda, Democratic dren under 18 years of age are cur- to be a soldier is 18, because that is Republic of Congo, and South Sudan rently participating in armed conflicts the legal age for adulthood. This law have at times engaged child soldiers. across Africa. Some of these children seems fair, or more realistic because It is important to understand the are no more than 7 or 8 years of age” if you are a legal adult, you should be trauma these children undergo and (Maslen, 2000, paragraph 5). The able to make logical decisions. How- the post-traumatic stress syndrome. report says that adults use children as ever a child under the age of 18 should This paper attempts to discuss some child soldiers to run errands because be protected, and learning about the measures taken by people in Africa they are so young, and nobody sus- world, math, language arts, etc. and some Americans organizations to pects that a child has the capacity to integrate the children back into a safe gather military information. Children Child Soldiers In Uganda society, as well as prevent future child are very loyal individuals, In 2002, a Social Center was soldiers. no matter what their racial affili- opened in Uganda to provide edu- ation is. If an adult tells a child to do cational services and counseling to for- something, chances are, the child will mer child soldiers. When child soldiers do it. “Their immaturity may lead them return home it can be understood

IROHIN | 30 that they would not easily integrate the Democratic Republic of Congo got supposed to do, all hope is lost for the back into society. Life for their peers some training. Children are often re- citizens. The South Sudan government and family has been going on while cruited into the illegal armies around and rebels violated the 2008 Child these children have been witnessing 12 years old, and typically serve about Soldiers Act. traumatic events. Children come back two years. home after being involved in vio- “The recruits were taken to mili- How are Child Soldiers being lence, and they are confused on why tary training camps in preparation for helped today? things are different from when they combat against armed troops and ci- While male child soldiers were left. Uganda has a rebellion called the vilian countrymen. Child soldiers often used in fighting, body guarding, and Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), which serve initially as runners, bodyguards, spying, female child soldiers were often has been fighting the Ugandan gov- porters or spies and later learn to use being used as sex slaves. In order to ernment. The most disturbing aspect arms and serve in combat” (Hayes, find a way to integrate these children of this humanitarian crisis is the fact Burge, 2003). It is a problem that the into a healthy society, a means to that it has included a high proportion children are not given the opportunity help heal them is offered. “In address- of minors under the age of 18. to lead ordinary lives. ing this situation, many Western or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder There have been some mea- Western-trained psychologists tend to In Child Soldiers In Uganda sures taken to assist and help educate focus on trauma and healing through One aspect that needs to be the children in the Democratic Repub- counseling to allow the expression addressed is post-traumatic stress lic of Congo. The UN Security Council and working through of painful emo- syndrome. PTSD is something that is Panel attempted to create a peace ac- tions” (Wessells and Monteiro, 2006). often found in people who have been cord with the Democratic Republic of It makes sense that children would exposed to some serious trauma. A Congo. The Lusaka peace accord was a suffer from PTSD, anxiety and/ or de- study was conducted on child soldiers means to help the people of the DRC to pression; providing counseling to these in Uganda, and surveyed 301 children, improve their country. The first set of victims is just one part of healing. all over 12 years old. “On average the initiatives was aimed at creating jobs, When offering therapy for these child children had been exposed to six dif- rebuilding infrastructure and improv- soldiers, a cultural bias is therefore ferent traumatic events (median six; ing conditions for local populations, important in providing wholesome range 0–13). 233 children (77%) saw notably in the areas of education, healing. someone being killed during their ab- health, water and sanitation (Hayes, duction; 18 (6%) saw their own father, Burge, 2003). mother, brother, or sister being killed. 118 children (39%) had to kill another Child Soldiers in South Sudan person themselves; 7 (2%) killed their South Sudan is another country own father, brother, or another rela- where child soldiers were engaged in tive. 184 of the children (61%) lived in fighting. In August 2015, the South Sudan under very difficult conditions; Sudanese government and the rebels 49 of them (27%) had to drink their signed a peace agreement. Both par- own urine. 193 children (64%) were ties agreed to end child soldiering, and forced to participate in fights, 21 of stop using children as a means to fight them (7%) without any military train- battles larger than them. “When lead- ing” (Derluyn, Broekaert, Schuyten, De ers of the South Sudanese government Temmerman, 2004). This shows the and the rebels signed the peace agree- amount of trauma that these children ment in August, both sides claimed experienced. No child should ever have they had stopped using child soldiers. to witness this because their minds But the cease-fire was immediately are not mature enough to process and repeatedly violated. Thousands of it. They will remember these events children were still on the battlefield, forever, and most likely be traumatized Western officials said” (Sieff, 2015). for life because of it. Not only were the humanitarian rights of these children violated, but the hu- Child Soldiers In Democratic Re- manitarian rights of the parents were public of Congo violated as well. These children were One main difference between the used to fight, and it is simply a loss of child soldiers of Uganda, and the child hope for the families of South Sudan. soldiers of the Democratic Republic If the families cannot trust the leaders of Congo, is that the child soldiers in of their country to do what they are

IROHIN | 31 WORKS CITED

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IROHIN | 34 can Art and Culture. New York: Museum for African CHILD SOLDIERS AND HOW TO INTEGRATE THEM Art and Prestel, Print. BACK INTO SOCIETY Willaert, Rita. (2008, November 10). The people of the Nuba KAYLEA BOLLINGER mountains, CC BY-SA 2.0. (Belgium). Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. Bennett, T. W. (1998, December ). Abstracts database - na- php?curid=8054198 tional criminal justice reference service. Retrieved June 23, 2016, from https://www.ncjrs.gov/app/ab- stractdb/AbstractDBDetails.aspx?id=182840 A New Great Leap: China’s Rise in Africa Boatswain, C. (No Date). Uganda: Child soldiers at centre of CHARLENE XU mounting humanitarian crisis. Retrieved June 22, 2016, from http://www.un.org/events/tenstories/06/ Brautigam, D. (2009). The Dragon's Gift: The Real Story of story.asp?storyID=100 China in Africa. New York: Oxford University Press. Burridge, T. (2014, October 27). Retrieved June 23, 2016, Brown, D. E. (2012). Hidden Dragon, Crouching Lion: How from Child soldiers still being recruited in South China's Advane in Africa is Underestimated and Af- Sudan. BBC Africa. Retrieved from http://www.bbc. rica's Potential Underappreciated. U.S. Army Strategic com/news/world-africa-29762263 Strategies Institute. Hayes, K & Burge, R. (2003). Retrieved June 23, 2016, from French, H. W. (2014). China's Second Continent: How a Coltan Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Million Migrants are Building a New Empire in Africa. How tantalum-using industries can commit to the re- New York: Random House LLC. construction of the DRC. Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, UK Gadzala, A. W. (2015). Africa and China: How Africans and Their Governments are Shaping Relations with China. Honwana, A. (2011). Child soldiers in Africa. Retrieved from Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id- =3g0413crXG8C&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=child+so Guest, P. (2013, November 26). And Then There Were ldiers+africa&ots=3A-nCiBtJ4&sig=jDBK-fyRa Three: China's Spending Power Entices Taiwanese Lp-_k2O0pgR00N4sZE#v=onepage&q=child%20sol- Ally. Forbes International. Retrieved from: http:// diers%20africa&f=false www.forbes.com/sites/peteguest/2013/11/26/and- then-there-were-three-chinas-spending-power-entic- Ilse Derluyn, Eric Broekaert, Gilberte Schuyten, Els De es-taiwanese-ally/#221783d93ec9 Temmerman. (13 March 2004). Retrieved June 22, 2016, from Post-traumatic stress in former Ugandan Kishi, R., & Raleigh, C. (2015, December 2). When China child soldiers from The Lancet, Elsevier gives aid to African governments, they become more violent. The Washington Post. Retrieved from: https:// Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., Fairbank, J. A., Schlenger, W. www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/ E., & al, et (1992). Problems in families of male Viet- wp/2015/12/02/when-china-gives-aid-to-african- nam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. governments-they-become-more-violent/ Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(6), 916–926. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.6.916 Kishi, R., & Raleigh, C. (2016). Chinese Official Finance and State Repression in Africa. ACLED Working Papers. Maslen, S. (2000, August 15). The Use of Children as Sol- diers in Africa report. Retrieved June 22, 2016, from Michel, S., & Beuret, M. (2009). China Safari: On the Trail http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resourc- of Beijing's Expansion in Africa. (R. Valley, Trans.) es/C157333FCA91F573C1256C130033E448-chilsold. New York: Nation Books. htm Oirere, S. (2014, November 21). US $12bn Nigerian Coastal Monteiro, C., & Wessells, M. (2005, February ). Retrieved Railway deal signed. Retrieved from International Rail- June 23, 2016, from https://www.researchgate.net/ way Journal: http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/ publication/227628220_Psychosocial_Assistance_for_ africa/$us-12bn-nigerian-coastal-railway-deal-signed. Youth_Toward_Reconstruction_for_Peace_in_Angola html?channel=000 Sieff, K. (2015, November 13). Retrieved June 23, 2016, Patey, L., & Chun, Z. (2015, December 7). Improving the from South Sudan thought it solved its child soldier Sino-African Relationship. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved problem. It hasn’t. Washington Post. Retrieved from from: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/af- https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ rica/2015-12-07/improving-sino-african-relationship south-sudan-thought-it-had-solved-its-child-soldier- Rotberg, R. I. (2008). China Into Africa: Traide, Aid, and problem-it-hasnt/2015/11/12/dc52fe42-8488-11e5- Influence. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution 8bd2-680fff868306_story.html Press. Waldron, A. (2008). China In Africa: A Compendium of Ar- ticles from The Jamestown Foundation's China Brief. Washington, D.C.: The Jamestown Foundation.

IROHIN | 35 TEACHERS’ SUMMER INSTITUTE

The Center for African Studies at the University of Florida is offering a two-week Summer Institute for ten K-12 teachers. The objective of the institute is for participants to increase their knowledge about Africa, including its geography, history, and culture. Participants will develop lesson plans for use in their classrooms. Participation in the summer institute is free. In addition participants will receive a stipend of $700. Alachua county teachers will receive continuing education credit. Partici- pants are responsible for their accommodation.

HOW TO APPLY SEND APPLICATIONS TO: Complete the application below and include the following items: Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie, Outreach Director • A brief statement of at least one page outlining 427 Grinter Hall, P.O. Box 115560, - What you teach Gainesville, FL 32611-5560 - How you would benefit from the institute T | 352.392.2187 - How you would incorporate those benefits in your teaching F | 352.392.2435 • A complete curriculum vitae E | [email protected]

• A letter supporting your application from your school

TEACHER’S SUMMER INSTITUTE APPLICATION

Name Email

DOB Telephone: Office / Personal

School Affiliation & Address Home Mailing Address

Grades & Courses You Teach

Highest Degree Discipline Institution

IROHIN | 36