A Study of Kwame Nkrumah's Pan-Africanism
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Ghana's Foreign Policy Post-Independence: A study of Kwame Nkrumah's Pan-Africanism Author Asante, Charles Published 2018-12 Thesis Type Thesis (PhD Doctorate) School School of Govt & Int Relations DOI https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/1875 Copyright Statement The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/385870 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au Ghana’s Foreign Policy Post-Independence: A study of Kwame Nkrumah’s Pan-Africanism Charles Asante B.Ed. (Hons) Social Studies MA International Security and Development School of Government and International Relations Griffith Business School Griffith University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. December 2018 Abstract This thesis employs the norm entrepreneurship approach to explore Ghana’s foreign policy during the post-independence era, with a particular focus on the country’s first President Kwame Nkrumah’s policy of Pan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism may be defined as the idea of protecting Africa’s self- determination, and promoting a sense of consciousness and group solidarity amongst people of African origin. This thesis critically examines Nkrumah’s leadership in the post-independence period, and the way in which his Pan-African ideal and legacy has continued to influence Ghana’s foreign policy engagement in the African region. In tracing the evolution of Ghana’s foreign policy under Nkrumah, two main cases are examined — Ghana’s peacekeeping engagement in the 1960–1964 Congo mission and the creation of a continental bloc, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. Norm entrepreneurship theory provides new insight into Nkrumah’s attempts to reinforce, articulate, and communicate his vision of Pan-Africanism. Buoyed by his success post-Ghana’s independence, Nkrumah continued to present himself as a crucial vehicle for protecting Africa’s political and economic independence. The concept of Pan-Africanism was vital in assisting Nkrumah articulate and champion Ghana’s path to achieve independence. It served to establish his leadership and his political networks. However, his devotion to the promotion of the Pan-African norm during his Presidency compromised his foreign policy choices and decisions; it was also paradoxical in view of the increasingly authoritarian leadership style he adopted in Ghana. This thesis presents the complexity of post-independence foreign policy decision making and the influence of the post-colonial narrative. Leaders such as Nkrumah considered themselves as the redeemers of Africa’s political and economic vulnerability from its colonial experiences. This thesis finds that, in contrast to the positive experience associated with his independence movement for Ghana, Nkrumah could not build the same kind of vision, engagement, and networks necessary for successful promotion of a Pan-African region. Despite Nkrumah’s own foreign policy failures in the Congo and OAU’s formation, as well as his sudden departure after a military coup, Nkrumah’s Pan-African vision is still promoted as an important foreign policy legacy by Ghana’s politicians, public servants, military, and academics. I argue that this legacy endures because the independent, post-colonial narrative matters as much as the promotion of geopolitical and material interests. The struggle for independence and the right to independent self-determination was not just a geopolitical fight; it was a deeply personal one in the case of Nkrumah and the Ghanaian population. 2 Statement of Originality This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. Charles Asante 14 December 2018 Disclosure This research was conducted with human ethical clearance protocol GU 2016/291. I have kept the names of respondents confidential in accordance with their preferences. I can give the names of all respondents to an examiner upon request. 3 Acknowledgements Dedicated to my late mother Ama and my late sister Yaa. To my wife Ewurakua, and children Nhyira and Nana Kwame. The completion of this milestone would not have been successful without the support of many individuals. In particular, a big thank you to my supervisor Associate Professor Sara Davies — her patience with me was awe-inspiring. Her comments, feedback, encouragement and guidance are very much appreciated. She makes academic life pleasant for her students. In spite of the fact that I sometimes made things hard for her in the course of the project, she made time for me — and continuously supported me. Right from the onset, she helped me to understand the direction of the thesis — with her profound expertise — which rekindled my enthusiasm for the project. Indeed, her inspiration and guidance were pivotal in shaping my PhD endeavour. Associate Professor Sara Davies, thank you so much for your belief in my project, and for immensely supporting its realisation. I will forever remain indebted to you. I would also like to express my gratitude to my other supervisors, Associate Professor Wesley Widmaier and Associate Professor Luis Cabrera, for their support in making this research project a success. My profound gratitude extends to Professor Alex Bellamy whose support, advice and guidance laid the foundation for my study at Griffith University. I am also grateful to other staff of the School of Government and International Relations, who in various ways supported me. To Associate Professor Robyn Hollander, Professor Haig Patapan, Professor Yi-chong Xu and Dr Annika Werner — thank you all for your assistance. I am grateful to Julie Howe, Angela MacDonald and Tracee McPate — without your behind-the- scenes efforts, it would not have been possible for me to complete my programme. I also want to thank some people who assisted me during my field trip to Accra, Ghana — their assistance helped me to access some relevant and significant information and materials for my project. Many thanks to the Director, Faculty of Academic Affairs and Research at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Centre, Dr Kwesi Aning, who helped me to obtain access to the institution’s library throughout my stay in Accra. My profound gratitude is also directed to the staff at the University of Ghana Libraries — Balme Library, LECIAD Library and the Institute of African Studies Library. I must thank the workers at the Ghana Public Records and Archives Administration Department for permitting me to use their facility while 4 in Ghana for my field work. I would also like to thank the staff of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration, as well as the Parliament House, Ghana, for allowing me to visit their premises on daily basis for my research. I am particularly grateful to all the interviewees who participated in my research. Thanks also to Daniela Di Piramo for her editorial assistance. To the Honourable Emmanuel Kwasi Bedzra, Michael Kwesi Oteng and Justice Samuel Kwame Asiedu, thanks for being true friends and supporting me in times of difficulties. Finally, I am eternally thankful to my family — my wife and children for their prayers, love and support — particularly throughout the years I have been away from them. To my wife, Ewurakua, you believed in me and stood by me all these years particularly during the period we have been apart. You never complained about my absence from you and the children — as I continuously sought to further my education for the betterment of the family. Thank you very much for your patience, unfailing support and words of encouragement. 5 Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... 4 List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................................ 9 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 11 Background ........................................................................................................................ 11 Research Question ............................................................................................................. 13 Research Background ........................................................................................................ 13 Importance of the Case: Ghana and Nkrumah ................................................................. 17 The Norm Entrepreneurship Approach ............................................................................. 18 Ghana’s Post-Colonial History and How it Has Been Understood .................................... 19 The role of the political elite (The Nkrumah factor) ..................................................... 20 Militarisation ................................................................................................................. 23 Understanding Nkrumah’s Normative Legacy .................................................................. 25 Methodology .....................................................................................................................