19781No. 49 Africa

Politics in , 197t by Barbara Harrell-Bonc

In March 1978 Ghana held a referendum on union government and in November it lifted the ban on political party activity. But the attempt to remtroduce civ~lianrule is p ~edby economlc problems of , standmg. [BHB-3-'781 The American Universities Field INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS American Staff, Inc., founded in 1951, is a non- profit, membership corporation of University of Alabama American educational institutions. It The Asia Society Universities employs a full-time staff of foreign area specialists who write from Brown University abroad and make periodic visits to Dartmouth College Field Staff member institutions. AUFS serves Indiana University the public through its seminar pro- Institute for the Study of World grams, films, and wide-ranging pub- Politics lications on significant develop- University of Connecticut ments in foreign societies. University of Kansas Michigan State University Ramapo College of New Jersey University of Pittsburgh University of Wisconsin

AUFS Reports are a continuing Associates of the Field Staff are Reports series on international affairs and chosen for their ability to cut across major global issues of our time. the boundaries of the academic dis- Reports have for almost three ciplines in order to study societies in decades reached a group of their totality, and for their skill in col- readers-both academic and non- lecting, reporting, and evaluating academic-who find them a useful data. They combine long residence source of firsthand observation of abroad with scholarly studies relat- political, economic, and social trends ing to their geographic areas of in foreign countries. Reports in the interest. Each Field Staff Associate series are prepared by writers who returns to the United States periodi- are full-time Associates of the cally to lecture on the campuses of American Universities Field Staff the consortium's member institu- and occasionally by persons on leave tions. from the organizations and univer- sities that are the Field Staff's spon- sors.

THE AUTHOR BARBARA E. HARRELL-BOND is a the Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden. Ap- social anthropologist who has conducted pointed a Senior Research Fellow at the research in and in West Africa. School of Law, University of Warwick, in Her special interests are family, urban 1976, Dr. Harrell-Bond joined the Field problems, law, and the history of the im- Staff in 1978 to report on West Africa. position of alien law in colonial Africa. She received a B. Litt. and D. Phil. in anthropology from the University of Oxford. Her publications include Modern Marriage in Sierra Leone: A Study of the Professional Group and Community Leadership and the Transformation of Freetown (1801-19761, the latter being co-researched and written with two historians, Dr. Allan Howard and Dr. David Skinner. She has also published widely in academic journals, lectured in a number of universities including the Uni- versity of Illinois (Urbana), the University @ 1979, American Universities Field of ~~l~i~~~,and the universityof Staff, Hanover, NH Warsaw, and was a Visiting Scholar at 19781No. 49 by Barbara Harrell-Bond Politics in Ghana, 1978 Africa [ BB-3-'781

So let us look at history as history- the end of the first political era in The rebuilding is taking place in an men placed in actual contexts which independent Ghana. atmosphere of political and they have not chosen, and economic crisis more serious than at confronted by indivertible forces, The Supreme Military Council is any previous time in Ghana's with an overwhelming immediac y of committed to a "return to independent history. The first relations and duties and with only a constitutional rule" with a National measure carried out by the newly scanty opportunity for inserting Interim Government to be elected in installed Akuffo was the devaluation their own agency -and not as a text . The Supreme Military of the cedi, which resulted in a for hectoring might-have-beens. Council had banned all political party general price rise of 140 percent. activity and in the district council Food prices have risen elections which were held in continually: by March 1977 they The Making of the British November 1978, candidates were were 13 times higher than in 1963 Working Class allowed to campaign on the basis of and they have skyrocketed since individual merit, but not to identify then, the rate of inflation running at themselves with a political party: 500 percent. "Each candidate should win or lose The period 1969-1978 is a elections purely on his own merit Within four months of the particularly interesting decade in and consequent upon the natural or overthrow of General Acheampong, Ghana's political history. It began charismatic qualities he possesses General Akuffo cited economic with the promulgation of a new as well as the concrete contributions problems to justify extraordinary Constitution and the election of a he has personally made to the measures to deal with growing civilian government. Since then socioeconomic advancement of his industrial unrest. Declaring a state Ghana has undergone a district" (Daily Graphic). of emergency on November 6,1978, militarylpolice coup d'etat in 1972, General Akuffo listed 80 different seven years of military There is some evidence, however, strikes in the country affecting every dictatorship-it was interrupted by that Dr. Nkrumah's Convention sector of the economy. He warned the forced "resignation" of General People's Party (CPP) and Dr. that strikers who had not returned Acheampong in July 1978 as head Busia's (PP) are to work by 8 A.M. the following of the military government (he was actively rebuilding their party morning could consider themselves replaced by Lieutenant General machines around a number of still dismissed. A week later there F.W.K. Akuffol-and seems likely influential figures who served in seemed to be little evidence that his to return to some form of previous governments. Some of the warning had produced the desired constitutional rule in 1979. most prominent are Mr. J.H. effect and so all military police and Mensah, Minister of Finance under prison staff who were on leave were During this period both of Ghana's Nkrumah; Mr. , ordered to report immediately for only civilian leaders have died in Minister of Justice under Busia; duty. exile. Dr. , first General , who Prime Minister and President, died succeeded General J. Ankrah as Such strikes, particularly the in Romania in May 1972 and Dr. Kofi head of state before the National electricity strike, are only one of the Busia, who was elected Prime Liberation Council handed over many problems the military ., ., Minister in 1969, died in Oxford, power to Dr. Busia's elected government must face in a situation England, in August 1978. Once government; and Mr. William where the working classes are leaders of the two main political Ofori-Atta, Foreign Minister under finding it difficult even to buy food parties in Ghana, their deaths mark Busia. for one meal a day. The order to return to work is likely to contribute choice of this date is highly central Ashanti kingdom under the to the climate of tension and significant, for during the first ten Asantehene. He was exiled in 1896 uncertainty. years of Nkrumah's Convention after his defeat by the British, and People's Party there were no only returned to Ghana in 1925. Free Background to Crisis attempts to make structural trade along the Gold Coast was changes of any kind in the replaced by colonial management of One feels hesitant to report on the economy. A symbiotic relationship the peasant export economy, contemporary political situation in between Britain and Ghana for the supplemented by the mining of gold Ghana in case the information will marketing of cocoa, Ghana's chief and manganese. By 1931 smaller be superficially interpreted and lend export, preserved the old colonial competitors, both foreign and support to the widespread view in ties, and at the same time, helped African, had been effectively the West that Africans were the CPP to consolidate its influence. eliminated by a small group of insufficiently prepared for Between 1961 and 1966 Nkrumah trading companies, themselves independence or that they are not attempted to take the first steps dominated by the United Africa "mature" enough to govern toward uprooting the actual causes Company. Until the Second World themselves. Such inaccurate or of the disease from which Ghana, War the role of the state in the even racist interpretations of events like most other Third World economy was minimal beyond in Ghana are illustrated by the fact countries, is suffering. Ghana's providing for the coercive forces to that ever since the overthrow of experiment in socialism failed protect the peace required for the Nkrumah in 1966 observers of the because the attempt to break with activities of the companies. repeated crises in Ghana have its colonial past was not soon or pointed out that the "present ills" complete enough. The financial crisis that confronted have been inherited from a previous Britain during and after the war inept and corrupt government or motivated the Colonial Office to governments. The present Ghana was the first sub-Saharan develop efficient state institutions economic problems of Ghana are African colony to be granted which would control the said to stem from the 1960s. The independence from Britain. Whether because of this, or because expropriation of wealth from all the of its economic importance to colonies. Ghana's role in providing Britain at the time of independence, Britain with capital during the war or because of Nkrumah's personal and throughout the postwar period influence throughout Africa, was larger than that of any other Ghana's political history has been colony with the exception of the subject of many extended ~ala~a?The primary means by surveys.' As a result there is a fairly which this transfer of wealth was complete documentation of the accomplished was through the processes whereby Ghana's present establishment of a network of state of underdevelopment has been marketing boards, of which the achieved, making it a classic Cocoa Marketing Board in the Gold example for analysis of the Coast was only one example. In economic dependency relations West Africa there was a marketing which persist between metropolitan board for every commodity through countries and the Third World. which the British," once the free trade center of the world, carried The at the level of out what was perhaps the most the state is one in which ideologies, thorough-going attempt to control Lieutenant-General Akwasi Afrifa being despite Nkrumah's "socialist the marketplace since the Diocletian sworn in as President of the National leanings," have been of little d ode."^ Liberation Council in April 1969. He was chairman of a three-man Presidential importance. It is a history in which Commission that was dissolved in the state apparatus has remained The boards, which controlled August 1970, and now is a leading relatively untroubled by apparent practically 100 percent of member of the People's Movement for changes in political direction from agricultural exports, all operated in Freedom and Justice formed in January the top and has been relatively the same manner. First they 1978. untouched by "their differing established buying and selling touches on the tiller." The monopolies, set producer prices well machinery of Ghana's state has a below the world market price, and "The strength of the police force and trajectory of its own. scooped in the difference. These the power of the army art?proportionate surpluses were then invested in to the stagnation in which the rest of the long-term British government nation is sunk." British rule was established in the area now called Ghana in 1900 after securities at remarkably low interest Frantz Fanon a period of armed resistance by the rates which were, in turn, reinvested. Between 1950 and 1957, Ghana's cocoa alone provided the mother country with f 1,322.4 mi~lion.~

To trace the complicated saga of the development of the social, economic, political, and educational elite within Ghana during the colonial period is beyond the scope of this Report. Suffice it to say that by the time the British handed over political power they had established institutions and a bureaucracy designed to protect their economic interests complete with an educated indigenous elite to staff them. Observers have noted two factors which shaped the national consciousness of the professional strata in postwar Ghana. The first was their symbiotic relationship with the colonial government and conception of themselves as themselves as heirs-apparent to General I.K. Acheampong, Ghana's political and cultural mediators British colonial rule. former Head of State and chairman of between the British and their own the Supreme Military Council. He was traditional rulers. They were The second factor was the struggle repiaced in July 1978. competitors with these rulers for with the British import-export independence were acutely aware British favor and they viewed oligopoly. Only 13 firms controlled that Britain would only withdraw prices in Ghana; they also controlled when "suitable" political machinery import licenses and wholesale had been created and "tamed" credit. The only economic activities politicians were available to the Ghanaian trader could engage in continue serving her economic freely were those these companies interests. This awareness had an deemed too insignificant to merit important impact upon the their concern. Because cocoa development of political parties and production was left in the hands of platforms in the pre-independence Ghanaian farmers and was period. Britain's acceptance of accumulated by the buyer at the Nkrumah and his CPP as the port, there was ample opportunity "obvious people's choice" for ruling for Ghanaian middlemen to the independent Ghanaian state was penetrate the rural areas to organize possible only after the party had transport of this and other proved itself cooperative and the commodities, to collect the British were assured that after produce, and to provide financial Dr. Kofi Busia, Prime Minister of Ghana independence all the old colonial from October 1969 to January 1972. backing to landowners. These institutions would be maintained: middlemen were dependent upon the substance of economic the large foreign-owned firms for domination. In its managerial "Oxford has made me what 1am today. 1 capital and these same firms were capacity the colonial state had have had eleven years contact with it their only customers. When the organized the infrastructure and and now consider it m y second home. middlemen tried to circumvent imposed monetization, an Most of my friends are here." these economic restrictions by institutionalized political order, and selling directly on the world market, an educational and legal system all K.A. Busia, 1950 their efforts were easily suppressed designed to guarantee the safety of "A permanent wish for identification by their creditors. British capital. with the bourgeois representatives of the mother country is to be found Those elites who were employed as The newly independent government among the native intellectuals and intermediaries by the colonial power had learned its lessons well. The merchants." and who had ambitions for Convention People's Party kept the Frantz Fanon controlling political power after Cocoa Marketing Board intact as a source of state revenue and even required for the operation of the created a new institution, the Cocoa project. This means thatf400,OOO Purchasing Company, which sought worth of capital was invested per to establish a monopoly on man. purchasing. In the meantime, the surpluses from these institutions The early British plans for the Volta continued to accumulate in British project before 1956 had included an banks. Development within the integrated aluminum industry using country was to be accomplished hydroelectric power to refine through foreign investment which Ghanaian bauxite. It was also failed to materialize. In formulating intended that an irrigation project its economic policy, Ghana was would be included as well as the guided by an economist named W. development of a fishing industry. In Arthur Lewis, whose advocacy of 1958 Nkrumah turned to Edgar total dependence on foreign capital Kaiser who, because no other to industrialize the country almost aluminum company was interested, brought complete disaster. In the was able to drive a very hard President Kwarne Nkrurnah waves to first four years of independence bargain. As a result, the Kaiser crowds outside the State House with Ghana's balance of payments project did not provide for irrigation President Sekou Tour6 of Guinea, July position deteriorated rapidly and her or fishing and the public utilities 7, 1960. external reserves were seriously project was separated from the depleted. The few feeble attempts aluminum industry. deliberate attempts by the United at industrialization were financed by States and Britain to overthrow his loans. Most important, as the article by regime. The answer is to be found in Fitch and Oppenheimer points out, the fact that there were two distinct Ghana did not get an integrated periods during Nkrumah's rule: one By 1964 the economy began to be aluminum industry. It only got a was a pro-Western Ghana which disrupted by Ghana's mounting smelter. Moreover, this smelter lasted from 1957 to 1961 and the foreign debts. In that year these imports alumina which has been second was a pro-socialist Ghana obligations reached f349.2 million mined in Jamaica and processed in from 1961 to February 1966. During and confidence in her ability to pay the United States. The development the first period Ghana operated as was proportionately diminished. of Ghana's own mines has been an ordinary neo-colony stagnating Despite its increasing economic "deferred" indefinitely. within the British sphere of problems during this period, many influence. The British pound sterling observers point to the Volta River Why should Kaiser ship alumina was its "anchor of safety" and it project-the dam and aluminum from abroad to Ghana when bauxite kept its reserves in London instead smelter complex which was deposits lie so near the new source of . It allowed British banks, financed by the World Bank and the of power? The answer is that the foreign firms, and "development" Kaiser Company-as evidence that price of power Kaiser contracted to aid to deflate the economy Lewis's faith in foreign capital buy from Ghana was so low it was systematically. investment was not totally more profitable to import alumina misguided. It has been widely than to utilize local resources. Had During the period between 1961 and acclaimed as a successful example Ghana been able to set a higher- 1966 Ghana attempted to adopt of one possible way of developing than-cost price for its power, socialist planning techniques. It tried an industrial African economy. But Kaiser might have been willing to to build up the state industrial sector what exactly has the Volta project develop the local bauxite deposits. and sought to bring the British done for Ghanaians? The contract, however, runs for 30 banks under some measure of years. While Ghana may have control. hydroelectric power, it did not have Historical accurac y is not the only The Volta Project and still does not have the resources reason for emphasizing the to build its own factories. The dam at Akosombo is capable of existence of two stages of Ghanaian generating 833,000 kilowatts and history and attempting to describe behind it is a lake which is The Nkrumah Period how one stage led to the next. There potentially suitable for inland How did Nkrumah, who was so are also important political reasons. fishing. The power from the dam willing to follow the economic policy By telescoping Ghanaian history runs a smelter (but not an aluminum advised by Britain and other into one horrendous "socialistic- factory) located nearby at Tema. Western nations, come to be the communistic dictatorship," the The project does not provide many target of vicious attacks by the free NA TO intellectuals are able to jobs: the early estimates indicated world? Ultimately there were rumors ignore the neocolonial background that only 145 employees were and even documented incidents of from which Ghana tried to escape; they are not required to defend the Democracy in Ghana 1969-1972 Ghana needed a sound, embarrassing Lewis period. This comprehensive strategy for The National Liberation Council period provides an obvious case economic recovery and social fulfilled its promise to return the study of how the most "affluent" of reform; instead Busia produced a country to constitutional rule in the oppressed nations carefully series of sweeping yet disconnected 1969. The Constitution was drafted measures. In December 1969, followed the orthodox teachings of under the chairmanship of the then almost without warning he a respected NATO intellectual and Chief Justice Edward Akuffo-Addo, expelled thousands of achieved rapid progress to the brink who later became the non-executive aliens- Nigerians, Beninois, and of economic disaster.' in 1970 after the Togolese-a policy which was Presidential Council, composed of supposed to encourage indigenous Whether or not Western powers the NLC leaders, disbanded itself. capitalism. As one Ghanaian wrote, were accomplices in the Ghana The Constitution was said to bear "Thousands of Nigerians who were coup which overthrew Nkrumah in the imprint of Dr. Kofi Busia's born in Ghana, and whose parents 1966 remains an open question. influence. As Director of the Centre and grandparents were born there, Certainly intelligence agencies and for Civic Education under the NLC were deported.. . . They were not financial and trading interests regime, Busia had a platform to allowed to take with them more helped create an environment in proclaim his ideas on liberal than a bare minimum of cedis. It did which the indigenous coup-makers democracy. His series of lectures not matter to Busia.. .that most of felt sure that a move against entitled "What went wrong?" was these people had no home in Nkrumah would be greeted by aimed at justifying the overthrow of .. .and that in the process of enthusiastic approval from the Nkrumah on the grounds of the deportation many innocent children West. Like all Third World countries, restoration of a liberal democracy in died" (West Africa, October 30, Ghana had been caught between Ghana. the falling prices for primary exports 1978). The civil service was the next The election was freely contested and the increasing costs of industrial to experience this style of and has been described as and other imports. The main government: 568 public officers "scrupulously conducted." Ghana's sources of credit were the were dismissed in 1970. When the political parties have never had a international agencies-supposedly courts reacted favorably to an broad popular base in terms of disinterested mechanisms of appeal for redress from one of these numbers voting in elections, but Dr. international aid cooperation whose officers, Busia warned the judges Busia's Progress Party won a policies, nonetheless, are that if they wanted to play politics, sweeping victory which should have preoccupied with the needs and he was "ready to take them on." been predictable. He was an Akan, policies of the creditors. A regime Within a year economic problems, the ethnic group that forms nearly that was flirting with the Soviet bloc aggravated by the fall in cocoa half the population, and was said to could certainly not provide the prices, sent the cost of foodstuffs be in close touch with the dominant "climate of confidence" required by and imported items soaring. Busia's Akan group on the National these agencies for the subvention of policy of liberalization of import Liberation Council. For those capital from those whose interests practices resulted in a budget deficit Ghanaians who participated in the were jeopardized by Nkrumah's of £60 million sterling which was election, Busia represented a new socialist leanings. nearly double that for the previous start in national life. year. There was also the looming problem of the repayment of debts The National Liberation Council Busia was a well-known academic, scheduled for 1972. (NLC) assumed power in February having taken his degrees at the 1966 after a coup d'Qtat and its University of Oxford, and had policies represented the approved written two books on social change The 1971 budget contained a swing to the right. There was a in Ghana. According to the Legon number of drastic measures to general rejoicing in Ghana as well as Observer (September 15,19781, control the situation. These included in London and elsewhere. Editorials Busia was a "brilliant administrator the imposition of bans or prohibitive in the British press declared that during colonial days" and he has taxes on a wide range of imports, "Ghana would be worth salvaging been quoted as saying that Ghana the removal of certain benefits to again" and "Ghana has swung back was not sufficiently prepared for civil servants, such as car to reliance on the West." Although independence by the British, a allowances, and the imposition of a the NLC governed Ghana for three statement which must have warmed 5 percent "national development" and a half years, it was clear from the hearts of Western observers. levy on incomes. University the outset that its rule was Although the Busia regime was students were included in a new temporary and the Council began characterized by high intellectual scheme to make the cost of higher almost immediately to put in motion caliber, this was shown to be quite a education a repayable loan. But the machinery of constitutional different thing from the political despite these austerity measures the reform whereby it could be replaced acumen and policy-making qualities economic situation continued to by civilian rulers. which the situation required. deteriorate and in November 1971 the cedi was unexpectedly pegged sealed the fate of the government. repudiating £35 million worth of to the dollar. When this had no On January 13,1972 the armed debts (half of them owed to Britain) effect, there was an official forces and the police brought an incurred during Nkrumah's regime. devaluation of the cedi by 44 abrupt end to civilian rule after little The publicity surrounding this move percent, which meant that Ghana more than two years. Busia, a covered up some rather delicate had to pay as much as 93 percent severe diabetic, was out of the negotiations with Ghana's main more cedis to acquire one pound country at the time, having flown to creditors- Britain, France, West sterling. The price of local and London for medical treatment. Germany, the United States, Japan, imported goods again rose sharply. Italy, Canada, and Israel-because Busia's attempt at liberal democracy there remained some fl00 million in The 5 percent development levy hit failed, according to some observers, short-term debts, including profits the pockets of all sectors of the on several counts. These included and dividends, which had not been population, including the military. corruption, tribalism, and remitted. The workers' reaction to their neocolonialism. The expulsion of deteriorating standard of living was African "aliens" was only one of The rhetoric of the new military most consistent. There had been a many actions which centralized the government was distinctly wave of strikes in 1968 for more pay, control of patronage in the hands of progressive and Ghanaians were and late in 1969 Busia's government a few government officials. Busia informed by the state-owned media had rejected a demand from the caused a controversy in his own that there was a revolution going Trades Union Congress to raise the Cabinet over his policy of dialogue on. Enthusiasm for the regime was daily minimum wage from 75 with South Africa-a policy that ran encouraged by abolishing the pesewas to one cedi. The contrary to popular opinion, both student loan scheme, raising the development levy set off more domestic and continental. Perhaps daily minimum wage for workers to strikes in 1971 and thousands of the most telling legacy of this period GI, and the "Yentua" policy. workers were sacked. As the fears of ineffectual government was the Support from the students was of a general strike grew, the need to pass blanket legislation short-lived, however, because the government increased pressure on prohibiting any attempt to promote NRC found it expedient to the TUC and in September 1971 it the rehabilitation of Nkrumah. One reintroduce the university loan froze the union's assets, then act banned the sale or display of any scheme in 1974. Workers' support rushed legislation dissolving the publication or pictures, T-shirts, or also faded quickly and by April 1973 TUC through parliament in one day objects related to Kwame Nkrumah, Major Kwame Asante, in an effort to smash the power of another protected the Prime Commissioner for Labor, Social organized labor in Ghana. Minister from "insult." Welfare and Cooperatives, announced that "Trade Union On the positive side of Busia's The "January 13 Revolution" officials and workers engaging in ledger it may be said that during his The 1972 coup d'6tat was led by industrial strikes in Ghana will in the short regime opposition parties were Lieutenant Colonel (later General) future be tried by military tribunal allowed to organize and they lgnatius Kutu Acheampong and under the subversion decree" (West remained relatively unhampered in established the National Africa, March 16, 1973). their activities. An Ombudsman Act Redemption Council (NRC), (19701, the Chieftaincy Act of 1971 composed of military and police Other progressive policies of (whichwas aimed at relieving personnel. Although two days later self-reliance were genuinely popular traditional authorities of political Major-General Akwasi Afrifa and, given the circumstances, interference and establishing allegedly attempted to stage a reasonably successful. "Operation national and regional houses of countercoup and was arrested, the Feed Yourself," by which the chiefs), and the Lands Commission new government was generally government hoped to make Ghana Act (1971) were all examples of welcomed by the opposition, the self-sufficient in food production, liberalizing legislation. A Rural Justice Party, and by the Trades was followed by "Operation Feed Development Fund was established Union Congress. Commissions of Your Industries," which was in 1970 in an attempt to alleviate inquiry were set up to examine the launched in 1975 and aimed to some of the most urgent problems assets of members of the former eliminate Ghana's dependence upon in the rural area. government and several arrests industrial raw material imports, were made. The currency was mainly by supplying cotton for the By the end of 1971, however, revalued by 42 percent, bringing textile industry. The programs Busia's government was generally the cedi to the equivalent of 78 U.S. improved the economic situation unpopular. The devaluation of the cents. The development levy was and trade surpluses were recorded cedi, together with the decision to abolished, the TUC was in the first two years of their reduce the annual budget for reconstituted, and, much more operation. But the general picture of military spending by C240 million, dramatic, the NRC declared Ghana's industries shows a vicious were probably the two acts which "Yentua" (we shall not pay) by circle of underutilized capacity, and an excessive dependence on new state of Guinea-Bissau and Armed soldiers were much in imports for the inefficient trade was revived with both the evidence and their frequent production of final consumer goods U.S.S.R. and China. The issue of gratuitous acts of violence against which contribute little to the balance repudiation of Nkrumah's debts was "economic saboteurs" or "enemies of payments. An idea of the degree renegotiated and the IMF and the of the revolution"-workers who of dependence of Ghana's World Bank continued to give soft arrived late on the job, or industries on imports can be gained loans. All these debts in addition to bystanders-strirred considerable from Ghana Commercial Bank those inherited from the Busia popular discontent. One figures which indicate that only regime imposed an extremely heavy confrontation between military about 14 percent of the total burden on the NRC budget. personnel and a student resulted in, material inputs are supplied demonstrations in Accra, Kumasi, internally. The oil crisis affected the By 1973, however, more serious and Cape Coast, and all three economic recovery adversely and problems began to emerge. universities were closed for almost resulted in a 1974 budget that Increasing corruption and three months. As the economic included tax increases on consumer smuggling in the commercial sector situation deteriorated steadily, goods and the removal of subsidies and other malpractices aggravated strikes broke out in Tema, Takoradi, on food imports. Once again food the shortages of imported consumer Kumasi, and Accra, but these were prices began to rise. goods. The suspension of food ended by the army. In January 1975 subsidies in February 1973 caused when the workers at the University The death of Kwame Nkrumah in prices to rise suddenly, fueling the of Ghana-Legon campus went on exile in May 1972 and the black-market activities of people strike and closed the university subsequent diplomatic and political whom the NRC called "hoarders, gates, armed riot policemen moves to return his body from its smugglers, profiteers, economic intervened and a student was killed temporary grave in Guinea for burial saboteurs and nation-wreckers." (WestAfrica, October 23,1978). in his home country tended to Later that year, the Commissioner increase the popularity of the NRC for Information, Lieutenant Colonel By 1976 corruption in import regime. A Charter of Redemption Benni, held a press conference in licensing and in the distribution of was published by the National which he intended to call on his basic consumer goods had reached Redemption Council and the first of colleagues to go back to the such proportions that the NRC its seven principles stated that barracks since they were no less decreed that such items as milk, Ghanaians were "one people," "one corrupt, and no less incompetent, sugar, washing soap, tinned fish, nation," and had "one heritage." than the civilian government they and toothpaste were to be allocated The 1969 Constitution was had overthrown. The press to designated supermarkets and suspended, the Supreme Court was conference was broken up by armed anyone else caught selling them abolished, and the military tribunal soldiers who seized copies of the would be subject to fines and was declared the highest court. All prepared statement. imprisonment. This policy did not forms of political activity were banned. Although there was some speculation that when General Acheampong led the 20,000 mourners for Nkrumah to his burial place at Nkroful (his birthplace in the Western Region) there would be a revival of his policies, the resurgence of Nkrumahism was limited to the circulation of his writings and his reinstatement as a "great nationalist leader."

The NRC followed a pragmatic approach to its external economic relations. Ghana made a grant to the

The main entrance to the , Legon. It was an apparently unlikely scene for striking workers in a confrontation with riot police. An unfortunate student returning from town got caught up in the turmoil here and was fatally shot by what authorities called 'astray bullet." seem to curb black-market activities the Supreme Military Council with such as automobiles, motorcycles, and speculation. Prices rose and General Acheampong still Head of armored cars, and six Macchi jet smuggling to and from neighboring State a.nd Chairman of the SMC. fig hter-trainers. countries increased. Distribution of Power struggles within the military essential commodities had been the continued and "corruption charges" To finance the growing gap responsibility of a Logistics were made against some of the between income and expenditure, Committee under the NRC, but this losers. A number of cases were tried the Supreme Military Council was was dissolved when several cases of and death sentences passed, borrowing heavily and forcing the "diversion of goods" were although most were later commuted Bank of Ghana to issue increasing discovered. In one instance a to life imprisonment-a fairly quantities of currency. The 1978179 woman was said to have received standard practice in Ghanaian budget statement revealed that half the total allocation for an entire political history. whereas money supply rose region. Articulated lorries belonging annually by 20 percent between to the Ghana National Trading By 1977 the economic situation 1960 and 1965, by less than 2 Corporation, a state-owned became all-important and generated percent per year from 1965 to 1969, enterprise with 400 retail outlets, a political crisis which persists to and by less than 7.5 percent during were seen discharging this day. The situation has been each of the years of Busia's regime, consignments of consumer goods at summarized best in a formal it had been rising by over 80 percent the homes of well-connected statement of the Association of since 1972. It also revealed that from individuals. University Teachers: 1976 onward when production was The Ghana Association of stagnating around 30 percent of University Teachers issued a Ghana after five years of military installed capacity, C1 billion had statement in July 1977 objecting to government has reached an been pumped into a seriously the Specified Commodities Decree unprecedented national crisis. The dislocated economy and the value which allowed a small minority of national economy has ground to a of the cedi had been declining by 10 individuals to control the nation's halt. The shops are lined with rows percent each month. entire stock of scarce commodities and rows of empty shelves. There and to secure them for personal are shortages of the basic and Inflation had risen by over 100 consumption or diversion to clients essential imported and local percent a year and black-market at a profit. The association accused commodities, of medical drugs, speculation was fueled by the the instigators of the decree of items of daily consumption, and overvalued cedi. Corruption was subsidizing the living standards of local and imported food. systematized in all sectors. those in positions of power and Smuggling of cocoa and essential privilege and removing from Queueing for long periods for the commodities to neighboring Togo circulation those commodities to barest essentials such as soap, milk, and the lvory Coast to obtain CFA which the working Ghanaians were and sugar became a routine in the francs and strong foreign currencies entitled through their labor. cities and the situation in the rural became common practice. It is areas was even more serious. estimated that up to 45,000 tons of Why and how was this exploitation the 1977 crop of cocoa was possible?Was it related to the The Supreme Military Council smuggled to the lvory Coast alone inability of past and present and it is now alleged that military attributed the economic difficulties governments to check bribery and to "global inflation" caused by the personnel were actively involved. corruption in society, which is itself 1973 oil price rises and the resulting Obviously, some military complicity undergirded by the elite's (urban shortages in foreign exchange. At among the border guard was and rural) manipulation of the the same time, however, cocoa was required since the cocoa was administrative apparatus to commanding record prices. In 1976 transported across the border in distribute unevenly the national it exceeded £2000 per ton and by large articulated lorries. wealth that has been generated in 1977 it was fetching £3340, a sharp the main by the cocoa growers? contrast to the price of £85 per ton The agricultural policy was in ruins. Since the beginning of the century, just before Nkrumah was There were serious shortages of all cocoa has been the largest earner of overthrown. The question of where staple foods by 1977, including rice, foreign exchange for Ghana, this money was going became a maize, yam, cassava, gari, plantain, contributing over 66 percent of its matter of public concern, and cassava leaf and other vegetables, annual receipts. Yet the cocoa military expenditures were one and much foreign currency had to farming group consumes relatively obvious answer. It has been alleged be spent on food imports. The most little of the imported commodities. It that C20 million were paid out in serious result of the regime's is one of the most exploited groups 1976 for business and agricultural agricultural policy was the manner in Ghanaian society. loans, car imports, and housing in which it complicated the famine Internal problems led the military schemes to military personnel in situation in the north. The drought regime to inaugurate a new body: addition to purchases of equipment in certain areas in 1975 and 1976 had an aggravating effect on the observers" as the British Member of referendum would be held on the negative aspects of government- Parliament, Mr. Peter Emery, who main issue which concerned the financed development projects. himself has substantial business professionals and the student Loans and other imports had gone interests in Ghana, to make a tour to opposition movement. This was the to those would could engage in the north to investigate and report public discussion over union large-scale farming, usually on the situation. He returned to government. absentee landlords often growing Accra and then on to London to nonfood crops, and the resulting announce that there was "no Union Government land shortage crippled the famine in the north." In October 1976 General production of food by the peasant Acheampong began to speak farmers. The political crisis grew and the openly of the transition to civilian increasingly discredited SMC tried rule. His ostensible concern, By the end of 1976 the United to maintain its stability with such however, was to establish a form of Nations Food and Agricultural eye-catching programs as government which would reflect the Organization was ready to send in "Operation Bombshell" and traditions of Ghanaian society and food relief if the Supreme Military "Operation Haul-out" for cocoa and could be seen to be a truly Council announced there was a foodstuffs, "Operation Carry the indigenous system. The Supreme famine in the north. The Fish to Workers" and "Operation Military Council chose to promote a government, however, refused to Paint the Correct Picture to the union or national government, a concede publicly the failure of its People," this last a part of the nonparty administration which basic policy in the agriculture sector SMC's educational program. The would be composed of civilians, which it had followed since 1972. In public was hardly convinced and police, and military personnel. A June 1977 Oxfam released a report during the January 13 ICmember ad hoc committee which appeared in the British demonstrations marking the fifth was established to consider what national press stating that in Ghana anniversary of the (1972) coup kind of civilian government would there was an d16tat, the university students began best suit the social conditions of increasing number of deaths from calling for the SMC to return to the Ghana. After 27 public meetings in nutritional deficiency, food prices barracks. the 9 regions of the country it rocketing to five or six times above submitted a report which then the normal level, gross irregularities The SMC responded with further became the basis for ~ublic among officials responsible for repressive measures and dismissed discussions. The repdrt proposed a distributing supplies and a refusal b y the Chief Justice, the Deputy union government with a president foreign governmental agencies to Governor of the Bank of Ghana, and having executive powers, a acknowledge the situation for fear other senior officials. The dismissals vice-president, and a unicameral of offending the Government in provoked a strike in which students legislature elected by universal adult Accra. and lawyers, doctors and other suffrage. General Acheampong The report continued by noting that members of the Association of spared no expense to publicize this the food was not reaching Professional Bodies participated. plan and sent envoys to countries those who need it because those The strife escalated as student and where there were enclaves of who do not need it are taking worker demonstrations on May Ghanaian citizens to enlist their supplies for their own needs. This is 13-15 were violently suppressed. A support. not directly the fault of the national general strike was announced for The professional groups were the government who are successfully July 1 unless the SMC resigned and most outspoken in objecting to the getting food to the north, but handed over power to a caretaker idea of union government and reflects the gross irregularities civilian government. Confrontations accused the SMC of only wishing to among officials in the north, between the military and civilians preserve their right to rule so as to especially local district chief increased in number and severity. avoid the repercussions of the executives and regional The SMC attempted to demonstrate its authority by a show of power: obvious legal actions which any commissioners, but pervading civilian government would take throughout the local structure. Macchi jets swooped low over Makola Market in Accra and against the excesses of the military This has resulted in such cases as armwed cars patrolled the streets. after coming to power. They called that of some "women who have The professionals' strike was for an early and complete return to walked ten miles from Wale Wale in effectively undermined by such multiparty civilian rule. The students the north to collect grain left by procedures as soldiers threatening joined their protests and led several combine harvesters to carry back to force medical personnel and their demonstrations which contributed home to their families" (Guardian, families out of their government- to the rising violence in Ghana's June 25,1977). owned housing. cities. The universities were closed and when they reopened, students, The Supreme Military Council While the SMC did not resign, it did for the most part, refused to return enlisted the help of such "impartial concede by announcing that a to their classes. The military government attempted with the goal the military proclaimed country of its resources and to appease the opposition by in January 1972 after toppling the ruthlessly exploited its people. reorganizing the NRC, increasing reactionary regime of Kofi Busia. the number of civilian members. Small wonder that these groups Despite this effort, the students The Government of Ghana, General have sympathy and support from continued to strike and many of the Ignatius Acheampong, has certain circles in the capitalist West. professionals also threatened to underlined in public statements It is obvious that Western withhold their labor. Ghanaian [that he1 intends to build a society corporations hope with their help to students in Hamburg, Washington, without exploitation, a society regain control of Ghana's gold and D.C., and elsewhere, held where every citizen will have equal other resources now belonging to its simultaneous anti-union opportunities and the national people. Even after the defeat of the demonstrations to support the resources will be used in national groups in the referendum, some opposition. Clearly, many people interests. This is the kind of society Western news media continue their regarded union government as a the first president of independent campaign in support of the play by which the military hoped to Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, opposition. In an attempt to preserve political power. wanted to build. The present aggravate the situation in Ghana military leaders have already carried and discredit the programmes of the The campaign preceding the out a whole number of projects Supreme Military Council for referendum on union government is planned by the late president. As a transition to civilian rule, the West estimated by some observers to result, Ghana's gold, diamonds, spreads slander about the situation have cost at least C80 million which, manganese, cocoa beans, and in that country. General lgnatius if Ghana did pay for it, could be ill bauxite are no longer a source of Acheampong has even been forced afforded. Rumor alleged that the profit for foreign and local to warn the BBC and a number of Soviet Union helped to finance the businessmen but serve the entire British papers. campaign to convince Ghanaian people. voters that union government was The attempts by international in their long-term interests, a view The government of unity scheme reactionaries to create tension in given some credence by Radio was opposed by three political Ghana have compelled the military Moscow's overseas broadcasts groups, hastily knocked up on the government to ban public produced after the referendum, eve of the referendum. The People's assemblies and demonstrations and although its analysis of the situation Movement for Freedom and Justice, disband opposition groups. In an proved not entirely accurate. the Front for Prevention of address to the army and the people, Dictatorship, and the Third Force the government urged them to .. . Thus the referendum and the Movement, The names of persons protect the gains of the Ghanaian discussion that preceded it show who signed the manifesto of the revolution against encroachment by that public opinion in Ghana on a groups show that the organizations the country's enemies. (Broadcast future government is sharply largely unite representatives of the by Radio Moscow, April 15, 1978.) divided, and the differences Ghanaian bourgeoisie, big between the two platforms concern landowners and intellectuals who The referendum was held on March not so much the form of a future were brought up in the former 30,1978. According to the Supreme government as its programme. mother country and who still Military Council, of the 43 percent of Among those who support the idea maintain close spiritual and often the electorate who went to the polls, of setting up a government of unity financial ties with it. Officially they 1,103,423-54 percent-voted in are the country's leading and advocate the establishment in favor of union government, 880,255 influential organizations such as the Ghana of a multiparty regime after against. Congress of Trade Unions, the the pattern of so-called Western African Youth Command, the democracy. In fact, however, they The campaign leading up to the National Youth Council, the Council are seeking rule by the bourgeoisie referendum was, however, of Peace and Solidarity. These and big landowners, or in other extremely one-sided, a fact which organizations unite representatives words, those who make fortunes by may be reflected in the low voter of the working people, progressive exploitation of other people. Their turnout. Both television and the intellectuals and students. The idea is the Ghana under Kofi Busia newspapers disseminated pro-union organizations underline that in the when civil and trade unions were government information exclusively. opinion of the groups of the suppressed and when those who At the polls the referendum offered population they represent, any fought for the interests of the two alternatives- yes or no. The future government must promote working people were thrown in jail. "yes" symbol was two hands locked profound social and economic Ghana was then a paradise for local in a handshake on a blue reforms in the country and work for businessmen, profiteers and background with "'yes" printed the building of a society free of usurers, as well as for foreign underneath. The "no" symbol exploitation. This is fully in keeping companies which robbed the consisted of three people facing away from each other on a red background with "No" printed underneath. The words "Union Government" were printed on each.

There was other evidence that support for union government was not as widespread as the SMC claimed. A survey of political attitudes found that only 10.5 percent of a sample of 905 people favored union government, while 36.1 percent favored as a first choice a multiparty system6 On the other hand, it was reported that thousands of workers from various state organizations in the Brong Ahafo Region held a demonstration in favor of the proposal for union government and condemned the formation of the People's Movement for Freedom and Justice which was led by Lieutenant General Afrifa and Mr. K.A. Gbedema. One regional chairman, Alhaji Mohammed Tanko, in a statement on behalf of the Ashanti Regional Branch of the Ghana Patriots Association, warned politicians to keep away from the city of Kumasi. People will not forget what happened during the days of party politics, he said, and cautioned everyone to be wary of disgruntled politicians who were out to create confusion and bring about strife and hatred once more among Ghanaians. The statement called on Third World countries are judged Ghana news headlines - summer 7978. all Ashantis to embrace the and assessed from the foreign point proposed union government. of view. Their governments must "The political instability that has look like Westminster types of characterized African political life since multiparty systems or conform to independence has been caused not by Colonel S.M. Asante, Ghana's High this or that Western concept of the party political system as such, but by Commissioner in London, in a public government. As people, their deep-seated socioeconomic factors!' statement, pleaded for the West to personalities, moods, reactions and withdraw the pressure it was responses must look like those of Professor A.A. Boahen exerting on the Third World to Europeans. . .. Their art, drama, conform to Western models and to practices and customs which enable writing, and music should be cease the "peddling of undue decisions to be reached b y expressible through Western influence so that Africans can give consensus.. . . It is ex~ectedthat this channels or else they are primitive. free rein to their own choices." He type of government will avoid the pointed out that gun-boat divisive antagonisms of party diplomacy had not disappeared: it Union government was an idea, he politics and eliminate one of the had only changed its countenance. continued, which most serious causes of instability "Today," he continued, "we are apt which afflicted Ghana in the past to hear mostly of the superpowers intended to draw on traditional (WestAfrica, January 23,1978). maintaining a moral watchdog practices and customs of African stance through their concern for brotherliness, warmth and Other events after the referendum human rights," and argued that compromise in decision-making cast doubt on the extent of support for union government. The Electoral Commissioner, Mr. Justice I.K. Abban, who had been elected to insure a fair referendum, disappeared on the day of the vote. It was reported that he had a disagreement with the SMC regarding its decision not to count votes at the polling stations but at the regional counting centers and there were alleged threats against his life. When he reappeared, he was, not surprisingly, relieved of his post, which he had, according to the SMC, deserted in favor of the opposition. Immediately after the referendum leading members of the opposition groups were arrested and detained. Others made their way via Lome to London and one is said to have sent a cable to General Acheampong telling him that he was now living in Park Lane and riding in a Rolls Royce, as indeed he was.

Whether or not it is palatable in the West, it must be admitted that the Soviet Union was correct when it claimed that the main organized opposition to union government had come from the middle classes, not from the workers or peasants who showed every sign of being weary of party politics and the faqade of in the market cost one pound The ballot for the referendum vote on liberal democracy. At the same time, sterling and an omelette in the Union Government. the U.S.S.R. erred in stating that Continental Hotel was priced SMC policies had actually placed at E15.00. More student pronounced bold policies to stabilize Ghana's wealth under the control of demonstrations followed and the the economy, reduce shortages of its own populace. In reality, Ghana's lawyers went on strike once again. consumer goods, and eliminate political history is the perfect Military rule seemed to be on its last trade and commercial malpractices. illustration of the axiom "plus ca legs. Faced with a situation in which To show that it meant business, the change; plus ca le meme chose": the government had no credibility, SMC seized the assets and bank wherever there were contracts to be junior officers of the Military accounts of three of the most awarded, licenses to grant, Advisory Council forced General powerful Lebanese businessmen commodities to allocate, customs Acheampong's resignation. His and deported them. duties and other taxes to pay- expulsion was followed by that of corruption was the order of the day. Police Chief Ernest Ako, Army General Akuffo announced that the Each change in government resulted Commander General Kotei, and SMC would transfer power to a in little more than a change of faces Border Guard Commander General national government in July 1979 in the network of contacts and Utuka from the SMC. after elections to be contested by peddlers of influence linking up with individuals, rather than political foreigners to "chop Ghana small." General Acheampong's Chief of parties, which were banned until at Defence Staff, General , least 1983. The only substantial By June 1978 opposition to the became the new Head of State and difference between Akuffo's plan SMC had reached even more the palace coup was justified by and the union plan was the serious proportions, and the statements that General specification that the government economic situation was seen as a Acheampong had been running a formed in mid-1979 to rule for a result of the soldiers' incompetence. "one man show." The reconstituted period of "not less than four years" During the summer of 1978, one egg Supreme Military Council and that the police and armed forces said that they had accepted that companies are not permitted to still stagnant, shortages of they should not be represented as make contribution whatsoever consumer goods persist; hoarding institutions in that government. either directly or indirectly. and profiteering continue, and prices are rising uncontrollably. In late November the military Finally, no party shall be registered government bowed to civilian unless at least three of the founding Naturally, it is the workers who are pressure and announced that the members are resident in each suffering most. The minimum daily ban on political parties to district council area and not more wage is Q4and, at present, it costs re-establish themselves is to be lifted than 27 of these shall belong to any about Q30 to provide a family of four as of ~anuaryI, 1979. The one particular tribe (sic). with one decent meal a day (Daily Political Parties Decree 1978 set out Graphic, October 21, 1978). Since the terms. All old political parties Toward the 1980s July, strikes have occurred in the which were in existence before the Ghana's economic future is breweries, at the airport in Accra, at 1966 and 1972 "take-overs" are seriously threatened by the future of the Post Office, in 16 divisions of the proscribed: United Party cocoa, the source of revenue upon Ghana Industrial Holding Convention, People's Party, which it has been heavily dependent Corporation, and at the only oil Progress Party, National Alliance of for so long. According to the refinery; in all cases the basic reason Liberals, People's Action Party, All International Cocoa Council, all was the demand for more pay. People's Republican Party, the cocoa-producing countries are Strikes, of course, are political acts People's Popular Party, Republican increasing production except based on economic grievance-in Party, Ghana Democratic Party, Ghana, where production has been Ghana as elsewhere, the political Justice Party, Labour Party, and the falling and is estimated to fall by a situation cannot be separated from United Nationalist Party. further 16 percent by 1984-85. Given the economic. The organized the increases elsewhere, however, opposition to the military The decree also prohibits the experts predict a surplus by the government during the past two formation of political parties on mid-80s, with a corresponding fall in years in particular has come from tribal, religious, regional, or cocoa prices. Not only are the Ghana's middle classes. (The professional bases. The slogans, present cocoa trees in Ghana old workers' representatives grouped in symbols, and colors used during the and require replanting, but Ghana's the Trades Union Congress have referendum on Union Government cocoa farmers also are elderly and kept studiously silent and have done are also proscribed. few sons follow their father's their best to prevent general strikes occupational footsteps. Unless the and to inhibit the politicization of No member of the Ghana armed government takes an active role in workers.) The middle class, like the forces, the police, prisons service, encouraging the planting of new critics from outside Ghana, takes up civil service, and no managing hybrid trees and'improves transport the theme that Ghana's problems director or chief executive, chief and credit facilities, this important are due to "economic accountant, financial controller of source of foreign exchange is mismanagement," and thus any statutory corporation or any threatened. implies that they will be resolved by other public officer shall offer a greater degree of efficiency and himself as a candidate for any The Supreme Military Council honesty. This diagnosis obscures Parliamentary office unless he first devalued the cedi by nearly 58 the crucial fact that Ghana's basic resigns. percent on August 25,1978. The economic problem is its legacy of standard of living and the colonialism, underdevelopment and Any person who has held office as purchasing power of the Ghanaian dependency. The indigenous middle chairman, member, or population is now lower than it was class who share and fight over commissioner in the National at independence and the rate of political power is a classic feature of Liberation Council, the National inflation is still climbing. The such situations, but,its bickerings Redemption Council or the 1978-79 budget was presented as an accomplish little in terms of Supreme Military Council who austerity measure, imposing even progress toward genuine political offers himself as a candidate must greater hardships on people on the and economic independence. also offer that his assets be inquired principle that "things must get into and examined. A commission worse before they can get better." No government in Accra is for this purpose will be immediately Things have never been so bad: the completely in control of Ghana's established. local food index (March 1963= 100) economy. The well-intentioned was 1,027.2 in December 1976 and attempts of the Acheampong No Ghanaian or Ghanaian company 2,260.5 by the end of 19777 The governinent to subsidize the prices is permitted to contribute more than recent devaluation means that of staple commodities were 1,100 cedis ($2.37 cedis = $1.00) in without taking inflation into frustrated by the smuggling of these cash or kind to any party in any one account, the cost of local food has commodities into neighboring year and alien individuals and more than doubled; production is countries. World cocoa and oil prices, world demand for timber, the The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet economic system, but it is unlikely price of gold, the state of the market Born: "We must break out of the that there will be radical changes in for aluminum, and the cost of circle of impotence in which we are that system without there first being imported machines are all outside trapped." But changes in the world radical changes within the the government's control, economic system are unlikely to metropolitan societies. Until these regardless of which group among come about from the periphery. changes occur, countries like Ghana the elite is in power. Because of the monopoly of power will continue to be trapped in the held by the center, change can only circle of impotence with the The Ghanaian dilemma was aptly come from within the center. There ever-growing threat to world peace expressed by the words of the may be variations in the dependency which their dependency status Teacher in Ayi Kwei Armah's novel, relations in the international exacerbates.

(December 1978)

NOTES

1. For a useful bibliograph y of writings Fitch and Oppenheimer's analysis as 4. Adapted from Killick ( 1966). on Ghana, see Rathbone, R. "Ghanar'in well as that of Ruth First and Tony Dunn, J. (ed.)West African States: Killick. (First, R. The Barrel of a Gun: 5. Fitch and Oppenheimer 1966, p. 83. Failure and Promise: A Study in Political Power in Africa and the Coup Comparative Politics, London 1978. d' Etat, London, 1970; Killick, T. "The 6. The poll was conducted in Monetary and Financial System, "in July-August 1977 by Peter Osei-Kwame Birmingham, W., I. Neustadt and E.N. of the Department of Geography, 2. Fitch, B. and Mary Oppenheimer Omaboe (eds.)A Study of University of Iowa, and reported in West Ghana: End of An illusion," Monthly Contemporary Ghana; Vols. 1 and2, Africa, March 6, 1978, pp. 428-30. Review, July-August 1966. The London, 7966. discussion in this report concerning the 7. Ghana Commercial Bank Quarterly Nkrumah period draws heavily upon 3. Fitch and Oppenheimer 1966, p. 43. Economic Review, April/June 1978.