Arab World Almanac, Volume 2, 1990-91. INSTITUTION AMIDEAST, Washington, DC

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AUTHOR Nucho, Leslie Schmida, Ed.; And Others TITLE Arab World Almanac, Volume 2, 1990-91. INSTITUTION AMIDEAST, Washington, DC. PUB DATE 91 NOTE 53p. AVAILABLE FROMArab World Almanac, AMIDEAST, 1100 17th Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20036-4601 ($20). PUB TYPE Collected Works Serials (022) Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher)(052) JOURNAL CIT Arab World Almanac; v2 n1-3 Fall,Win,Spr 1990-91

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Arabs; Area Studies; Foreign Countries; Foreign Culture; High Schools; Instructional Materials; Islamic Culture; Learning Activities; *Middle Eastern Studies; Petroleum Industry; *Social Studies; Teaching Methods; World Affairs; World History; World War I; World War II

ABSTRACT Each of the three issues of this volume of "Arab World Almanac" features a self-contained lesson plan on one aspect of the Arab world. The Fall, 1990 issue focuses on "Oil and the Arab World." The Winter, 1991 issue looks at "The Arab World in the World Wars." The Spring, 1991 issue examines "Islamic Revival in the Arab World." Each issue includes lesson objectives, classroom activities and resources, and selected background references or resources. The issues also included background essays, maps, articles, primary resources, and other materials. (DB)

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Lesson Objectives Classroom Activities and Resources Oil and the Arab World (background essay) Petrochemical Products Chronology of Oil Prices Proven Oil Reserves of the Arab World (map) Oil in the Arabian Peninsula (supplementary transparency) World Oil Reserves (map) and Production/Consumption Staustics The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait (short essay) Political Cartoons from the Arab Ain Dar oil field. Saudi Arabia. Photo courtesy of Arabian Press (supplementary resource) American Oil Company. Suggested Background Resources Oil and the Arab World

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Lesson Plan Oil and the Arab World

Throughout history, human civilization has describe what a cartel is and how it works; benefited from oil, but only after the Industrial analyze the success of OPEC as a cartel Revolution did oil begin to assume its current discuss how oil revenues have contributed importance. Much of the world's oil reserves to development in oil-producing as well as are located in the Middle East, and with the non-oil-producing Arab countries growth in Western demand for oil, Western in- discuss the extent to which oil was a fac- terest in the Middle East increased dramatical- tor hi the Iraq' invasion of Kuwait and the ly. Not all Arab countries have significant resulting international confrontation; ex- amounts of oil, and some have none at all. As a plain some of the other issues involved in result, per capita GNP varies considerably the conflict and the perspectives of throughout the region. Yet, virtually all Arab various parties involved economies are dependent in some way or another upon the oil industry. Both oil importers and oil exporters are dependent upon Classroom Activities and Resources the sale of oil, and because of this interdepen- 4. Distribute copies of "Oil and the Arab dence, seemingly local political crises and World" (or, incorporate the information con- events can have a worldwide impact on the oil market. tained in the essay into your own lecture). Some terms with which students may not be familiar Richard Nachajski served At first, the oil companies in the Middle East have been printed in red. You may wish to ask as a consultant in the were British and American owned, and they development of the lesson students to define these terms using contextual plan for this issue of Arab paid royalties to the host-country governments. clues. If so, underline the highlighted terms World Almanac. Mr. Later, as anticotonial sentiments grew and the before photocopying the essay. The fcllowing Nachajski heads the social worldwide movement toward self-determina- discussion questions focus on ',tie essay's main studies department at T. C. tion intensified, Middle Eastern leaders sought Williams High School in themes and further the lesson objectives out- Alexandria, Virgins. to gain greater control of the petroleum resour- line:I above. ces in their countries. The oil companies, Western governments, and Middle Eastern 1. Discuss the ways in which countries like governments have all at one time or another at- the United States are dependent upon Middle tempted to control both the supply and price of Eastern oil. Have students list all the ways Middle Eastern oil. Most major price increases, they can think of that we use petroleum. however, have resulted from political crises Then, distribute the list of petrochemical products provided on page 10. Ask students rather than directly from pricing decisions. to compare their lists with Arab World Almanac's list. 2. Discuss the ways in which Middle Eastern Lesson Objectives countries themselvesboth oil-exporting and non-oil-exporting countriesare depend- After completing this lesson, students should ent upon the region's oil industry. Explain be able to: how oil importers and oil exporters are "inter- describe the interdependence between oil dependent." exporters and oil importers 3. Examine the figures for population and explain the effect on oil prices of political Gross National Product (GNP) in various crises in the Middle East, using historical Arab countries. Hew many countries have examples relatively high GNPs? What are their total populations? Answer the same questions for discuss why Middle Eastern oil in particular is so important countries with relatively low GNPs. Now examine the population and per capita GNP figures for selected other countries in the

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world. Where do most Arabs fit in com- shade of yellow different from those used for parison with other world peoples in terms of Saudi Arabia and other countries.) While oil is relative wealth? From what you already found elsewhere in the Middle East, the largest know about the economies of some of these amounts are concentrated in the area shown on other countries, for which ones do you think this map. Project the transparency, and ask stu- oil production and related industry con- dents to think about the following. tributes significantly to GNP? 1. Discuss your observations regarding the 4. Self-determination is one of the goals of distribution of oil fields in the region. Why most countries and peoples around the world. might the location of particular fields be a Discuss the basic principle of self-determina- source of conflict among neighboring tion. What does it mean in a practical sense? countries? Explain why, in the Middle East, the desire for self-determination led governments to ob- 2. Identify the different routes by which oil tain greater control over the oil resources and might be exported from the oil-producing industries within their borders. countries shown on the map. How might circumstances in one country affect the 5. What are some of the reasons producers transport of oil to, from, or through another might have for wanting to form a cartel? Dis- country in the region? (Consider the water- cuss the conditions necessary for a cartel to ways well as the pipelines.) be successful. To what extent do you think OPEC has been a successful cartel? 3. Political analysts refer to the United States' "strategic" interests in this region. 6. The price of oil is an important considera- Discuss what these interests might be, and tion for both producers and consumers. How what makes them "strategic." In support of do high prices affect both oil-exporting and these "strategic" interests, what sort of oil-importing countries? What effects do low relationship do you think the U.S. would prices have? want to have with the countries of the 7. Distribute the chronology of oil prices in- region? To what extent do you think this cluded in this issue ofArab World Almanac. relationship exists? Discuss ways you think Using the information contained in this the U.S. might improve its relationships with timeline, have students construct a graph il- Middle Eastern countries. lustrating price changes over time (put prices on the vertical axis and years on the horizon- tal axis). Ask students to identify peaks in oil + The map on page 13 has been drawn such prices. With what events do these peak that the size of each region represents its rela- prices coincide? Which have played a greater tive share of the world's total known oil reser- role in determining the price of oilpolitical ves. After students have examined the map, crises or OPEC price decisions? Explain have them consider the following questions. your answers. 1. How is this map different from the world The transparency "Oil in 8. Refer to the map on page 12. Discuss the maps you are used to seeing? What informa- the Arabian Peninsula" distribution of oil within the Arab world. tion does it convey that a conventional map accompanies this issue of How are countries where there are relatively would not convey? Conversely, what infor- Arab World Almanac little or no petroleum resources affected by courtesy of Aramco Ser- mation does a conventional map convey that vices Company. the region's oil industry? How have the is not contained in this map? Does anything major oil-exporting Arab countries used the about the map surprise you? If so, explain revenues from oil sales? Discuss the possible what it is and why. effects of the depletion on reserves for both oil-rich and oil-poor Arab countries. 2. Similar maps can help convey the relative share of world regions in oil production and consumption. Using graph paper and the + The transparency "Oil in the Arabian Penin- statistics on page 13, have students draw sula" accompanies this issue ofArab World Al- similar maps for world oil production and manaccourtesy of Aramco Services Company. world oil consumption. Regions do not have It depicts the Arabian Peninsula and surround- to be similar in shape to their real-world counterparts, but it is important to keep the ing area, including major oil fields and relative positions of regions fairly consistent. pipelines. (Contested areas are depicted in a Ask students to discuss the information con-

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veyed by their maps. Which countries or regions consume the most oil? Which the least? Compare the oil consumption map and the oil production map. Based on the relative size of the regions in each map, discuss which countries/regions are likely to he the largest oil importers and oil exporters. 3. Math enrichment exercise. Return to the statistics on page 13. Calculate the percent of -;orld oil that each region consumes. Do the same for oil production. Calculate the difference between oil production and consumption for each world region. For the regions where consumption is greater than production, calculate the percent of oil consumed there that must be imported (assume that the entire difference must be accounted for by imports).

Teachers are encour- + Distribute the short article "The Iraqi In- aged to photocopy any vasion of Kuwait" to students. Before they read or all components of Arab World Almanac for it, ask them to explain the conflict as they under- use In the classroom. stand it, including the major issues from the perspective of the U.S., Iraq, and other Arab countries. Then, ask them to read the article. Below are suggested discussion questions and additional activities.

1. How has your understanding of the conflict changed? Does it seem simpler or more complicated than you thought before reading the article? 2. Discuss the conflict from the point of view of Iraq, the Gulf countries, other Arab countries, and the United States. What factors go into the formation of each participant's perspective? 3. Ask students to collect political cartoons about the Gulf crisis. Distribute the political cartoons from the Arab press that accompany this issue of Arab World Almanac. Discuss the message conveyed by each cartoon. Ex- plore both the similarities and differences in perspective and the depiction of characters between the Arab cartoons and the ones students have collected.

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Oil and the Arab World

Human civilization has benefited from oil porters if the cost of the goods they import rises throughout most of its history. Pitch was used faster than the price of oil. by the ancient Egyptians to grease their chariots. Asphalt was used in Mesopotamia as The Importance of Middle building material and to caulk boats. Oil was Eastern Oil used for lighting lamps in medieval Sicily and for medicinal purposes in America as well as Middle Eastern oil assumes such global sig- Europe. The Industrial Revolution and the nificance for a very simple reason: the Middle development of the internal combustion engine, East, especially the handful of countries around however, paved the way for oil's present impor- the Arabian Gulf, is blessed with the world's tance, especially after World War I and the ex- largest deposits of oil. Only in comparison to pansion of the transportation industry. the proven reserves of other regions can the size Thomas R. Stauffer served After World War II, oil became the main of Middle Eastern reserves truly be appreciated as a consultant in the development of this essay. source of energy for running factories and for (see map on page 13). Abundant and easily ac- Dr. Stauffer is a Journalist, transportation. This promoted the exponential cessible, these reserves are much less expensive a consultant on oil and gas growth in demand for oil every ten years, the to extract than oil in the United States or the economics and Middle East- amount of oil used worldwide more than North Sea. ern geopolitics and economics, and a professorial doubled. A significant portion of the world's oil Many people think of oil and the Middle lecturer at The Paul H. reserves is located in the Middle East, and with East as being synonomous, but in fact, Nitze School of Advanced the growth in Western demand for oil, Western petroleum resources are not distributed evenly International Studies interest in the Middle East increased dramatical- (SAIS) of The Johns Hop- throughout the Middle East. Not all Middle kins University. Previously, ly. Eastern nations are oil exporters or even oil he has held teaching Industrialized nations are dependent upon the producers. The biggest Middle Eastern ex- positions at Harvard porters are Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the University, Georgetown uninterrupted, reasonably priced supply of oil University, and the from the Middle East to sustain their United Arab Emirates, each of which has well Diplomatic Academy in economies. Less well-known is the dependence over 100 billion barrels of reserves. Egypt, Vienna, Austria. of the Arab world on the production and export Syria, and Tunisia can produce enough oil for of this oil. Thousands of workers from labor- their own needs, but they export relatively rich, oil-poor Arab countries work in the labor- small volumes. Iran's large population and poor, oil-rich countries of the Arabian Gulf, broad economic base requires it to use sig- sending home salaries upon which their nificant amounts of its production domestically, :. Salaries sent home by families and national economies depend. The but revenues from oil exports remain its prin- workers abroad are called oil-exporting countries themselves are depend- cipal foreign-exchange earner. Some Middle remitianceir. ent on oil and oil sales to develop their own Eastern nations, however, have virtually no oil economies, finance imports of essential com- at all. Neither Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, nor modities such as food, and build their nations' Morocco have found commercial-scale oil industries. Their dependence on oil revenues is fields within their boundaries. especially striking because of their lack of other Ironically, those nations with the largest oil significant natural resources. reserves also have among the smallest popula- This interdependence between oil-exporting tions in the region. Significant oil production and oil-importing countries brings international and exports can make a considerable contribu- dimensions to seemingly local events or con- tion to a country's Gross National Product flicts. For example, conflicts between Israel and (GNP). Per capita GNP (total GNP divided by its neighbors have, on several occasions, the population) is one of the basic indicators resulted in a worldwide oil crisis. Similarly, the used to assess the relative economic well-being oil-exporting countries depend on the stable of a country. Oil-exporting countries with small economic growth of oil-importing nations in populations have relatively high per capita order to maintain predictable revenues. Infla- GNPs, while countries with larger populations tion in oil-importing nations can hurt oil ex- and little or no oil have much lower per capita

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GNPs. Even among the oil-producing countries early in the 1900s, hoping to secure oil for its themselves, per capita GNP varies consider- new navy. By 1914, England had sole control ably; the populous Yemen has a per capita in- of Middle Eastern oil exports, all of which 2 come of 5640, while the tiny U.A.E., came out of Iran. 2. Until 1935, Iran was approximately one-half of whose inhabitants known as Persia. Iran Is not The United States and France both resented an Arab country. are expatriate workers, has a per capita income exclusive British control of Middle Eastern oil twenty times higher (S15,770). production. After World War I, they began to pressure the British government to allow their 3. Concessions were ex- The Origins of the Middle Eastern own oil companies access to the oil fields clusive, long-term rights (sometimes for as long as Oil Industry through concessions similar to those accorded 100 years) granted by England. With the blessings of the U.S. govern- regional governments to Since its beginnings in 1901, changes in the ment, a consortium of American oil companies Western oil companies, al- lowing them to find and Middle Eastern oil industry have paralleled the (called the Near East Develorment Corpora- produce oil In very large general decolonization of the region and the tion) was created to compete more effectively areas often encompassing trend towards self-determination in developing an entire country. with England. A compromise reached in 1928 countries. The first oil companies in the Middle between England, France, and the United States East were British, reflecting England's role as allowed this consortium to buy almost one the major colonial power in the area. The quarter of the British-owned Iraq Petroleum British government helped promote the wholly Company. Just two years later, the U.S.-owned British-owned Anglo-Persian Oil Company Standard Oil Company of California was

. Mid finally:the production of oil in a anClifiiiteiriCatbaeltOttri". single holding company which he .:.member countriesir a iet`z Actift to car:tellsgrouP.Of producers. or owned, His cartel became so success- aChieye'..the0Opiaatht4.000441ty to

manitfactutersiWhOst members U.S. government dis- .fUnction sitecesSfullY:OS cOOperateinpr..iteflOxi$,iiie price o :: Mantled it in one of the first antitrust WaltiCt abOye the free'-market actions. in this country. Later, in 1928, largest eseryos. and. diesmall

lever,;As; he Ofaiproduet . the international oil companies tried populations, such. as 44.

creases; so do, the profits of each car-. .toestablish a limited cartel in the Mid- .Knwait,...Wereintereateckln tel member. In order for a:cartel to :. die East, but that attempt failed within their future tharke.4,fO.to' succeed, certain conditions must be a few years. prices.relatiyelYlOW-.

present. A successfulpirtel4WSOP7:,..:' : The most famous oil cartel is the onlysmoderate:priceInereaie, elude most PrOducei*ofapartiettl,*, Orpanization of. Petroleum Exporting .bons with pore:.timitcd reserves commodity Esothat ,OurSide:401it ::,:cOutries (OpFc), Initially, it ..4as larger populations, such .11,5'.;q0174 tion :al formed ..to :Bruit the ability of Western Iran, be ne SignifiCant sources Or nevi! Sup oil cOnipanies to reduce. or otherwise :.shart...-termprofitallirouih*i plies outside:the cartel:Whichrnightin.::: affect the price °foil without consult. prieeS:in:orderi.to .fittatiee crease-OomPetit100.,.kit best if ttie rig the hoStigovernments: After:the oil intent :Of a sound U are no substitutes for the companies twice reduced the price of The triettlh.4s ofcartel'nee 'to Middle Eastern. oil in the late 1950s, a . . . .. Politicalpolitical: Cohesion antnng . . tiather.of major oil-.exporting govern ttemendOttS.pUblieitY.;4aehr. themselves and be: Wi fling. tO abide tnentS decided to act: In 1960, Iran; all 'agreements made by:tite Iraq; Saudi Arabia, Kuwait; and .;:.4.0cr40.0.001.40841F.0:0!:: Finally, for the cartel to be suecessful, :::Venezuela agreed to the creation of decreases after 1960 but it nevi there must herelatiliely constant,. The erganization was later ex, thiptIgh.ipO.t.;!.0.0f0t.4.4.40404.

demand for the commodity, panded to include Algeria, Libya, . raise oil pt..tc0.1.44041: i.i

The earliest : gaiar, the United Arab Emirates, rose asaresult

.::::1900-.4as really a inonopolyoWned. :Ecuador,Gabon, Indonesia; and whichoccurredti by John P. gockefeller, The the cartel and ttSUlteel. American tycoon first concenuated The organization's task was dif- peiveived.Oil.ShOrta : : the transportation, then the refming, ficult. The different political, cultural,

6 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC FALL 1990 granted a new concession for Bahrain. In 1933, the British-owned Anglo-Persian and the American-owned Gulf Oil Company GNP/PoputOion:in: P88 shared the concession for Kuwait, and another American company, Aramco, was Selected Arab.States granted a concession covering most of Saudi Country. itCal** GNP Arabia. Egypt : :50.2

The terms of the concessions required the .:23.8 : 2 Wester oil companies to pay the host govern- Sudan 23.8 :480 ments modest royalties, rarely amounting to more than 15 percent of the export value of 1680 Udi Arobli the oil. Over time, the governments, as well as the general populations of the host Varneri: Arab Republic countries, began to protest their lack of con- TurtiSla 1:0 trol over their nations' resources. In some Sbinalia cases, thzy proposed "participation agree- :Libya ments" under which the companies sold part : Jordan interest to the governments. Elsewhere, United Arab Emirates 10;770 nationalization was advocated. However, not Oman : 5,000: until the mid-1970s were all Middle Eastern states able to assume control over the petroleum industries in the region. Since then, Selected Non-Areb States many Middle Eastern governments have China 1488.4 330 branched out into processing their own crude India 815.6 40 in oil refineries designed for export to the United States 246.3 19,840 United States, Europe, and the Far East. Indonesia 174.8 Japan 122.6 21,02o Oil Pricing Bangladesh 108.9 Great Britain and the United States inten- Mexico 83/ 1,760 sified their search for oil in the Arabian Gulf West Germany 81.3 18,480 region in the late 1920s through the 1940s, as United Kingdom 57.1 12,810 other easily available sources of oil began to France 55.9 16,090, 4 run out. As the importance of oil to the West Venezuela 18.8 3125R., grew, governments in the oil-importing as Ecuador 10.1 1,120 well as oil-exporting nations began to take Switzerland 6.6 27,500 more active roles in directing supplies and 4.4 8,650 prices. Realizing that oil would become quite Israel expensive if the strong demand for it were al- Gabon 1.1 2,070: lowed to determine the price, the governments of England, France, and the United States strongly influenced their companies' pricing policies in or-I^T to keep prices low. As World War II began, the Allies found dustrial expansion in Europe and Japan was 4. The United States, themselves increasingly dependent upon fueled with Middle Eastern oil. Venezuela, and the Soviet petroleum r ;sources from the Middle East, par- Union led the world In oil At the same time, the worldwide drive for production In the early 1900s. ticularly for jet fuel, After World War H, the Between 1929 and 1939, how. United States and England considered it a self-determination in developing countries also ever, the volume of world oil strategic necessity to have access to the greatest motivated the governments of oil-exporting consumption increased nearly Middle Eastern countries to work towards 50 percent, with the United amount of petroleum reserves at the lowest pos- States relying on oil for over sible price. These reserves were intended to greater control of the oil resources within their 30 percent of its energy sup- promote the reconstruction of Europe and Japan borders. Beginning in the 1950s, Middle East- plies. The United States recog- ern governments began a series of attempts to nized that it would become a and to preserve existing U.S. reserves. From net Importer of oil by 1948 1950 and through the 1980s, much of the in- renegotiate their relationships with the Western and needed to find large reser- oil companies. In addition to increasing their ves in noncommunist nations.

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control of the oil, the governments sought 1978, inflation had eroded the purchasing greater revenue as well. However, the first price power of OPEC oil by 34.9 percent. This meant increases did not occur until 1968 and, like that in 1978, every barrel of OPEC oil bought most of the substantial price increases that its producers 34.9 percent less in imports from would follow, resulted from a political crisis. other countries than it had in 1974. As the following discussion illustrates, almost The Iranian revolution in 1978 and 1979 set all major oil price increases resulted from politi- the stage for the next major price increase. Ini- cal crises or wars and were not directly related tially, the disruptions in Iran reduced Middle to premeditated decisions by the Organization Eastern oil production by nearly twenty per- of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). cent. World panic caused the price of oil to rise The first crisis resulted indirectly from the from $12.70 per barrel to $29.52 per barrel. Arab-Israeli war of 1967. After the war, Israel Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Kuwait attempted to in- closed off Egypt's Suez Canal, through which crease output to offset the temporary loss of tankers carrying oil from the Arabian Peninsula Iranian oil, but this had little effect on the passed on their way to Europe. European market price. Although OPECunder Saudi in- countries depended upon easily accessible oil, fluencekept the official price at $14.55 per and with the Suez Canal closed, Libya had the barrel, market forces prevailed, and OPEC na- nearest available Jupply. Libya's proximity to tions attached surcharges to bring the selling Europe allowed the new nationalist government price up to the market price. there, commanded by Colonel Qaddhafi, to At first, higher oil prices meant greater unilaterally raise the price of oil. Other oil-ex- profits for all oil-exporting countries, but they porting countries followed suit, and by 1971, also reduced importers' demand for oil. Higher the price of oil had risen from $1.80 to $2.23 prices caused oil-importing countries to sub- per barrel. stitute oil and gas with new sources of energy By early 1973, the governments represented which now became more economical. Conserva- in OPEC had agreed that the world oil market tion efforts further reduced demand for Middle could sustain a price increase, but they were un- Eastern oil. able to persuade the Western oil companies to OPEC reacted in 1983 by setting production renegotiate the price to $3.65 per barrel; this quotas for each member state in an attempt to was the price for which oil could be sold on the reduce the glut of oil on the world market. How- open ma'

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The fifth political crisis came in August in the Guli region have tied many developing 1990. In response to the Iraqi invasion of nations to the Middle Eastern oil-producing Kuwait (see page 14), the United States led a states. Palestinians, Yemenis, Egyptians, and blockade against both Iraq and Kuwait, cutting Lebanese have moved to the Gulf states to off their oil-exporting capabilities. Once again, torch in schools and universities, to run banks, about twenty percent of Middle Eastern output and to work in factories and refineries. was suddenly unavailable. Within weeks, oil Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, Indians, Filipinos, prices rose sixty to one hundred percentto and Koreans, among others, help run the service over $35 per barreldespite Saudi attempts to industries necessary to the functioning of increase production. modern states. For many labor-exporting countries, the remittances that these expatriate Oil and Development workers send home to their families constitute a significant portiosn of GNP and help pay for Both oil exporters and importers share a com- their oil imports. mon interest in a stable and predictable market. Unfortunately for oil producers, oil is a non- A stable oil supply is vital for the health of con- renewable resource. OPEC nations have kept sumer economies. It is equally important for the this in mind as they attempt to build a sound producers because it enables them to plan their economic base for the future when oil runs out. 5. In Egypt, remittances development over an extended period. account for the greatest Governments have invested billions in overseas source of foreign exchange, In the past few decades, thanks to oil, the funds and industries. Modern plants for the amounting to almost 9.47 pace of development has been rapid throughout production of steel, fertilizers, aluminum, and peryent of the GNP In 19M. In Jordan, the more than Si the Arab world. In factories, automated systems petrochemicals have been built in hopes of billion In remittances from operate many aspects of production. Agricul- diversifying the economy. Research and Palestinians and Jordanians tural mechanization has been introduced in development in the agricultural sector have also working In the Arabian Gulf accounted for 17.79 many places; combines harvest grain once been given emphasis. Exploiting its own gas percent of GNP. For labor- reaped by hand, while pumps and pipelines and oil, the Middle East has become an impor- rich, oil -poor countries such tant site for much of the world's new heavy in- as these, remittances have water crops previously tended by manual labor. become a cornerstone of the Modern hospitals apply the latest in medical dustry. With such actions, these governments economy. technologyincluding organ transplantsto hope to maintain the prosperity of the last twen- the treatment of their patients. Roads link once- ty years well past the day when the oil wells run isolated villages, and dietary standards have dry. risen beyond subsistence levels. Educational opportunities for all people in the region are steadily increasing. Less than fifty years ago, only an elite few received traditional Islamic education or Western secular education in European missionary schools. Today, free or highly subsidized public education is available to almost everyone in an ever- growing number of primary and secondary schools, technical institutes, and colleges and universities. In the major oil-exporting countries, these rapid developments have been made possible by revenues from the sale of oil, but others have also benefited. Aid from oil-producing countries has helped finance many development projects in the non-oil-producing Arab countries. The latter, as well as many Asian countries, have shared in the "petro-prosperity" as well. Similar to the opening of the United States in the late nineteenth century to im- migrants who were needed to man the new factories and build new railroads, job opportunities

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Petrochemical Products

One quarter of worldwide oil consumption takes place in the United State. When we think of oil consumption, we usually think of fuel. However, oil has many other uses. It is a necessary component in the production of more than 3,000 different products. Here are just some of them.

Ink Dishwashing liquids Golf balls Skis Heart valves Unbreakable dishes Detergents Tool racks Crayons Toothbrushes Sunglasses Slacks Parachutes Combs Glue Yam Telephones Toothpaste Fishing rods Insecticides Enamel Tents Linoleum Fishing lures Transparent tape Hair curlers Plastic wood Perfumes Antiseptics Lipstick Soft contact lenses Shoe polish Vacuum bottles Ice cube trays Dice Petroleum jelly Purses Electric blankets Trash bags Faucet washers Deodorant Tennis rackets Hand lotion Food preservatives Pantyhose Drinking cups Shampoo Antihistamines Rubbing alcohol House paint Shaving cream Cortisone Shag rugs Rollerskate wheels Safety glass Dyes Epoxy paint Guitar strings Awnings LP records Oil filters Ammonia Salad bowls Vaporizers 9,Pajamas Eyeglasses Plywood adhesive Solvents Upholstery Ice chests Cameras Cigarette filters Hearing aids Life jackets Anesthetics Roofing Car sound insulation T"! cabinets Artificial turf Cold cream Dresses Car battery cases Artificial limbs Synthetic rubber Cassettes Insect repellent Bandages Glycerin Motorcycle helmets Ice buckets Dentures Rubber cement Pillows Fertilizers Mops Nylon rope Clotheslines Hair coloring Beach umbrellas Fan belts Shower doors Toilet seats Ballpoint pens Umbrellas Soap dishes Denture adhesive Boats Paint rollers Luggage Shoes Loudspeakers Nail polish Tobacco pouches Movie film Golf bags Antifreeze Refrigerants Refrigerator linings Fishing boots Tool boxes Typewriter ribbons Electrical tape Candles Caulking Paint brushes Model cars Water pipes Tape recorders Balloons Folding doors Car enamel Curtains Floor wax Shower curtains Vitamin capsules Sweaters This list was compiled by the Credit cards Dashboards American Petroleum Institute Sports car bodies Aspirin Putty and is reprinted here with permission. Tires Permanent-press clothes Percolators 10 12 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC FALL 1990

Chronology of Oil Prices

September 1960: OPEC is created. Dis- September 1980: Iraq invades Iran. Oil cusses possible strategies for increasing exports from both countries, amounting revenue throughout the decade. to 4 million barrels per day, are tem- porarily halted. June 1967: Arab-Israeli war. Israel closes off the Suez Canal. October 1980: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Price $1barrel* Qatar, and the U.A.E. increase their Year Arabian Light September 1969: Libyan monarch over- total production by 1 million barrels per 1960-1970 1 80 thrown by a group of army officers. day. 1971 2 23 1972 2 48 May 1970: Libyan government cuts January 1981: Iran increases produc- 1973 3 29 back oil production. tion as a result of the lifting of trade 1974 11.58 sanctions after the American hostages December 1970: OPEC demands that 1975 11.53 are released. 1976 11.63 oil companies increase the price of oil. 1977 12.38 March 1982: Non-OPEC oil producers 1978 13.03 January 1972: OPEC member states lower the price of oil, undercutting and oil companies begin negotiations on 1979 29.75 OPEC's price by $1.60. 1980 35.69 the joint ownership of the companies 1981 34.32 and raising the price of oil to compen- December 1985: OPEC decides to pur- 1982 31.80 sate for the depreciation of the U.S. dol- sue a "fair share" strategy in which each 1983 28.78 lar. member produces as much oil as it can 1984 28.07 and sells it for whatever price it can ob- 1985 27.53 October 1973: Arab-Israeli war begins; tain. 1986 12.97 Arab states announce an oil embargo 1987 16.92 against nations supplying Israel with March 1986: The price for oil collapses 1988 13.22 weapons, including the United States. as OPEC nations openly compete with 1989 15.69 North Sea oil producers. 1990 35.00 and up March 1974: Arab oil-exporting states end the oil embargo. April 1986: The United States begins attempts to convince Saudi Arabia to *Prices quoted reflect representative December 1976: OPEC consensus on decrease output in order to help increase figures for each year based on first quarter pricing breaks down. posted prices. prices as the price per barrel drops below $10. Source for prices from 1960-197S: Oil September 1978: Iranian oil workers Economist Handbook. Gilbert, Jenkins: begin disrupting oil production as part London, 1986. December 1986: OPEC agrees to begin of a nationwide movement to overthrow Source for prices from 1976-1989: British cutting back production according to a Petroleum Statistical Review of World Ener- the Shah. quota schedule. 8Y, June 1990.. December 1978: Iranian oil exports August 1990: Iraq invades Kuwait, stop completely. prompting deployment of significant U.S. forces to Saudi Arabia. The United February 1979: Iranian revolution Nations places an embargo on Iraq and overthrows the Shah's government. occupied Kuwait, halting almost all March 1979: The new Iranian govern- their oil exports as Saudi Arabia sig- ment resumes oil production. nificantly increases its output.

11 Proven Oil Reserves of the Arab World, 1989 (thousand million barrels) (Saudi-Kuwaiti)Neutral Zone 5.2 Qatar 4.5 UAE98.1

(andEstimatestheNot reprinted League shown from onofin Arabthis map States. are Djibouti, Mauritania, and Somalia; all are members of Oil and BritishGas Journal, Petroleum Statistical Review of World Energy, June "Worldwide Oil" issue, 25 December 1989 1990). 14 _!. The World's Oil Reserves Regions Drawn in Proportion to their Future Supplies (thousand million barrels)

Es_ m Canada USSR & Eastern Europe 8.8 59.9

USA 34.1 Western EuropeI 18.4 Middle East 660.3

Africa 58.8

South America 68.8

Asia & Australia 46.8

Oil Production and Consumption, 1989 (thousands of barrels)

Production Consumption USA 9,175 16,585

Canada 1,725 1,660 Latin America 6,990 5,265

Western Europe 3,970 12,510

USSR & Eastern 12,885 10,995 Europe

Middle East 16,590 2,920 Africa 5,945 1,830 Asia. Australia, 6,280 12,960 New Zealand (Source:BPStatistical Review of World Energy. June 1990) ARAB WORLD ALMANAC FALL 1990

The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait

Under the leadership of Iraqi president Sad- cials, which seemed to indicate that the United dam Hussein, Iraq's armed forces invaded States would tolerate an Iraqi show of force. Kuwait on August 2, 1990, occupying much of On August 8, surprised by the quick U.S. the county in a matter of hours. Most of the response in defense of Kuwait, Iraq abandoned Kuwaiti government fled the country to Saudi its support for a provisional government in the 1. For example, on July 25, the U.S. ambassador to Arabia, while thousands of Kuwaiti citizens on sheikhdom and officially annexed Kuwait. Iraq apparently told Sad- vacation around the world found themselves Iraq justified the annexation with a territorial dam Hussein that the Uni- stranded. Within five days, the Saudi govern- ted States had "no opinion claim based on the status of Kuwait during the on the Arab-Arab conflicts, ment agreed to invite American troops into Ottoman rule of the region. At that time, like your border disagree- Saudi Arabia to protect the kingdom against a ment with Kuwait. ... The Kuwait was a part of the Basra province, lo- issue is not associated with feared Iraqi invasion and to help protect the oil cated in the south of modern-day Iraq. In 1899, America." This statement fields there. Kuwait became a de facto protectorate of was not denied by the US. Department of State. Despite billions of dollars in Kuwaiti finan- Britain when the local leader signed an agree- cial aid to Iraq during its war with Iran, hostility ment with England guaranteeing that no other between the two Gulf states had been evident in nation would have access to his territory; in ex- 2. Ironically, the same the months leading up to the invasion. Iraqis change, he received a stipend and military Justification that Iraq used for its annexation of Kuwait believed that their recovery from eight years of protection. Britain granted Kuwait inde- could be used to Justify the war with Iran as well as their economic develop- pendence in 1961 but was forced to return its taking of Iraqi territory. ment had become constrained by the decrease forces later that year when the Iraqi government When the British drew Iraq's boundaries, they in- in revenues associated with falling oil prices. reasserted its claim to Kuwait. Eventually, Arab eluded areas then con- They charged that overproduction by Kuwait League forces replaced the British as protectors sidered part of Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates was responsible of Kuwait's sovereignty. Iraqi claims to Kuwait despite the protestations of Turkish leaders. The areas for keeping the price of oil too low. The Iraqi remained largely dormant until a 1983 border in question contain Iraq's government expressed concern over an oil field disturbance between the two countries. A sub- largest oil fields, increasing owned jointly by both countries, accusing sequent 1984 border agreement between Iraqi their value to Iraq and potential value to Turkey. Kuwait of drawing oil from the Iraqi side of the and Kuwait lasted until Iraq's 1990 invasion. field, and Iraq's long-standing territorial claims The United States' strong response to Iraq's against Kuwait were resurrected. occupation of Kuwait was officially motivated 3. After its 1980 Invasion of Iran, Iraq required ac- Tensions remained high in spite of an agree- by the principled opposition to aggression, but cess to the Arabian Gulf for ment reached at an OPEC meeting on July 27 to few doubted that another major impetus for the its naval bases. Unable to raise the price of oil to S21 per barrel. Iraq al- sending of troops to confront Iraq was concern secure Iranian territory for this purpose, Iraq began leged that Kuwait was participating in a con- over oil. Iraq already has the second largest oil pressuring Kuwait for ac- spiracy with the United States to hinder Iraq's reserves in the world after Saudi Arabia, and cess to the Kuwaiti islands with the takeover of Kuwait, it now controls of Warba and Bubiyan. development through lower world oil prices. At Fearing Iranian retaliation, the same time, Iraq massed 30,000 troops along some 20 percent of the world's petroleum re- Kuwait refused to play such its border with Kuwait. The United States serves. If Iraq also occupied Saudi Arabia, it an overt part in the war. would control 45 percent. Such control would Kuwaiti leaders also feared reacted by placing its naval forces in the Iraq's long-term Intentions, Arabian Gulf on alert. The next day, on July 24, not only give Iraq enormous influence on particularly after Iraqi U.S. naval forces conducted joint military exer- pricing trends, but it would also pose potential- troops crossed the border in 1983. By November 1984, cises with the U.A.E. in a show of support for ly serious long-term economic problems for the two governments had Kuwait and the Emirates. countries dependent on Middle Eastern oil. put together an agreement by which Iraq would In the meantime, Iraq and Kuwait entered Although no Arab country expressed official respect Kuwait's borders. into bilateral negotiations, which Iraq broke off support for Iraq's invasion, almost half the on the first of August. Less than a day later, members of the Arab League refrained from Iraq invaded Kuwait after confusing but widely outright condemnation, hoping to leave open broadcast signals from U.S. government offi- the door for negotiation. Jordan, the Palestine

14 7 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC FALL 1990

Liberation Organization, Yemen, Sudan, Al- their neighbors to the west, these countries geria, Libya, Mauritania, and Tunisia all either never developed significant nationalist move- abstained or refused to vote on an Arab League ments against the for ner European presence in proposal to send Arab troops to Saudi Arabia. the region. Today, they view Western involve- Most other world nations viewed the invasion ment in the gull with less suspicion than they entirely in terms of Iraqi aggression against do Iraqi aspirations. These governments urged small Kuwait, but these Arab League members Egypt, Syria, and Morocco to contribute troops saw the issues as less clear-cut and adopted a to the American and European military forces neutral position in favor of a political settlement already deployed in Saudi Arabia, promising in to the crisis. return substantial economic and political assis- As the scope of the U.S. military presence in tance in the future. Although the governments Saudi Arabia increased, however, many Arabs of these countries are supporting the U.S. posi- feared that the superpower was preparing to at- tion, public opinion is ided and many people tack Iraq. At this point, the crisis began to as- sympathize with Iraq. sume new dimensions. Some Arabs interpreted Oil prices have also been affected by events U.S. actions as the latest manifestation of his- in the Gulf. To further pressure Iraq, the United toric Western attempts to manipulate the States led international efforts to impose a com- governments and resources of the Arab world prehensive embargo on Iraq and Kuwait. This for Western benefit without regard to the inter- included the blocking of oil exports from both ests of the region. The French and British countries. As a result, prices for crude quickly colonization of the Arab world in the nineteenth rose between 60 and 100 percentwell over and twentieth centuries and their economic and the posted OPEC price of $21 per barrel. political exploitation of local populations In the United States, the impact of higher oil created a growing animosity in most countries, prices has been felt at the gas pumps with rising promoting the rise of many nationalist move- gas prices, in the supermarkets as the price of ments. The European resistance to Arab transporting goods increases, and increasingly nationalism inspired a deep-seated distrust of in the home as home heating oil prices continue Western motives in general which continues to to rise. The economies of many Arab countries, this day. meanwhile, have already been devastated by This distrust has become evident in the reac- the invasion and the trade embargo. Unemploy- tion of some Arabs to the stated U.S. goals of ment in Jordan is expected to reach 35 percent protecting the sovereignty of Kuwait and Saudi as workers return from their jobs in Kuwait and Arabia. Citing the perceived unconditional U.S. neighboring Gulf countries. Before the embar- support for Israel as well as the failure of the go, Jordan's major trading partner was Iraq, and United States to protect the sovereignty of other many of the goods unloaded at Jordan's busy Arab countries against aggressors in the past, port of Aqaba were bound for Iraq. As a result these Arabs consider U.S. claims to be insincere of the invasion and its consequences, Jordan is and hypocritical. For them, the crisis which expecting to lose $4.5 billion a yearwell over began as an inter-Arab conflict in which half its GNP. Similarly, Egypt is expecting a Kuwait was mostly in the right is now per- loss in revenue of up to $5 billion a year (nearly ceived as a confrontation between Iraq and the 14 percent of its GNP) as a result of reduced United States. Many of Saddam Hussein's tanker traffic through the Suez Canal, the sever- public statements have been aimed at intensifying of trade with Iraq, and the ending of remit- ing such Arab nationalist sentiments in the tances from workers who had been in Iraq and region. Some Arabs who were otherwise op- Kuwait. For the Arab states as well as the posed to the policies of the Iraqi government United States, tabulating the costs of the crisis now feel compelled to side with Iraqan Arab in the Gulf is just beginning. countryagainst the United States. Many fear that the U.S. is taking advantage of the crisis to establish a permanent military presence in the region. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf states (the U.A.E., Qatar, Oman, and Bahrain) remained fearful of Iraqi intentions. Uidike 8 15 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC FALL 1990

Suggested Background Resources

Goralski, Robert and Russell W. Freeburg. Oil Sampson, Arthony. The Seven Sis :ers: The & War: How the Deadly Struggle for Fuel in Great Oil Companies and the World They WWII Meant Victory or Defeat. New York: Shaped. New York: Bantam, 1976. (334 Morrow, 1987. (384 pages, $19.95) Grade 10 pages) Grade 9 and above and above An examination of oil's effect on the world A detailed and carefully documented economy. Discusses the initial domination of Advisory Board analysis of the crucial importance of oil to the oil industry by seven companies, their the major actors in World War II. The author relationships with Western governments, and H. Thomas Collins draws from official U.S., German, and the process by which control of oil came to Codirector, Project LINKS Japanese sources, wartime memoranda, and be shared with the producing countries. Ex- The George Washington the personal writings of men who were in- tremely readable. (Out of print, but may be University Washington, DC volved in supplying oil for the various ar- available in school or public libraries.) mies. An entire chapter is devoted to the Story of Oil: Chief Economic Resource Of the Nina Dodge Middle East. Middle East Outreach Middle East. 25 minutes, color, 16mm and Coordinator Middle East Economic Handbook. London: videocassette. TV Ontario/Mideast, 1985. Georgetown University Washington, DC Euromonitor, 1986. (487 pages, S80) An audiovisual survey of the role of oil in the Middle East, from Noah caulking the ark Elizabeth Fernea Contains statistical tables, charts, and maps Professor on the economies of sixteen Middle Eastern to the present. The University of Texas and North African nations. Provides an Austin, Texas Walstad, William and Joyce Gleason. Energy economic overview of the region, its role in and Economics. Salt Lake City: National James E. Hill the world economy, and its prospects for the Energy Foundation, 1988. (193 pages, $10) Social Studies Department future. Includes lengthy country profiles. Grade 9 and above Chair Upland High School Peterson, J.E., ed. The Politics of Middle East- Designed especially for use in the classroom, Upland, California ern Oil. Washington. DC: Middle East In- the reproducible pages of this handbook in- Ann Z. Kerr ititute, 1983. (530 pages, $14.95) clude a supplementary materials guide and Outreach Consultant A series of essays on the significance of Mid- twenty lesson activities exploring energy is- Los Angeles, California dle Eastern oil, divided into three sectiors. sues and basic economic concepts such as William Miller The first section is on oil, the Middle East, scarcity, opportunity cost, and market supply Social Studies Program and the international economy. The second and demand. The handbook may be obtained Manager describes the Middle Eastern oil producers directly from the National Energy Founda- Louisiana Department of tion, 5160 Wiley Post Way, Suite 200, Salt Education and the extent of their development. The Baton Rouge, Louisiana third discusses the relationship between oil- Lake City, Utah 84116 (801/539-1406). producing states and international politics. Philip Stoddard Includes basic data on Middle Eastern oil- Consultant Bethesda, Maryland producing states, maps, and a bibliography. Jonathan Swift Richards, Alan and John Waterbury. A Politi- Global Education Program cal Economy of the Middle East: State, Director Class, and Economic Development. Stevenson High School Boulder: Westview Press, 1990. (495 Livonia, Michigan pages, $19.95 for paperback, $45.00 for Richard Wilson hardcover) Secondary Social Studies Coordinator A comprehensive analysis of the transfor- Montgomery County Public mation of Middle Eastern nations' School s economies over the past several decades. Rockville, Maryland Stresses the relationship between politics and development strategies. Includes analyses of the effects of war, the oil Direct inquiries and Woad AlinetnactrANIthEASL:lloo.:;176*Stiteir:x: boom, and labor migration on national NW, Witstiingpziti, DC100040f.(20.2/18$.4:02i: development in the region.

16 ARAB WORLD ILMANAC A PERIODICAL EDUCATIONAL RESOURCE FROM AMIDEAST VOLUME 2, No. 2 WINTER 1991

., --.--:------___ ...---- ...- ir

Lesson Objectives Classroom Activiues and Resources Selected Background References The World at War: The Arab Role in the World Wars The Arab World (background essay) Maps in the World Wars The Ottoman Empire at Its Greatest Extent The Middle East Before World War The Middle East Between the World Wars Tunisian Textbook Excerpts Primary Resources Concerning World War I and World War II ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991

Lesson Plan The Arab World in the World Wars

An understanding of the present-day political You may wish to ask students to define these map of North Africa and the Middle East re- terms using contextual clues. If so, underline quires an examination of the Arab involvement the highlighted terms before photocopying the in World War I and World War II. The im- essay. The following discussion questions focus perialist race for territory in this region during on the essay's main themes and further the les- the nineteenth century meant that the Arabs son objectives outlined above. would inevitably become involved in these 1. In the nineteenth century, European com- global conflicts. The Arabs made significant petition for control and influence in the Mid- contributions to the war efforts of the U.S. and dle East began in earnest. What factors its allies, affecting the outcome of both wars. At motivated the Europeans? Explain why their the same time, the wars and their aftermaths actions might be characterized as "im- had a decisive impact on the growth of perialist." nationalist sentiments in the Arab world and on struggles for independence. 2. Discuss the relationship between European interests in the Arab world and Arab participation in the world wars. Do you Lesson Objectives think the Arabs would have become involved in either war even if the European powers Lisa Bell served as a con- After completing this lesson, students should had not had any aspirations in the region? Ex- sultant in the develop- be able to: plain your answer. ment of the lesson plan for this issue of Arab Explain how European imperialism led to an 3. Discuss the ways in which the Arabs con- World Almanac. Ms. Bell Arab role in the world wars tributed to the war effort in World War I and teaches world geography at Williamsburg Middle Describe the ways in which the Arabs con- World War II. In what ways were the Arabs physically affected by the world wars? In School in Arlington, Vir- tributed to the Allied war efforts in World War ginia. what ways were they psychologically af- I and World War II fected? Explain how these factors con- Discuss the Arabs' wartime experience and tributed to the Arabs' expectations that they its contribution to growing nationalism in the deserved and would receive independence. region 4. Throughout the Arab world, nationalist Explain 'low the wars affected political resistance groups actively opposed the colonialist presence in their countries. None- development in the Arab world theless, France and Britain obtained support Identify on a map of the Middle East/North and assistance from the Arabs during both Africa the areas where military activity oc- world wars. Discuss some of the factors that curred in each world war, and where the trans- might have made this possible. How might fer of political control occurred as a direct the course of the wars have differed if the nationalist resistance had been more power- consequence of the wars ful? Discuss the role of perspective in historical 5. After the First World War, nationalist sen- accounts timents in the Arab world increased steadily, intensifying yet further during and after World War II. These sentiments, directed Classroom Activities and Resources against European colonialist powers, were much stronger than those that may have been + Distribute copies of "The World at War: The expressed against the Ottoman Empire Arab Role in the World Wars" (or, incorporate before World War I. Explain how the wars the information contained in the essay into your and the Arab experience in them might have own lecture). Some terms with which students contributed to growing nationalism. To what may not be familiar have been printed in red.

2 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991

extent do you think nationalism would have Similarly, describe to what extent the increased anyway, and for what reasons? Tunisian texttook's account of the world wars is complete. + On pages 10, 11, and 12 are maps of the Ot- toman Empire at its greatest extent (map A), the 3. Do you consider the passages from the Iddle East before World War I (map B), and Tunisian text to be based on fact or opinion? the Middle East between the world wars (map How about the passages in your own history C). Maps B and C indicate present-day political book? Explain how the facts an author boundaries for reference, although these boun- chooses to cite might convey a particular daries were not necessarily defined during the point of view. periods depicted. You might want to have stu- + On pages 15 and 16 are four primary resour- dents identify and label each present-day nation- ces dealing with the two world wars. After con - Advisory Board state before proceeding with this exercise. sidt ring each document on its own (including its historical context), have students discuss the After students have had a chance to examine the maps, have them consider the following value of resources such as these and how his- H. Thomas Collins torians might use them. Codirector, Project LINKS questions. The George Washington 1. Compare maps A and B. By the eve of Resource A. Follcsongs have often been University Washington, DC World War I, how much territory in the Mid- good indicators of public discontent. Can dle East/North Africa had the Ottoman Em- you think of some reasons why this is so? Nina Dodge pire lost? How much of this was controlled What were the people of Egypt lamenting in Middle East Outreach by European powers? Locate this area on a the folksong reproduced here? Think of Coordinator Georgetown University world map or a globe. Discuss why European some examples of folksongs expressing Washington, DC powers considered control of this part of the public discontent that date from various world to be so important. periods in American history. Elizabeth Fern ea Professor 2. Compare maps B and C. Identify the areas Resource B. What do you learn from these The University of Texas where a change in political control occurred. memoirs about Arab sentiments towards the Austin, Texas Explain how the war and its aftermath con- British and towards the Turks? What limita- James E. Hill tributed to this shift in control. tions might such rust-hand accounts have as Social Studies Department indicators of public opinion? From what you Chair 3. On map B, trace the course of the Arab have learned about the Arab world in the Upland High School Upland, California Revolt (as described in the essay). Who con- world wars, who ended up predicting the fu- trolled the territory that the Arabs were at- ture most accurately: the author or the "old Ann Z. Kerr tempting to liberate? What happened to this people" such as Professor Dumit? Outreach Consultant territory after the war? Los Angeles, California Resource C. Why would the British have William Miller 4. On map C, identify where major military published this document? What did they activity took place during World War II. So .ial Studies Program hope to achieve by dropping it over Syria? In Manager Why do you think military activity did not the leaflet, what do the British state as their Louisiana Department of take place here in World War I? goals in fighting the Ottoman Empire? From Education Baton Rouge, Louisiana + On pages 13 and 14 are excerpts from an what you already know, were these in fact the British goals in the war? How do you eleventh-grade Tunisian history textbook. Philip Stoddard think the Syrian Arabs would have reacted Consultant These passages address World War I and World upon receiving this leaflet? Bethesda, Maryland War II, respectively. Distribute copies of these pages to students, and have them consider the Resource D. Under what circumstances was Jonathan Swift Global Education Program following questions. this letter written? Why did Bourguiba ad- Director dress his appeal to President Roosevelt? Stevenson High School 1. Compare these sections from a Tunisian What does this tell you about the Tunisians' Livonia, Michigan history text with the passages about the perceptions of the United States? Of France? world wars in your history textbook. Would Richard Wilson Of their own role in the war and their expec- Secondary Social Studies you characterize the differences between tations? (It may interest students to know Coordinator them as complementary or contradictory? Ex- that upon receipt of the letter, the office of Montgomery County Public plain your reasoning. Schools the secretary of state sent the following reply Rockville, Maryland 2. What impression would you have of the to the American consul general in Tunisia: Arab role in the world wars if you relied only "A copy of your despatch no. 10 of June 7, on your history book? Does your text pro- 1943, transmitting a letter addressed to Presi- vide a complete account of what occurred? dent Roosevelt by Habib Bourguiba, leader

3 22 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991

of the Neo-Destourian Party, was sent to the Selected Background References White House, together with a translation of the communication. Provided you perceive no objection, you may acknowledge the let- Antonius, George. The Arab Awakening: The ter and state [to Bourguibal that it was read Story of the Arab National Movement. Troy, with interest.") MI: International Book Center, 1969. AMIDEAST gratefully ac- .1.. Included with this issue of Arab World Al- (S22.00) knowledges support from the manac are two photographs reproduced from Morgan Guaranty Trust A solid basic reference regarding the rise and Company of New York, negatives on file with the Library of Congress. spread of nationalism in the Arab world, in- which made possible the in- AMIDEAST gratefully acknowledges support cluding World War I and its aftermath. Still clusion of archival from the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of considered a classic text on the subject. photographs as supplemen- New York, which made possible the reproduc- tary instructional resources Bonsai, Stephen. Suitors and Suppliants: The tion of these photographs. One, taken sometime for this issue of ArabWorld Little Nations at Versailles. New York: As- Almanac. during World War I, depicts (from left to right) sociated Faculty Press, 1969 (reprint of 1946 Col. T.E. Lawrence, Emir Abdullah, Air Mar- ed.) (301 pp., S24.95) Bonsai served as the shall F.N. Salmond, and Sir Wyndham Deedes interpreter for President Wilson at the Paris The other, taken on May 20, 1943, shows native Peace Conference. His fascinating diary, pub- North African troops of the French Colonial lished here, was used by the president as a Army passing a French tank during an Allied reminder of what had occurred from one ses- victory parade in Tunis, Tunisia. Circulate the sion to another. It documents the claims photographs among students, and then discuss and their arbitrationof the smaller parties. the following questions. Carver, Michael. Al Alamein. New York: The 1. In the World War I photograph, what ap- Macmillan Company, 1962. (216 pp., out of print) pears to be the relationship among the four men? Among other things, consider their at- A detailed account of the events leading up tire and their relative position to each other. to and including the decisive battle at Al What does your answer to this question Alamein, presented from a Western perspec- imply about the broader relationship among tive. Still in print is another book by Carver, the Arabs and the British in World War I? Dilemma of the Desert War: A New Look at Does this correspond with or contradict what the Libyan Campaign, 19402. you already know about the history of the Bloomington: Indiana University Press, period? 1987. ($22.00) Teachers are encouraged to 2. Consider the photograph of the Allied vic- Goralski, Robert and Russell W. Freeburg. Oil photocopy any or all com- tory parade during World War II. What is the and War: How the Deadly Struggle for Fuel ponents ofArab World Al- significance of the native North African in WWII Meant Victory or Defeat. New manacfor classroom use. troops' participation in the parade? What ele- York: Morrow, 1987. (384 pp., S19.95) ments in the scene illustrate the French colonial presence in Tunisia? From the In this analysis of the central importance of photograph alone, what might you infer oil to the antagonists in the war, a chapter is about the role of North Africans in World devoted to the Middle East because of its im- War II and about the relationship between portance as a major supply source for the them and the French? British and a target for Rommel's forces in North Africa. Contains a substantial amount 3. Discuss the nature of photographs as his- of tabular material. torical documents. To what extent do you think they accurately portray events and Moorehead, Alan. The March to Tunis: The people? In what ways might they convey less North African War 1940-43. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. (592 pp., out of print) than historical narratives? More than historical narratives? Can they be misleading or A first-person account of the war's progress portray only part of the story? Explain your from 1940 to 1943. The perspective is answers. decidedly Western and provides insights into imperialist views and attitudes towards the Arabs. Although out of print, it may be available in public, school, or university libraries.

4 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC: WINTER 1991

The World at War: The Arab Role in the World Wars

By Julia Clancy-Smith often controlled the best farming land and ran the banks, businesses, and administrations of these North African Arab states. This situation The present-day political map of the Arab was regarded as political, economic, and cul- Middle East and North Africa was formed by tural exploitation by the Arab inhabitants. the twin forces of nationalism and imperialism. European domination helped promote a sense Dr. Clancy-Smith Is assis- In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen- of nationalism among the North Africans, who tant professor of North turies, the power of the Ottoman Empire began to demand greater political and other African and Middle East- freedoms on the eve of the First World War. ern history at The Univer- which had ruled over much of the area since the sity of Virginia in sixteeenth centurywas declining. As the Ot- Although the French occupied Egypt from Charlottesville, Virginia. toman hold over its territory weakened, 1798-1801, real European influence there began European nations began competing among in the late nineteenth century, when the British themselves for greater influence in the area by and French gained control of the country's capitalizing on growing nationalist sentiments. economy. In 1882, British forces invaded Egypt to supress a popular uprising2and preserve their control over the Suez canal.Formal British Prelude to War: control continued until 1936, when the Anglo- Nationalism and Imperialism Egyptian Treaty granted limited independence; I. The Ottoman Empire in the Middle East was the last of the great Is- full independence was not realized until the lamic empires. Beginning in Nationalism as an idea developed in late Free Officers' coup in 1952 and the British about AD 1300 as a prin withdrawal from Suez in 1956. cipality, it was well on its way eighteenth-century Europe. It embodies two to becoming a major world major concepts: the cultural unity of people The predominantly Arab lands of the Fertile power by AD 1500. At Its having the same language and history; and a greatest extent in the six- Crescent (the present-day states of Syria, teenth and seventeenth cen political community whose boundaries are clear- Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel) were also affected turis, the Ottoman Empire ly defined to include all peoples sharing this cul- by both imperialism and nationalism in the extended from Persia (Iran) tural unity. In multiethnic states like the almost to Vienna (Austria), nineteenth century. Then known as Greater across North Africa to Al- Ottoman Empire, nationalism created an ex- Syria and Palestine, this region was home to a geria. and south along the plosive situation. Religious and linguistic large number of religious minorities, although fringes of the Arabian Penin- sula. minorities in the empire gradually demanded Arab Muslims constituted the majority. more political autonomy or independence, often European and American missionary activity in 2. Soon after the Suez seeking the outside assistance of European canal opened in 1869, Britain Palestine and Syria, which already had a Sub- became its main user. The powers, especially Great Britain, France, stantial number of Arab Christian churches, en- canal proved an invaluable Austria, and Russia. These powers, in turn, couraged cultural ties with the West. Along shortcut to India for the wanted to expand their own territory by acquir- British, who no longer had to with the missionaries came the aspirations of send ships around the Horn of ing lands held by the Ottoman Empire. European governments; France, Great Britain, Africa. The attempt by one political entity to control and Russia all sought local allies among various or influence another political entity is known as Arab communities in Greater Syria and Pales- imperialism. Modern European imperialism in tine. the Arab world was first experienced in North Another type of nationalismpolitical Africa. In 1830, France invaded Algeria, which Zionismwas also introduced in Palestine at until that time had been an outlying province of the end of the nineteenth century. Zionism was the Ottoman Empire. Tunisia, also formerly a an ideology that arose in eastern Europe in the dependency of the Ottomans, fell to the French 1880s and promoted the establishment of a army in 1881. Morocco was declared a French Jewish homeland in Palestine for European protectorate (an indirect colony) in 1912, and Jews suffering from persecution in central and that same year, the Italians took control from eastern Europe. From the late nineteenth cen- the Ouoman Empire of the area comprising present-day Libya. The European colonists

5 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC: WINTER 1991

wry until the First World War, small groups of outbreaks of famine, diseases, and loss of European Jews left Europe to settle in Palestine. civilian life. European imperialism also played a role in No military confrontations took place in Mesopotamia (Iraq) and the Arabian Peninsula. North Africa during the First World War, but In 1839, the port of Aden (Yemen) was seized the contribution of Egyptians, Algerians, by the British and became an indirectly ruled Tunisians, and Moroccans was nonetheless sub- colony. British interest in Aden stemmed large- stantial. In French-ruled North Africa, the Arab ly from its strategic location along the trade population assisted the French and the Triple route to India. Then, in the years immediately Entente in a number of different ways. Some prior to the First World War, the British navy 173,000 Algerian Muslim soldiers served in the switched from coal-powered ships to oil- French army, mainly in Europe, as did many powered ships, This prompted a significant in- thousands of Moroccans and Tunisians. Twenty- crease in British interest in the region: first in five thousand Algerians and thousands of Iran where oil was discovered in 1908, and a Moroccans and Tunisians lost their lives in com- few years later in northern Iraq. Iraq also oc- bat for France. Meanwhile, European countries cupied a strategic location along the overland lacked sufficient manpower to keep industrial route to India. During the interwar period, production going, and several hundred thousand British interest expanded to the Arabian Penin- North African males worked in French muni- sula, where oil exploration began in earnest in tions factories and other public utilities from the 1930s. 1915-1918, In addition, years of fighting severe- ly disrupted agricultural production in many places in Europe. Vital foodstuffs produced in World War I and the Arab World North Africa by Arab farmers and European By the eve of the First World War, the Ot- colonists were imported for European consump- toman Empire had already lost many of its tion, often at the expense of the North African former lands to European powers; only Arab population. Many North Africans resented Anatolia (Turkey), parts of Arabia, and Greater this exploitation of their human and agricultural Syria and Palestine remained free from direct resources for the sake of an occupying power, European political control. The war began in and resistence movements arose throughout the the summer of 1914. Some of its causes were re- region. lated to events and changes within Europe it- Egypt served as the single most important self; others had to do with struggles among the base of operation for the British army, which great powers to carve up what remained of the brought thousands of British Empire troops into Ottoman Empire. When the war broke out, two the country to fight against the Ottomans. As a alliance systems formed. On one side were the result, prices in Egypt skyrocketed and French, the Russians, and the British, called the shortages of basic commodities occurred. Many Triple Entente (which Italy later joined). Their Egyptian males were conscripted to serve in the opponents joined in what was called the Triple Allied armies. Large numbers of Egyptians Alliance which included Austria, Germany, and were forced to contribute money, labor, by the end of 1914, the Ottoman Empire. animals, supplies, and farm equipment to the The Ottoman Empire's decision to par- military campaign. At the same time, civil liber- ticipate in the war was a key event in the his- ties were suspended by the British, and many tory of the Middle East, leading to a new Egyptian nationalists were either jailed or ex- political order in the region. In the Persian Gulf iled. Despite the harshness of British rule and and Mesopotamia (Iraq), Ottoman armies the fact that the Egyptians were supporting a fought against British armies often composed of war effort aimed at fellow Muslims (the Ot- Indians from the British Empire. In Greater toman Turks), they were instrumental in help- Syria and Palestine, Ottoman armies initially ing the British forces resist Ottoman attacks comprising both Turkish and Arab contingents against the Suez Canal and Sinai in 1915-16. fought mainly against the British who were As the war dragged on and the Ottoman based in Egypt. The war brought hardship and threat to the Suez Canal increased, the British suffering for all peoples in the Middle East: administration in Egypt sought to form allian- shortages of food and basic consumer items, ces with various local Arab leaders. In 1915, British officials in Cairo began corresponding

6 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991 with an important Muslim Arab leader in the tine, the leaders of the Zionist movement were Hijaz, Sharif Hussein of Mecca 3 Sharif Hus- promised a Jewish homeland by the British. sein was favorable towards an agreement with The First World War was a major turning British officials, In return for an Arab revolt point in twentieth-century Middle Fast history. against the Ottoman army, which would hasten It brought to an end four hundred years of Ot- the end of the war in the Middle East, the toman rule in the region. It disrupted trade, com- British promised Hussein their support for th4e merce, and agriculture, creating economic establishment of an Arab state after the war. hardship and social chaos. In Greater Syria, 3. The Hijaz is an area Provocation for the Arab revolt came in the Palestine, and Iraq, the European mandates in- that extends along the coast spring of 1916, when the Ottoman governor of tensified nationalist sentiments. In North from Saudi Arabia's bound- ary with Jordan in the Damascus accused some prominent Syrian Africa, thousands of Algerian, Moroccan, and north nearly two-thirds of Arab leaders of treason. Many people were Tunisian soldiers returned home hoping that the the way down the Arabian jailed and some were executed, angering the French colonial governments would grant them Peninsula in the south. The Islamic holy cities of Mecca Arabs in Greater Syria and the Hijaz. Sharif greater political freedom as compensation for and Medina are located In Hussein declared a revolt against the Ottomans, their wartime contributions. They too were dis- the Hijaz. Sherif Hussein which began in June 1916 in the Hijaz and appointed. was the hereditary ruler of Mecca and a descendant of moved up the western coast of Arabia and in- Thus, World War I and its aftermath the Prophet Muhammad. land towards Greater Syria. The Arabs were generated much discontent among the Arabs. 4. This understanding under the command of Sharif Hussein's son The Europeans' failure to fulfill their promises was concluded between Faisal, and the British provided material sup- of a nationalist state for the Arabs set off a Sherif Hussein and the port and advisors. By December of 1918, Faisal British, represented by Sir wave of protests, demonstrations, and revolts. Henry McMahon (then and his Arab army had taken Damascus from During the two decades between the world British high commissioner in Cairo), In 1915-16. The the Ottomans. his victory ended Ottoman rule wars, nationalist movements gained strength in the Hijaz, assisting the British war effort communication between throughout the Arab world. them is known as the "Hus- against the Triple Alliance in the Middle East. sein-McMahon Cortvspon- The Arab Revolt has assumed a symbolic sig- deuce." nificance for the Arabs in particular, and it has World War II and the Arab World 5. The Paris Peace Con- been romanticized by many Westerners as well, ference culminated in the The Paris Peace Conference and postwar perhaps most notably in the film epic Lawrence Treaty of Versailles. In agreements failed to resolve many problems another agreementthe of Arabia. Treaty of Sevres, signed in caused by the war years and also created many August 1920the Ottoman When the war ended, a peace conference was more problems among the European nations. government accepted the held in Paris (Versailles) in January 1919 to Among them was the Great Depression (1929- dismemberment of what decide the fate of former Ottoman lands and remained of the empire. 1939), which devastated not only the West, but Three years of nationalist peoples. At the conference, representatives of the rest of the world as well. It contributed to resistance to the terms of numerous groups presented their claims. Feel- the rise of fascism in Europeparticularly in the Treaty of Sevres ings of nationalism ran high among the many resulted in the international Germany and Italyand the emergence of dic- recognition of the Republic different religious, ethnic, and cultural com- tatorships and totalitarian staf in eastern of Turkey by the Treaty of Lausanne in July 1923. munities in the Middle East. The Arabs under Europe. In September of 193,Nazi Germany Faisal hoped titat the victorious powers would under Hitler invaded Poland and France, and 6. This promise was fulfill their promise and proclaim an inde- Great Britain declared war on Germany. The made public in the form of a letter from the British pendent Arab state comprising the Hijaz and Second World War had begun. A little over two foreign secretary, Arthur the Fertile Crescent. Their expectations had years later, the United States joined the war on James Lord Balfour, known been heightened by President Wilson's as the "Balfour Declara- the side of Great Britain and the Soviet Union tion." proclamation of his Fourteen Points in 1918, against the Axis forces of Germany, Italy, and one of which put forth the principle of self- Japan. determination. Instead of being granted self- Since most Arab countries were under some determination, however, the Arab lands form of either direct European rule or informal formerly under Ottoman rule came under the European political control, the outbreak of the control of France and Great Britain through the war had an immediate impact on the Middle establishment of mandates. France was given East and North Africa. Unlike the battles of the mandates for present-day Syria and 1914-1918, the military campaigns of the Lebanon, while Great Britain received man- Second World War were fought mainly in dates for Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine. In Pales- North Africa and Europe; only after being assured of battle successes in North Africa-

7 28 BEST COPY AVAILABLE ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991

Libya in particulardid Hitler launch his attack man representatives in the country. He also on the Soviet Union in June 1941. Meanwhile, protected Moroccan Jews from persecution by Arab lands further east were utilized in supply- pro-Nazi European colonists. In November of ing goods to the Allies, and large numbers of 1942, Morocco was liberated from pro-Nazi British and American troops were also stationed French forces by Alliedincluding American there, in Iraq in particular. troops. Many thousands of native Moroccans served with Allied forces in combat against the Egypt's involvement in World War H was Axis powers, particularly in the Mediterranean similar to that in World War I. Although most Egyptians did not want to fight on either side theater. (and some supported the Germans if only in After securing Morocco, Allied armies hopes that this would rid the country of British landed in Algeria and Tunisia. Here too, many influence), the country was again turned into a European colonists and the colonial French major base of operations for troops from all governments were pro-Nazi. After the defeat of parts of the British Empire. It became the hub the pro-Nazi French regime in Algeria during of the British-organized Middle East Supply November 1942, Algeria served as a base of Center, whose factories employed hundreds of operations for the Allied campaign in neighbor- thousands of Egyptian workers to produce ing Tunisia. The Algerian population was materiel needed for the war effort. As happened called upon to furnish troops and supplies for in World War I, the presence of some 200,000 the war effort, although they had suffered great- foreign troops in Egypt caused a scarcity of ly since 1940 due to food shortages and many basic necessities. In urban areas, food epidemics. Many Algerian Muslim men joined riots broke out among the poor because prices the Free French forces to fight against the Axis were so high. The British also declared martial powers in Europe and elsewhere, despite the law in Egypt, and severe press censorship by fact that the colonial regime still denied Muslim British officials created nationalist opposition Algerians basic political freedoms. throughout the country. Tunisia suffered the most during the cam- For all their dislike of the British, however, paigns of 1942-43. German armies moved in most Egyptians supported the British against from Italian-occupied Libya to fight against the the Axis powers (Germany and Italy). In May Allies who landed in Tunisia at the end of 1942. of 1942, German and Italian armies under the Despite pressure from German, Italian, and pro- command of General Rommel launched an at- Nazi French groups, the leaders of the Tunisian tack upon Egypt and the Suez Canal. The Axis nationalist movementincluding the future troops advanced rapidly into Egypt from Libya Tunisian president, Habib Bourguibasup- (colonized by the Italians since 1911) until they ported the Allies in what was ultimately a vic- were only seventy miles from Alexandria. Then tory over the Axis by May of 1943. This ended the tide turned during the Battle of El Alamein the Second World War in North Africa and in October 1942, when the British army enabled the Allies to concentrate on other fronts defeated Rommel's forces. Not only were ad- in Europe and the Far East. vancing Axis troops stopped at El Alamein, but they were actually pushed back. This decisive battle in Egypt paved the way for additional Al- The Road to Independence lied victories, including the successful landing Upon the war's conclusion in 1945, of American and British troops in North Africa nationalists throughout the Arab world once in November 1942. again expected their long-awaited political inde- The three French colonial states of Morocco, pendence to be granted. North Africans who Algeria, and Tunisia were much more actively had fought to defeat the Axis po'vers an- involved in World War II than they had been in ticipated some recognition of their contribution. World War I. After France fell under Nazi Ger- The majority of people in the Middle East had man control in 1940, the French colonial also refused to collaborate with the Germans regimes in North Africa declared their support and Italians against the Allies, and they too ex- for the pro-Nazi puppet government in France. pected to be compensated by the victorious However, in Morocco, the Muslim leader Sul- European nations. tan Muhammad V cottrageously declared his Since Egypt had declared war against Ger- loyalty to the Allies and refused to receive Ger- many, it was admitted to the newly created

8 27 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991

United Nations as a charter member in 1945. Even as the Arabs played an important role By then, British troops had withdrawn from in the Allied victories of both world wars, these most parts of Egypt, except the Suez Canal global battles had decisive results for the region zone (much to the anger of Egyptian itself. In both World War I and Wo:, War II, nationalists who demanded full British the Arabs served as soldiers, workers, par- withdrawal). British withdrawal from Suez oc- ticipants in movements of rebellion, suppliers curred in 1956, and from then on, Egypt was of commodities, and in other capacities as well. fully controlled by Egyptians. In 1946, the The wars changed the way people in various Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan was declared in- Arab countries thought about government, dependent, although British influence there society, and politics. The First World War remained strong until the 1950s. The same was ended the centuries-old Ottoman Empire and true of Iraq which, while formally independent brought the entire Arab world under some form since 1932, remained under extensive British in- of European control, while the Second World fluence until the nationalist revolution of 1958. War and the strong nationalist movements that followed contributed to a new system of inde- Three new states came to full political independence in the Middle East soon after the pendent nation-states. Second World War: Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Lebanonwhich the French had separated from Greater Syria during the mandateand Syria both declared war against Germany in 1944 and soon thereafter joined the United Na- tions as charter members. Only after the last French colonial troops left both countries in 1946 did they achieve true independence. The state of Israel was declared in 1948, when Great Britain gave up its Palestine mandate after years of nationalist struggle between the Zionists and the Palestinians, both of whom 7. Libyan Inde- desired their own state. The issue of a nation- pendence became the state for the Palestinian Arabs has yet to be responsibility of the resolved. United Nations, since Italythe colonial While new states arose in the Arab east after power in Libyahad been defeated In the war. the Second World War, most of North Africa In 1951, Libya was remained firmly under French rule; Libya was declared independent. the only North African country to gain independence soon after the war. Nationalist parties in Morocco and Tunisia had eagerly hoped to gain their freedom in return for their active support of the Allies. Instead, the French colonial regimes in Morocco and Tunisia suppressed nationalist leaders, spark- ing the outbreak of demonstrations and fighting between the French and popularly supported nationalists. Both Tunisia and Morocco were granted full political independence in 1956, mainly because the French were preoccupied with the war for independence which began in Algeria in 1954. The Algerian revolution against French colonial rule was among the most violent struggles for independence in all of Africa and Asia, lasting eight years. Not until 1962 did the French army pull out and Algerian independence was declared.

9 23 The Ottoman Empire at Its Greatest Extent (16th and 17th centuries) - 0 J 0 SI 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 000 0 0e00 00 0000 0 00 0 0 .0 000 0 00 0o 0 0 00 0o 0 000000Op0 0 000 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o0 0 0 0 0 0 o0 0 0 o0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o0 0 0 0 4-. 0 0 0 10 0 00 0 0 ...00 0 00, 000 0 c 0 .00 000 0.0 000 0. 0 000 0. 0 000 00 0 000 .00 00000 00 00 0, 0 0. 0 0000 0 0 .0 .0 0 0 00 00 0 0 00 0 00 0 . 0 -'!00^ O 0 00 s. 0 0 0 0 0 00 0000 0 00 0 00 0 00I 0 0 . 0 . 0 30 0 o 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 O0 0 0 ° J 0 00 00 C 0 0 101 0 O 000 p C 000000E00 00 0 0c; 0 00 C 0 r ° 0° 0 0 0 7 ° 0 ° 0 0 00 00 ° 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0n 0 0 0 / 0 0 0 00 / 0 O O 0 0 o 0 C. 0 0 lo 0 0O 0.0 o 0 0° 00 000 00 05 O 0 O (Some territorial boundaries .ire approximate.) 0 0 oo 0 0 I. 006o 00000 00 00 0 00 0 c The Middle East Before World War I AEMMOMEMMIIMMOSIMMORMEMUMMONOMMYMOMMIMUMMIIIM:7411101011111110111111MMERFAMEMMORMMUUMWMMOIMIMMONNOMMERAMMAmmummormmumiommillummilmsuAMMUSIMMIIMMAROMUMOMMEUMMIHNI,ammilimminimmummmoraummilma...AMMOUdi, ga..bwiliMUMw . .dLailWaMMIMMUMUMMUMMOMIIMMUMENORMILIMMlagnajal ellIMMW"1"mw.simMillIMENVIMMICROMMEMMI1MMR 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111.1111111111111111111111111111111211111IVIIIIMIt1111111111111111111111115111111111,IMEMOMMEMMEMMENIMMINXIMOOMIVIMMUMMMIIMMUNEMMOMMURIMMINESW411NMEMMUMNIMMOMMEMOMMOMMILEMEMIIMMOMMIMMAIMMERNEMMEMMINNWORSOMMIMMUMISMUOMMM IIIMMEMIIMMOMINNOMMUMMUMUUUMNIMINIMMENEWNMEMMICOMPRINI401111111MMIIMUMONUMMUNOWINVIIISINEMMENSWRIBOUMENWOMMEMMIVONSMIIIMIRMONIMMINNVEWIRMOIMMOWNOMMEMEMMVIIIIMMOIXONEMOIMMI1111111111SMNOURNUOMM 1111111101111MOMUNIIMEM11111101111111111111111111111."1.1PININNUMMINONSUMUNOW' "MUMSWIllw 1111111." Ng 6 IrnFrance GreatOttoman Britain Empire 31 ItalyIndependentSpain 32 The Middle East Between the World Wars Ammummommilmnimmumummumumumammommummummummummulanwor. .411 Mt ''. ....". ...Mill... Amaimm-mmammilimmiummumemmersAmmur111111/T AMMENMAINVNMEMEMEMEMEMMEMMMUMME11111111.111MMEMZ4MIZAMMINMEMMIIMMOIMOWAMMIMMIIMMEMENIMMXIMMUSIMINIMEMNIVAmmommimmummmammommommummimm. =IiII11111111111111111111111111h . \ ...... s -.;.;.0:41....mssmmlmmummmummummis Kr -;,-,4 , , 1 " \ / .. / i ...::otat 11111111111 111111111111r II immommommimmummummummommium"'11111111111111/1111111111111111111111111`11111111111111111111111111111111111111011111111111111.1111111111.1111111111111111111111111111111.111111M111111111111111111111111111111 11111111 ...\/..A1-i's..."0.--/,.\/...\ .1 Z-1;.i:1"7,:/ '774 l>.` / \ ..11 % 7. ..../, ...... z.7 1 t 1 I ::!:,:::::'' ,11111111111111111111111!,,nri11111111111111111Ir ..1 \ 1,1 r ...1 '..7.,,i, ..;,..,:$ z..../...si.:.11..,. .011 IsmimmummommimmumititV./t-ig\,%,,,11111111111111111111111111111111111.111111111111111111111111. %., :',...... , V1111111111111111111111111111111cs ' ...--,..1::::::::: ^:,,,,,,,,./:, ..., '',/ I ...2 ....1,-,-, i ( i 1 .! 1 ''; \ ...... ,i, ,, , , t i \...i.,..:its; 1._ , Inum... 111110111111 im....www,-I /limmummall- 111111111111r '-11%:1":11; ::: :%:': .. \',... -wrissins- I)) .., \I / ,; III FranceGreat Britain* IndependentSpainItaly Somepresencelimited*Iraq attainedterritorial independence remained formal borders substantial independencein are1936. approximate. untilIn both the in 1932,countries,1950s. and BritishEgypt was influence/ granted ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991

Tunisian Textbook Excerp Grade 11

Below are two excerpts from an eleventh- because I consider the sultan to possess com- grade Tunisian history textbook, translated plete sovereignty and freedom in his actions. from Arabic. As you read, think about the Thus, Germany succeeded in internationaliz- similarities and differences between the infor- ing what was called "the Moroccan question." mation presented in this text and that presented Germany used the Moroccan question as a bar- in your textbook. gaining chip to gain territorial concessions from France in 1911. Germany sent a warship to Al- World War I Ghadir harbor and the two European states com- The Reasons for Its Outbreak: A peting for Morocco prepared to enter into war General Summary about Its Stages with one another. However, they reached an and Circumstances agreement by which Germany committed itself not to harass the French colony in Morocco in The roots of the war lay clearly in the com- return for France's relinquishing a part of the petition among European states and in the con- Congo to Germany. tradiction of their interests. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, the European in- . It becameclear that the war would be dustrial states needed markets in which to sell long and difficult and that victory would go to their excess domestic production.... This need the countries with the strongest economies was inseparable from the need for raw materials those which would provide the most goods for existing in abundance elsewhere in the world. their armies and civilian populations. The com- Competition for both markets and raw materials batants exported the resources of the colonies led European countries to invade other and drafted a large number of those who had countries and create colonies. been colonized. Battles and naval boycotts affected trade between Europe on the one hand ... Germany signed a treaty with the Ot- and Africa and Asia on the other. The European toman Sultan Abdul Hamid on March 5, 1903 countries were no longer able to provide their which entitled it [Germany] to a 99-year rail- colonies with manufactured goods. The U.S. road concession, including the mines in a 20- and Japan greatly benefitted from this as they kilometer strip along the railroad, and to the were able to provide their own goods to right to import all construction materials needed European countries. for the railroad without paying tariffs. England and Czarist Russia objected to the implementa- tion of this project. England wanted to ensure World War II its route to India and considered a ntrol of the The Fighting between the Axis Persian Gulf vital to its interests. As for Russia, Powers and the Allies in Tunisia and it considered this expansion of German in- its Effect on the Tunisian Economy fluence over the Ottoman Empire to be at the and Society expense of its own interests and ambitions in Tunisia became a battlefield between the the area. Axis and Allied forces as a result of its strategic Another conflict arose between Germany and location on the Mediterranean. The Allies France regarding Morocco. In his visit to Tan- planned to land troops in North Africa ... to giers on March 31, 1905, Wilheim II gave a purge Africa of the Axis powers in preparation speech which included a threat to France: for an Allied invasion of Europe which would The objective of my visit is to let everyone open a new front and relieve Russia from Ger- know that I am determined to do my best to man pressure. The landing operation was com- protect the interests of Germany effectively pleted on Nov. 8, 1942 under the leadership of the American General Eisenhower....

35 13 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC WINTER 1991

Hitler reacted swiftly. German units landed The French began to cooperate with the Al- at the [airport] on November 8th without any lies, facilitating operations in France itself there- opposition from the French forces, most of after. which were loyal to the Vichy government. . The Tunisians participated in the war These units were then augmented with more from within the French army. They helped to troops. The Axis forces were able to expand to guard the Mareth Line beginning in September the eastern half of the country before the arrival 1939 in order to repulse all possible Italian at- of the Allies from the west. tacks from Libya. They were discharged in The military presence of the Axis forces was 1940 after France's surrender, but were again supported further by the arrival from Libya of conscripted after the Allied victory and assisted Marshal Rommel and his Africa Corps. in the operations which landed troops in Italy Meanwhile, Allied support came from the south and France. They also fought alongside the Al- as the British Eighth Division .. . arrived to the lies in Germany. area in pursuit of Rommel. The Axis forces The Tunisian economy was badly af- took the initiative, confronting the Eighth . .. fected by World War II in general, and in par- Division at the fortified Mareth Line. At the ticular by the battles which took place on its same time, they moved to the western front to soil. Mining and agricultural production plum- shake up the Allied position there. meted, foreign trade became paralyzed, and the Rommel's health at this time was becoming people lived under severe physical conditions increasingly worse, ultimately causing him to and low morale because of the difficulties withdraw from Tunisia. At this point, the Allies caused by the logistics of battles and by aerial surpassed the Axis in equipment and man- bombardment. power. The Axis fought under very difficult circumstances because of the scarcity of equipment and food, while the Allies enjoyed control of the sea and overwhelming air superiority. In addition, the American leadership organized a French military corps to fight alongside it in the Battle of Tunis.... The Allies massed their troops on the western front in preparation for the final as- sault. They launched an attack and occupied Benzert and Tunis on May 7. Axis forces had no choice but to surrender on May 12 and 13 in the southern region. The Allies captured a good amount of equipment and took one quarter of a million prisoners. Some of the most important results of the final victory of the Allies in Africa were: The Allies controlled the entire mid-south region.

North Africa was transformed into a base for important operations in Europe. The victory gave the initiative in the war to the Allies who maintained it to the end of the war. The Axis was demoralized, the effect of which was most noticeable in the Italians who had lost their empire and now had a front line in Italy.

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Primary Resources Concerning World War I and World War II

A. C. Woe on us Wingate [British High Commissioner in Egypt] We have heard with much regret that you are fighting Who has carried off corn against us who are working for the sake of preserving the edicts of the Holy Moslem Religion from being altered and Carried off cotton for liberating all Arabs from the Turkish Rule. We believe Carried off camels that the Real Truth has not reached you. We have therefore Carried off children sent you this 'Proclamation' to assure you that we are fighting for the two Noble Aims: The Preservation of the Leaving only our lives Religion and the Freedom of Arabs generally. The Arab For love of Allah, now let us alone. Kingdom has been for a long time in bondage to the Turks, (an Egyptian folk song sung by people in the Nile Valley in 1918, quoted in who have killed your brethren and crucified your men and Britain s Moment in the Middle East: 1914-1956, by Elizabeth Monroe. deported your women and families and have altered your England: Chatto & Windus Ltd., 1963.) religion. How then can you stand this and bear the bitterness of continuing with them and agree to assist them? Come and join us who are labouring for the sake of Religion and Freedom of the Arabs, so that the Arab Kingdom may again B. become what it was during the time of your fathers. Late in the year 1917, rumors spread that General Allen- (text of a leaflet dropped by planes over Syria by the British during World by, Commander in Chief of the British Expeditionary Force War I; as quoted in The Palestinians: A Detailed Documented Eyewitness History of Palestine Under British Mandate, by Izzat Tannous. New York: stationed in Egypt, west of the Suez Canal, was now moving I.G.T. Company, 1988.) northward across the Sinai desert heading for Syria. I say rumors, because in those days, there were no radios or televisions and the censored local papers, if any, could not publish any discouraging news to a population whose loyalty to the Ottoman Empire was extremely in doubt. All bad D. news to the government meant good news to us. This was true. In 1917, most of the Arab people prayed for an Allied June 1, 1943 victory over the Turks. It was because we wanted to be independent of Turkish domination. The few people who prayed Mr. Franklin Roosevelt, for the opposite result were some old people with a different President of the Republic of the view, like Prof. Jabir Dumit, professor of Arabic at S.P.C. United States of America, [Syrian Protestant College, now the American University of Washington. Beirut]. The professor assured us that the joy of an Allied Mr. President: victory would not last much longer than a honeymoon and that the victorious Allies would not fail to dominate us and With strong feelings of respect and liking toward the great divide us in a manner much more destructive than the Turks American Democracy which is fighting to save throughout ever did! "We are now one people, but the Allies will make the world the principles of liberty and justice, the head of the of us many peoples ininany countries," the professor said. Destour sends you the greetings and congratulations of the But we did not believe Professor Dumit. The English, the Tunisian people on the splendid victory of the allied armies French and the American missionaries who were with us in Africa. were good people and some of them were exemplary in The Destourian party, which has been fighting for so many ways; and how could their governments be different! many years for these same principles, had placed the greatest Consequently, we continued to pray for Allenby's advance hopes on the victory of the democracies. Engaged in an une- and we considered his army to be the army of liberation qual combat against the French colonial system which sys- which was to deliver us from Turkish oppression. tematically pursues the destruction of the State and the (from The Palestinians: A Detailed Documented Eyewitness History of assimilation of the people, for the benefit of the protectorate, Palestine Under British Mandate, by Izzat Tannous. New York: I.G.T. Company, 1988.) which refuses to see in Tunisia anything but a field for ex-

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ploitation and a land for peopling, and which for that reason and of the Tunisian people a formless aggregate without a pursues with its pitiless repression the Great Destourian country. Party which embodies the will to resistance in the country, Thus by an irony of fate that is particularly painful to our the people of Tunisia were naturally on the side of those who hearts as democrats, the victory of the democracies in entered the war to assure the weak peoples their right to life. Tunisia has established there methods that are most authenti- We rightly believed that, fighting for a new and more cally fascist. humane world from which racial prejudice would be forever That state of affairs will certainly be taken advantage of, banished, the great democracies could not exclude from it if it has not already been, by the enemy's propaganda, not the peoples of colonies and the Tunisian people in particular, only among the Tunisian people, among whom the friends of which has a right to life, no less than its brothers of Europe France are somewhat disoriented and are losing ground, but or America. among the Arab-Muslim peoples, whose attachment to the Our hopes were all the more justified as the new world in democratic principles has been a great aid to the war effort question, while it represents immense progress on the moral of the Allies so far. plane, is likewise necessitated in the political domain be- The day following the victory of Tunisia, I called upon cause it alone will be in a position to put an end to the ap- the Tunisian people to form one bloc with France for a work petite for conquest and the wars of hegemony which have so of reconstruction and concord, and to leave until after the often decimated our poor human race. war the solution of political problems. The Resident reacted This conviction, deeply fixed within us, has caused us to by forbidding the appearance of that article, which evidently remain stubbornly faithful to the cause of the democracies did not square with his plans, and by ordering my arrest and despite all the advances, all the shrewdness, all the pressure that of my comrades. No collaboration from the Party was of the Axis powers, and has led us never to cease to believe wanted. In fact, it certainly cannot collaborate on the basis of in the victory of the former. In our dungeons in France as the present "reforms," which constitute a decided step back- well as in the palaces placed at our disposal by the Italian ward as compared to the status prevailing before the war. Government, this was with us an almost religious profession The state of crisis which characterized the political atmos- of faith, perhaps because, without having admitted it, we felt phere in Tunisia at this time could not leave the Anglo- that our only chance of salvation lay in that victory. Saxon powers cold, which are assuming the moral and Unfortunately, the entry of the allied troops into Tunis, far material direction of the coalition. Such errors, due to a spirit from bringing more liberty and justice to the people, has of vengeance or to narrow political views may bring to brought into power certain partisans of the policy of assimila- naught the Allies' war effort by alienating from them valu- tion to the extreme, "with its corollaries in case of the in- able friendships. evitable failure: arbitrary action and contraint." We are placing all our hopes in you, that Free France, The repression of the Tunisian patriots which had lasted which is fighting against Nazi slavery, may not treat the since the occurrences of April 9, 1:)38, and which had dis- Tunisians as slaves and may practice with respect to them a persed the militant members and leaders of the party by the policy more in keeping with its genius and its traditions. thousands among the prisons and concentration camps of In its present distress the Tunisian people does not wish to France and Tunisia, this terrible repression from which there despair of the justice of men. It. is directing its glances was a moment of respite (ironically enough) only during the towards the head of the great American democracy, for a Germano-Italian occu?ation, has been resumed at an ac- supreme appeal for aid. celerated rate. And tecause of the terror which weighs upon I venture to hope that this touching appeal of a small the country, the leaders of Free France have, by an unheard people which does not want to die, to the head of a free and of act of violence, evidently inspired by the desire to powerful democracy, will not have been made in vain. humiliate and terrorize the people, deposed the legitimate Sovereign of the country, Sidi Moncef Pasha-Bey, who, Please accept, Mr. President, together with my best despite the advances and the pressure of the Germans and regards, the homage of my admiration and my respect. Italians, had stubbornly remained neutral and faithful to the French protectorate.

Today they are engaged, by a series of decrees, in com- General Secretary of the Destourian Party pleting the dismemberment and the annihilation of the last vestiges still remaining of the Tunisian personality, which Habib Bourguiba (signed) the treaties had strictly respected, however. That is (letter from future Tunisian President Habib Bourguiba to U.S. President camouflaged annexation, preceding annexation pure and Franklin D. Roosevelt, sent from the American Consulate General at Tunis, June 7, 1943. Original and translation on file at the National Archives in simple, which would make of Tunisia a French Department Washington, DC.)

16 RAB WORLD LMANAC AA PERIODICAL EDUCATIONAL RESOURCE FROM AMIDEAST

VOLUME 2, Na 3 SPRING 1991

Contents

Lesson Objectives Classroom Activities and Resources Islamic Revival in the Arab World (background essay) Headcoverings (sketch) a "Sacred and Secular in Islam" (short article) Islamic Revival "Some Islamic Perspectives Today" (short article) in the Arab World Cartogram The Muslim World Selected Verses from the Qur'an Selected Background References

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BEST COPY AVAILABLY ARAB WORLD ALMANAC SPRING 1991

Lesson Plan Islamic Revival in the Arab World

The resurgence of Islam in the Arab world lecture). Some terms important to an under- began in the late eighteenth century in partial re- standing of the essay but with which students action to the decline of Islamic civilization and may not be familiar have been printed in red. the encroachment of the West on Muslim lands. You may wish to ask students to research these Disillusionment with Western models has en- terms or discuss them in class. If so, underline couraged the promotion of a return to Islamic the highlighted terms before photocopying the models of society and government. One ap- essay. The following discussion questions focus proach to Islamic revival is fundamentalism, in on the essay's main themes and further the les- which adherents promote social reform through son objectives outlined above. a very literal interpretation of the religion's sa- 1. What are we to call the phenomenon that cred writings. The current revival of Islam is is energizing the Islamic world? A number of much more than just fundamentalism, however, terms have been used, including: revival, re- as Muslims approach the ideas of change and resurgence, traditionalism, purification, and form in many different ways. fundamentalism. Ask students to define these terms. What shades of meaning distinguish one from another? After reading the essay, Lesson Objectives which one(s) seem to best describe what's John Hergesheimer devel- After completing this lesson, students should happening in the Arab world today? oped the lesson plan for be able to: this issue of Arab World 2. In part, the resurgence of Islam in the Almanac. Mr. Herge- Discuss the historical roots of the Islamic Arab world today is a reaction to the intru- sheimer teaches world revival in the Arab world, including the re- sion of Western culture, practices, and values cultures at Norwalk High which violate many Arab and Muslim val- School in Norwalk, Cali- lationship between the West and the Arab fornia. He Is also newslet- world ues. Ask students to identify and discuss his- ter editor for the torical situations in which Western culture Describe the Arab world's various re- has intruded on the Arab world and describe California Council for sponses to the challenges of Western cul- the Social Studies. ture the forms such intrusions have taken. Stu- dents may wish to consider such historical de- Explain the difference between "funda- velopments as a) the Crusades, b) the British mentalism" and other approaches to Is- occupation of Egypt in the 1880s, c) the lamic revivalism League of Nations mandates, d) the British Compare the relationship between sacred and American ownership of Middle v.- 4 and secular in the Muslim world with that oil companies, e) the establishment c in the United States Western support for Israel, and f) the Western response to the Iraqi invasion _Ku- Identify the Arab world and the larger wait in 1990. (Many of these events are men- Muslim world on a map, and cite general information about the distribution of Mus- tioned in the essay.) Students should lims throughout the world understand that Western intentions in these situations may differ from how they are per- Discuss the use of clothing to make state- ceived by the Arabs. ments about religious and cultural beliefs, and the extent to which this information 3. Discuss the events mentioned in the essay can be accurately interpreted by persons which demonstrated to Arabs that Islam outside the culture in question might be more effective than nationalism against the encroachment of the West. Can you think of other examples where Islam has Classroom Exercises and Activities been upheld as the unifying factor among + Distribute copies of the essay "Islamic Re- Arabs against Western actions? vival in the Arab World" (or, incorporate the in- 4. Ask students to research the basic tenets of formation contained in the essay into your own American Protestant fundamentalists. Dis-

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cuss the extent to which their beliefs and American society. Ask students to give some goals are similar to those of Muslim funda- examples of clothing worn in the United mentalists. How closely do the conditions States today that convey to strangers some- against which they are reacting resemble thing about the beliefs or values of the those to which Muslims are reacting? Does wearer. this comparison suggest the existence of a more generic "religious fundamentalism" 2. Encourage students to hypothesize about that might be found in many religions? Ex- some advantages and disadvantages for an plain your answers. Arab woman who has worn Western-style dress and then adopts traditional clothing. S. Review the list of Islamic revivalist perspectives on page 6. Which of these perspec- 3. Ask students to discuss the advantages and Advisory Board ti-,:s would you hive-. attributed to Islamic disadvantages for an American student dress- revivalists before .:nding the essay? If many ing so as to state his/her beliefs about a) mu- H. Thomas Collins of your answers fall into the "radical activ- sical preferences, b) political or social issues, or c) religious faith. Codirector, Project LINKS ist" category, discuss how you might have The George Washington gained this impression even though this 4. Ask several students (both male and fe- University Washington, DC group represents only a minority of Islamic male) to put on the tarhah and describe how revivalists. they think it would feel to wear it a) on an Nina Dodge Middle East Outreach 6. The reaction of Western nations to the Is- American street, b) on a street in Cairo, and c) in a small village in rural Egypt. Try to Coordinator lamic revival in the Arab world will b:3 im- Georgetown University portant in determining future international elicit both physical and emotional reactions. Washington, DC relations between the two regions. Ask stu- Refer to the sketches of headcoverings on Elizabeth Fernea dents to assume the role of foreign policy ad- page 9. This page may be projected from a Professor visors to the U.S. government. Ask them to transparency or reproduced and distributed to The University of Texas Austin, Texas identify foreign policy alternatives for deal- each student. The headcoverings are identified ing with Islamic governments and with Arab as follows: James E. Hill governments of nations which have politi- Social Studies Department cally strong Islamic movements. Have them A. Muslim woman from Eritrea Clair debate the pros and cons of the policy alterna- Upland High School B. Muslim man from Pakistan Upland, California tives suggested. C. Muslim man from Oman (Arab) D. Christian priest from Syria (Arab) Ann Z. Kerr + Many people in the Arab world are demon- E. Muslim woman from Thailand Outreach Consultant strating their loyalty to Islamic beliefs by return- F. Muslim man from Saudi Arabia (Arab) Los Angeles, California ing to traditional practices, including traditional G. Muslim woman from Turkey William Miller dress. In Egypt, for example, many women H. Muslim man from Sudan (Arab) Social Studies Program have adopted traditional headcoverings, such as L Muslim woman from Syria (Arab) Manager the tarhah accompanying this issue of Arab Louisiana Department of J. Muslim woman from the Island of Jerba in Education World Almanac. This headcovering has become Tunisia (Berber) Baton Rouge, Louisiana a symbol of the Islamic resurgence in Egypt. K, Christian woman from Mexico The tarhah is worn by the vast majority of ur- L. Muslim man from Morocco (Arab) Philip Stoddard Consultant ban working and nonworking women from all 1. Before informing students about the ori- Bethesda, Maryland classes, and by practically all young Egyptian gins of the headcoverings, ask them the fol- women who are adopting a traditional mode of Jonathan Swift lowing questions about each picture. Global Education Ffogram dress. Director a) Is the headcovering worn by a man or a Stevenson High School The tarhah is worn as follows: the long side woman? Livonia, Michigan of the triangle runs along the woman's fore- b) What is the religion of the person wearing head, while the tip of the triangle with the most Richard Wilson the headcovering? Secondary Social Studies beading should fall down the center of the c) From which country or region of the world Coordinator woman's back. The two outer corners of the tri- does the person come? Montgomery County Public Schools angle are wrapped around the neck and secured Rockville, Maryland behind it so that they also hang down the 2. Share with students information about the woman's back. individuals in each sketch. In which cases were their guesses correct? In which cases in- 1. The use of particular types of clothing to correct? Discuss which aspects of the "make a statement" about one's beliefs is not sketches might have misled them. Would ad- new in history. It goes on all the time in ditional details such as the color of the gar-

41 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC SPRING 1991

ments or the rest of a person's clothing have 2. In all major faiths, there is a certain ongo- made it easier to correctly answer the ques- ing tension between tradition and reform. tions in #1 above? Can you identify some elements of this tension in Islam? In other religions? 3. Two of the headcoverings depicted are worn by non-Muslims. Why do you think 3. Read the Qur'anic passages about food, in- these people have their heads covered? What terpretation, intoxicants, modest dress, and reasons besides religious dictates might peo- war. Discuss the different ways these pas- ple have for keeping their heads covered? sages might be interpreted. Which interpreta- (Consider geographical, cultural, historical, tions might be made by a modernist and and occupational reasons.) which by a fundamentalist? To what extent do you think it is possible to generalize about AMIDEAST gratefully ac- 4. Discuss how a person from outside a given "what Islam says?" (Students might also con- knowledges support from the culture might be handicapped in "reading" Morgan Guaranty Trust sider passages in the sacred writings of other Company of New York, the statements made by the clothing of per- religions that can be interpreted in various which made possible the in- sons inside that culture. ways.) clusion of a tarhah from Egypt as a supplementary in- 4. Distribute the short article "Sacred and Secu- + This issue of Arab World Almanac focuses structional resource for this lar in Islam." Have students read it on their own on the Islamic resurgence in the Arab world, Issue of Arab World Almanac. or aloud in class; alternatively, incorporate the but it is important for students to understand information into your lecture. (Terms with that this phenomenin is not unique to the Arab which students may not be familiar are printed world, nor does the majority of the world's in red.) Muslim population live in the Arab world. To 1. Helping students understand the distinc- reinforce this understanding, distribute pages tion between sacred and secular in their own 12-13, "Cartogram: The Muslim World." Each society will enable them to better understand student will also need a sheet of quadrille or these concepts in terms of Islamic society. graph paper (five or six squares to the inch is Ask students to suggest examples of sacred preferable). and secular in the areas of music, literature, architecture, institutions (including schools), 1. Directions for the cartogram are on the laws, and perhaps careers. handout, but students may need some help in moving from the numerical table to the graph 2. Discuss the rationale for separation of paper. This exercise forces students to think church and state in the United States. Would about the relative locations and shapes of the this rationale be relevant for Muslim society? countries and regions indicated. (It may also Explain your answers. interest students to know that upwards of five million Muslims live in the United Teachers are encouraged to 3. Describe in your own words why Islam is States.) photocopy any or all compo- characterized as a total way of life. To what nents of Arab World Alma- extent can other major world religions be 2. Ask students to compare their cartograms nac for classroom use. characterized as a total way of life? Does with an ordinary map. What major differ- your answer depend upon religion alone, or ences do they see? Which countries/regions upon culture as well as religion? appear much more significant on the car - togram than they do on an ordinary map? 4. Distribute the short article "Some Islamic Which appear less significant? Approxi- Perspectives Today." Have students read it on mately what percent of the world's Muslims their own or aloud in class; alternatively, incor- live in the Arab world? porate the information into your lecture. (Terms with which students may not be familiar are 3. Point out that the Muslim populations of printed in red.) Also distribute the selected these nations do not necessarily constitute verses from the Qur'an appearing on page 14. the total populations. Students may want to research other religions represented in the.< .. 1. "Discredited" is a word sometimes used in countries' populations and think about what describing the attitude of many Muslims to- their effect on/reaction to Islamic resurgence day towards Islamic modernism. From what might be. you have learned in this article and from the essay "Islamic Revival in the Arab World," why do you think this term has been applied?

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Islamic Revival in the Arab World by John A. Williams Muslim :ever and its Decline When the United States was born as a nation inC.E.1776, the civilization of Islam was grow- What is Islam? ing old and its empires were growing weak. For a thousand years, Islam had successfully chal- Islam is one of the world's great religions, Dr. Williamsis Kenan worshipping the God of Abraham worshipped lenged the Western world. In terms of sea Professor of Humanities at by Judaism and Christianity. Muslims accept a power, productivity and organization, trade and The College of William religious law similar to that of Judaism, revere gracious living, science and intellectual accom- and Mary in Williams- burg, Virginia. Abraham and Moses, and accept that Jesus, plishments, Islam had usually exercised an easy born of the Virftin Mary, was the promised Mes- superiority over the West, and had even in- siah, or Christ. About one billion people are vaded Western Europe in Spain and Sicily. Muslims today, and Islam is the most rapidly Western Europeans felt threatened and drove growing religion in the U.S. and in the world. the Muslims out of Spain and Sicily, but they In thirty yearsone generationMuslims will could not keep the Muslims from invading and dominating much of Eastern Europe (Greece, probably outnumber Russians in the lands of 1. Muslims consider Jesus the SovietUnion?Islam is experiencing a pow- Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania, Hun- to be the Messiah and a great erful revival in the last years of this century, gary, and parts of Poland) during the Renais- prophet, but hold that he was sance. In 1529 and again in 1683, Muslim a special creation of God, not and this interesting situation needs to be under- God's son. stood armies marched from Turkey to Vienna, capital of the Habsburg Empire, and besieged it. But 2. Muslims are the major- While Islam is a religion, it has also been one ity in the Soviet republics of of the world's great civilizations, rivaling the by 1700, the Western Europeans had begun to Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turk. demonstrate a growing technological and organ- menistan, Kazakhstan, Tajiki- Eastern Christian and Western Christian civili- izational edge over the Muslims. Muslim em- stan, and the Kirghiz zations and stretching from Spain to India and Republic. They are important pires had lost control of the seas and of vital China. At the same time, Muslims think of their minorities in other republics. world trade-routes, and during the eighteenth religion as a polity: i.e., a community requiring 3. Both these cities, called century, Muslim imperial power declined in political organization or government. Islam "the two holy places," are lo- three continents and was replaced by that of located in Western Arabia. Mus- dates its calendar from c.E. (Common Era) 622, cal strong-men. By the end of that century, lims go on pilgrimage to the year in which the Prophet Muhammad Mecca and visit the Prophet's European powers were beginning to invade old founded the Umma, or Community, and began Mosque and tomb in Medina. Muslim lands, and Muslim religious leaders to govern it after leaving his city of Mecca and 4. Law in Islam means were beginning to teach that Muslims had moving to his new capital at Madina. This was much more than it does in the strayed from the path of right and could find West. It deals not only with the first year of the Htjra, or Emigration (often strength only in a return to Islamic Law and crime and punishment, but expressedA.H.,or anno hegirae). also with prayer, cleanliness, practices. ethics, ritual, and virtually More than half of the world's Muslims live every aspect of life. Hence it east of Karachi, Pakistan. Even of those who has been capitalized here; to Muslims, it is The Law sent live west of Karachi, the Arabs are a minority. European Expansion and Domination down from heaven. Turks, Persians, and Kurds are all Muslims but Most Muslim rulers and people were confi- not Arabs. Neither are the Berbers of North Af- 5. The Ottoman Empire dent that they would regain their old superi- had Its capital at Istanbul in rica nor the Muslims of Black Africa, although ority, until 1798. That was a fateful year, Turkey, but at its height it both these African peoples have intermarried controlled all the Arab lands because in July, Napoleon of France invaded with Arabs throughout the centuries. Many Ar- except Morocco, as well as the and conquered Egypt at that time a province of Balkans and all the shores of abs are Christians who never converted to Is- the Ottoman Empire. For the first time, the the Black Sea. lam. However, because the Arabs first brought Western world showed its will and ability to Islam to the world, their importance to Islam is conquer and exploit old Muslim lands and their measured by more than just their numbers. Ar- resources and populations. The British allied abs today continue to play a key role as Islam is with the Turks to drive Napoleon out of Egypt, revived as an important force in the world. ARAB WORLD ALMANAC SPRING 1991

but they had their own ambitions in the Middle later. Quite early, this sentiment took root in the East as well as further east in Muslim-ruled In- Arab world. dia. After World War I, almost every Muslim country except Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen was under the direct or indirect control Fundamentalism of a European power. often Britain or France, The Islamic revival began as a resurgence of but sometimes Russia, the Netherlands, or Italy. fundamentalism. Fundamentalism is a phenome- After the war, the League of Nations granted non in all religions, including Islam's sister- Britain a mandate, or commission, to prepare faiths of Christianity and Judaism. It comes the inhabitants of Palestinewhich had been later in the history of a religion and says, "The ruled by the defeated Turkish empirefor self- way we have been going is all wrong. We have rule. During the war, however, Britain had to get back on the road, and the way to do it is given its support to the idea of a "national home to get away from traditionalism and history and for the Jewish people" in Palestine. Now, it back to the fundamentals." The "fundamentals" opened the country to colonization by European are usually the sacred writings: in the case of Jews. Arab Palestinians protested this immigra- Christianity the Bible, in the case of Islam the tion, but to no avail. Upon Britain's withdrawal Qur'an (the words of God) and the Hadith (the from Palestine in 1948, the State of Israel was words of the Prophet Muhammad). Fundamen- declared. Neighboring Arab states joined the talists usually 'interpret these writings in a very Palestinians in resisting Israel's establishment. literal way. In the ensuing war, hundreds of thousands of All Muslims can agree on what the Qur'an Palestinians became refugees, and the city of Je- says; they may differ on how to interpret it. Dis- rusalemholy to Jews, Christians, and Mus- agreement comes through the hadithsthe say- lims alikewas divided along with the rest of ings attributed to Muhammad. The Hadith Palestine. transmits Muhammad's Sunna, or practice, as The growing Western encroachment on Mus- well as that of the early Umma, or Muslim Com- lim lands helped nurture the revitalization of Is- munity. There are many hadiths, but Muslims lamic society that began in the late eighteenth don't all agree that all of them are really from century and is flourishing two hundred years Muhammad. Typically, the various branches of

Radical Activist Perspectwes Common.Pen yes Amon A minority of .revi*aliSti gO beyond. this proipm. We lamic Revival' can call this fairly sniallgtonp 7radiCal activists:" "They:: uId. agree with :the above and add:the ollowving slam is a total way of life. ; The West is driven by hatred of Is colonize Muslim lands and:: exploitthei

, 3. A' oly struggle against taAdel aggres.,sion.tsareli

Ous duty for all faithful MUsliins.. 4. Muslims are commanded to be tolerant and friendly to S. Science, technology, and progress are very desirable Christians and Jews who deal fairly with them. Today there and completely in accord with Islam, so long as they are is a tendency to say, "Wherever we look these people are subordinated to Islamic values. on the side of evil. Therefore We can no longertreat them 6. The rc- Islamization of society calls for dedicated Mus- with tolerance." MIS is sit especially radical degentue from lims willing to struggle against corruption and oppression. earlier Muslim practiCe..

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Islam differ over which hadiths they accept as lam is today being revived. How did this come authentic. The fundamentalists have always about in the Arab world? We will see that it is been very accepting of hadith materialeven in part a consequence of modernism. weak hadiths preferring it to personal reasoning or a traditional practice. Modernism In Islam, the important thing is not what one believesall one has to believe is that there is In 1830, France invaded and occupied Alge- no god but the God of Abraham, Td that Mu- ria; in 1881, Tunisia. In 1912, France made Mo- hammad is the Messenger of God.The impor- rocco a "protectorate," and Italy occupied tant things are what one doesthat is, laws and Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, both of which are 6. A weak hadith Is one ethics. These are derived through study of the part of modern Libya. In 1882, Britain occupied whose verification is ques- Qur'an and the hadiths. One can see that Egypt to control its economy and the Suez Ca- tionable. schools of Islamic Law using different hadiths nal, which Egypt had built with international 7. This is why there Is will arrive at different Laws. This has been true help. In 1898, Britain occupied Sudan, which really no suds thing as "or- since early times. There is a fundamentalist had been ruled by a Sudanese mandia relig- thodoxy" (right belief) in Is. lam. The word doesn't even school, which from the beginning accepted only ious leader claiming to receive divine guidance exist in Arabic, which has a a literal interpretation of the Qur'an and a great in reforming Muslim society and reestablishing word for everything that Is- many hadiths and refused to take into account Islamic power. lam considers important. reason or the traditional treatment of problems. After defeating the Ottoman Turk empire in This is the Hanbali School, which today is prac- World War I with the help of the Arabs who ticed in Sa'udi Arabia. sought independence, Britain occupied Iraq, Pal- In 1744, a scholar of that school, Muham- estine, and Transjordan, and France occupied mad, son of 'Abd al-Wahhab, convinced the Syria and Lebanon. The U.S. was critical, but Arab ruler of the oasis of Dir'iyya in Arabia accepted these arrangements. Finally, in 1948, that they must work together to reform Islamic the U.S. helped Israel politically and financially society through fundamentalism. This move- to defeat the Palestinians and other Arabs resist- ment was known as Wahhabism. One practice ing the establishment of a Jewish state in Pales- they attacked was that of visiting the shrines of tine. During the nineteenth and early twentieth Muslim saints, even that of the Prophet. The centuries, Muslims everywhere became con- fundamentalists claimed that veneration of vinced that the secret of success must be to imi- saints was sheer superstition, incompatible with tate Western societies, introduce secular law the worship of the one true God. From this un- and parliamentary systems, emphasize national- ion of the Wahhabis and the Saudi amirs ism rather than Islam, and imitate Western (princes), the Sau'di state was born. It has had dress, Western architecture, and Western institu- many ups and downs, expanding and contract- tions. After World War II, Eastern European so- ing, but the Kingdom of Sa'udi Arabia today is cialist states also became models for emulation, the result of that religious and political alliance. because these states seemed to be successful in It is the only truly fundamentalist Muslim state. achieving progress and independence from The idea of social reform through fundamen- Western control. talism has been very appealing in the Arab world and beyond. Pilgrims to the holy cities of Revulsion with Imitation of the West Mecca and Martina encountered the Wahhabi form of Islam and took its ideas home to Mo- The era of imitation really came to an end in rocco, Libya, Black Africa, and even to faraway 1967, when Israel, backed morally by the West Indonesia. Muslims worldwide were attracted and economically, politically, and with Ameri- by the argument that Islamic society could be can-made weapons by the U.S., launched a war streamlined, and Islam united and strengthened, against its Arab neighbors who had taken threat- through fundamentalism. ening positions, quickly and decisively defeating them. Israel occupied large portions of However, the current revival of Islam is Jordan (the West Bank of the Jordan River), much more than just fundamentalism, because Egypt (the Sinai Peninsula), the Gaza Strip not all Muslims are fundamentalists. Many love (which Egypt had administered), and Syria's their historical traditions and cherish the in- Jawlanthe Golan Heights. East Jerusalem, insights of the scholars of the past, and all of Is- cluding the Old City with its great Muslim

4 5 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC SPRING 1991

shrines until now in Muslim hands, was also grasped its Muslim identity and used it to face taken. In one week's time, Israel doubled the down a high-tech, U.S.-backed tyrant. Iran is territory under its control. not an Arab country, but this seemed an enor- To add insult to injury, the West applauded mous accomplishment and was a source of en- the Israeli victory and ridiculed the losers. thusiasm throughout both the Arab and Muslim Something was terribly wrong, it seemed to Ar- worlds. Perhaps other tyrants and other unjust abs. A critical reorganization of national and in- situations could also be best dealt with by an af- dividual life seemed due. Imitation of firmation of Islamic identity. Westerners now appeared to be a road to destruction; perhaps they must seek inspiration Islamic Reaffirmation only in their own distinctive heritage. Disillusionment with Western models picked All over the Arab world, even on modem uni- up speed in the 1970s. In 1973, Egypt went to versity campuses, women have been abandon- war with Israel and managed to dislodge Israeli ing Western-style clothing to put on "Islamic" forces from the Suez Canal and part of the Sinai garb which covers them from head to foot, leav- Peninsula. The war was fought in the holy ing only the face and hands exposed. Students month of Ramadan when all the Muslims of the have joined "Islamic societies," and the press world were fasting, and it was accompanied by and television have ^arried features which em- a great outpouring of prayer and religious devo- phasize that Islam has an answer for every prob- tion. Egypt's president, Anwar Sadat, portrayed lem. By 1990, the political language of Islamic the war as a Muslim struggle against oppression. revivalism had come to carry such weight that the dictator of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, found it Egypt did not win this war, but it nonetheless useful to portray his quarrel with the United Na- succeeded in demonstrating that Muslims could tions over the occupation of Kuwait (to which now fight a modem war with modern weapons. Iraq had old claims) as a war of Muslims That was a very important lesson for the world: against Christian and Jewish aggression and op- not least, the Muslim and Arab world. This suc- pression. This is particularly significant because cess paved the way to a peace treaty, brokered up until then, he had represented a secular Arab by President Carter, in which Israel evacuated nationalist ideology which was intolerant of the Egypt's land and the two countries established spread of Islamic revivalism. peaceful relations. This satisfied Egypt's na- It is important to emphasize that every aspect 8. Nationalism is a tional objectives, but it did nothing for the Pal- system of exalting the estinians of the West Bank and Gaza Strip who of Islamnot just fundamentalismhas re- interests of the nation ceived new energy, and that this phenomenon is over those of any other remained under Israeli occupation. Egypt's group. Arab nationalism separate peace was widely criticized by other occuring beyond the Arab world. Islamic bank- promotes the unity of all Arabs as a betrayal of Arab solidarity. Arab na- ing and economics (which depend on partner- Arabs Irrespective of 8 ships rather than on the payment of interest, political boundaries or tionalismseemed to be abandoned, and people forbidden in the eyes of many Muslims), Is- religious affiliations. turned to religious solidarity for inspiration. lamic music, Islamic meditation, Islamic architecture, Islamic decoration, Islamic Religious Revival Reinforced government, Islamic child-rearing, and even Is- lamic psychiatry are all receiving new attention. A second major event was the overthrow of the Shah of Iran, a man backed fully by the U.S. Women's rights had made significant pro- but recognized by most Iranians as a cruel ty- gress in the period of rapid Westernization in rant. Against the Shah and his American- the Islamic world; today, many Muslim women trained military and police, unarmed fear that an uncritical return to tradition is crowdsincluding many women who had aban- threatening their gains. Christian Arabs and doned modem costume for the chador, the veil other non-Muslim groups feel threatened and of traditional Iranian womendemonstrated. isolated in the current Islamization of society. These crowds were often led by religious schol- They see an Arab world developing which will ars and demonstrated chanting the ancient Mus- have no place for them. But most Arabs are lim watch-word, "Allahu Akbar: God is Muslims, and it is this majority who lead the greater!" In the end, the Shah was forced to ab- way today. To them, Islam seems the best and dicate, and a new revolutionary government last hope against an aggresive external world came to power. Here, an old Muslim people had which appears to wish them harm. 8 46 G. H. I.

47 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC SPRING 1991

Sacred and Secular in Islam

It is commonplace in Western societies to addition, they expect Westerners to profess think of society and even of our own lives as di- faiths other than Islam, but they find it difficult vided to some degree into the areas of the sa- to accept that some do not claim any religious cred and the secular. Church, synagogue, and affiliation. mosque are sacred; government, economic life, and maybe school are secular. In a society made up of people of many faiths, this is a con- venient and workable division. Our private By John Hergesheimer lives may be as religious, as devotional, and as sacred as we wish, but when we deal with other people "out in society," we deal with secular institutions in secular ways. Hence, our religious differences do not get in the way of our social, political, or economic relationships. Secular does not mean atheistic or antireligious: just nonreligious. The American polity (the way the United States as a community of people is organized politically) has a particularly pro- nounced division of sacred and secular, which we usually refer to as the "separation of church and state." For this reason, it is not always easy for Americans to understand the very different polity of Islamic societies. Perhaps more than any other great world religion, Islam directs its believers to a number of particular behaviors, both individual and collective. The Qur'an, in many ways, assumes that the community is made up of "believers" (Muslims) and prescribes a number of community rules and practices based on that assumption. Directives are given for

marriage and divorce, charity, food and . . . . . drink, attire, and virtuous behavior. Islam ArribWoridAlmance is Published three times each schoolyear. The opinions expressed in each issue has certain expectations of governments: do not necessarily reflect those of AMIDEASr. strict standards of justice, consultation in de- .Permission is granted for the reproduction of Arab cision-making, and the accessibility of rul- World Almanac for classroom use... ers to the ruled, among others. In this sense, AMIDEASI is registered as a private, nonprofit or- Islam is more of a total way of life for its 'ration tinder Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal even= Code, Donations to AMIDEAST are tax followersas a group as well as for indi- deductible.. viduals than most other religions. When Subscription cost $nop.st year the muezzin chants the call to prayer, it is Editors not just to each Muslim as an individual; it Leslie Sehmida Nucho is also to the village, town, or city as a com- Amjad Atallah Stephen Sutler munity. . Direct inquiries and subscription requests to Arab Many Muslims have difficulty under- WorklAimanac, AM1DEAST, 1100 17th Street standing a secular society as something NW, Washington, DC 20030-4601 021785-0022). other than a "godless society," which for some is synonomous with an evil society. In ISSN:. 1047-711X

10 48 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC SPRING 1991

Some Islamic Perspectives Today

In any great community of faith, there are gard for traditional interpretations. They believe various ways to think about the truth, religious that the Qur'an alone has all the answers. They authority, and interpretation. It may be useful to are well aware of modern ideas and accept consider some of the most prominent and influ- much modern technology, but they are essen- ential viewpoints among Muslims today, al- tially antimodemist. They react negatively to though quick and careless labeling of various the West, sometimes describing it as "igno- perspectives may cause us to miss subtle but im- rance" in the same language traditionally used portant distinctions. to describe pre-Islamic culture. Fundamentalists Cultural Muslims are persons who have in- seek the purification of Islam; they believe that herited from family and community a general the solution to all problems is a return to the loyalty to Islam, but they cannot be said to have fundamentals of the Qur'an. They think that po- a strong personal commitment to the faith. They litical and social action is necessary and proper are proud of their tradition. Their observances to purify society and the faith. Fundamentalists of the requirements of the faith may be partial are a small but vocal and very active group. or casual: for example, going to the mosque Their leaders are more apt to be charismatic only on feast days, or giving up alcoholic drinks preachers than theologians; they see themselves (rather than fasting) for Ramadan. Members of as the conscience of Islam. this group may give little thought to the beliefs or behavioral directives of Islam. Modernists are usually city people, highly By John Hergesheimer, based on a Decem- educated and perhaps cosmopolitan, but not ber, 1989 briefing by Dr. Barbara Stowasser, theologians. They believe Islam to be compat- associate professor, Georgetown University. ible with social and cultural change and do not reject Western influences. They believe the "real Islam" to be pure, dynamic, and flexible, and they view social and cultural change as the "inner reform" of Islam. They tend to interpret the Qur'an directly, bypassing centuries of Shari' a (Islamic Law) and tradition. They ex- press political and legal problems in Islamic terms, making them useful to governments seeking Islamic solutions to complex contemporary issues. Modernists are a much smaller group than they were twenty years ago, but they are active and closely in touch with one another. Conservative Muslims prefer the status quo and are not comfortable with political, legal, or social change. They accept the centuries of traditional interpretation of the Qur'an; indeed, they see Islam and tradition as being almost the same thing. The 'ulama (religious scholars) have great power and prestige among the conservative Muslims. This group is particularly numerous in rural areas and smaller towns. Fundamentalists are usually urban and well educated. They believe in a literal and personal interpretation of the Qur'an and have little re-

/.9 11 ARAB WORLD ALMANAC SPRING 1991

Cartograut: The Muslitrt War Id

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Directions for the Cartogram

1. A cartogram is a map which portrays areas in proportion to some factor other than land mass: in this case, populations of Muslims. (An example of a cartogram hzs been reproduced below.) 2. Label the countries and regions shown on the adjacent map and for which Muslim population figures are provided. The population figures are rounded to the nearest million and are based on 1988 statistics. 3. On graph paper, construct a cartogram of these same countries/regions that will show their relative Muslim populations by having each one cover as many squares as it has millions of Muslims. Use one square on the graph paper to represent one million people (for example, 7 million Muslims equals 7 squares). 4. To the extent possible, the countries/regions depicted should retain the same relative positions that they do on an ordinary map. 5. Try to depict each country/region in roughly the same shape as it is on an ordinary map. This will not always be possible. 6. For best results, start by placing Pakistan in the middle of the page (slightly above center) and work out from there. 7. Label the entities you have drawn on the cartogram.

Example of a Cartogram

Canada USSR & Eastern Europe 8.8 59.9

USA 34.1 Western EuropeI III-- 18.4 Middle East 660.3 Mexico 56.4 j Africa 58.8

South America 68.8

Asia & Australia 46.8 The World's Oil Reserves Regions Drawn in Proportion to Their Future Supplies (thousand million barrels)

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Selected Verses from the Qur'an

Surah* V, verse 3: on food Surah XXIV, verses 30-31: on modest dress Forbidden to you is that which dies of itself, and blood, and flesh of swine, and that on Say to the believing men that they cast down which any other name than that of God has their looks and guard their private parts; that is been invoked, and the strangled (animal) and purer for them; surely God is aware of what that beaten to death, and that killed by a fall and they do. that killed by being smitten with the horn, and And say to the believing women that they that which wild beasts have eaten, except what cast down their looks and guard their private you slaughter, and what is sacrificed on stones parts and do not display their ornaments except set up (for idols) and that you divide by the ar- what appears thereof, and let them wear their rows; that is a transgression. This day have headcoverings over their bosoms, and not dis- those who disbelieve despaired of your religion, play their ornaments except to their husbands or so fear them not, and fear Me. This day have I their fathers, or the fathers of their husbands, or perfected for you your religion and completed their sons, or the sons of their husbands, or their my favor on you and chosen for you Islam as a brothers, or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' religion; but whoever is compelled by hunger, sons, or their women, or those whom their right not inclining willfully to sin, then surely God is hands possess, or the male servant not having Forgiving, Merciful. need (of women), or the children who have not attained knowledge of what is hidden of Surah III, verse 7: on interpretation women; and let them not strike their feet so that what they hide of their ornaments may be He it is Who has revealed the Book to you; known; and turn to God all of you, 0 believers! some of its verses are decisive, they are the ba- so that you may be successful. sis of the Book, and others are allegorical; then as for those in whose hearts there is perversity, they follow the part of it which is allegorical, Surah XXII, verses 39.40: on war seeking to mislead, and seeking to give it (their Permission (to fight) is given to those upon own) interpretation, but none knows except whom war is made because they are oppressed, God, and those who are firmly rooted in knowl- and most surely God is well able to assist them; edge say: We believe in it, it is all from our Those who have been expelled from their Lord; and none do mind except those having un- homes without a just cause except that they say: derstanding. Our Lord is God. And had there not been God's repelling some people by others, certainly there Surah V, verses 91-92: on intoxicants would have b; en pulled down cloisters and churches and synagogues and mosques in 0 you who believe! intoxicants and games of which God's name is much remembered; and chance and (sacrificing to) stones set up and (di- surely God will help him who helps His cause; viding by) arrows are only an uncleanness, the most surely God is Strong, Mighty. Devil's work; shun it therefore that you may be successful. The Devil only desires to cause enmity and hatred to spring in your midst by means of in- * A surah is a chapter. toxicants and games of chance, and to keep you off from the remembrance of God and from prayer. Will you then desist?

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Suggested Background Resources

Arberry, A.J. The Koran Interpreted. London: Rahman, Fazlur. Islam, 2nd ed. Chicago: Uni- Allen and Unwin, 1955; New York: Macmil- versity of Chicago Press, 1979. (286 pages, lan, 1964. (358 pages, $13.95) $6.50) Grade 9 and above Recommended by several experts as "the Considered to be among the best introduc- best English translation of Islam's Holy tory books on Islama descriptive and inter- Book." pretive account of Islam and the history of ideas in the Muslim world, written by a dis- Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path, ex- tinguished scholar who is himself a Muslim. panded edition. New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1991. (251 pages, $21.95) Robinson, Francis. Atlas of the Islamic World Since 1500. New York: Facts on File, 1982. A thorough and up-to-date survey of the Is- (238 pages, $35) Grade 9 and above lamic experience beginning with an introduction to the basic tenets of the faith and This work contains 53 maps and 302 illustra- ending with a review of the contemporary Is- tions (192 in color) covering the Islamic lamic resurgence. Intended for nonspecialist world. It includes a useful overview of Islam audiences, the author's work is a highly read- before C.E. 1500. Each of the major Islamic able account of the perspectives of Islamic empires after C.E. 1500 is introduced with an modernists and their influence on contempo- historical overview followed by a brief and rary fundamentalist movements. This new colorful discussion of its society and accom- edition (the first edition was published in plishments. The emphasis is on culture rather 1988) includes case studies of Muslim move- than history. Junior high students can benefit ments in Lebanon, Libya, and Egypt. from its maps and the attractive display of pictures and their extensive captions. Esposito, John L. ed. Voices of Resurgent Is- lam. New York: Oxford University Press, Sivan, Emmanual. Radical Islam: Medieval Grade levels are those sug- 1983. (294 pages, $11.95) Grade 11 and Theology and Modern Politics. New Haven: gested in the extensive bibli- above Yale University Press, 1985. (218 pages, ography, Middle East Materials for Teachers, Stu- $9.95) An excellent selection of articles by Western dents, and Non-Specialists. scholars and political activists from the re- A study of the ideas of the "radical Islam" of Catherine E. Jones, ed., Cambridge, MA: Middle gion examining the interplay of Islam and the Sunni Arab world today. The author de- East Outreach Council, politics. Though some are clearly for the spe- scribes the historical context out of which 19 ($10.00 plus $1.70 cialist, several are appropriate for the nonspe- this phenomenon arose. The Muslim re- postage and handling, avail- cialist. American perceptions of Islam are sponse to modernization is discussed, includ- able from the Middle East covered, as is the Islam of Qaddafi and ing its rejection of Western social and Studies Association, do University of Arizona, 1232 Khomeini, the Islamic state and the role of cultural domination in the quest for authentic North Cherry Avenue, democracy, and Islamic approaches to eco- ity. Tucson, AZ 85721, nomic development. 602/621-5850) Wright, Robin. Sacred Rage: The Crusade of Lippman, Thomas W. Understanding Islam: Modern Islam (on title page): The Wrath of An Introduction to the Moslem World. New Militant Islam (on paperback cover). New York: Mentor Books (New American Li- York: Linden Press/Simon & Schuster, 1985. brary), 1982. (196 pages, $3.50) Grade 11 (315 pages, $17.95) Grade 10 and above and above A recounting of recent events by a respected Provides an overview of the Islamic religion, journalist, this work emphasizes the indige- history, culture, and beliefs and practices; the nous roots of fundamentalism in the Middle life of Muhammad; the Qur'an; law and gov- East. ernment in the Islamic world; the history of the growth of Islam; schisms within the faith; and the Islamic world today.

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