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Airdottoratoperonidefinitiva 2 UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO Scuola di Dottorato Humanae Litterae Dipartimento di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Corso di Dottorato in Lingue, Letterature e Culture Straniere XXVI Ciclo LEV KOPELEV: INTELLETTUALE SOVIETICO E UOMO DEL DIALOGO L-LIN/21 – Slavistica Tesi di Dottorato di: Giulia Peroni Tutor: Prof.ssa Elda Garetto Coordinatore del Dottorato: Prof. Alessandro Costazza Anno Accademico 2012-2013 1 2 INDICE INTRODUZIONE 7 LE RADICI UCRAINE E LA FORMAZIONE COME HOMO SOVIETICUS 15 - L’INFANZIA E LA GIOVENTÙ NELLA KIEV MULTIETNICA DI INIZIO NOVECENTO 15 - CHAR’KOV: L’ESPERIENZA POLITICA E GLI STUDI 20 - LE REQUISIZIONI DI GRANO: IL HOLODOMOR 25 - LA FREQUENZA DELLA “SORBONA DI MOSCA” 28 LA SECONDA GUERRA MONDIALE E L’ATTIVITÀ DI PROPAGANDISTA 37 - IL LAVORO NEL SETTIMO REPARTO 37 - IL LAVORO COME INSEGNANTE PRESSO LA SCUOLA ANTIFASCISTA 43 - LA SPEDIZIONE IN PRUSSIA ORIENTALE 45 - L’INIZIO DELLA DETENZIONE E LA NECESSITÀ DELLA SCRITTURA 51 LA REALTÀ SOSPESA DELLA ŠARAŠKA 57 - TRE INTELLETTUALI A CONFRONTO 57 - GLI STUDI CONDOTTI IN ŠARAŠKA 66 - LE POESIE COMPOSTE IN ŠARAŠKA 76 TRA DISGELO E DISSENSO 87 - LA RIABILITAZIONE E IL RITORNO ALLA VITA SOVIETICA 87 - L’ATTIVITÀ DI CRITICO LETTERARIO E LA RICOMPARSA DEL TEMA TEDESCO 91 - ALTRI INTERESSI DI STUDIO E L’APPROFONDIMENTO DEL TEMA RUSSO-TEDESCO 100 - L’AMICIZIA CON HEINRICH BÖLL 105 L’ALLONTANAMENTO DAL COMUNISMO E LO SCONTRO CON LA REALTÀ SOVIETICA 113 - L’INIZIO DELL’ATTIVITÀ DI PRAVOZAŠČITNIK 113 - IL CONTROLLO DA PARTE DELLA STASI 118 3 - LE PUBBLICAZIONI ALL’ESTERO E IN SAMIZDAT 122 - LA PUBBLICAZIONE DI AUFBEWAHREN FÜR ALLE ZEIT! 128 - L’EVOLUZIONE DEI RAPPORTI CON SOLŽENICYN E LA DEFINITIVA ROTTURA 132 GLI ANNI IN GERMANIA 139 - IL DISTACCO DEFINITIVO DALL’UNIONE SOVIETICA 139 - L’INSERIMENTO NELLA SOCIETÀ TEDESCA E L’IDEA DI DIALOGO 144 - LE RIFLESSIONI ETICHE: IL CONFRONTO CON SACHAROV E IL RETAGGIO EBRAICO 149 - GLI STUDI LETTERARI: SCRITTORI COME “BRÜCKENBAUER” 157 - LE CONSIDERAZIONI POLITICHE 164 - LE CONSIDERAZIONI SUI SISTEMI TOTALITARI 168 PROGETTO WUPPERTAL: GRANDIOSO DISEGNO O UTOPIA? 173 - LA GENESI DEL PROGETTO 173 - LA STRUTTURA E LE TESI CENTRALI 176 - LA CONVERGENZA DEGLI STUDI DI KOPELEV NEL PROGETTO WUPPERTAL 184 - L’AMPLIAMENTO DEL PROGETTO E LA COLLABORAZIONE CON KOENEN 186 - I PROGETTI COLLATERALI 188 - LA CONTINUAZIONE DEL PROGETTO E LA SUA RICEZIONE 191 CONCLUSIONI 199 APPENDICE 205 BIBLIOGRAFIA DELLE OPERE DI LEV KOPELEV 239 - PUBBLICAZIONI IN VOLUME 239 - PUBBLICAZIONI COME COAUTORE 242 - PUBBLICAZIONI COME CURATORE 243 - PUBBLICAZIONI IN RACCOLTE, SU RIVISTE E GIORNALI 244 - PREFAZIONI E POSTFAZIONI 264 - TRADUZIONI 267 4 BIBLIOGRAFIA GENERALE 269 - OPERE E SAGGI CONSULTATI 269 - PUBBLICAZIONI DELL’AUTRICE SU QUESTO TEMA 292 - MATERIALI D’ARCHIVIO 293 - INTERVISTE 297 - FILMOGRAFIA 297 - SITOGRAFIA 298 5 INTRODUZIONE La fama di Lev Zinov’evič Kopelev è legata soprattutto al progetto Wuppertal, monumentale lavoro realizzato a partire dagli anni Ottanta in Germania con l’ambizioso intento di analizzare e descrivere lo sviluppo dei pregiudizi da parte tedesca nei confronti dei russi e viceversa su un arco temporale di oltre mille anni. In Europa l’immagine più affermata di Kopelev è proprio quella dell’ideatore e direttore di questo grandioso progetto, cui si dedicò fino alla morte, e che lo rese propugnatore di un’idea di dialogo, scambio reciproco e interazione tra culture differenti. Kopelev è generalmente noto anche per essere stato amico intimo di Heinrich Böll, che lo influenzò con la sua attività letteraria e il suo impegno sociale, rafforzando in lui la propensione al dialogo e completando la sua Weltanschauung con un’etica di ascendenza cristiana. In ambito russo esiste anche un’altra immagine di Kopelev, che è quella di difensore dei diritti umani, attività cui lo scrittore si dedicò a partire dagli anni Sessanta e che fu una delle cause del suo allontanamento dall’Unione Sovietica, e per cui ancora oggi il suo nome è avvicinato a quello di un altro grande pacifista, Andrej Sacharov. Per arrivare a questo punto il percorso di Kopelev non fu però lineare: studiandone approfonditamente la biografia e l’attività si riscontrano in essa diversi punti contraddittori e problematici, che ci restituiscono un’immagine di questo personaggio ancor più complessa e poliedrica di quella, già sfaccettata e molteplice, che è giunta fino a noi oggi. Dal momento che non esistono lavori di grande approfondimento sulla vita e sulle opere di questo autore, è parso interessante studiarne e ricostruirne la biografia intellettuale, tenendo presenti sia gli elementi che provengono dalla realtà russa, sia quelli della realtà tedesca, cercando di integrarli tra loro e di conciliarli, al fine di restituire un quadro coerente dell’evoluzione personale e intellettuale di quest’uomo. In relazione soprattutto alla vita di Kopelev in Unione Sovietica, si sono affermate una serie di descrizioni e raffigurazioni della sua persona e della sua attività sovente in contrasto tra loro. La rappresentazione più nota è indubbiamente quella che ci viene da Aleksandr Solženicyn che nel suo romanzo V kruge pervom raffigura Kopelev nei panni di Lev Rubin, indefesso sostenitore del marxismo-leninismo. Anche Vittorio Strada, primo studioso italiano a interessarsi dell’attività di Kopelev, in un intervento pubblicistico del 2004 mette in luce la sua obbedienza, a volte tanto acritica da risultare irragionevole, alla causa comunista: nell’articolo L’emigrato, la vedova e la studentessa1 usa Kopelev come prototipo della gioventù convinta ed esaltata, sfruttata da Stalin per perseguire i suoi scopi e lo definisce […] uno di quei tipici personaggi che chi ha letto Solgenitsyn sa riconoscere. Purtroppo [la sua testimonianza] non risale al ’33-’34 quando presumibilmente questo signore andava in 1 Cfr. STRADA, V., “L’emigrato, la vedova e la studentessa”, Liberal Bimestrale, anno IV, n. 24, giugno/luglio 2004, http://www.liberalfondazione.it/archivio/tutti-i-numeri-di-liberal/1180- lemigrato-la-vedova-e-la-studentessa (ultima consultazione: 28/12/2013). 7 giro per le campagne ucraine, forse non a uccidere direttamente, ma di certo come complice di quelli che ammazzavano, che osservavano indifferenti la morte. (Strada 2004) Da queste caratterizzazioni emerge un’immagine di Kopelev come homo sovieticus, perfettamente inserito e integrato nel tessuto della società in cui viveva. Anche durante il secondo conflitto mondiale e nel decennio in cui fu rinchiuso in šaraška2 per aver mostrato un atteggiamento eccessivamente compassionevole nei confronti dei soldati tedeschi, la sua “sovieticità” persistette e non fu scalfita dall’esperienza detentiva. Queste immagini apparentemente mal si conciliano con quella del pravozaščitnik degli anni Sessanta e in questo lavoro si cercherà di mostrare attraverso quali passaggi si è giunti a tale posizione, facendo luce sugli anni meno noti della biografia di Kopelev. La svolta nella sua vita avvenne quando la ricerca della verità, attestata dalla sua raccolta di scritti umanitari, Vera v slovo, lo portò a scontrarsi con la realtà e lo condusse a una forma di opposizione incompatibile con le dinamiche sovietiche. Il suo impegno politico e sociale e la sua crescente popolarità erano mal tollerate dal regime sovietico, e nel 1981, quando Kopelev si trovava per motivi di studio nella Repubblica Federale Tedesca, fu privato della cittadinanza sovietica. Da questo momento egli fu sovente definito un emigrato e un dissidente, per quanto, come si vedrà, tali etichette nel suo caso risultino essere poco calzanti, e a tratti fuorvianti. Studiando approfonditamente gli anni che Kopelev trascorse in Germania, si può individuare un ulteriore aspetto della vita di questo personaggio: quello del “dissidente buono”, del “brüderlicher Mensch”. Difendendo strenuamente principi etici che egli aveva assimilato a seguito dell’incontro con Heinrich Böll, divenne una sorta di istituzione morale e, partendo dall’assunto che la storia è magistra vitae, assunse il ruolo di un novello profeta, ed egli stesso lavorò affinché questa immagine si consolidasse. Questa stratificazione di immagini, a prima vista difficilmente conciliabili tra loro, dimostra che il percorso di evoluzione personale e intellettuale di Kopelev fu lungo e complesso. Nonostante la diversità di opinione e di pensiero che caratterizzò le diverse fasi della sua esistenza, si può individuare un elemento che conferisce unità e coerenza alla sua produzione: il tema tedesco, che percorre come un filo rosso la sua vita, a volte comparendo in primo piano, a volte rimanendo invece sullo sfondo. Questo aspetto è sottolineato anche da Solženicyn in V kruge pervom, quando scrive: “L’va Rubina sud’ba splela s Germaniej i vetvjami mira i prut’jami vojny” (1969: 12). L’incontro con il mondo tedesco per Kopelev avvenne fin dagli anni dell’infanzia: nacque infatti a Kiev, città cosmopolita e multietnica, dove la componente tedesca della popolazione era significativa. Scelse dunque di studiare germanistica negli anni universitari, 2 Jacques Rossi nel Manuale del Gulag definisce la šaraška in questi termini: “Istituto segreto di ricerca scientifica e progettazione, dove sotto il controllo degli organi della Sicurezza dello Stato lavorano scienziati e ingegneri, di regola condannati per ‘sabotaggio dell’edificazione del socialismo’, ‘attentato alla potenza difensiva dell’Urss’ eccetera. […] Le šaraški più famose si trovavano a Mosca, Rybinsk, Bol’šino, Taganrog.” (Rossi 2006: 250). L’etimologia della parola proviene dall’espressione
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