International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research

International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research www.environmentaljournal.in Online ISSN: 2664-7117; Print ISSN: 2664-7109

Received: 04-11-2019; Accepted: 05-12-2019; Published: 12-01-2020 Volume 2; Issue 1; 2020; Page No. 12-19

Temporal dynamics of land use and water quality in three sub-catchments of the River,

Sristika Adhikari IHE-Institute of Water Education, Delft,

Abstract The Rur catchment has over time undergone land use change which could have affected the biogeochemical processes of the river. Three sub-catchments in the Rur, Upper Rur, Inde and Wurm currently have different kinds of land use. Upper Rur is more natural catchment, Inde is mixed type and Wurm is highly modified by anthropogenic activities. Water quality of a stream is highly influenced by the land use of that catchment. So, this study investigated how land use change from 2000 to 2018 have influenced SO4 and Cl dynamics in the Rur catchment. Land use maps were developed in QGIS environment for land use change calculation. Historical water quality data were collected from the online public source provided by Ministry of Environment and Nature conservation in Germany. R-software was used for statistical analysis and graphical presentation. Land use change calculation showed less change in the Upper Rur between 2000 to 2018. But in the Inde and Wurm decrease in agricultural land and associated increase in industrial, commercial and urban land were observed. Increase in mining area in the Inde has enhanced the level of SO4 and EC in the river. Conversion rates of natural to human dominated land use could be quantified in this study through land use change mapping, which will further help in making water management plan for these and comparable German and European catchments. However high quality historical data set is a key requirement to maximize the output in process of relating impact of land use change in water quality.

Keywords: Agriculture, catchment, land use change, season, urban, water quality

1. Introduction It has been accepted globally that activities on the terrestrial Depletion, growth of cyanobacteria, fish killing and increase in ecosystem strongly influences the hydrological processes (Cuo et waterborne diseases (Foley et al., 2005) [18]. al., 2013; Recha et al., 2012) [7, 25]. After the Second World War, The River Continuum Concept (RCC) explains about the there was a rapid population growth in European countries, which variation of organic matter throughout the longitudinal dimension caused expansion of urban areas, intensification in agriculture of the river (Vannote et al., 1980) [63]. But the anthropogenic and development of large chemical and electrical industries. This alteration in its riparian land use can disturb the river continuum helped to develop large cities in river basin (Tu et al., along with its quality and quantity of water (Nautiyal and Mishra, 2005; Lambin and Geist, 2006) [60, 31]. The Rur River, one of the 2013) [46]. Similar activities can be observed in the Rur catchment, tributaries to the Meuse River, has also undergone land use land where origin part of the river is still in natural condition. But the cover change (LULCC) which might influence in stream hydro- downstream areas are modified for agriculture, urban settlements, chemical processes of the Rur River (Rodolfo et al., 2018) [51]. and industries. In this case, concept of Urban Stream Syndrome Land use change is mostly occurring to enhance the economic (USS) helps to describe how urbanized catchments have value of that land and this might lead to ecological degradation influenced the ecological and hydrological characteristics of a (Paul and Rashid, 2017) [49]. LULCC shows the interaction river (Meyer et al., 2005) [41]. And Urban Watershed Continuum between the natural environment and human activities and when (UWC) enables us to understand how urban growth impacts on the land use changes continuously it causes land cover change watershed functions. It also considers how long-term changes and (Gaitanis et al., 2015; Kanianska et al., 2014) [19, 27]. Socio- continues growth of infrastructures are associated with economic factor, policy-regulation and nature conservation characteristics of urban streams (Kaushal and Belt, 2012) [28]. factors are the common drivers of land use change in Europe (Ustaoglu and Williams, 2017). It is important to find out the 1.1 Concept of land use and land cover change (LULCC) in a dynamics of the global land use to maintain environmental river catchment sustainability (Gaitanis et al., 2015) [19]. LULCC such as, LULCC of a catchment have been taken as important topic of enhanced agricultural practices and urbanization will lead to environmental research (Cai, 2001) [5]. When the vegetated water quality degradation through more soil erosion, sediment ground coverage is changed to concrete land, biogeochemical load, leaching of nutrients, leaching from wastewater treatment alteration occurs in a catchment (Yu et al., 2016) [73]. Urban plants and industrial effluents. This results in increased oxygen expansion is major activity which increases heavy metals,

12 International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research

Organic matter, sediments and nutrients to the river (Wang et al., Forest area. Inde is mixed type catchment with mining areas, 2014; Sharma et. al., 2005) [66, 54]. Different drivers of LULCC human influenced and forested areas. The Wurm is the can be either social or natural such as demography, economy, northernmost catchment highly influenced by human activities technology, climate change, and energy transition (Zondag and (WVER, 2018) [67]. Brosboom, 2009; Liu et. al., 2010) [74, 38]. Landscapes and land use types are diverse topographical areas which consists of Upper Rur interlink between human actions and the environment (Kumar et The Upper Rur is the origin area of the Rur River which has High al., 2018) [30]. Fens area (an area which was declared as a nature reserve in 1957 By finding out the trend of LULCC we can predict impacts in situated in high mountain plateau region at Liege province of river water quality as well as water issues that might occur in Belgium. It is a typical plain area with high annual rainfall. This future (Lambin, 1997) [33]. Different ecosystem services provided place is rich in peatland which is important for water storage. by river like water quality regulation, biodiversity conservation, Then the river flows through Rhenish Uplands which is a low CO2 sequestration and microclimate regulation will be degraded mountain type of river. The sediments of this part of the river by LULCC (Lambin et al., 2000) [32]. Among various processes consist of gravels particles brought from the mountain areas for collecting data about catchment health, LULCC mapping by (WVER, 2018) [67]. the use of GIS (Geographical Information System) and RS (Remote Sensing) are commonly used tools (Tekle and Hedlund, Inde 2000) [58], which helps in making strategic management plan for The Inde River originates from eastern part of Belgium in High water resource management (ESCAP, 1997) [12]. The Rur River Fens area. After flowing 2.5 kilometres downstream it passes catchment has diverse type of land uses in different sub- through the state boarder in Munsterwald. Then it flows through catchments. There is waste water discharge from 1.1 million local hills of and urban area of Stolenberg and meets with its inhabitants and from industries while intensive agriculture is also tributary; the Vichtbach. Again it flows through a plain area of taking place in large flat terrain (Schulze and Matthies, 2001 and Eschweiler where it mixes with its second large tributary; the Waldoffs et. al., 2017) [53, 64]. Thus, this research mainly focuses Wehebach. Finally, after flowing 47 km from Wehebach, it joins to find the LULCC in this area and its impact on river water the Rur River near Julich-Kirchberg. Here, the river sediments quality variables such as SO4, Cl and EC. are mostly composed of coarse gravel transported from the uplands. River Inde is the longest tributary of the Rur River 2. Materials and methods (WVER, 2018) [67]. 2.1 Site description Rur River passes through three different countries; Belgium, Wurm Germany, and the Netherlands. It’s total length of 160.7 km and The Wurm River rises from the forest of Aachen and when it the total catchment area is 2361 km2. This river originates in the reaches to the urban areas, it passes through underground channel high peatland area from southwest of the catchment which lies in and starts flowing openly when it reaches the northern periphery Belgium. Then it flows towards the Germany and get mixed into of the city. There it mixes other piped waters from city areas and the Meuse River in the Netherlands. Most of the river area (90%) it flows through 25 km of channelized way. After that, it goes lies in the North-Rhine Westphalia state of Germany. Mean towards the border areas of , Wurselen, , annual precipitation of this place is 880mm and Ubach-Palenberg, and finally joins to Rur River at evapotranspiration is 450-550 mm which gives mean annual flow -Kempen. Since it was piped along the city areas, the of 22.8 m3/s (WVER, 2018) [67]. bed sediments have less coarse gravel particles but as the river The Rur catchment can be divided into two topographic regions. reaches to Ubach-Palenberg, coarse rocks can be found as bed Bed rocks of Mountains forms the southern part where as material (WVER, 2018) [67]. devonian and carboniferous sedimentary rocks forms the northern part. In southern part, annual precipitation is 850 to 1300 2.2 Mapping land use change mm and evapotranspiration is 450 to 550 mm (Bogena et. al., Land use and land cover change maps were prepared with the 2018) [2]. Northern region receives annual precipitation of 650 to help of satellite image from Coordination of Information on the 850 mm and evapotranspiration of 580-600 mm (Montzka et. al., Environment (CORINE). The land use maps were developed by 2008) [44]. using QGIS. CORINE land cover baseline map of whole Europe Different anthropogenic activities can be observed in the Rur of 2000 and 2018 were used for making land use maps of three catchment. The northern part is mostly covered with agricultural catchments and calculating change in area of each land use class. land and the southern part is covered with forests and pasture land. Urban areas cover only 10% of the total catchment area. 2.3 Collection of past water quality data There are six artificial reservoirs in the German part of the Past water quality data were obtained from the the record of catchment and they are used for drinking water, hydropower (MENC, 2018). It is the website which has a record of water generation and flood control in downstream. Some reservoirs also quality data from different stations in the Rur catchment. Regular provide recreational services to nature lovers (Batsatsashvili, sampling sites at the outlet of each catchment were selected to 2017) [1]. Three different sub-catchments of the Rur: Upper Rur, observe the long-term change in water quality. As Upper Rur is Inde and Wurm were selected to focus this study in different land more natural than the Inde and Wurm, it was taken as reference use. Where Upper Rur is more natural with higher percentage of site. Which helped to relate the change in land use with change in

13 International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research water quality. For finding the trend of change in concentration of 3. Results

SO4 and Cl, simple linear regression model was used. R-software Land use change calculation from 2000 to 2018 shows that Upper was used for statistical analysis and graphical presentation. Rur had minimal change than the Inde and Wurm (Fig. 1).

Fig 2: Change in different land-use types from 2000 to 2018 in Upper Rur, Inde and Wurm, PB: peat bog, U: Urban area, F: Forest area, IC: Industrial and commercial area, A: Agricultural area, M: Mining area, WB: Water body. Mining area is absent in Upper Rur, peatbog is absent in Wurm

EC, SO4 and Cl were significantly different (P < 0.0001) among Rur had not significantly changed in last two decades. In the Inde, three rivers; Upper Rur, Inde and Wurm. Lower values were significant increase in EC was observed at the outlet point with observed in Upper Rur which is more natural catchment and rate of 0.4 mSm-1year-1. In the Wurm, it was significantly higher values were observed in the Wurm, where anthropogenic decreasing with rate of 1.1 mSm-1year-1 (Fig. 2). activities were also higher. Significant change in EC in the Upper

14 International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research

Fig 3: Change in concentration of EC, SO4 and Cl in different years. Black dotted line, black solid line and grey dotted line: Regression line of Upper Rur, Inde and Wurm respectively.

-1 -1 SO4 was significantly decreasing with rate of 0.8 mg L year in the target of sustainable development goal to protect all the the Upper Rur. In the Inde, it was increasing with rate of 3 mg L- surface water by 2030. 1 year-1. In the Wurm, it was significantly decreasing with rate of 4.9 mg L-1 year-1. Chloride concentration increased significantly 4.1 Relation of change in land use with river water quality -1 -1 in the Upper Rur at the rate of 0.3 mg L year . In the Inde, it Significant difference in SO4, Cl and EC were observed among increased significantly at rate of 0.7 mgL-1 year-1 and 0.6 mgL-1 the three rivers which is due to land use of the each catchments. year-1 in the Wurm. Upper Rur is more natural, with minimal or no land use change. So, concentration of SO4, Cl and EC level was also low. Larger 4. Discussion part of land use in the Inde and Wurm is agricultural area and Difference in rate of change in land use in three different sub- there is increase in mining area and industrial and commercial catchments indicates the variation in human activities taking activities. This might have caused the higher level of SO4, Cl and place within the Rur catchment. Remarkable change in land use EC. like increase in settlement and agricultural area, decrease in In the Inde, mining area increased from 3.23 km2 to 8.39 km2, wetlands and forest area over past thirty eight years was observed which was increase of 159.65% till 2018. Lignite mining in the [57] in Koga watershed in Ethiopia (Sewnet and Gebeyehu, 2018) . Inde might have increased the SO4 concentration over the time Similar change was also observed in Xiaotjiang watershed in period of two decades because SO4 is one of the main composition [24] China (Jiang et al., 2008) . In Europe, remarkable conversion of the lignite. So, the rate of increase of SO4 is also higher at this of agricultural area to urban area has occurred in these two point. The trend of increase in EC in the Inde I14 is higher than decades and some parts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Poland and in I5 because in the upstream there is increase in urban area and UK are even facing challenge of rapid urban growth (Van Vliet intensive agriculture. But in the downstream at the outlet point, et al., 2015; Ustaoglu et al., 2017) [62]. The trend of decline in there is increase in mining site as well as the increase in industrial agricultural area and increase in urban area in the Rur catchment and commercial activities. The I14 point lies just below the indicates possible future impact in biodiversity, ecosystem mining area. The discharge from the mining industries might services, soil and aquatic environment. Finding from similar have increased the EC level in the Inde at outlet point I14. As SO4 research from Europe says when agricultural area is changed to is an anion it might have increased the electrical conductivity of settlements or industries, it will affect the overall sustainability of the water. Similar study also found that, for processing of the environment leaving negative impact in all biotic and abiotic lignite, mining industries withdraw groundwater from that area components (Van Vliet et al., 2015) [62]. And this might influence

15 International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research and finally discharge the water into the Inde River (Batsatsasvaili, Observatory: A Multiscale Multi-Compartment Research 2017). Platform for the Advancement of Hydrological Science. Since mining area increased from 1.02 km2 to 1.69 km2 in the Vadose Zone Journal. 2018, 17. Wurm, the decreasing trend of SO4 and EC over two decades time DOI: 10.2136/vzj2018.03.0055 period in the upstream site W7 and outlet site W12 in the Wurm 3. Buhvestova O, Kangur K, Haldna M, Mols T. Nitrogen and catchment can be the result of shutting down larger underground Phosphorous in Estonian rivers discharging into Lake Peipsi: mining areas. Bigger underground coal mining companies of the estimation of loads and seasonal and spatial distribution of Wurm catchment such as Emil Mayrisch, stopped their operation concentrations. Estonian Journal of Ecology. 2011; 60(1):18. by 1992 (Maaß and Schuttrumpf, 2018) [39]. Similarly, the DOI: 10.3176/eco.2011.1.03 enforcement of EU Water Framework directive from 23rd 4. Bu H, Meng W, Zhang Y, Wan J. Relationship between land October 2000 have increased the water quality status of the Wurm use patterns and water quality in the Taizi River Basin, catchment. This directive obligates all the European Union China. Ecological Indicators. 2014; 42:187-197. DOI: member countries to reach the target of maintaining good 10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.02.003 standard of water quality and quantity in all types of water bodies 5. Cai Y. Study on land use/ landcover changes: searching for by 2015 (WVER, 2019) [68]. Beside this restoration of the non- new approaches to integration. Geographical Search. 2001; operational lignite mines by forest area and cultivation land is 20(6):645-652. going on in Aachen, where Wurm catchment is also located 6. Clesceri LS, Greenberg AE, Farnson MAH. Standard (RWE, 2019) [52]. methods for the examination of water and waste water, 20th Sustainable development goal number six “Clean water and edition. Washington, DC. American Public Health sanitation” explains about maintaining benchmark of water Association, 1998. quality variables in rivers by 2030 in order to conserve freshwater 7. Cuo L, Zhang Y, Gao Y, Hao Z, Cairang L. The impacts of ecosystem and bio-diversity (Indicator report, 2017) [22]. climate change and land cover/use transition on the Observations of this study from the Upper Rur, Inde and Wurm hydrology in the upper Yellow River Basin, China. Journal shows that the target of maintaining benchmark of water quality of Hydrology. 2013; 502:37-52. variables in these rivers by 2030 can be achieved by proper DOI: 101016/j.jhydrol.2013.08.003 monitoring and action, especially in the Inde and Wurm river 8. Desalegn T, Cruz F, Kindue M, Turrion MB, Gonzalo J. flowing through catchments with higher human activities. Land-use/land-cover (LULC) change and socioeconomic conditions of local community in the central highlands of Conclusion Ethiopia. International Journal of Sustainable Development From the observation of land use maps of 2000 and 2018, it can and World Ecology. 2014; 21(5):406-413. be concluded that land use change is happening in different parts 9. Duan S, Kaushal SS, Groffman PM, Band LE, Belt KT. of the Upper Rur, Inde and Wurm. Conversion of agricultural Phosphorous export across an urban to rural gradient in the land to urban area and increase in industrial and commercial area Chesapeake Bay watershed. Journal of Geophysical are noticeable land use change in the study area. After Research: Biogeosciences. 2012; 117(GO1025). DOI: observation of increasing trend in SO4 and EC in last two decades 10.1029/2011JG001782 time period in the outlet point (I14) of Inde River, it can be 10. Eljaibi N, Caissie D, Turkkan N. Water quality index concluded that increase in opencast lignite mining supplemented assessment under climate change. Journal of Water by increased urban, industrial and commercial area is affecting Resources Protection. 2014; 6(6):533-542. DOI: the river water quality. It can also be concluded that the Upper 10.4236/jwarp.2014.66052 Rur catchment is in more natural state which has helped in 11. EI-Khoury A, Seidou O, Lapeen DR, Que Z, Mohammadian maintaining good river water quality. From this study, it can also M, Sunohara M et al. Combined impacts of future climate be concluded that good set of historical data set is required for and land use changes on discharge nitrogen and phosphorous relating land use change with different water quality variables. loads for a Canadian river basin. Journal of Environmental Management. 2015; 151:76-86. DOI: Acknowledgements 10.10016/j.jenvman.2014.12.012 We would like to thank Environmental Science Program at IHE- 12. ESCAP. (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Institute of Water Education for funding this research. The digital Pacific). Guidelines and Manual on Land-use Planning and elevation model used for making land use maps were developed Practices in Watershed Management and Disaster Reduction. by using CORINE (Coordination of information on the ESCAP, United Nations. Osterkamp WR, Toy TJ. environment). The data on temperature and precipitation were Geomorphic considerations for erosion predictions. extracted from the Ministry of Transport and Digital Environmental Geology. 1997; 29:152-157. Infrastructure, North Rhine Westphalia. 13. Fadiran AO, Dlamini SC, Mavuso A. A comparative study of the phosphate levels in some surface and ground water References bodies of Switzerland. Bulletin of Chemical Society of 1. Batsatsashvili M. The impact of land use on regulating Ethopia. 2007; 22(2):197-206. ecosystem services and biogeochemistry of Rur River 14. Falcucci A, Maiorano L, Biotani L. Change in Land-use/land Catchment Germany. M.Sc. thesis report, UNESCO-IHE, cover patterns in Italy and their implications for biodiversity 2017. conservations. Landscape Ecology. 2008; 22(4):617-631. 2. Bogena HR, Montzka C, Huisman JA, Graf A, Schmidt M, DOI: 10.1007/s10980-006-9056-4 Stockinger M et al. The TENDRO-Rur Hydrological

16 International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research

15. Fasching C, Wilson HF, D’Amario SC, Xenopoulous MA. Ecosystems. 2012; 15(2):409-435. DOI: 10.1007/s11252- Natural Land Cover in Agricultural Catchments Alters Flood 012-0226-7 Effects on DOM Composition and Decreases Nutrient 29. Koyama A, Kuwahara VS, Shibata A, Toda T, Kikuchi T, Levels in Streams. Ecosystems, 2019, 1-16. DOI: Taguchi S. Seasonal variability in chromophoric dissolved 10.1007/sI0021-019-00354-0 organic matter in the Sakawa River and Sagami Bay, Japan. 16. Fay L, Shi X. Environmental impacts of chemicals for snow Limnology. 2007; 8(3):211-217. DOI: 10.1007/s10201-007- and ice control: state of the knowledge. Water Air and Soil 0216-2 pollution. 2012; 223:2751-2770. DOI: 10.1007/s11270-011- 30. Kumar M, Denis DM, Singh SK, Szabo S, Suryayanshi S. 1064-6 Landscape for assessment of land cover change and 17. Fulweiler RW, Nixon SW. Terrestial vegetation and the fragmentation of heterogeneous watershed. Remote Sensing seasonal cycle of dissolved silica in a southern New England Applications: Society and Environment ISSN: 2352-9385. coastal river. Biogeochemistry. 2005; 74:115-130. DOI: 2018; (10):224-233. 10.1007/s10533-004-2947-z 31. Lambin EF, Geist HJ. Land Use and Land Cover Change- 18. Foley JA, De Fries R, Asner GP, Barford C, Bonan G, Local Processes and Global Impacts. Springer Publication, Carpenter SR et al. Global Consequences of Land Use. Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. Springer Science and Business Science. 2005; 309(5734):570-574. DOI: 1126/science Media, 2006, 222. 1111772 32. Lambin EF, Rounsevell MDA, Geist HJ. Are current 19. Gaitanis A, Kalogeropoulos K, Detsis V, Chalkis C. Land agriculture land use models able to predict changes in land- cover changes in Marathon Area, Greece. Land. 2015; use intensity? Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 4(2):337-354. DOI: 103390/land4020337 2000; (82):321-331. 20. Gulliver J. Air-Water Mass Transfer Coefficients. Handbook 33. Lambin EF. Modeling and monitoring land-cover change of Chemical Mass Transport in the Environment, 2010, 213- processes in the tropical region. Progress in Physical 251. DOI: 10.1201/b10262-10 Geography. 1997; (21):375-393. 21. Inamdar S, Singh S, Dutta S, Levia D, Mitchell M, Scott D 34. Lax SM, Peterson EW, Van der Hoven SJ. Stream chloride et al. Fluorescence characteristics and sources of dissolved concentrations as a function of land use: a comparision of an organic matter from stream water during storm events in a agricultural watershed to an urban agricultural watershed. forested mid_Atlantic watershed. Journal of Geophysical Environmental Earth Science. 2017; 76(20). DOI: Research. 2011; 116(G3). DOI: 10.1029/2011jg001735 10.1007/s12665-017-7059-x 22. Indicator report. Sustainable Development Goals in 35. Li D, Liu S. Detection of River Water Quality Monitoring Germany, Federal Statistical Office of Germany, 2017. and Management, 2019, 211-220. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12- 23. Ittekot V, Laane RWPM. Fate of Riverine Particulate 811330-1.00007-7 Organic matter. Biogeochemistry of Major World Rivers, 36. Li X, Gan Y, Zhou A, Liu Y. Relationship between water Scope, 42, Chichester, New York, Wiley, 1991. Retrieved discharge and sulfate sources of the Yangtze River inferred from: from seasonal variations of sulfur and oxygen isotopic https://people.ucsc.edu/~mdmccar/migrated/ocea213/readin compositions. Journal of geochemical Exploration. 2015; gs/01_water/Spitzy_1991_Leenheer_SCOPE_42_Biogeoch 153:30-39. DOI: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2015.02.009 em_World_Rivers_chapter09_DOC_world_rivers.pdf 37. Lin J, Bohlke JK, Huang S, Gonzalez-Meler M, Sturchio N. 24. Jiang T, Wang D, Wei S, Yan J, Liang J, Chen X, Zhao Z. Seasonality of nitrate sources and isotopic composition in the Influences of the alteration of wet-dry periods on the Upper Illinois River. Journal of Hydrology. 2019; 568:849- variability of chromophoric dissolved organic matter in in 861. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.11.043 the water level fluctuation zone of the Three Gorges 38. Liu J, Zhang Z, Xu X, Kuang W, Zhou W, Zhang S et al. Reservoir area, China. Science of the Total Environment. Spatial patterns and driving forces of land use change in 2018; 636:249-259. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.262 China during the early 21st century. Journal of Geographical 25. Recha JW, Lehmann J. Stream Discharge in Tropical Science. 2010; 20(4):483-494. DOI: 10.1007/s11442-010- Headwater Catchments as a Result of Forest Clearing and 0483-4 Soil Degradation. Earth Interaction. 2012; 16:1-18. DOI: 39. Maaß AL, Schuttrumpf H. Long-term effects of mining- 10.1175/2012EI000439.1. induced subsidence on trapping efficiency of floodplains. 26. Kara GT, Kara M, Bayram A, Gunduz O. Assessment of Anthropocene. 2018; 24:1-13. DOI: seasonal variations of physicochemical parameters and trace 10.1016/j.ancene.2018.10.001 elements along a heavily polluted effluent-dominated 40. Masese FO, Salcedo-Borda JS, Gettel GM, Irvine K, stream. Environment Monitoring and Assessment. 2017; McClain ME. Influence of catchment land use and 189(11). DOI: 10.1007/s10661-017-6309-4 seasonality on dissolved organic matter composition and 27. Kanianska R, Kizekova M, Novacek J, Zeman M. Land-use ecosystem metabolism in headwater streams of a Kenyan and land cover changes in rural areas during different river. Biogeochemistry. 2016; 132(1-2):1-22. political systems: a case study of Slovakia from 1782 to DOI:10.1007/s10533-01-0269-6 2006. Land Use Polity. 2014; 36:554-556. DOI: 41. Meyer JL, Paul MJ, Taulbee WK. Stream ecosystem 101016/j.landusepol.2013.09.018 function in urbanizing landscapes. Journal of the North 28. Kaushal SS, Belt KT. The urban watershed continuum: American Benthological Society. 2005; 24:602-612. DOI: evolving spatial and temporal dimensions. Urban 10.1899/04-021.1

17 International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research

42. Ministry of Environment and Nature Conservation, North using multiple isotopes. Environmental Earth Sciences. Rhine Westphalia (17th September). Electronic Water 2015; 73(12):8311-8324. DOI: 10.1007/s12665-014-3992-0 Management System Web (ELWAS –Web), 2018. Retrieved 56. Somers KA, Bernhardt ES, Grace JB, Hassett BA, Sudduth from: https://www.elwasweb.nrw.de/elwas-web/index.jsf# EB, Wang S et al. Streams in urban heat island: spatial and 43. Mosley LM, Daly R, Palmer D, Yeates P, Dallimore C, temporal variability in temperature. Freshwater Science. Biswas T et al. Predective modelling of pH and dissolved 2013; 32(1):309-326. DOI: 10.1899/12-046.1 metal concentrations and speciation following mixing of acid 57. Sewnet A, Gebeyehu A. Land use and land cover change and drainage with river water. Applied Geochemistry. 2015; implication to watershed degradation by using GIS and 59:1-10. DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.03.006 remote sensing in the Koga watershed, North Western 44. Montzka C, Canty M, Kunkel R, Menz G, Vereecken H, Ethiopia. Earth Science Informatics. 2018; 11(1):99-108. Wendland F. Modeling the water balance of mesoscale DOI: 10.1007/s12145-017-0323-5 catchment basin using remotely sensed land cover data. 58. Tekle K, Hedlund L. Land cover changes between 1958 and Journal of Hydrology. 2008; 353(3-4):322-334. 1986 in Kalu District, Southern Wello, Ethiopia. Mountain 45. Mulholand PJ. Formation of particulate organic carbon in Resource Development. 2000; 20(1):42-51. water from a southeastern swamp-stream. Limnology and 59. Townsend-Small A, McClelland J, Max Holmes W, Peterson Oceanography. 1981; 26(4):790-795. BJ. Seasonal and hydrologic drivers of dissolved organic 46. Nautiyal P, Mishra A. Variation in benthic matter and nutrients in the Upper Kuparuk River, Alaskan macroinvertebrate fauna as indicator of land use in the Ken Arctic. Biogeochemistry. 2010; 103(1-3):109-124. DOI: River, central India. Journal of Threatened Taxa. 2013; 10.10007/s10533-010-9451-4 5(7):4096-4105. 60. Tu M, Hall MJ, De Laat PJM, De Wit MJM. Extreme floods 47. Odhiambo BK, Ricker MC, Le Blance LM, Moxey KA. in the Meuse River over the past century: aggravated by land Effects of forested floodplain soil properties on phosphorous use changes? Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. 2005; concentrations in teo Chesapeake Bay sub-watersheds, 30(4):267-276. Virginia, USA. Environmental Science and Pollution 61. Ustsoglu E, Williams B. Determinants of Urban Expansion Research. 2016; 23(16):16056-16066. DOI: 10.1007/s11356- and Agricultural land conversion in 25 EU Countries. 016-6683 Environmental Management. 2017; 60:717-746. DOI: 48. Panno SV, Kelly WR, Hackley KC, Hwang HH, Martinsek 10.10007/s00267-017-0908-2 AT. Sources and fate of nitrate in the Illinois River Basin, 62. Van Vliet J, de Groot HLF, Rietveld P, Verburg PH. Illinois. Journal of Hydrology. 2008; 359(1):174-188. DOI: Manifestations and underlying drivers of agricultural land j.hydrol.2008.06.027 use change in Europe. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2015; 49. Paul BK, Rashid H. Land Use Change and Coastal 133:24-36. DOI: 10.106/jlandurbplan.2014.09.001 Management. Climatic Hazards in Coastal Bangladesh. 63. Vannote RL, Minshall GW, Cummins KW, Sedell JR, Chapter. 2017; 6:183-207. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12- Cushing CE. The river continuum concept. Canadian Journal 805276-1.00006-5 of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 1980; 37:130-137. DOI 50. Recha JW, Lehmann JF, Walter MT, Pell A, Verchot L, 10.1139/f80-017 Johnson M. Stream water nutrient and organic carbon 64. Waldhoff G, Lussem U, Bareth G. Multi-data approach for exports from tropical headwater catchments at a siol remote sensing based regional crop rotation mapping. A case degradation gradient. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems. study for the Rur catchment Germany. International Journal 2013; 95(2):145-158. DOI:10.1007/s10705-013-9554-0 of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2017; 51. Rodolfo LB, Alphonce C, Lamparter G, Richardo SS, (61):55-69. Eduardo G, Harold J et al. Impact of land-use and land-cover 65. Walsh CJ, Roy AH, Feminella JW, Cottingham PD, change on stream hydrochemistry in the Cerrado and Groffman PM, Morgan RP. The urban stream syndrome: Amazon biomes. The Science of Total Environment. 2018; current knowledge and the search for a cure. Journal of the 635:259-274. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.35 North American Benthological Society. 2005; 24(3):706- 52. RWE Power. The post-mining landscape Recultivation in the 723. DOI: 10.1899/04-028.1 Rhineland, 2019. Retrived from 66. Wang H, Zhang W, Hong S, Zhung Y, Lin H, Wang Z. https://www.rwe.com/web/cms/mediablob/en/352232/data/ Spatial evaluation of complex non-point source pollution in 183406/2/rwe/innovation/resources/lignite/renaturation- urban-rural watershed using fuzzy system. Journal of and-environmental-protection/dl-en-recultivation.pdf Hydroinformatics. 2014; 16(1):114-129. DOI: 53. Schulze C, Matthies M. Georeferenced aquatic fate 10.2166/hydro.2013.266 simulation of cleaning agent and detergent ingredients in the 67. Wasserverband Eifel-Rur (WVER), 2018 Retrieved from: river Rur catchment (Germany). Science of the Total https://www.wver.de/index.php Environment. 2001; 280(1):55-77. 68. Wasserverband Eifel-Rur (WVER), 2019 Retrieved from: 54. Sharma S, Allen M, Caurage A, Hall H, Koirala S, Oliver S https://www.wver.de/index.php/gewaesser/fluesse/wurm et al. Assessing Water Quality for Ecosystem Health of 69. Wenger SJ, Roy AH, Jackson CR, Bernhardt ES, Carter TL, Babai River in Bardia National park. Journal of Science Filiso S et al. Twenty-six key research questions in urban engineer and Technology. 2005; 1(1):1-13. stream ecology: an assessment of state of science. Journal of 55. Shin WJ, Ryu JS, Lee KS, Park Y. Identification of the North American Benthological Society. 2009; anthropogenic contaminant sources in urbanized streams 28(4):1080-1098. DOI: 10.1899/08-186.1

18 International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research

70. Williams CJ, Frost PC, Morales-Williams AM, Larson JH, Richardson William B, Chiandet Aisha S et al. Global Change Biology. 2015; 22(2):613-626. DOI: 10.111/gcb.13094 71. Williams CJ, Yamashita Y, Wilson HF, Jaffe R, Xenopoulous MA. Unraveling the role of land use and microbial activity in shaping dissolved organic matter characteristics in stream ecosystems. Limnology and Oceanography. 2010; 55(33):1159-1171. DOI: 10.4319/lo2010.55.3.1159 72. Wilson HF, Xenopoulos MA. Effects of agricultural land use on the composition of fluvial dissolved organic matter. Nature Geoscience. 2008; 2:37-41. DOI 10.1038/ngeo391 73. Yu S, Xu Z, Wu W, Yao L, Wei W, Chen L. How does imperviousness impact the urban rainfall-runoff process under various storm cases? Ecological Indicators. 2016; 60:893-905. 74. Zondag B, Brosboom J. Driving Forces of Land-use Change. ERSA conference paper. Lodz, Poland, 2009.

19