© Kamla-Raj 2018 J Biodiversity, 9(1-2): 25-42 (2018) PRINT: ISSN 0976-6901 ONLINE: ISSN 2456-6543 DOI: 10.31901/24566543.2018/09.1-2.078
Ecological Sustainability of Riverine Ecosystems in Central Western Ghats
T. V. Ramachandra1, 2, 3*, Bharath Setturu1 and S. Vinay1
1Energy and Wetlands Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) 2Centre for Sustainable Technologies (ASTRA) 3Centre for infrastructure, Sustainable Transportation and Urban Planning (CiSTUP) Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
KEYWORDS Biodiversity. Ecological Sustainability. Land Use Land Cover. Western Ghats
ABSTRACT The conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems are the vital requisites in the pursuit of environment friendly development goals. This requires an understanding of the complex functioning of ecosystems, diversity of resources, ecosystem goods and services and their quintessential role in supporting people’s livelihood. Ecological units with the exceptional biotic and abiotic elements are designated as Ecologically Sensitive Regions (ESRs). Identification of ESRs has been done by considering spatially, both ecological and social dimensions of environmental variables. The current research maps ESR at village levels in the Kali River Basin of Central Western Ghats through aggregated weightage metric score as ESR (1-4) based on attributes (biological, Geo climatic, Social, etc.). There are 203 villages in ESR-1, 73 in ESR-2, 77 in ESR-3, and 181 villages in ESR-4. Ecologically fragile regions to be conserved on priority with no disturbances are ESR 1 and ESR 2, while ESR 4 is for development.
INTRODUCTION mosaic of interconnected forest and non-forest patches, constituting a complex ecological, eco- Sustainable development of a region requires nomic and socio-cultural systems. Forest eco- a synoptic ecosystem approach that relates to systems have been playing a crucial role in sus- the dynamics of natural variability and the ef- taining life on the earth through the sustenance fects of human interventions on key indicators of ecological goods and services, biological di- of biodiversity and productivity (Ramachandra versity, regulation of climate, carbon sequestra- et al. 2007). Ecosystems are the distinct biologi- tion, protection of soil and water bodies, etc. cal entities that sustain the biosphere and are They provide abundant resources and sustain characterised by a range of functions: nutrient the livelihood of the global population (Gibson cycling, bio-geochemical cycle, hydrologic cy- et al. 2011; Hansen et al. 2013), They act as prime cling, etc. They are interrelated in space and time biodiversity repositories (Kindstrand et al. 2008; in complex dynamic patterns depending on the Li et al. 2009) and mitigate global warming (Ca- health of landscape (Lin et al. 2018). Ecological bral et al. 2010) by absorbing 30 percent of fos- sustainability refers to the ecosystems ability to sil fuel CO2 emissions (Pan et al. 2011). The cope with various kinds of environmental dis- goods and services provided by forested land- turbances that have the potential of adversely scapes are vital to the socioeconomic develop- changing the character of the natural landscapes ment of human populations (DeFries et al. 2004) while maintaining the sustenance of natural re- and their survival (Ramachandra et al. 2017). sources (water, soil, etc.). The landscape is a However, the forests are being altered due to the uncontrolled and unplanned anthropogen- ic activities such as agriculture, deforestation, *Address for correspondence: Dr. T.V. Ramachandra etc. affecting the ecosystem structure and health. Energy and Wetlands Research Group, CES TE15 Forests cover about 30 percent today at global- Centre for Ecological Sciences, ly as opposed to 50 percent of the earth’s land Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 019 area 8000 years ago depleted with the expanded Web URL: http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy, http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/foss extents of croplands, pastures, plantations, and Phone: 080-22933099/22933503 Extn 107 urban areas (FAO 2011). The Earth’s land sur- E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] face has lost 40 percent of natural forest by 1990 26 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY due to the expansion of cropland and perma- 2018) and disease vectors. This necessitates nent pasture (Ramachandra and Shruthi 2007). quantification of LULC changes to evolve sus- The rapid conversion of forests for agriculture, tainable natural resource management strategies. timber production, infrastructure activities and Conservation of forest ecosystem has become a other anthropogenic uses has generated vast, critical task due to increased high intensities of human-dominated landscapes with potentially anthropogenic disturbances in the form of LULC calamitous consequences for biodiversity to changes as compared to natural disturbance pro- sustain (Gould et al. 2017). Despite significant cesses (Kivinen and Kumpula 2013). This has services of these ecosystems, global deforesta- led to the development of systematic conserva- tion rates have remained alarmingly high over tion planning approaches as an increasingly vi- the past decades (DeFries et al. 2010). This ne- tal tool for protecting the nature around the cessitates synthesis of causal factors which world. would aid in formulating location specific man- The comprehensive knowledge about LULC agement plans to mitigate impacts. The struc- has become increasingly important for planning ture of a landscape depends on land cover (LC), and visualization of future growth to overcome which decides the functioning of respective ec- the problems of haphazard, uncontrolled devel- osystems. LC refers the physical cover of a land- opment in ecologically sensitive regions scape such as vegetation, non-vegetation (soil, (Kennedy et al. 2009). Temporal remote sensing water), etc., whereas land use (LU) describes data, geographic information systems (GIS) tech- management and modification of natural envi- niques, free and open source software technolo- ronment to a human with socioeconomic func- gies are providing efficient methods for the anal- tions and services. ysis of LULC dynamics required for planning and Land use land cover (LULC) analysis helps protection (Ramachandra et al. 2014). The forests in understanding bio-geophysical processes of Western Ghats are undergoing deforestation, and anthropogenic pressures on the ecosystem. while the forest under protected areas is also ex- LULC change resulting in deforestation has been periencing the risk of land use changes. recognized as an important driver of environ- The conservation and sustainable manage- mental changes due to alterations in tempera- ment of ecosystems are the vital requisites for ture-humidity response pattern affecting plant sustenance of natural resources. The impact of physiology and diverse ecosystem functions unplanned developmental activities during the (Findell et al. 2017). The uncontrolled LU chang- post-independence period is evident from the es in forested landscapes induce imbalances by barren hilltops, conversion of perennial streams subdividing the contiguous native forests in to to seasonal ones, loss of livelihood, etc. This smaller fragments with isolated patches, which necessitates an understanding of the complex is known as forest fragmentation (Laurance et functioning of ecosystems, diversity of resourc- al. 2002; Bharath et al. 2012). Fragmentation re- es, ecosystem goods and services and their fers to breaking up of contiguous natural forest quintessential role in supporting people’s liveli- patches into smaller tracts of forest surrounded hood. Ecological units with the exceptional bi- by other land uses, causing a disruption in con- otic and abiotic elements are designated as Eco- tinuity of the natural landscape (Ramachandra logically Sensitive Regions (ESRs). Identifica- et al. 2016a). Forest fragmentation with subse- tion of ESRs has to be done considering ecolog- quent edge effects due to infrastructure devel- ical, bio-geo climatic, social dimensions of envi- opments (linear projects, etc.) has impaired eco- ronmental variables. Ecologically Sensitive Re- system goods and services including carbon gions (ESR) are defined under conservation sequestration ability, hydrologic regime, biodi- planning approach as ‘‘large units of land or versity (Harper et al. 2005; Vinay et al. 2013; Bhar- water containing a geographically distinct as- ath et al. 2014), aggravate predation (Cagnolo et semblage of species, natural communities, and al. 2006), fire susceptibility, alters microclimate environmental conditions” (Olson et al. 2001). and enhance carbon emissions (Houghton and ESR has the capacity to support and maintain Nassikas 2017). The unrestrained deforestation the balanced and integrated ecosystem in a par- will alter microclimate of the region, leading to ticular region under protective measures. Sys- increasing in land surface temperature and pro- tematic conservation by prioritization of sensi- liferation of exotic species (Ramachandra et al. tive regions has become an effective and eco- ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 27 nomical method (Myers et al. 2000) and is wide- This involves understanding LULC dynamics, ly used to improve ecosystem by conservation ecology and socioeconomic status in the Kali practices. With respect to Indian scenario, Union River Basin (Kali Tiger Reserve - KTR). Ministry of Environment Forests and Climate change (MoEFCC) has taken an initiative to pro- Study Area tect forests and maintenance under section 3 of Environment (Protection) Act 1986 (EPA). Cen- Kali River Basin is the lifeline of the district tral Government can prohibit or restrict the loca- and water source for major agriculture, horticul- tion of industries and carry out certain opera- ture, and energy production. The Kali river has tions on the basis of considerations like the eco- a catchment area of 5085.9 km2 spread across logical sensitivity under section 5 of EPA 1986. districts of Uttara Kannada (Ankola, Karwar, The MoEFCC had set up Pronab Sen Committee Supa, Yellapur, Haliyal), Dharwad (Kalgatgi, in the year 2000 to identify parameters for desig- Dharwad) and Belgaum (Khanapura, Bialhon- nating ESRs in the country to counter the rapid gal) (Fig. 1). Population in the Kali River catch- deterioration of the environment, both national- ly and internationally (MoEF 2000). The com- ment has increased from 4,97,892 (in 2001) to mittee has defined ecological sensitivity or fra- 5,42,036 (in 2011) as per the Census of India gility as permanent and irreparable loss of ex- (http://censusindia.gov.in) and is projected to tant life forms from the world; or significant dam- increase to 5,66,065 in the year 2016 at the dec- age to the natural processes of evolution and adal growth rate of 8.8 percent. Population den- speciation. Based on this, Western Ghats Ecol- sity in the catchment is 111 persons per square ogy Expert Panel (WGEEP) demarcated ecologi- kilometer as on 2016. Major Population is in cal sensitive regions and suggested prohibited towns such as Dandeli, Haliyar, Dharwad, Kar- and regulated activities in the respective zones war, Yellapura, Ramnagar, Virje, Majali, Ammadalli, of the Western Ghats (Gadgil et al. 2011) con- etc. sidering multi-disciplinary inputs from the stake- The major vegetation types in the Kali basin holders. Subsequently, a high-level working are broadly grouped as ‘natural vegetation’ group (HLWG), designated about 37 percent (that which includes evergreen, moist deciduous and is, 60,000 sq. km.) of Western Ghats as ESA. dry deciduous forests; ‘plantations or monoc- However, both these reports were unsuccessful ultures’ which includes plantations of Tectona in generating confidence on the good intent of grandis (Teak), Eucalyptus sp. (Bluegum) Ca- sustainable development and is not implement- suarina equisetifolia, Acacia auriculiformis, ed till date. Unplanned developmental activities Acacia nilotica, and other exotics. The most including tourism activities (under the guise of threatened and vulnerable species such as Wis- eco-tourism) have been causing irreplaceable neria triandra, Holigarna beddomei, Holigar- losses even in protected areas (PAs). Now there na grahamii, Garcinia gummi gutta, Hopea is a move by the federal government to de-noti- ponga, Diospyros candolleana, Diospyros pan- fy 75 percent of Kali tiger reserve (KTR) an eco- iculata, Diospyros saldanhae, Cinnamomum sensitive zone area (ESZ) (a major portion of malabatrum, Myristica malabarica and Psydrax Kali River Basin) to implement developmental umbellate are found in the basin. The forests activities (many projects are pushed under drink- are suffering from many detrimental developmen- ing water scheme) in the eco-sensitive regions (KFD 2017). As the drinking water projects gets tal activities and policy interventions, subse- both executive and judiciary nod (without envi- quently leading to the heavy removal of lofty ronment clearance), most of the environmental- trees across the district (Ramachandra et al. ly unsound projects are pushed under the guise 2016b). of drinking water requirement leading to large The dams/reservoirs in Kali River Basin were scale destruction of prime forest ecosystems in constructed during post 1980’s, which include the Western Ghats. Supa dam, Bommanahalli reservoir, Tattihalla res- ervoir, Kodasalli dam, Kadra dam, Kaneri dam, Objectives etc., which receives water from Kali River catch- ment consisting of pristine forest cover of Kali The objectives of the current research are to Tiger Reserve (KTR) or Anshi-Dandeli Tiger delineate ecological sensitive regions (ESR) at Reserve (ADTR). The ADTR/KTR harbors di- village levels based on bio-geo climatic variables. verse flora and fauna species (Fig. 2) with an 28 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY
INDIA KARNATAKA KALI
Fig. 1. Study area-Kali River Basin Source: Author area of 1427.35 km2. The KTR was formed by METHODOLOGY merging Anshi national park, Dandeli Hornbill reserve and Dandeli tiger reserve in the year 2010. Quantification of Spatial Patterns of The Kali Tiger Reserve (KTR) is a part of 8,800 Landscape Dynamics km2 of tiger conservation landscape comprising Protected Areas and reserved forests of Dandeli Figure 3 outlines the protocol adopted for Wildlife Sanctuary towards the north of KTR the analysis. Multi-resolution RS data used for abutting Bhimghad Wildlife Sanctuary and fur- spatial analyses are Landsat multispectral sen- ther connects Radhanagari and Koyna Wildlife sor (MSS-1973; http://landsat.ugs.gov), Opera- Sanctuaries in Maharashtra. The reserved for- tional Land Imager (OLI-2016) and online Goo- ests in the south connect KTR with Bedthi and gle Earth data (http://earth.google.com). The Aghanashini Conservation Reserves and fur- ancillary data is used to classify the remote sens- ther down to Mookambika and Sharavathi Val- ing data and the interpretation of different land ley Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Fig. 2. Flora and Faunal diversity of Kali River Basin Fig. 3. Method followed for land use analysis Source: Author Source: Author ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 29 use types. Topographic maps (http://surveyof regions based on weightage metrics score as it india. gov.in) provided ground control points to provides an objective and transparent system rectify remotely sensed data and digitized paper for combining multiple data sets together to in- maps (topographic maps). The Survey of India fer the significance. The weightage metrics score for a region is deûned in Equation 1. (SOI) toposheets (1:50000 and 1:250000 scales) n and vegetation map of South India (http//www. Weightage = Σ =1W V i=1 i i …(1) ifpindia.org/ifpsitedata/presentation) developed Where, n is the number of data sets, V is the by French Institute (1986) of scale 1:250000 was i value associated with criterion (theme) i and Wi digitized to identify various forest cover types is the weights associated with that criterion. Each and temporal analyses to find out the changes criterion is described by an indicator mapped to in vegetation. Field survey was carried out with a value normalized from 10 to 1. The value 10 the pre-calibrated GPS (Global Positioning Sys- corresponds to very higher priority for conser- tem - Garmin GPS unit). Ground control points vation. The value 7, 5 and 3 corresponds to high, are used to geometrically correct remote sens- moderate, low levels of conservation. In partic- ing data and also to validate the classified land ular, the weightages, are individual spatial vari- use information. The supervised classification able proxy, based on GIS techniques, that stands scheme of Gaussian maximum likelihood classifi- out as the most effective method. The final ESR er (GMLC) scheme is adopted for land use analy- map (with grids prioritized based on the cumula- sis under 10 different land use categories using tive eco-sensitive metrics score) will aid in ef- GRASS GIS (Geographical Analysis Support Sys- fective regional planning by the decision mak- tem). GRASS is a free and open source geospatial ers with the conservation of sensitive regions. software with the robust functionalities for pro- cessing vector and raster data available at (http:// RESULTS wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/grass/). The training data (60%) collected has been used for classification, Spatiotemporal Land Use Analysis while the balance is used for accuracy assess- ment to validate the classification. The test sam- The forests of Kali River Basin are acting as ples are then used to create error matrix (also re- a rich resource base in the Western Ghats of ferred as confusion matrix) kappa (κ) statistics Uttara Kannada district and supporting liveli- and overall (producer’s and user’s) accuracies to hood of dependent population. The land use assess the classification accuracies (Lillesand et analyses of Kali River Basin depict the spa- al. 2014). tiotemporal changes in the biodiversity-rich re- gion during 1973 to 2016 (Figs. 5a, b and Table Delineation of ESR 1). The classified land use information is vali- dated with field data and historical maps and The study region is divided into 5’×5’ equal overall accuracy ranges from 82.52 percent area grids (97) covering approximately 9 km2 to (1973), 90 percent (2016) with Kappa of 0.81 and account for the changes at local levels. The data 0.88 respectively. The evergreen forest cover has of various themes (vegetation cover, climate, flo- declined from 61.79 to 38.5 percent (1973-2016), ra, fauna, etc.) were collected from published sci- due to hydroelectric, infrastructure projects and entific literatures, unpublished datasets, and field monoculture plantations (15%). The natural for- surveys. A detailed spatial database is created est cover is replaced with exotic species such as for various themes covering all aspects from land Acacia, Eucalyptus, and Teak etc. as part of so- to estuarine ecosystem. The weightage metric cial forestry programme by the forest depart- score is computed to prioritize grids based on ment. This has led to major forest cover chang- eco-sensitiveness considering various themes es in Dandeli, Haliyal, and parts of Supa regions. (Fig. 4.). Developing a weightage metric score re- The construction of series of dams and reser- quires knowledge from a wide array of disciplines voirs has submerged large-scale pristine forest (Termorshuizen and Opdam 2009). Planning land affecting ecology. Implementation of trans- should acknowledge and actively integrate mission lines of Kaiga nuclear powerhouse has present and future needs for landscape. The bisected contiguous pristine native forests approach is based on the framework proposed across the basin. The land conversions that is, by Beinat (1997) for identifying eco-sensitive conversion of forest to agriculture; agriculture 30 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY
Study Area
Field Literature Investigations Review
Land Geo-Climatic Ecology Forest Cover Elevation Slope Flora
Forest Rainfall Fauna Fragmentation Diversity Energy Estuary Social Solar Diversity Conservation Population Reserves Density Wind Hydrology (PA, WLS) Forest Dwellers Bio Water Availability Biomass
Weightage Prioritization
Fig. 4. Computation of ecologically sensitive regions Source: Author 1973 2016
Legend KALI RIVER BASIN Legend Evergreen forest KALI RIVER BASIN Moist deciduous forest Evergreen forest Dry deciduous forest Moist deciduous forest Scrub/grass lands Dry deciduous forest Teak/Acacia/Eucalyptus Scrub/grass lands Agriculture Teak/Acacia/Eucalyptus Coconut/Areca nut Agriculture Open fields Coconut/Areca nut 0 5 10 20 30 40 Built-up Open fields Water 0 5 10 20 30 40 Built-up Water Kilometers Kilometers Fig. 5. Land use dynamics in the Kali River Basin Source: Author ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 31
Table 1: Temporal changes in land use of Kali River Basin
S. Category Year 1973 Year 2016 No. Ha % Ha % 1 Evergreen to semi evergreen forest 314265.07 61.79 195829.13 38.50 2 Moist deciduous forest 76713.55 15.08 72231.41 14.20 3 Dry deciduous forest 39765.85 7.82 11369.70 2.24 4 Scrub forest/grass land 12857.72 2.53 17138.54 3.37 5 Teak/Bamboo/Acacia/Eucalyptus/Other plantations 8383.26 1.65 76666.09 15.07 6 Crop land 46783.90 9.20 90086.56 17.71 7 Coconut/Areca nut /Cashew nut plantations 54.26 0.01 8805.30 1.73 8 Open fields 5703.57 1.12 9449.90 1.86 9 Built-up 1985.22 0.39 8433.95 1.66 10 Water 2068.93 0.41 18570.75 3.65 Total 508581.33 to coco/areca nut plantations are the major con- cover. The presence of large number of edges cerns in this region. The rehabilitation of fami- and perforated patches reveal loss of connec- lies displaced due to river valley projects in the tivity and contiguous forest patches. The high- mid of forest regions has altered interior forests er interior forest can be seen in grids of Supa with the creation of more perforated forests with taluk (Fig. 6d). The plains (Haliyal, Hubli, Bel- edges. The major portion of deciduous forest gaum portions) are with the least weightages (1, cover (7.82-2.24 %) in the eastern portion of the 3) due to more disturbed forest cover with least basin has been transformed to agriculture area or no interior forest cover. from 9 to 17.7 percent by 2016.
Prioritisation of ESR a b Ecosystem sustainability assessment is done through ESR demarcation to get a detailed pic- ture of ecological status at village levels in the
Kali River Basin considering various themes (eco- Legend Legend logical, social, hydrological, geo-climatic vari- Kali River Basin Kali River Basin FOREST COVER KALI GRIDS Forest Cover Weightages ables) for conservation planning. Values of vari- < 20 Percentage 1 20-40 3 ous variables (of themes) were selected based on 40-60 5 60-80 7 literature reviews and field-based measurements. > 80 10 The land use analysis highlights (Fig. 6a) the major forest cover (> 80%) is confined to KTR region, while eastern parts are degraded due to c d anthropogenic pressures and the natural forest cover in this region is about 54.94 percent. The wide-scale forest clearing and subsequent agri- Legend cultural expansion, exotic plantations resulted Kali River Basin KALI GRIDS KALI GRIDS in damage of large forest patches. Unplanned Interior Forest Cover Interior Forest < 20 Percentage 1 Weightages implementation of the major developmental 20-40 3 40-60 5 60-80 7 projects have disturbed the landscape with the > 80 significant erosions in the forest cover. The for- 10 est cover weightages (Fig. 6b) illustrate higher Fig. 6. Forest cover, Interior forest cover with their relative weightages to moderate ranking in KTR and its surround- Source: Author ings. The interior forest cover is considered as another important variable, which emphasizes The ecology of Kali basin was assessed conservation connectivity and ecological func- through assessment of biodiversity such as en- tionalities (Fig. 6c). The cultivation in the near- demic flora, fauna, the biomass of forests, the by plots and roads have influenced the natural status of conservation reserves etc. These in- 32 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY formation was compiled from literature review the remote sensing data. The field transacts wise as well as field-based measurements. Field data basal area were estimated, which was used to was collected using pre-calibrated GPS (Global quantify standing biomass using allometric equa- Positioning System), which provided coordi- tions. The basal area computed using regres- nates of the location - latitude, longitude and sion equations was valdated through compari- altitude. This information was plotted to under- son with data based on field estimations. The stand the spatial patterns of distribution and standing biomass in each grid is estimated based the respective habitats. Figure 7a, b gives the on the spatial extent of forests (Fig.7e). The for- spatial distribution of endemic flora with its ests in the Supa region have higher biomass weightages. The region is home to very rare and (>1200 Gg) and eastern part are with deciduous endangered fauna (Fig. 7c). Main carnivores are to dry deciduous forests of Haliyal region and tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard, wild dog (dhole) have lower biomass (< 200 Gg). The higher bio- and sloth bear. Leopards are in good number and mass regions are assigned greater weightages wild dogs are in very less number, usually sight- and vice versa (Fig. 7f). Net carbon storage in ed in Kulgi and Phansoli ranges of Dandeli. Sloth the forests is estimated as half of the biomass as bears are in very good number and these are per the standard protocol of published litera- frequently sighted in Ambikanagar, Virnoli, tures (Brown 1997; Ramachandra et al. 2000). Bhagavati. Prey animals are barking deer, spot- The study highlights that these regions are car- ted deer (Axis axis), wild boar, sambar (Cervus bon repositories and degrading or disturbing unicolor), gaur (Bos gaurus). The region is part these regions would result in higher carbon emis- of an important elephant corridor between Kar- sions and the loss of carbon sequestration po- nataka and Maharashtra with at least 47 ele- tential. Hence the grids with higher carbon se- phants which are frequently sighted near Sam- questration potential were assigned higher con- brani, Bommanahalli dam backwaters. These re- servation values (Fig. 7g, h). Higher weights (Fig. gions are habitats for Malabar Giant Squirrel, 7i, j) were assigned to the protected area – KTR, Slender Loris, etc. Some of the important birds as it is aiding in the conservation of keystone are Malabar Trogon, Malabar Pied Hornbill, species and rice biodiversity. Malabar Grey Hornbill, Indian Grey Hornbill, Geo-climatic data were analyzed by consid- Great Indian Hornbill, Emerald Dove, Ceylon ering altitude, slope, and rainfall. The high alti- Frog mouth, Pompador Pigeon etc. Kali River tude regions are prone to landslides due to accommodates at least 200+ marsh crocodiles heavy rain and extreme weather conditions. The and a good number of these can be sighted near Figure 8a shows the altitude of the district, high- Dandelappa temple in Dandeli town. Another est elevation is 1758 m in Supa taluk. The weight- rare reptile found is Draco (Flying Lizard) which age map is generated by considering > 600 m as can be easily sighted near Mandurli IB, Anshi a higher priority for conservation and > 400 m is Nature Camp, Sathkhand falls. There are diverse moderate and rest are of least concern (Fig. 8b). variety of snakes that is, King Cobra, Cobra, Slope map (Fig. 8c) is generated to identify the Malabar Pit Viper, Hump nosed pit Viper, Bam- regions which are more sensitive; alteration of boo Pit Viper, Kraft, Ornate flying snake, wolf these regions will have a higher impact. In such snake etc. the region has a wide variety of but- areas, landscape disturbances will lead to soil terflies - Crimson Rose, Common Rose, Leaf, Clip- erosion, landslides, secondary plant succession, per, Tigers, Southern Bird wing, Cruiser etc. High- and ultimately to land abandonment. The slope er weights (10) are assigned to the grids (Fig. > 12 degrees is considered as a more sensitive 7d) covering all endemic species and grids with region and assigned higher weightage (Fig. 8d). non-endemic fauna were assigned 3. The rainfall pattern of the district is analyzed to Biomass is a significant variable in the anal- mark the sensitive regions for conservation. Most ysis from carbon sequestration perspective and of the KTR region (Fig. 8e) is in the high rainfall the role of forests in the mitigation of global zone, except eastern parts of Haliyal. The en- warming. Earlier data (Ramachandra et al. 2013) demic species are well distributed in high rain- was considered to assess the extent and quan- fall regions. The data analyses reveal that diver- tum of biomass. The analysis was based on total sity, endemism, and rainfall are correlated. Fig- standing biomass of forest’s vegetation (Brown ure 8f reflects weightages considering rainfall 1997; Ramachandra et al. 2000) and field data with gradients. ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 33
a b c
Legend Legend Kali River Basin Legend KALI GRIDS Kali River Basin FLORA WEIGHTAGES Kali River Basin KALI GRIDS ESR 1 KALI GRIDS FLORA 3 FAUNA ENDEMIC FLORA 6 ENDEMIC FAUNA 7 10
d e f
Legend Legend Legend Kali River Basin Kali River Basin Kali River Basin KALI GRIDS ESR KALI GRIDS KALI GRIDS BIOMASS CG FAUNA RANK BIOMASS WEIGHTAGES 1 < 250 GIGAGRAMS 1 3 250-500 3 6 500-750 6 7 750-1000 7 10 > 1000 10
g h i j
Legend Legend Kali River Basin Kali River Basin Legend KALI GRIDS KALI GRIDS Kali River Basin CARBON GG CARBON WEIGHTAGES KALI GRIDS < 200 GIGAGRAMS 1 CONRES WEIGHTAGES 200-400 3 0 400-650 6 10 650-800 7 > 800 10
Fig. 7. Ecology variables with their ranking based on their weights Source: Author
Hydrology is analyzed sub-basin wise by stream flow at each grid of the district. The KTR, monitoring select streams to understand the fac- Supa region shows water availability of 12 tors responsible for perennial and seasonal flows months in the streams and Figure 8h reflects the of the region. The presence of perennial streams relative weightages. in the catchment dominated by native vegeta- Environmentally sound alternative sources tion compared to seasonal streams with catch- of energy are considered for prioritization. Solar, ment dominated by degraded landscape or of Wind, Bioenergy data sets are collected and monoculture plantations. Majority of streams in analyzed and weightages assigned (Fig. 9a, b, c, the region are perennial that reflects the health d). The entire region receives an average solar 2 of the ecosystem. The Figure. 8g shows the insolation of 5.42 kWh/m /day annually and has 34 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY
abc d
Legend Legend Legend Kali River Basin Legend Kali River Basin Kali River Basin
Rainfall (mm) g h 5951 f
946 Legend Legend Legend Kali River Basin Kali River Basin Kali River Basin KALI GRIDS KALI GRIDS KALI GRIDS Water Availability HYDRO WEIGHTAGES RAINFALL WEIGHTAGES <3 Months 3 5 0 3-6 7 10 6-9 9-12 10
Fig. 8. Geo-climatic variables and their weightages Source: Author more than 300 clear sunny days. This solar po- bioenergy) would assure the reliable energy tential is utilized to meet the domestic and irriga- supply to meet the energy demand at decentral- tion electricity demand. Domestic demand of the ized levels. household in a rural region is about 50 to 100 The forest-dwelling communities of the re- kWh per month. The solar potential assessment gion are considered for prioritization (as per For- reveals that domestic demand can be supplied est Dwellers Act 2005 or Forests Rights Act by installing rooftop SPV modules since less 2005). These communities depend directly and the 5 percent of the rooftop is required in the indirectly on forest resources for their livelihood. majority of the houses and irrigation demand The forest-dwelling communities are Kunbis, can be met by installing PV modules in a waste- Siddis, Goulis, Gondas. They are socially and land where less than 3 percent of available waste- politically backward and most of them depend land area is sufficient. Bioresource availability on casual labor, trading forest products for their is computed based on the compilation of data livelihood. The grids with the presence of tribes on the area and productivity of agriculture and were assigned higher weightages (Fig. 10a, b). horticulture crops, forests and plantations. Sec- Population density is considered as another tor-wise energy demand is computed based on proxy for ESR mapping. The population density the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO of each grid is analyzed (Fig. 10c) and estimated study) data, primary survey data and from the for 2016 based on population census data of literature. The supply/demand ratio in the dis- 2011. It is evident that with higher population, trict ranges from less than 0.5 to more the 2. If resource extraction is higher (Fig. 10d). The grids the ratio is less than 1 (demand >supply), then with the higher population density were assigned reflects of fuelwood deficit status and the ratio lower weights of 1 and lower density regions of more than 1 (supply>demand) reflects fuel- were assigned weights of 10. wood surplus situation. Wind resource assess- Estuarine ecosystems are a tiny ribbon of ment shows Wind speed varies from 1.9 m/s (6.84 land, but the emissions from their destruction km/hr.) to 3.93 m/s (14.15 km/hr.) throughout the are nearly one-fifth of those attributed to defor- year with a minimum in October and maximum in estation worldwide (Pendelton et al. 2012). The June and July. Hybridizing wind energy systems major mangrove species present are Rhizopho- with other locally available resources (solar, ra mucronata, Sonneratia alba, Avicennia ma- ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 35
rina, Avicennia officinalis, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata, Sonneratia caseolaris. The farmers also plant rows of mangrove trees just outside these bunds to fortify them from Kali River Basin 5 10 collapse. This traditional system of estuarine KALI GRIDS BIO_ENERGY WEIGHTAGES
Legend cultivation with mangrove planting was a sus- tainable system. Kali River has major dams with hydropower stations have affected mangroves, fish yield, and other goods. The weightages are assigned as per the data analyzed emphasizing Kilometers productivity (Fig. 10e). 0 5 10 20 30 40
Legend
Kali River Basin Legend <1 1-2 2-3 > 3 Kali River Basin Legend Kali River Basin Kali Grid Kali River Basin Kali Grid KALI GRIDS BM_SD RATIO Legend Kali Grid
Legend Legend Kali River Basin Kali River Basin Kilometers Kali Grid Kali Grid 0 5 10 20 30 40 Fig. 10. Socio aspects and esturine diversity vari- ables and their weightages Source: Author Kali River Basin 7 10 The aggregation of all metrics for each grid KALI GRIDS Legend WEIGHT WEIGHTAGES and intergrid analyses aided in prioritizing eco- logically sensitive regions (ESR) based on the relative weights and grids are prioritized as ESR 1, 2, 3 and 4. Figure 11a shows 47 grids represent ESR 1, 9 grids represent ESR 2, 8 grids represent ESR 3 and the rest 23 grids represent ESR 4. The 54 percent of the grids represents ESR 1, 10.34 percent of the area shows ESR 2, 9.19 percent of the area shows ESR 3 and only 26.44 percent area covers ESR 4. Figure 11a and Table 5 shows village level ecological sensitive regions. ESR 1 represents zone of highest conservation, no fur- 7 10 Kali River Basin ther degradation allowed. ESR 1 can be treated
SOLAR WEIGHTAGES as a high sensitive region of the district and KALI GRIDS more conservation is to be imposed by regula-
Legend tory authorities as well as through VFCs (Village forest committees). ESR 2 represents a zone of higher conservation and forms a transition for highest conservation and moderate conserva- Author Kilometers tion regions. ESR 3 represents moderate conser-
0 5 10 20 30 40 vation region and only regulated development
Fig. 9. Energy theme variables and their weightages Source: is allowed in these areas. ESR 4 represents least 36 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY diversity areas and the developments are allowed lages need to be protected. Table 3 provides the as per the requirement by strict vigilance from details of the prohibited and regulated activities regulatory authorities. It is recommended that depending on eco-sensitiveness in each ESR these regions also has a scope for further en- region. richment / improvement of environment through KTR region is a sensitive habitat for wild the involvement of local stakeholders by the flora and fauna. As per Wildlife Conservation forest department. In ESR 3, further develop- Strategy 2002, Union government had stipulat- ments are allowed only with the critical review ed a 10 km buffer region as eco fragile zones from regulatory authorities in consultations with (Eco-Sensitive Zones) around protected areas / the local stakeholders. Small-scale tourism national parks under Environmental (Protection) should be encouraged adopting benefit sharing Act, 1986. Eco-Sensitive Zones are specified as with local communities such as homestay, spice transition zones around protected forest areas, farms, eco-friendly boating etc. The uncontrolled that would minimize forest depletion and human- and unplanned development should be discour- animal conflicts. These are intended to provide aged in and around of pristine lakes, primeval habitat improvement, enhance the environmen- forest patches, perennial water bodies. The site- tal services, reduce edge effects, connectivity, specific (clustered base) sustainable develop- reducing fragmentation of forests and also pro- ments can be taken up at each panchayat, which vides a physical barrier from human encroach- has least effect on the ecosystem. The forest ments. Eco-Sensitive Zones are areas adjacent to department should refrain from raising monoc- protected areas/ national parks, on which land ulture plantations and replace existing exotics in use is partially restricted to give an added layer the stages (phased manner) with endemic spe- of protection while providing valued benefits to cies. Promote decentralized electricity, use of neighboring rural communities. However, in re- renewable energy sources such as (solar, wind, cent times, the vested interests are pushing many bioenergy, etc.). The region should promote agro projects under the guise of drinking water scheme processing industries to synthesize local re- and ecotourism projects, etc. to push consultant sources while providing employment. Adapt driven environmentally sound projects with the only environmentally sound development nexus of contractors and inefficient bureaucrats. projects and implementation by involving local The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Cli- community in decision making, social impact mate Change (MoEFCC) has approved a reduc- assessment and post-project environmental tion of Eco-Sensitive Zones (from 10 km to 100m) monitoring. No new major roads, widening of by a series of notifications in the numerous na- existing roads, railway lines are allowed, except tional parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Honorable when highly essential and subject to EIA, by Supreme Court while taking serious objections to imposing strict regulation and social audit. Tour- these unscientific reductions (driven by politi- ism Master Plan should be based on MOEF reg- cal), has directed that a 10-km limit as the Eco- ulations (after taking into account social and en- Sensitive Zones. The guidelines for Eco-Sensi- vironmental costs). Controlled activities are allowed tive Zones proposed that the boundary had to based on socio-economic importance, while activ- be site-specific, decided in consultation with a ities leading to degradation of wetlands, natural field-based team comprising representatives forests or introduction of alien invasive species from the forest department, revenue department are prohibited in eco-sensitive regions. and Panchayat Raj institution. The purpose of Kali River Basin is spread across three dis- delineating Eco-Sensitive Zones is to sustain tricts with 524 villages (Table 2) and Figure 11b the natural resources to support the livelihood prioritises these villages as ESR 1 to ESR 4 based of people. The approach adopts people inclu- on the eco-sensitiveness. Forests of these vil- sive path and ensures a legal framework to sup-
Table 2: ESR Villages under various districts of Kali River Basin
S.No. District name ESR-1 ESR-2 ESR-3 ESR-4 Total
1 Uttara Kannada 190 45 48 48 331 2 Belgaum 13 25 27 20 85 3 Dharwad 0 3 2 103 108 Kali River Basin 203 73 77 171 524 ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 37
Table 3: Prohibited and regulated activities in ESR -1, 2 3 and 4
S. Activities Ecologically Sensitive Regions No. ESR-1 ESR-2 ESR-3 ESR-4
1 Energy 9 9 9 9 (A) Solar (Rooftop) (B) Wind power 8 9 9 9 (C) Bio energy 8 9 9 9 (D) Coal based (Thermal power) 8888 (E) Gas or liquid fuel based 8889 (F) Hydro power (Major) 8888 (G) Hydro power (Micro) 8889 (H) Nuclear power 8888 2 Forests 8888 (A) Land use change (Forest to non-forest usages) (B) Monoculture plantations 8888 (C) Extraction of medicinal plants 889 9 (D) Forest improvement through VFCs 9 9 9 9 (E) NTFP collection 9 (Strict 9 9 9 regulation by depart- ment) 3 Agriculture 9 9 9 9 (A) Agroforestry (B) Organic farming 9 9 9 9 (C) Land use change / Encroachments 8888 (D) Genetically modified crops 8888 (E) Animal husbandry 9 9 9 9 4 Horticulture 9 9 9 9 (A) Organic farming (B) Nitrogen and Phosphorus (N and P) fertilizers 8889 Dosage as prescribed by Agricul- ture depart- ment (C) Endosulfan 8888 (D) Pesticide 8889 (E) Watermelon and muskmelon farming 8 9 9 9 5 Industries (Larger Scale) 9 9 9 9 (A) Agro-processing industries (B) Information Technology industries (IT) 889 9 (C) Red category (Polluting) industries 8888 (D) Garment industries 889 9 (E) New establishment of industries 8889 (Allowed only after critical review by local stake- holders and experts) (F) Non-polluting (Green) industries 889 9 6 Industries (Small Scale) 9 9 9 (A) Garment industries (B) Domestic (Home based) industries a. Papad 9 9 9 9 b. Mango processing 9 9 9 9 c. Areca nut processing and coir industries 8 9 9 9 d. Milk products and processing 9 9 9 9 e. Dry fruits and spices 9 9 9 9 f. Fruit processing (Ex: Kokum Juice 9 9 9 9 (Garcinia indica)) g. Fish products processing 9 9 9 9 h. Bee keeping and bee nurseries 9 9 9 9 i. Pongamia plantations for biofuel (in private lands) 8 9 9 9 j. Bio pesticides manufacturing 8 9 9 9 k. Poultry farms and powdered eggs 8 9 9 9 l. Vegetable dyes; fruits and vegetables preservation 9 9 9 9 38 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY
Table 3: Contd.....
S. Activities Ecologically Sensitive Regions No. ESR-1 ESR-2 ESR-3 ESR-4
m. Medicinal plants cultivation and processing 9 9 9 9 n. Aromatic plants and essential oil distillation; 8 9 9 9 orchids and cut flowers harvesting industries 7 Tourism Industry 8 9 9 9 (A) Ecotourism (B) Organic village and homestay 9 9 9 9 (C) VFC managed tourism 9 9 9 9 (D) VFC managed homestay tourism in higher 8 9 9 9 forest cover regions and protected areas (E) Arts and handicrafts museum and trade center 9 9 9 9 8 Mining and Mineral Extraction 8888 (A) Iron ore (B) Manganese 8888 (C) Bauxite 8888 (D) Limestone 8889 (E) Quartz 8889 (F) Sand extraction (on a sustainable basis by 889 9 Ban on exporting) 9 Waste Disposal 8888 (A) Hazardous waste processing units (B) Solid waste disposal 8889 (For com- posting and manure pre- paration) (C) Liquid waste discharge 8889 (Treat- ment plants (STP) for processing) (D) Recycling and waste processing and units 8889 (comp- liant with PCB) 10 Transportation 8889(Allowed only after strict EIA) (A) Roads and expressways (B) Rail and freight corridors Subject to EIA; Strict Regulation and Social Audit (C) Up gradation of existing infrastructure 889(Subject 9 to EIAs, strict regulation and social audit)
port conservation of ecologically sensitive hab- to be enriched with native species to reduce fur- itats to restrict further degradation of forests. ther degradation. The federal government should In the case of KTR, there is a serious move focus on sustainable management of eco-sensi- of reducing its Eco-Sensitive Zone (reduction tive regions to sustain natural resources (water, of the area by 75%) to 100 m and reduction of food, fodder, etc.) and support people’s liveli- spatial extent of the reserve by 30 percent. These hood than de- notifying region, which deprives eco-sensitive region (KTR with 10 km buffer) the local biota their right to life. covers 155 villages, of which 97 falls in ESR-1, DISCUSSION 26 falls under ESR-2 and 28, 4 falls under ESR-3, 4 respectively (Fig. 12a, b). KTR has 87 villages Ecologically Sensitive Regions are ecologi- under ESR-1. These eco-sensitive regions need cally fragile areas with rich repository of diverse ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 39
Legend Legend KALI RIVER KALI RIVER KALI GRIDS KALI BASIN VILLAGES ESR_TYPE ESR_TYPE ESR -1 ESR -1 ESR -2 ESR -2 ESR-3 ESR-3 Kilometers ESR-4 ESR-4
Fig. 11. Ecological Sensitive Regions of Kali River Basin and villages Source: Author
Legend ESR_TYPE ESR 1 Legend ESR 2 ESR_TYPE ESR 3 ESR 1 ESR 4 ADTR_BOUND 0 3 6 12 18 24 0 3 6 12 18 24 ADTR 10KM BUFFER
Kilometers Kilometers
Fig. 12. Ecological Sensitive Regions of KTR Source: Author biological organisms and landscape elements. of perennial streams. These biologically, hydro- These regions contribute significantly in hydro- logical and ecologically distinct regions are ex- logical regime due to the catchment’s ability to periencing threats, especially in today’s’ rapid retain water which is evident from the existence changing landscape scenario in the pursuit of 40 T. V. RAMACHANDRA, BHARATH SETTURU AND S. VINAY development. Threats due to unplanned devel- involving all stakeholders and more importantly opmental activities affect the system at various the appropriate legislative measures would cer- levels with the serious consequences when once tainly help in the ensuring water and food secu- the activities cross the threshold. Some major rity in the peninsular India through conserva- threats are habitat fragmentation, negligence, tion of ecologically fragile Western Ghats. The conflict of interest and ineffective restoration/ water course forests in this region have not only improvement strategies. Lack of understanding rare species but also high biomass and greater of the complex ecological processes and evalu- carbon sequestration potential, which also calls ation of the ecosystem benefits have often led for revision of forest management policies, as to the erosion of ecosystem quality affecting the innumerable stream courses offer tremen- the sustenance of natural resources. To improve dous potential for carbon stocking per unit area the scenario, thorough understandings of the while improving the water retention capability complex ecosystem dynamics are important from of the forests. Rendering such service would conservation and management point of view. also help in mitigating global climatic change. This entails identifying, mapping and monitor- Subsistence farmers and other forest dwellers in ing of ESR for framing location specific conser- these ecologically fragile regions becoming part- vation strategies. However, ESR demarcation ners in micro-level planning for prudent water and implementation process varies among re- management are also likely to gain from carbon gions, but the procedure to prioritise regions credits for their role as conservators of water- across geo climatic zones and development pol- shed vegetation. icies focuses on the conservation (Ndubisi et al. 1995). The legislative framework in India though CONCLUSION made few sensible attempts towards assertive- ness for the ecosystem protection, but many of The conservation and sustainable manage- these approaches have become redundant due ment of ecosystems are the vital components in to deliberate misinterpretation by the pressure the pursuit of development goals that are eco- groups and exclusion of all vital stakeholders. logically, economically and socially sustainable. The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986, The goods and services provided by forested and Section 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) landscapes are vital to the socioeconomic de- Rules (EPR), 1986 lends the power to restrict velopment of human populations. Regions with industries, operations, or processes or class of the geographically distinct assemblage of spe- industries on the basis of considerations like cies, natural communities, and environmental the biological diversity of an area. The CRZ conditions are referred as Ecologically Sensi- (coastal regulation zones) regulation, 1991 also tive Regions (ESR) and delineated for appropri- reflects similar clauses. These legislative mea- ate conservation planning. The evergreen for- sures, if implemented will bring a radical change est cover in Kali Tiger reserve regions has de- in the protection of natural resources as well as clined from 61.79 to 38.5 percent (1973-2016), due improving livelihood of the people. But, the de- to hydroelectric, infrastructure projects and ficiency in implementation due to the fragment- monoculture plantations. KTR region is divided ed governance and misinterpretation of conser- into 5’×5’ equal area grids (97) covering approx- vation goals are posing serious threats. The imately 9 km2 to delineate ESR’s. 54 percent of conservation strategies cannot be looked with- the grids (47 grids) in KTR represents ESR 1, in regional and state boundaries. In this context, 10.34 percent of the area (9 grids) shows ESR 2, the ecosystem approach as outlined in this pa- 9.19 percent of the area (8 grids) shows ESR 3 per would help in maintaining the ecological in- and 26.44 percent area (28 grids) covers ESR 4. tegrity through the sustainable management of Village wise analyses reveal that there are 524 physical and chemical integrity of an ecosys- villages in KTR and 203 falls in ESR-1, 76 falls tem. The implementation of ecosystem ap- under ESR-2, 77, in ESR 3 and 174 falls under proaches in managing ecosystem would over- ESR-4 respectively. ESR demarcation outcomes come the lacunas and also aid in the develop- shows our estimation is robust concerning all ment of region while ensuring sustenance of the themes of expressive variables which will natural resources. Thus, delineation, mapping, establishes the principle of ecological conser- monitoring and sustainable management of ESR vation that assist in maintaining landscape con- ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY 41 dition. These eco-sensitive regions needs to be way lines are allowed, except when highly es- enriched with native species to reduce further sential and subject to EIA, by imposing strict degradation while adopting sustainable conser- regulation and social audit. Tourism Master Plan vation strategies. The approach proposed here should be based on MoEFCC, GoI regulations can assist decision makers to consider commu- (after taking into account social and environ- nity-based conservation programmes in the era mental costs). 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