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The Ethnic Survival of the Tenetehara Indians of Maranhao, Brazil

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The Ethnic Survival of the Tenetehara Indians of Maranhao, Brazil THE ETHNIC SURVIVAL OF THE TENETEHARA INDIANS OF MARANHAO, BRAZIL BY MERCIO PEREIRA GOMES A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 1977 Copyright. By Mercio Perelra Gomes 1977 This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Eduardo Gustavo Eneas Galvao (1921-1976) and to Charles Wagley, Ethnographers of the Tenetehara who have understood the plight of the Indian and the plight of the caboclo as problems of humankind. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Lowland South American Program has sponsored my graduate studies since I came to the University of Florida in the Fall of 1974. It also provided me with grants for travel and fieldwork in Brazil from June to December, 1975, and for the typing, editing and copying of this dissertation. I am most thankful to this Program and to its organizers, Drs. Charles Wagley, Paul Doughty, and William Carter. I cannot count the many other ways in which Dr. Charles Wagley has helped me. He has been a source of intellectual inspiration and challenge, of understanding and counsel. He and hi,s wife, Mrs. Cecilia Roxo Wagley have extended their warm friendship to my family and me. He has allowed me to read his and Dr. Eduardo Galvao's unpublished field notes of their visit to the Tenetehara in 1941-1945. He has done extensive editing and some important revision of this dissertation. I want to thank the other members of my committee, Drs. Maxine Margolis, Anthony Oliver-Smith, Paul Doughty, and Terry McCoy for their comments and editorial revisions of an early draft of this dissertation. I am thankful to Pride Hooper who careful ly edited the complete last draft of this dissertation. She and the members of my committee performed a service to me for which I am immensely grateful. Of course, the stylistic and theoretical shortcomings of this dissertation are my own responsibility. In addition I want to thank Mrs. Vivian Nolan, secretary of the Center for Latin American Studies, and Mrs. Lydia Deakin, of the iv Department of Anthropology for their kind help in lending their resources and knowledge of the University of Florida bureaucracy. I am grateful to Arlene Kelly for typing portions of an early draft, and particularly to Debbie Breedlove for typing the final copy of this dissertation. My wife Ann Elizabeth Baldwin-Gomes helped me during the first crucial months of fieldwork. She prepared the three maps presented here and also helped with suggestions for revisions of early drafts of this disseration. I would like to thank the following people and institutions in Brazil: Dr. Carlos Moreira Neto, of the Museu do Indio, Rio de Janeiro, who provided me with bibliographical and historical material which other- wise I would not have been able to obtain. The National Foundation for the Indian (FUNAI), for allowing me to live among the Tenetehara and to visit the Urubu-Kaapor and the recently contacted Guaja Indians. Deyse Lobao, Joao Moreira, Francisco Mourao, Jose Carlos Meireles, Domingos Pereira, Francisco Renno, all employees of FUNAI in Sao Luis, for their help in various stages of field work. The Curia Custodial of the Igreja de Sao Carmo in Sao Luis, and its secretary. Father Oswaldo, for letting me read an important part of their archive on the Alto Alegre Mission of 1895-1901. Dr. and Mrs. Carl Harrison, of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, for their help when I contracted malaria near their village and for sharing their experiences among the Tenetehara. Dona Maria Dolores Maia, who has been involved with the Tenetehara as a teacher since 1941, for her kindness and help while I was in Grajau. Raimundo Viana, also of Grajau, a former employee of the Servigo de Protegao aos Indies , for letting me use his personal files in addition to providing me with important personal information on the V history of local Brazilian-Indian relations. Finally I want to thank the Tenetehara Indians, particularly Gentil, Antonio Guajajara, Joaquinzinho , Alderico, Virgolino and his family, Jose Lopes, and the Brazilians Maria Oliveira and Francisco de Assis who are married to Tenetehara, for their help, tolerance, and candor. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ' ' LIST OF ' TABLES , LIST OF FIGURES ^ ' ABSTRACT CHAPTER I , . The Field Situation I CHAPTER II The Tenetehara in the Modern World ]9 Indians and Brazilians ig Indians and FUNAI 26 Indians and the New Economic Developments 30 CHAPTER III Theoretical Orientation 34 CHAPTER IV Formation of Inter-Ethnic Relations 53 The Phase of Slavery: 1613-1653 58 Serfdom Phase: 1653-1755 74 CHAPTER V , Freedom and the Rise of Patron-Client Relationships 85 ^ Freedom and Transitional Contact: 1755-1840 86 Indians and the Economic Frontiers 93 The Period of Patron-Client Relationships: ' 1840-1910 95 The Provinical Indian Policy System: 1840-1889 97 The Alto Alegre Incident and the Grajau-Barro do Corda Region ]09 The Gurupi and Pindare Regions 121 CHAPTER VI The Twentieth Century and the Role of the SPI/FUNAI 126 ' The Mediating Role of the SPI/FUNAI . 130 , vii •> CHAPTER VII . Tenetehara Economic System: An Overview 173 Production " Forces •]77 Production Relations • "Igg Trade . Economies . -jg^ Aboriginal Tenetehara Economy 187 General Changes in the Aboriginal Tenetehara Economic System . igi CHAPTER VIII Trade Economy Through Patron-Client Relations 195 Trade Economy in the Gurupi River Region 198 Trade Economies of the Pindare Region 202 Trade Economies in the Grajau Region 223 CHAPTER IX • . Tenetehara Economic System: Recent Developments 240 Tenetehara Internal Economy 2B2 Production Forces 252 Production Relations 257 Conclusions 266 , CHAPTER X Conclusion 269 GLOSSARY , 280 • BIBLIOGRAPHY . 285 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 295 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Tenetehara Reservations, Indian Posts, and Population Table 2 Infant Mortality Rate of Tenetehara Table 3 Trade Value of Tenetehara Production in 1862 Table 4 Tenetehara Sales in 1936 Table 5 Prices of Tenetehara Products, 1936-1945 Table 6 Prices of Brazilian goods sold to the Tenetehara, 1941-1942,' 1 945 Table 7 . Trade Balance of Market Value of Tenetehara Transactions Table 8 Receipts of Purchase and Sale of Lumber, April 1955 Table 9 Local Price Offers for Indian Products in 1954 Table 10 Prices obtained by the Grajau Agent ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Tenetehara Reservations Figure 2, Indian Groups in Colonial Times Figure 3. Tenetehara Migrations in the Nineteenth Century Figure 4. Hierarchical Levels of Economic Analysis Figure 5. Network of Traders in the Pindare Region Figure 6. Network of Settlements and Village Areas Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Council of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy THE ETHNIC SURVIVAL OF THE TENETEHARA INDIANS OF MARANHAO, BRAZIL By Mercio Pereira Gomes August 1977 Chairman: Charles Wagley Major Department: Anthropology This is a study of the ethnic survival of the Tenetehara Indians of the State of Maranhao, Brazil. The Tenetehara are presently one of the largest Indian groups in Brazil, comprising a total population of about 4,300 people. There are over 40 Tenetehara villages located in five reservation areas in the State of Maranhao. All of these areas have recently suffered invasions of Brazilian landless peasants. This, along with the aggressive ' interests of local landowners, has caused a great deal of anxiety on the part of the Tenetehara. They have been helped by the National Foundation for the Indian (FUNAI) in combating this threat to their lands, but the situation is still to be legally solved. In 1975, there was some friction between the Tenetehara and Brazilian peasants and landowners concerning the boundaries of Tenetehara lands and the expulsion of the peasants from these lands. The ownership of land looms as the greatest problem for the continuing existence of the Tenetehara as well as other Indian groups. This dissertation focuses on the Tenetehara mode of production, of which the land question is but one basic factor. The Tenetehara mode of production is analyzed as an important element for the continuing existence of the Tenetehara ethnic group. This analysis is carried out in both historical and structural terms. The Tenetehara have been in contact with Western civilization for over 350 years. They have suffered but successfully survived the impact of Western diseases, the processes of predation, enslavement, serfdom, and the general dominance of the forming Brazilian society. They have modified their society and culture in order to survive this impact, but in this they have not simply stood as passive recipients. They have also reacted to this impact and in the process they have played a part in shaping the kind of contact relationship they have had with the Brazilian society. This contact relationship has taken place because of the mutual need of Brazilians and Tenetehara to obtain goods from each other. In this process the Tenetehara have modified their mode of production, and . consequently their society and culture in general, to meet the market demands for their goods. However, they have continued, with some excep- tions, to produce for internal consumption, thus keeping the economic basis upon which their ethnic autonomy rests. The process of accultur- ation and loss of ethnic identification has taken place when the condi- tions for the continuation of production for internal consumption were superseded by the conditions for production for trade and by the rapid increase of the Brazilian population in the area. The Tenetehara ' have survived, and indeed have increased their population since aboriginal times, becyase they have been able to main- tain a distinct mode of production apart from that of the Brazilian society. The future of the Tenetehara lies in continuing this strategy, a possibility which poses new problems in view of the recent develop- ments of the rural Maranhao society.
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