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Aksara Jawa dari Wikipedia bahasa Inggris Contents

1 Tentang Aksara Jawa dan bahasa Jawa 1 1.1 script ...... 1 1.1.1 Characteristics ...... 1 1.1.2 History ...... 1 1.1.3 Aksara ...... 2 1.1.4 Additional Aksara ...... 3 1.1.5 Sandhangan ...... 3 1.1.6 Numerals ...... 3 1.1.7 ...... 3 1.1.8 Collation ...... 3 1.1.9 Usage ...... 3 1.1.10 Sundanese Usage ...... 3 1.1.11 Balinese Usage ...... 3 1.1.12 Indonesian and English Transcription into Javanese ...... 4 1.1.13 Font ...... 4 1.1.14 ...... 4 1.1.15 Gallery ...... 4 1.1.16 References ...... 5 1.1.17 External links ...... 5 1.2 ...... 6 1.2.1 Speakers ...... 6 1.2.2 Phonology ...... 6 1.2.3 Morphology ...... 6 1.2.4 Syntax ...... 7 1.2.5 Vocabulary ...... 7 1.2.6 Registers ...... 7 1.2.7 of modern Javanese ...... 8 1.2.8 History ...... 11 1.2.9 ...... 12 1.2.10 Demographic distribution of Javanese speakers ...... 12 1.2.11 Javanese today ...... 13 1.2.12 Words ...... 13

i ii CONTENTS

1.2.13 Numbers ...... 14 1.2.14 See also ...... 14 1.2.15 Notes ...... 14 1.2.16 Sources ...... 15 1.2.17 Further reading ...... 15 1.2.18 External links ...... 16 1.3 Pegon ...... 16 1.3.1 References ...... 16 1.4 ...... 16 1.4.1 Etymology ...... 17 1.4.2 Early history ...... 17 1.4.3 The spread and extent of Jawi script ...... 17 1.4.4 Jawi today ...... 18 1.4.5 Letters ...... 18 1.4.6 Examples ...... 18 1.4.7 Gallery ...... 18 1.4.8 See also ...... 19 1.4.9 References ...... 19 1.4.10 Further reading ...... 20 1.4.11 External links ...... 20 1.5 Old Javanese ...... 20 1.5.1 Development ...... 20 1.5.2 Old ...... 21 1.5.3 References ...... 21 1.5.4 Further reading ...... 21 1.5.5 See also ...... 21 1.6 Javanese literature ...... 21 1.6.1 Overview ...... 21 1.6.2 References ...... 24 1.6.3 Bibliography ...... 24 1.6.4 Further reading ...... 24 1.7 ...... 24 1.7.1 See also ...... 25 1.7.2 External links ...... 25 1.8 Javanese numerals ...... 25 1.8.1 See also ...... 25 1.9 Javanese historical texts ...... 25 1.9.1 Babads ...... 25 1.9.2 Kakawin and kidung ...... 26 1.9.3 See also ...... 26 1.10 ...... 26 CONTENTS iii

1.10.1 Sekar ageng ...... 26 1.10.2 Sekar madya and tembang macapat ...... 26 1.10.3 Notes ...... 27 1.10.4 References ...... 27

2 Aksara-Aksara 28 2.1 (Javanese) ...... 28 2.1.1 Pasangan ...... 28 2.1.2 Extended form ...... 28 2.1.3 Final ...... 28 2.1.4 Glyphs ...... 28 2.1.5 ...... 28 2.1.6 References ...... 29 2.1.7 See also ...... 29 2.2 (Javanese) ...... 29 2.2.1 Pasangan ...... 29 2.2.2 Murda ...... 29 2.2.3 Glyphs ...... 29 2.2.4 References ...... 29 2.2.5 See also ...... 29 2.3 (Javanese) ...... 29 2.3.1 Pasangan ...... 29 2.3.2 Murda ...... 29 2.3.3 Glyphs ...... 29 2.3.4 References ...... 29 2.3.5 See also ...... 29 2.4 (Javanese) ...... 29 2.4.1 Pasangan ...... 29 2.4.2 Murda ...... 29 2.4.3 Final consonant ...... 30 2.4.4 Glyphs ...... 30 2.4.5 References ...... 30 2.4.6 See also ...... 30 2.5 (Javanese) ...... 30 2.5.1 Pasangan ...... 30 2.5.2 Extended form ...... 30 2.5.3 Glyphs ...... 30 2.5.4 References ...... 30 2.5.5 See also ...... 30 2.6 (Javanese) ...... 30 2.6.1 Pasangan ...... 30 2.6.2 Extended form ...... 30 iv CONTENTS

2.6.3 Glyphs ...... 30 2.6.4 References ...... 30 2.6.5 See also ...... 31 2.7 (Javanese) ...... 31 2.7.1 Pasangan ...... 31 2.7.2 Murda ...... 31 2.7.3 Glyphs ...... 31 2.7.4 References ...... 31 2.7.5 See also ...... 31 2.8 (Javanese) ...... 31 2.8.1 Pasangan ...... 31 2.8.2 Extended form ...... 31 2.8.3 Glyphs ...... 31 2.8.4 References ...... 31 2.8.5 See also ...... 31 2.9 (Javanese) ...... 31 2.9.1 Pasangan ...... 31 2.9.2 Extended form ...... 32 2.9.3 Glyphs ...... 32 2.9.4 References ...... 32 2.9.5 See also ...... 32 2.10 (Javanese) ...... 32 2.10.1 Pasangan ...... 32 2.10.2 Murda ...... 32 2.10.3 Glyphs ...... 32 2.10.4 References ...... 32 2.10.5 See also ...... 32 2.11 (Javanese) ...... 32 2.11.1 Pasangan ...... 32 2.11.2 Extended form ...... 32 2.11.3 Glyphs ...... 32 2.11.4 References ...... 32 2.11.5 See also ...... 32 2.12 (Javanese) ...... 33 2.12.1 Pasangan ...... 33 2.12.2 Murda ...... 33 2.12.3 Glyphs ...... 33 2.12.4 References ...... 33 2.12.5 See also ...... 33 2.13 (Javanese) ...... 33 2.13.1 Pasangan ...... 33 CONTENTS v

2.13.2 Extended form ...... 33 2.13.3 Glyphs ...... 33 2.13.4 References ...... 33 2.13.5 See also ...... 33 2.14 (Javanese) ...... 33 2.14.1 Pasangan ...... 33 2.14.2 Murda ...... 33 2.14.3 Glyphs ...... 34 2.14.4 References ...... 34 2.14.5 See also ...... 34 2.15 (Javanese) ...... 34 2.15.1 Pasangan ...... 34 2.15.2 Murda ...... 34 2.15.3 Glyphs ...... 34 2.15.4 References ...... 34 2.15.5 See also ...... 34 2.16 (Javanese) ...... 34 2.16.1 Pasangan ...... 34 2.16.2 Murda ...... 34 2.16.3 Glyphs ...... 34 2.16.4 References ...... 34 2.16.5 See also ...... 34 2.17 (Javanese) ...... 34 2.17.1 Pasangan ...... 34 2.17.2 Extended form ...... 35 2.17.3 Glyphs ...... 35 2.17.4 References ...... 35 2.17.5 See also ...... 35 2.18 (Javanese) ...... 35 2.18.1 Pasangan ...... 35 2.18.2 Murda ...... 35 2.18.3 Glyphs ...... 35 2.18.4 References ...... 35 2.18.5 See also ...... 35 2.19 (Javanese) ...... 35 2.19.1 Pasangan ...... 35 2.19.2 Murda ...... 35 2.19.3 Glyphs ...... 35 2.19.4 References ...... 35 2.19.5 See also ...... 35 2.20 (Javanese) ...... 35 vi CONTENTS

2.20.1 Pasangan ...... 36 2.20.2 Extended form ...... 36 2.20.3 Final consonant ...... 36 2.20.4 Glyphs ...... 36 2.20.5 References ...... 36 2.20.6 See also ...... 36

3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 37 3.1 Text ...... 37 3.2 Images ...... 38 3.3 Content license ...... 47 Chapter 1

Tentang Aksara Jawa dan bahasa Jawa

1.1 Javanese script is written from left to right and without word boundaries (Scriptio continua).[7] “Javanese Script” redirects here. It is not to be confused Many of the letters are constructed from visually similar with Jawi script. components, most notably n-shaped 'hills’ and u-shaped 'valleys’, arranged in different sequences. There are only The Javanese script, natively known as Aksara a few components unique to certain characters and even fewer letters that are truly unique, resulting in a very Jawa ( ) and Hanacaraka uniform-looking script.[8] ( ), is an developed by the to write several languages spoken in , primarily the Austronesian Javanese language, 1.1.2 History an early form of Javanese called Kawi, as well as the liturgical language Sanskrit. The script is a descendant See also: and of the , and so has many similarities with This graft create by General Mark Numenson (Muham- the modern scripts of South and . The Javanese script, along with the , is con- sidered the most elaborate and ornate among of Southeast Asia.[1] The script was widely used by the court scribes of and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Numerous efforts to stan- dardize the script were made in the late 19th to early 20th- century, with the invention of the script’s first metal type and the development of concise orthographic guidelines. However, further development was halted abruptly during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia in which its use was prohibited, and the script’s use has since declined. Today, 19th-century Javanese manuscript of Panji Angreni, folio 10v. everyday use of the Javanese script has been largely sup- [2][3][4] planted by the alphabet. mad Nuh, Turkish name), Turkish soldier, create for sultan mosque in Rome. to make this graft he combine alphabet with other Arabic symbol too, he replace 1.1.1 Characteristics or remove all dot in Arabic symbol with the other symbol, -old malay), he replace or re)ڠ exp: when he create nga to ب with ba ع There are a total of 53 letters in the Javanese script, but move all dot it symbol, then combine 'ain the number of represented vary accordingly to make nga ଵଣ etc. Javanese and Balinese are both mod- the language being written. Each letter is a syllable with ern variants of Kawi, a Brahmic script developed in Java inherent /a/ or /ɔ/, which changes depending on the from around the 9th-century AD. It was widely used in re- around the letter. Each consonant has a con- ligious literature written in palm-leaf manuscripts called junct form called pasangan which nullifies the inherent lontar. Over the Hindu-Buddhist period the letter forms vowel of the previous syllable.[5] In the word aksara for changed into Javanese, and by the 17th century, the script example, the inherent vowel of the letter ka is nullified by was identifiable as in its modern form.[2][9] the use of pasangan in the following letter. The Javanese script was mainly employed by court scribes Punctuation includes a comma, period, colon, quotation centered in and , but the use was marks, as well as several decorative marks indicating po- widespread among various courts of Java and the Lesser etic chapter and denoting rank in correspondence.[6] Text Sunda Islands. They are used to write historical accounts

1 2 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

(babad), stories (serat), ancient verses (kakawin), and Consonant letters are as follow: divination guides (primbon) among many others, with the most popular being copied and rewritten over the centuries.[3][10] The first Javanese metal type font was produced in the 1830s by the Dutch. Two other cursive type fonts were also produced in the early 20th-century.[5] In 1926, an ^1 Only found in non-initial position as ◌. ^2 Originally academic workshop in Sriwedari, Surakarta issued We- jnya , but later developed into a single letter.[2] waton Sriwedari or the “Sriwedari Resolve” as the first Modern Javanese use 20 in which each conso- standard for Javanese spelling and orthography. Since nant can be represented with up to 3 letter cases: a lower then, numerous guidelines on Javanese orthography have case called nglegéna, an upper case called murda or gedé, been published.[11] and the mahaprana case.[1] However, further development was halted abruptly dur- Murda are similar to a capital letters, but they are not used ing the second World War when the use of the Javanese in the beginning of a sentence. It is used as honorifics in script was prohibited during the Japanese occupation. the first syllable of proper names, usually of a respected Currently, there are no newspapers or magazines being person or a place. Not all nglegéna letters has a murda printed in the Javanese script, and it is mainly used for form, and if murda letter is not available for a name’s decorative or scholarly purposes. Everyday use of the first syllable, the second letter is capitalized. If the sec- script has been largely replaced by . As ond letter does not have a murda either, the third letter is a preservation effort, the Indonesian government pre- capitalized, and so on. Highly respected names may all scribed most elementary and junior-high schools in Ja- be capitalized if corresponding murda is available. vanese speaking areas to teach the script as a compulsory subject.[5][12] The use is also encouraged by the Central Mahaprana translates to “aspirated”. They were orig- Javanese government in road signs and public signage inally aspirated consonants used in Sanskrit and Kawi alongside Bahasa Indonesia, as administered in the 2012 transliterations. However, their occurrence is rare. local legislation.[13] Proper usage in modern orthography is otherwise un- known, as there are no aspirated consonant in modern Ja- vanese, and they are often omitted from books discussing 1.1.3 Aksara the script.[2] To produce pure , U+A9B2 JAVANESE LET- A single letter in the Javanese script is called an ak- TER HA is used to represent zero consonant.[15] Other- sara (), which stands for a syllable with inher- wise, there are also letters for pure vowel called swara as ent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/ depending on the letter’s position to follow: other letters.[7] It can also depends on the speaker’s di- alect; Western Javanese dialects tends to pronounce the Swara is used differentiate proper names in similar mat- inherent vowel as /a/, while Eastern Javanese prefers /ɔ/. ter to murda. For example, the verb ayu (graceful) is writ- Rules determining the inherent vowel of a letter is de- ten with syllable ha ()while a person named Ayu is scribed in Wewaton Sriwedari as follows:[14] written with swara instead (). Swara Is also used for words that are foreign of origin. The element Argon for example, is written with swara.[11][16] 1. A letter stands for a syllable with the vowel /ɔ/ if the previous letter contains diacritics.

2. A letter stands for a syllable with the vowel /a/ if the Pasangan following character contains diacritics. Pasangan is a counterpart of aksara, usually in subscript 3. The first letter of a word normally has the /ɔ/ vowel, form, that eliminates the inherent vowel of the attaching unless it precedes two other letters without diacrit- syllable. It is used for consonant clusters or closed sylla- ics, in which case the first letter has the /a/ vowel. bles that occurs in the middle of a sentence. For exam- ple, nda is made by attaching pasangan da to the syllable na.[2] There are a total of 53 letters in the Javanese script, but the number of represented phonemes vary accordingly to the language being written. For example, transcription of Sanskrit uses 33 consonants and 14 vowels, while modern orthography (based on the Javanese language) use 20 con- sonants and 5 vowels. Other letters are dropped of their Swara doesn't have a pasangan. However, the letter can original pronunciation and are used instead for honorific be sub-scripted in similar manner to disambiguate proper purposes.[5] names.[16] 1.1. JAVANESE SCRIPT 3

1.1.4 Additional Aksara 1.1.8 Collation

Due to the lost of original pronunciation or to accom- Javanese letters are commonly arranged in the modate foreign loan words, there are several aksara that hanacaraka sequence, as follows: are re-categorized and added in the modern repertoire. • Each of these additional aksara has a pasangan, but they are devoid of murda or mahaprana case. They are as Hana caraka [2][16] follow: • Data sawala • 1.1.5 Sandhangan Padha jayanya • Diacritics or dependent signs are called sandhangan Maga bathanga (). They are as follow:[16] of which the line-by-line translation[7] would be: There (were) two messengers. (They) had animosity (among each other). (They were) equally powerful (in 1.1.6 Numerals fight). Here are the corpses. The sequence forms a poem of 4 verses narrating the The Javanese numeral system has its own script, which [1] only contains 0–9 numerals.[7] myth of Aji Saka. However, the hanacaraka sequence excludes murda and mahaprana letters. When writing numbers greater than 9, simply combine the above numbers as one would using the Arabic numer- Letters can also be arranged phonetically according to als. For example, 21 is written by combining the numeral standard Sanskrit, called the kaganga sequence, which is how the script is arranged in its Unicode range. The 2 and 1 as so; . Similarly, the number 90 would be the [2] .[7] arrangement is as follow: Most of the numbers are similar to the syllable charac- ters. To avoid confusions, numbers that show up in Ja- vanese texts are indicated by “numeral indicators” called pada pangkat, which is written both before and after the 1.1.9 Sanskrit Usage number, following the pattern: text - indicator - numbers - indicator - text. For example; Tuesday, 27 March 2013 would be written as (selasa 19 maret 2013).[7]

1.1.7 Punctuation 1.1.10 Sundanese Usage

Correction mark Javanese script is also used for writing Sundanese. But the script was modified and called Cacarakan instead. It There are two special marks to indicate error in writ- differs from Javanese by omitting the dha and tha. Dif- ing, UA9DE JAVANESE PADA TIRTA TUMETES ference can also be seen from the use pepet-tarung for and UA9DF JAVANESE PADA ISEN-ISEN. Though the vowel /ɤ/,[16] since the sound doesn't exist in Javanese, only used in handwriting, the two are included into the simplification of the vowel /o/ into a single called Unicode range for the purpose of rendering Javanese tolong,[16] and different “nya” form[16] (see rekan for Sun- texts. Tirta tumétés is used in Yogyakarta, while isèn- danese). isèn is used in Surakarta. For example, a scribe wants to write pada luhur, but wrote pada wu ..., a scribe from Yogyakarta would write: 1.1.11 Balinese Usage

The Javanese and Balinese script are essentially typo- Pada wu---luhur graphic variants. Like Sundanese, Balinese omit conso- nant dha and tha. However, obsolete characters are still In Surakarta, it would be: used in numerous loan words from Sanskrit or Old Ja- [16] vanese.[20] 4 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

1.1.12 Indonesian and English Transcrip- Arguably, the most “complete” font, in terms of tech- tion into Javanese nicality and glyph count, is Tuladha Jejeg. It is capa- ble of logical input-method, displaying complex sylla- ble structure, and support extensive glyph repertoire in- cluding non-standard form which may not be found in regular Javanese texts, by utilizing Graphite (SIL) smart font technology. However, as not many writing sys- tems require such complex feature, use is limited to pro- grams with Graphite technology, such as Firefox browser, Thunderbird email client, and several OpenType word processor. The font was chosen for displaying Javanese script in the Javanese Wikipedia.[16]

1.1.14 Unicode

Javanese script was added to the Unicode Standard in Oc- tober, 2009 with the release of version 5.2. A mall in Surakarta, . The Unicode block for Javanese is U+A980–U+A9DF. Javanese script is also used to transliterate Indonesian There are 91 codepoints for Javanese script: 53 letters, words and English words, as can be witnessed in pub- 19 punctuation marks, 10 numbers, and 9 vowels: lic places, especially in Surakarta and its surrounding area. Since Javanese script is an oral script, words from either Indonesian or English origin are written 1.1.15 Gallery as they were pronounced, not as they were written in Latin. For example, “Solo Grand Mall” transliterated as Manuscripts , which transliterates back as “solo gren mal” (pronounced /solo gren mɔl/).

1.1.13 Font Details. Gilded chapter separator in Serat Selarasa, folio 10r. • first line of the Universal Declaration of Human 18th-century. Rights in Javanese.

• Babad Tanah Jawi. 19th CE. As of 2013, there are several widely published fonts able to support Javanese, ANSI-based Hanacaraka/Pallawa • Serat Jatipustaka. 19th CE. by Teguh Budi Sayoga,[21] Adjisaka by Sudarto HS/Ki [22] Demang Sokowanten, JG Aksara Jawa by Jason • Serat Bratayudha. 20th CE. Glavy,[23] Carakan Anyar by Pavkar Dukunov,[24] and Tuladha Jejeg by R.S. Wihananto,[25] which is based • Stories of Amir Hamzah. Early 20th CE. on Graphite (SIL) smart font technology. Other fonts with limited publishing includes Surakarta made by • Book title from 1898, showing European influence Matthew Arciniega in 1992 for Mac's screen font,[26] in Javanese. and Tjarakan developed by AGFA Monotype around 2000.[27] There is also a symbol-based font called Aturra developed by Aditya Bayu in 2012–2013.[28] In 2014, Public Signage Google introduced Noto Sans Javanese as part of its Noto font series to support all the world’s languages.[29] • street sign, Surakarta.

Due to the script’s complexity, many Javanese fonts have • Slamet Riyadi street sign, Surakarta. different input method compared to other Indic scripts and may exhibit several flaws. JG Aksara Jawa, in par- • Pakubowono X’s inscription, Surakarta (1938). ticular, may cause conflicts with other , as the font use code points from other writing systems to • Bilingual plaque in Portuguese and Javanese at complement Javanese’s extensive repertoire. This is to Tamansari, Yogyakarta be expected, as the font was made before Javanese im- plementation in Unicode.[30] • One of the wall poems in Leiden, Serat Kalatidha. 1.1. JAVANESE SCRIPT 5

Graphics [18] Raffles, Thomas Stamford (1817). History of Java. Lon- don • The Special Region of Yogyakarta emblem honors the Javanese script [19] Javanese compared to other Indic scripts. From History of Java. Raffles, Thomas Stamford (1817). • Stylized letters in the emblem of the Yogyakarta Sul- tanate [20] Ida Bagus Adi Sudewa (14 May 2003). “The Balinese Al- phabet, v0.6”. Yayasan Galang. Retrieved 9 Novem- • Contemporary Javanese calligraphy ber 2013.

[21] Teguh Budi Sayoga (September 2004). “Hanacaraka”. 1.1.16 References Retrieved 9 November 2013.

[1] Kuipers, Joel (2003). Indic Scripts of Insular Southeast [22] Ki Demang Sokowanten (1 November 2009). “Adjisaka”. Asia: Changing Structures and Functions. Tokyo: Tokyo Retrieved 9 November 2013. University of Foreign Studies.

[2] Everson, Michael (2008). Proposal for encoding the Ja- [23] Jason Glavy (16 December 2006). “JG Aksara Jawa”. vanese script in the UCS Retrieved 9 November 2013.

[3] Soebadyo, Haryati (2002) Indonesian Heritage 10: Ba- [24] Pavkar Dukunov (Nov 25, 2011). “Carakan Anyar”. hasa dan Sastra. : Buku Anak Bangsa - Grolier Hanang Hundarko. Retrieved 9 November 2013. International. ISBN 979-8926-23-4 [25] R.S. Wihananto. “Tuladha Jejeg, Javanese Unicode font”. [4] Leinster, Troy (2012). Nieuw Javaansch No.1. The Hague Retrieved 9 November 2013. [5] “Javanese Script Description”. Script Source. Retrieved 2014-05-09. [26] Matthew Arciniega’s page

[6] Daniels, Peter T; Bright, William. The World’s Writing [27] AGFA Monotype: Javanese. Glyph repertoire Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. [28] Aditya Bayu Perdana (1 September 2013). “Aturra, font [7] Soemarmo, Marmo (1995). Javanese Script. Ohio Work- for Javanese”. Retrieved 9 November 2013. ing Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14. 69- 103. [29] Google Noto Fonts - Noto Sans Javanese [8] Adien Gunarta (2014-05-05). “Pengantar Tipografi Ak- sara Jawa oleh Aditya Bayu”. Retrieved 2014-05-10. [30] Pitulung: Aksara Jawa

[9] Campbell, George L. (2000). Compendium of the World’s Languages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. 1.1.17 External links [10] Gallop, Annabel T. (2012) Golden Letters: Writing Tradi- tions of Indonesia. Jakarta: Lontar Foundation. • Unicode Table of the Javanese script [11] Darusuprapta (2003). Pedoman Penulisan Aksara Jawa. Yogyakarta: Yayasan Pustaka . • Javanese at Omniglot.com -- A guide to writing sys- tems [12] Florida, Nancy K. (1995). Writing the Past, Inscribing the Future: History as Prophesy in Colonial Java. Duke Uni- • Javanese at Ancientsscripts.com --- A compendium versity Press. of world-wide writing system from prehistory to to- [13] Pemerintahan Provinsi Jawa Tengah (2009). Peraturan day Daerah no. 9 tahun 2012, mengenai bahasa, sastra, dan aksara Jawa. • Page from Javanese Wikipedia detailing web sup- port for Javanese (in Indonesian, Javanese, and En- [14] Komisi Kesustraan Sriwedari (1926). Paugeran Sri- glish) wedari. Surakarta

[15] “ALA-LC Romanization Tables”. Library of Congress. • Tuladha Jejeg. A Javanese Unicode font with SIL 2011. Graphite smart font technology

[16] Wihananto, R.S. (2011). Panduan Fonta Aksara Jawa • Javanese Script Transliterator using SIL Graphite Unicode. smart font technology [17] Javanisch, Fremde Laute. From Das Buch der Schrift. Faulmann, Carl (1880). • Hanacaraka Font & Resources (in Indonesian) 6 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

1.2 Javanese language Malay. There are three main dialects in the modern language: Not to be confused with . Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Ja- vanese. There is a continuum from in the Javanese /dʒɑːvəˈniːz/[3] or basa jawa (IPA: [bɔsɔ extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi in the eastern cor- dʒɔwɔ], Javanese script: ) is the language of the ner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the mutually intelligible. island of Java, in Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers in the northern coast of western Java. 1.2.2 Phonology It is the native language of more than 98,417,022[4] people (more than 42% of total population in Indonesia). The phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese.[6] Javanese is part of the , but it is otherwise not particularly close to other languages and is difficult to classify, though not too dissimilar from Vowels neighbouring languages such as Sundanese, Madurese and Balinese. Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian (a standardized form of Malay) for official and commercial purposes, as well as a means to commu- In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced nicate with non-Javanese Indonesians. [ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ] respectively.[6] In open syllables, /e o/ are also [ɛ ɔ] when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open sylla- There are speakers of Javanese in (concen- ble; otherwise they are /ə/, or identical (/e...e/, /o...o/). In trated in the states of and ) and . the standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] Some people of Javanese descent in Suriname (the Dutch in word-final open syllables, and in any open penultimate colony of Suriname until 1975) speak a creole descendant syllable before such an [ɔ]. of the language.

Consonants 1.2.1 Speakers

The Javanese “voiced” phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, with breathy voice on the following vowel.[6] The relevant distinction in phonation of the plo- sives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice.[7] A Javanese syllable can have the following form: CSVC, where C = consonant, S = sonorant (/j/, /r/, /l/, /w/, or The word Jawa (Java) written in Javanese script. any nasal consonant), and V = vowel. As with other Aus- tronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two The language is spoken in Central and , as well syllables; words consisting of more than three syllables as on the north coast of . In Madura, Bali, are broken up into groups of disyllabic words for pronun- Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java, it is also ciation. In Modern Javanese, a disyllabic root is of the used as a literary language. It was the court language in following type: nCsvVnCsvVC. in South , until the palace was sacked Apart from Madurese, Javanese is the only language of by the Dutch in the late 18th century. Western Indonesia to possess a distinction between dental [6] Javanese is written with the , Javanese script, and retroflex phonemes. The latter sounds are tran- and .[5] scribed as “th” and “dh” in the modern Roman script, but previously by the use of an underdot: "ṭ" and "ḍ". Some Javanese is the tenth largest language (in terms of native scholars take this to be an influence from Sanskrit, but speakers), and the largest language without official status. others believe it could be an independent development It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million within the Austronesian super-family.[8] people. At least 45% of the total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. Five out of the six Indonesian 1.2.3 Morphology presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent. It is therefore not surprising that Javanese has a deep impact Javanese, like other Austronesian languages, is an on the development of Indonesian, the national language agglutinative language, where base words are modified of Indonesia, which is itself a modern development from through extensive use of affixes. 1.2. JAVANESE LANGUAGE 7

1.2.4 Syntax or “vision”). However, these Arabic words typically have native Austronesian or Sanskrit alternatives: pikir = galih, Modern Javanese usually employs SVO word order. idhĕp (Austronesian) and manah, cipta, or cita (from San- However, Old Javanese sometimes had VSO and some- skrit); badan = awak (Austronesian) and slira, sarira, or times VOS word order. Even in Modern Javanese, ar- angga (from Sanskrit); and mripat = mata (Austronesian) chaic sentences using VSO structure can still be made. and soca or netra (from Sanskrit). Examples: Dutch usually have the same form and meaning as in Indonesian, with a few exceptions: • Modern Javanese: "Dhèwèké (S) teka (V) ìng (pp.) keraton (O)".[9]

• Old Javanese: "Teka (V) ta (part.) sira (S) ri (pp.) The word sepur also exists in Indonesian, but there it has -ng (def. art.) kadhatwan (O)".[10] preserved the literal Dutch meaning of “railway tracks”, while the Javanese word follows Dutch figurative use, and Both sentences mean: “He (S) comes (V) in (pp.) the “spoor” (lit. “rail”) is used as metonymy for “trein” (lit. (def. art.) palace (O)". In the Old Javanese sentence, “train”). (Compare a similar metonymic use in English: the verb is placed at the beginning and is separated by “to travel by rail” may be used for “to travel by train”.) the particle ta from the rest of the sentence. In Modern Malay was the lingua franca of the Indonesian archipelago Javanese the definite article is lost, and definiteness is ex- before the proclamation of Indonesian independence in pressed by other means if necessary. 1945; and Indonesian, which was based on Malay, is now Verbs are not inflected for person or number. There is no the official language of Indonesia. As a consequence, grammatical tense; time is expressed by auxiliary words there has been an influx of Malay and Indonesian vocab- meaning “yesterday”, “already”, etc. There is a complex ulary into Javanese. Many of these words are concerned system of verb affixes to express differences of status with bureaucracy or politics. in subject and object. However, in general the struc- ture of Javanese sentences both Old and Modern can be described using the topic–comment model, without hav- 1.2.6 Registers ing to refer to conventional grammatical categories. The topic is the head of the sentence; the comment is the mod- ifier. So the example sentence has a simpler description: Dhèwèké = topic; teka = comment; ing keraton = setting.

1.2.5 Vocabulary

Javanese has a rich and varied vocabulary, with many loanwords supplementing those from the native Austrone- sian base. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary contains approxi- mately 25,500 entries, over 12,600 of which are borrow- ings from Sanskrit.[11] Such a high number is no measure of usage, but it does suggest the extent to which the lan- guage adopted Sanskrit words for formal purposes. In a typical Old Javanese literary work about 25% of the vo- cabulary is from Sanskrit. Many Javanese personal names also have clearly recognisable Sanskrit roots. Sanskrit words are still very much in use. Modern speak- ers may describe Old Javanese and Sanskrit words as kawi (roughly meaning “literary”); but kawi words may also be from Arabic. Dutch and Malay are influential as well; but none of these rivals the position of Sanskrit. A Javanese noble lady (left) would address her servant with There are far fewer Arabic loanwords in Javanese than in one vocabulary, and be answered with another. (Studio portrait Malay, and they are usually concerned with Islamic re- of painter Raden Saleh's wife and a servant, colonial Batavia, ligion. Nevertheless, some words have entered the ba- 1860–1872.) sic vocabulary, such as pikir (“to think”, from the Ara- bic fikr), badan (“body”), mripat (“eye”, thought to be In common with other Austronesian languages, Javanese derived from the Arabic ma'rifah, meaning “knowledge” is spoken differently depending on the social context. 8 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

In Austronesian there are often three distinct styles or • (reply to a person of lower status, but without registers.[12] Each employs its own vocabulary, grammat- expressing superiority) Iya, aku arep mangan. ical rules, and even prosody. In Javanese these styles are • (reply to a person of equal status) Inggih, kula called: badhé nedha.

1. Ngoko. Informal speech, used between friends and The use of these different styles is complicated and re- close relatives. It is also used by persons of higher quires thorough knowledge of , which status (such as elders, or bosses) addressing those of adds to the difficulty of Javanese for foreigners. The full lower status (young people, or subordinates in the system is not usually mastered by most Javanese them- workplace). selves, who might use only the ngoko and a rudimentary 2. Madyå. Intermediate between ngoko and krama. form of the krama. People who can correctly use the dif- Strangers on the street would use it, where status dif- ferent styles are held in high esteem. ferences may be unknown and one wants to be nei- ther too formal nor too informal. The term is from Sanskrit madhya (“middle”).[13] 1.2.7 Dialects of modern Javanese 3. Kråmå. The polite and formal style. It is used be- tween those of the same status when they do not wish to be informal. It is used by persons of lower sta- tus to persons of higher status, such as young peo- ple to their elders, or subordinates to bosses; and it is the official style for public speeches, announce- ments, etc. The term is from Sanskrit krama (“in order”).[13]

There are also “meta-style” honorific words, and their converse “humilifics”. Speakers use “humble” words con- cerning themselves, but honorific words concerning any- one of greater age of higher social status. The humilific words are called krama andhap, while the honorifics are called krama inggil. Children typically use the ngoko style, but in talking to the parents they must be compe- tent with both krama inggil and krama andhap. Some examples:

• Ngoko: Aku arep mangan. (“I want to eat.”) • Madyå: Kula ajeng nedha. • Krama: • (Neutral) Kula badhé nadhi. Sultan Pakubuwono X of Surakarta. Surakarta has been a cen- • (Humble) Dalem badhé nedhi. ter of Javanese culture, and its dialect is regarded as the most “refined”. The most polite word meaning “eat” is dhahar. But it is forbidden to use these most polite words for oneself, There are three main groups of Javanese dialects, based except when talking with someone of lower status; and in on sub-regions: Western Javanese, Central Javanese, and this case, ngoko style is used. Such most polite words are Eastern Javanese. The differences are primarily in pro- reserved for addressing people of higher status: nunciation, but with vocabulary differences also. Ja- vanese dialects are all mutually intelligible. • Mixed usages Central Javanese (Jawa Tengahan) is founded on the speech of Surakarta[14] and to a lesser extent of • (honorific – addressing someone of high sta- Yogyakarta. It is considered the most “refined” of the tus) Bapak kersa dhahar? (“Do you want to regional variants, and serves as a model for the standard eat?"; literally “Does father want to eat?") language. Those two cities are the seats of four Javanese • (reply to a person of lower status, expressing principalities (heirs to the Mataram Sultanate) that once speaker’s superiority) Iya, aku kersa dhahar. dominated the whole of Java and beyond. This variant (“Yes, I want to eat.”) is used throughout Central Java province, and there are 1.2. JAVANESE LANGUAGE 9

many lower-level dialects such as Muria and Semarangan, 3. Tegal dialect, known as Tegalan or Dialek Pantura as well as Surakarta and Yogyakarta themselves. There (North-Coast dialect), is spoken in Tegal, Brebes, are also dialects such as Pekalongan or Dialek Pantura, and the western part of . and (a variation of Banyumasan). The varia- tions in Central Java are said to be so plentiful that almost 4. Banyumas dialect, known as Banyumasan, every administrative region (or kabupaten) has its own lo- is spoken in Banyumas, Cilacap, Purbalingga, cal slang; but those minor dialects are not seen as distinct Banjarnegara, and Bumiayu. by most Javanese speakers. These Western Javanese dialects are sometimes called as Central Javanese is also used in the western part of East basa ngapak-apak by other Javanese. Java province. For example, Javanese spoken in the Madiun region (along with Javanese spoken in Blitar, Eastern Javanese (Jawa Wetanan) speakers range from Ponorogo, Pacitan, and Tulungagung) bears a strong in- the eastern banks of Brantas River in Kertosono, and fluence of Surakarta Javanese. from Nganjuk to Banyuwangi, comprising the majority of the East Java province excluding Madura island. How- ever, the variant has been influenced by Madurese, and is 1. Pekalongan dialect is spoken in Pekalongan and sometimes referred to as Surabayan speech. Pekalongan regency, and also in Pemalang. The most outlying Eastern Javanese dialect is spoken in 2. Kedu dialect is spoken in the former Kedu resi- Balambangan (or Banyuwangi). It is generally known as dency, and in Temanggung, Kebumen, , Basa Osing. Osing, a local negation word, is a cognate of and Wonosobo. tusing in Balinese. (This area of Java has the island of Bali immediately to the east, and was formerly under the 3. Bagelen dialect is spoken in Purworejo. control of Balinese kings and warlords.) 4. Semarang dialect is spoken in Semarang, , and also Salatiga, Demak and 1. Surabaya dialect (Suroboyoan) is commonly spo- Kendal. ken in Surabaya, Gresik, Lamongan and Sidoarjo. Many Madurese people also use this dialect as their 5. Eastern North-Coast dialect, or dialek Muria, is second language. spoken in Jepara, Rembang, Kudus, Pati, and also in Tuban and Bojonegoro. 2. Malang dialect is spoken in Malang and Malang re- gency, also in Mojokerto, Pasuruan and Lumajang. 6. Blora dialect is spoken in Blora, the eastern part of Grobogan, and the western part of Ngawi. 3. Jombang dialect 4. Tengger dialect, used by Tenggerese people 7. Surakarta dialect is spoken commonly in Surakarta, Karanganyar, Wonogiri, Sukoharjo, and 5. Banyuwangi dialect (Basa Osing) Boyolali. Surinamese-Javanese is mainly based on Central Ja- 8. Yogyakarta dialect is spoken in Yogyakarta and vanese, especially from the Kedu residency. The num- Klaten. ber of speakers of Suriname-Javanese in Suriname is es- 9. Madiun dialect is spoken mainly in western part timated at 60.000 (2012).[15] Most Surinamese-Javanese of East Java province, including Madiun, Ngawi, are bi- or trilingual. According to the 2004 census, Pacitan, Ponorogo, and Magetan. Surinamese-Javanese was the first or second language in 11 percent of households. In a 2012 study of multilin- gualism in Surinamese education by the Western Javanese (Jawa Kulonan), spoken in the west- Union,[15] 3497 out of 22.643 (15 percent) pupils in pri- ern part of the Central Java province and throughout the mary education indicated Surinamese-Javanese as a lan- West Java province (particularly on the north coast), in- guage spoken at home. Most of them were living in the cludes dialects that are distinct for their Sundanese influ- Wanica and Paramaribo districts. ences. It retains many archaic words. Not all immigrants from Indonesia to Suriname were 1. North Banten dialect (Jawa Serang) is spoken in speakers of Javanese. Immigration records show that Serang, Cilegon, and the western part of Tangerang 90 percent of immigrants were Javanese, with 5 per- regency. cent Sundanese, 0,5 percent Madurese and 2,5 percent from Batavia. The ethnic composition of this last group 2. Cirebon dialect (Cirebonan or Basa Cerbon) is was not determinable. Probably Sundanese, Madurese or spoken in Cirebon and Losari. Indramayu di- Malay speaking immigrants were forced to learn Javanese alect (or Dermayon), which is spoken in Indramayu, during their stay in Suriname to adapt. In view of the Karawang, and Subang, is sometimes included in language policies in Indies at the time of im- Cirebonan. migration, it is unlikely the immigrants had knowledge 10 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

of the Dutch language prior to immigration to Suriname. Vocabulary differences Dutch today is the official language of Suriname. The vocabulary of standard Javanese is enriched by di- Surinamese Javanese is somewhat different from In- alectal words. For example, to get the meaning of “you”, donesian Javanese.[16] In Surinamese-Javanese there Western Javanese speakers say rika /rikaʔ/, Eastern Ja- is a difference between formal and informal speech. vanese use kon /kɔn/ or koen /kɔən/, and Central Ja- Surinamese-Javanese took many loanwords from lan- vanese speakers say kowé /kowe/. Another example is guages like Dutch, Sranantongo, Sarnami and Bahasa In- the expression of “how": the Tegal dialect of Western Ja- donesia. The influence of the latter language, which is not vanese uses kepribèn /kəpriben/, the spoken in Suriname, can be attributed to the Indonesian of Western Javanese employs kepriwé /kəpriwe/ or kepri- embassy and Islamic teachers from Indonesia. Indonesian wèn /kəpriwen/, Eastern Javanese speakers say ya' apa movies are popular, and usually shown without subtitles /jɔʔ ɔpɔ/ – originally meaning “like what” (kaya apa in on Surinamese-Javanese television channels. standard Javanese) or kepiyé /kəpije/ – and Central Ja- vanese speakers say piye /pije/ or kepriyé /kəprije/.

In 1986, the Surinamese government adopted an official spelling for Surinamese-Javanese. It is seldom used as a written language, however. The Madiun–Kediri dialect has some idiosyncratic vo- In the 2012 survey, pupils who indicated Surinamese- cabulary, such as panggah 'still' (standard Javanese: Javanese as a language spoken at home, reported Dutch pancet), lagèk 'progressive modal' (standard Javanese: (97,9 percent) and Sranantongo (76,9 percent) also being lagi), and emphatic particles nda, pèh, and lé.[18] spoken in the household.

Surinamese-Javanese speaking pupils report high profi- Classification ciency in speaking and understanding, but very low lit- eracy in the language. They report a low preference A preliminary general classification of Javanese dialects for the language in interaction with family members, in- given by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary An- cluding their parents, with the exception of their grand- thropology's Department of Linguistics is as follows.[19] parents. Pupils where Surinamese-Javanese is spoken at Pesisir (Pemalang) and Tengger are considered to be tend at home to speak Dutch (77 percent) rather than among the most conservative dialects.[20][21] The Ban- Surinamese-Javanese (12 percent). ten, Pesisir Lor, Banyumas, Tengger, and Osing dialects do not have the vowel raising and vowel harmony fea- Phonetic differences tures that are innovations of the “standard” Solo and Yo- gyakarta dialects. /i/ at closed ultima is pronounced as [ɪ] in Cen- tral Javanese (Surakarta–Yogyakarta dialect), as [i] in • West Javanese: includes Kråmå Andhap, Kråmå Western Javanese (Banyumasan dialect), and as [ɛ] in Inggìl, Kråmå (Halus), Madyå registers Eastern Javanese. • Banten Phoneme /u/ at closed ultima is pronounced as [ʊ] in Cen- • tral Javanese, as [u] in Western Javanese, and as [ɔ] in Cirebon Eastern Javanese. • Central Javanese: includes Kråmå Andhap, Phoneme /a/ at closed ultima in Central Javanese is pro- Kråmå Inggìl, Kråmå (Halus), Madyå registers nounced as [a] and at open ultima as [ɔ]. Regardless of position, it tends toward [a] in Western Javanese and as • Pesisir Lor dialects[20] [ɔ] in Eastern Javanese. • Tegal Western Javanese tend to palatalize every last vowel of • Pemalang a word as euphony, e.g.: Ana apa? [anak kapaʔ] “What • Pekalongan happened?", Aja kaya kuwe! [adʒak kajak kuɛʔ] “Don't be like that!". • Yogyakarta • Surakarta/Solo • Semarang Final consonant devoicing occurs in the standard Central • Banyumas[17] Javanese dialect, but not in Banyumasan. For example, • egg is pronounced [ɛnɖɔʔ] in standard Central Javanese, Cilacap but [ɛnɖɔg] in Banyumasan. The latter is closer to Old • Javanese.[17] • Kebumen 1.2. JAVANESE LANGUAGE 11

• East Javanese: includes Kråmå Andhap, Kråmå toward Madura and Bali. The Javanese campaign in Bali Inggìl, Kråmå (Halus), Madyå registers in 1363 had a deep and lasting impact, and Javanese re- placed Balinese as the language of administration and lit- • Surabaya erature. Though the Balinese people preserved much of • Malang the older literature of Java and even created their own • Madiun-Kediri-Nganjuk[18] in Javanese idioms, Balinese ceased to be written until a 19th-century restoration. • Lumajang See also: • Osing[22] • Banyuwangi • Tengger Middle Javanese • Ngadas • Ranu Pane The Empire saw the rise of Middle Javanese as effectively a new language, intermediate between Old and • Outer Javanese New Javanese, though Middle Javanese is similar enough to New Javanese to be understood by anyone who is well • Papuan Javanese acquainted with current literary Javanese.

1.2.8 History

Old Javanese

Main article: Old Javanese language While evidence of writing in Java dates to the Sanskrit

Palm leaf manuscript of Kakawin Sutasoma, a 14th-century Ja- vanese poem.

"Tarumanegara inscription” of 450 AD, the oldest ex- ample written entirely in Javanese, called the “Sukabumi inscription”, is dated 25 March 804. This inscription, lo- cated in the district of Pare in the Kediri regency of East Java, is actually a copy of an original that is about 120 years older; only this copy has been preserved. Its con- tents concern the construction of a dam for an irrigation canal near the river Śrī Hariñjing (present-day Srinjing). This inscription is the last known of its kind to be written using Pallava script; all extant subsequent examples are written using Javanese script. The 8th and 9th centuries are marked by the emergence of the Javanese literary tradition – with Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, a Buddhist treatise; and the Kakawin Rāmâyaṇa, a Javanese rendering in Indian metres of the A New Javanese inscription in Sholihin Mosque, Surakarta. Vaishnavist Sanskrit epic Rāmāyaṇa. The Majapahit Empire fell due to internal disturbances in Although Javanese as a written language appeared con- the Paregreg civil war, thought to have occurred in 1405 siderably later than Malay (extant in the 7th century), and 1406, and attacks by Islamic forces of the Sultanate the Javanese literary tradition has been continuous from of Demak on the north coast of Java. There is a Javanese its inception. The oldest works – such as the Kakawin chronogram concerning the fall which reads "sirna ilang Rāmâyaṇa and a Javanese rendering of the Indian krĕtaning bumi" (“vanished and gone was the prosperity Mahābhārata epic – are studied assiduously today. of the world”), indicating the date 1478 AD, giving rise to The expansion of Javanese culture, including Javanese a popular belief that Majapahit collapsed in 1478, though script and language, began in 1293 with the eastward push it may have lasted into the 16th century. This was the last of the Hindu–Buddhist East-Javanese Empire Majapahit, Hindu Javanese empire. 12 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

New Javanese

In the 16th century a new era in Javanese history began with the rise of the Islamic Central Javanese Mataram Sultanate, originally a vassal state of Majapahit. Ironi- cally, the Mataram Empire rose as an Islamic kingdom that sought revenge for the demise of the Hindu Ma- japahit Empire by first crushing Demak, the first Javanese Islamic kingdom. Javanese culture spread westward as Mataram conquered many previously Sundanese areas in western parts of Java; and Javanese became the dominant language in more than a third of this area. As with Balinese, the ceased to be written until the 19th century. In the meantime it was heavily influenced by A modern bilingual text in Portuguese and Javanese in Yogyakarta. Javanese, and some 40% of Sundanese vocabulary is be- lieved to have been derived from Javanese. Though Islamic in name, the Mataram II empire pre- ter represents a syllable with a consonant (or a “zero con- served many elements of the older culture, incorporat- sonant”) and the inherent vowel 'a' which is pronounced ing them into the newly adopted religion. This is why as /ɔ/ in open position. Various diacritics placed around Javanese script is still in use, as opposed to the writing the letter indicate a different vowel than [ɔ], a final con- of Old Malay for example. After the were con- sonant, or a foreign pronunciation. verted, they dropped their form of indigenous writing and Letters have subscript forms used to transcribe conso- changed to a form of the “script of the Divine”, the Ara- nant clusters, though the shape are relatively straightfor- bic script. ward, and not as distinct as conjunct forms of . In addition to the rise of , the 16th century saw the Some letters are only present in old Javanese and became emergence of the New Javanese language. The first Is- obsolete in modern Javanese. Some of these letter be- lamic documents in Javanese were already written in New came “capital” forms used in proper names. Punctuation Javanese, although still in antiquated idioms and with nu- includes a comma; period; a mark that covers the colon, merous Arabic loanwords. This is to be expected: these quotations, and indicates numerals; and marks to intro- early New Javanese documents are Islamic treatises. duce a chapter, poem, song, or letter. Later, intensive contacts with the Dutch and with other However, Javanese can also be written with the Arabic Indonesians gave rise to a simplified form of Javanese and script and today generally uses Latin script instead of Ja- influx of foreign loanwords. vanese script for practical purposes. A Latin orthography based on Dutch was introduced in 1926, revised in 1972– 1973; it has largely supplanted the carakan. The Latin- Modern Javanese based forms: The letters f, q, v, x, and z are used in loanwords from Some scholars dub the spoken form of Javanese in the European languages and Arabic. 20th century Modern Javanese, although it is essentially still the same language as New Javanese. Javanese script:

1.2.9 Javanese script 1.2.10 Demographic distribution of Ja- vanese speakers Main article: Javanese script See also: Javanese people Javanese has been traditionally written with Javanese script. Javanese and the related Balinese script are mod- Javanese is spoken throughout Indonesia, neighboring ern variants of the old Kawi script, a Brahmic script intro- Southeast Asian countries, the Netherlands, Suriname, duced to Java along with Hinduism and Buddhism. Kawi New Caledonia, and other countries. The largest pop- is first attested in a legal document from 804 AD. It was ulations of speakers are found in the six provinces of widely used in literature and translations from Sanskrit Java itself, and in the neighboring Sumatran province of from the 10th century; by the 17th, the script is identified Lampung. as carakan. A table showing the number of native speakers in 1980, The Javanese script is an abugida. Each of the twenty let- for the 22 Indonesian provinces (from the total of 27) in 1.2. JAVANESE LANGUAGE 13 which more than 1% of the population spoke Javanese:[23] In Suriname (the former Dutch colony of Surinam), South America, approximately 15% of the population of some 500,000 are of Javanese descent, among whom 75,000 speak Javanese. A local variant evolved: the Ty- According to the 1980 census, Javanese was used oro Jowo-Suriname or Suriname Javanese.[31] daily in approximately 43% of Indonesian households. By this reckoning there were well over 60 million Javanese speakers,[25] from a national population of 1.2.11 Javanese today 147,490,298.[26][27]

Distribution map of languages spoken in Java, Madura, and Bali.

Although Javanese is not a national language, it has rec- ognized status as a regional language in the three Indone- sian provinces with the biggest concentrations of Javanese people: Central Java, Yogyakarta, and East Java. Ja- vanese is taught at schools and is used in some mass me- dia, both electronically and in print. There is, however, no longer a daily newspaper in Javanese. Javanese lan- guage magazines include Panjebar Semangat, Jaka Lod- hang, Jaya Baya, Damar Jati, and Mekar Sari. Since 2003, an East Java local television station (JTV) has broadcast some of its programmes in Surabayan di- alect, including Pojok kampung (news), Kuis RT/RW, and Pojok Perkoro (a crime programme). In later broad- Madurese in Javanese script. casts, JTV offers programmes in Central Javanese dialect In Banten, Western Java, the descendants of the Central (which they call basa kulonan, “the western language”) Javanese conquerors who founded the Islamic Sultanate and Madurese. there in the 16th century still speak an archaic form of In 2005 a new Javanese language magazine, Damar Jati, Javanese.[28] The rest of the population mainly speaks appeared. It is not published in the Javanese heartlands, Sundanese and Indonesian, since this province borders di- but in Jakarta. rectly on Jakarta.[29] At least one third of the population of Jakarta are of Ja- 1.2.12 Words vanese descent, so they speak Javanese or have knowl- edge of it. In the province of West Java, many peo- [Javanese Ngoko is on the left, and Javanese Kråmå is on ple speak Javanese, especially those living in the areas the right.] bordering Central Java, the cultural homeland of the Ja- vanese. • yes = iyå - inggìh (nggìh)[32] Almost a quarter of the population of East Java province are Madurese (mostly on the Isle of Madura); many • no = ora – mbotên Madurese have some knowledge of colloquial Javanese. Since the 19th century, Madurese was also written in the • what = åpa – mênåpå Javanese script.[30] • who = såpå - sintên The original inhabitants of Lampung, the Lampungese, make up only 15% of the provincial population. The • how = piyé or kêpriyé – kadòspundi or pripùn rest are the so-called “transmigrants”, settlers from other • why = nangåpå – kèngìng mênåpå parts of Indonesia, many as a result of past government transmigration programs. Most of these transmigrants • eat = mangan or ma'êm – dahar or nêdhå are Javanese who have settled there since the 19th cen- tury. • sleep = turu – saré 14 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

• here = nang kéné – mriki • 40 = petang puluh - sekawan doso

• there = nang kånå – mrånå • 41 = petang puluh siji - sekawan doso setunggal

• there is (there are) = ånå or ènèng – ònten or wòntên • 50 = = séket – séket

• there is no (there are no) = ora ånå or ora ènèng – • 100 = = satus – setunggal atus mbotên wòntên • hundreds = atusan – atusan • no! or I don't want it! = êmòh or mòh – wêgah • 1000 = = sewu – setunggal éwu • make a visit for pleasure = dolan – améng-améng • thousands = éwon – éwon 1.2.13 Numbers 1.2.14 See also Main article: Javanese numerals • Banyumasan language

[Javanese Ngoko is on the left, and Javanese Krama is on • Java (island) the right.] • Javanese alphabet

• 1 = = siji – setunggal • Javanese literature • 2 = = loro – kalih • Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern • 3 = = telu – tiga • • 4 = = papat – sekawan • List of languages without official status • 5 = = lima – gangsal • 6 = = enem – enem 1.2.15 Notes

• 7 = = pitu – pitu [1] Nationalencyklopedin “Världens 100 största språk 2007” The World’s 100 Largest Languages in 2007 • 8 = = wolu – wolu [2] Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, • 9 = = sanga – sanga Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). “Javanese”. 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolu- • 10 = = sepuluh – sedasa tionary Anthropology. • 20 = rong puluh - kalih doso [3] Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh special for 21 to 29 only ; [4] Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia - Hasil Sensus Penduduk • 21 = selikur 2010. Badan Pusat Statistik. 2011. ISBN 978-979-064- 417-5. • 22 = ronglikur [5] Van der Molen (1983:VII-VIII). • 23 = telulikur [6] Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (2008). Concise encyclope- • 24 = patlikur dia of languages of the world. Elsevier. p. 560. ISBN • 9780080877747. Retrieved 2010-05-24. Madurese also 25 = selawe possesses aspirated phonemes, including at least one aspi- • 26 = nemlikur rated retroflex phoneme. [7] Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of • 27 = pitulikur the World’s Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631- • 28 = wolulikur 19814-8. • 29 = sangalikur [8] A sibilant before a retroflex stop in Sanskrit loanwords is pronounced as a retroflex sibilant, whereas in modern • 30 = telung puluh - tigang doso Indian languages it is pronounced as a palatal sibilant. Though Acehnese and Balinese also possess a retroflex • 31 = telung puluh siji - tigang doso setunggal voiceless stop, this is merely an allophone of /t/. 1.2. JAVANESE LANGUAGE 15

[9] Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, S.B. Pramono, hal 148, Babad [30] Unfortunately, the aspirated phonemes of Madurese are Hanacaraka, 2013 not reproduced in writing. The 19th-century scribes ap- parently overlooked the fact that Javanese script does pos- [10] The Old Javanese spelling is modified to suit Modern Ja- sess the required characters. vanese spelling. [31] Bartje S. Setrowidjojo and Ruben T. Setrowidjojo Het [11] Zoetmulder (1982:IX). Surinaams-Javaans = Tyoro Jowo-Suriname, Den Haag: [12] Uhlenbeck (1964:57). Suara Jawa, 1994, ISBN 90-802125-1-2.

[13] Wolff, John U.; Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo (1982). Com- [32] Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, S.B. Pramono, hal 148, 2013 municative Codes in Central Java. Cornell Southeast Asia Program. p. 4. ISBN 0-87727-116-X. 1.2.16 Sources [14] For example Pigeaud’s dictionary in 1939 is almost exclu- sively based on Surakarta speech (1939:viii–xiii). • Elinor C. Horne. 1961. Beginning Javanese. New [15] http://taalunieversum.org/sites/tuv/files/downloads/ Haven: Yale University Press. meertaligheid_in_het_onderwijs_in_suriname.pdf • W. van der Molen. 1993. Javaans schrift. Leiden: [16] http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/goba001suri01_01/ Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en goba001heri01_01.pdf Oceanië. ISBN 90-73084-09-1 [17] http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/jakarta/banyumas.php • S. A. Wurm and Shiro Hattori, eds. 1983. Language [18] http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/jakarta/madiun.php Atlas of the Pacific Area, Part II: (Insular South-), Canberra. [19] http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/jakarta/javanese_ dialectology.php • P. J. Zoetmulder. 1982. Old Javanese–English Dic- [20] http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/jakarta/pemalangan.php tionary. 's-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-6178-6 [21] http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/jakarta/docs/Standard_vs_ Peripheral_Javanese_Dialects,_Thomas_Conners.pdf

[22] http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/jakarta/osing.php 1.2.17 Further reading [23] The data are taken from the census of 1980 as provided • Errington, James Joseph (1991), Language and so- by James J. Fox and Peter Gardiner and published by S. cial change in Java : linguistic reflexes of modern- A. Wurm and Shiro Hattori, eds. 1983. Language At- ization in a traditional royal polity, Ohio University, las of the Pacific Area, Part II: (Insular South-East Asia), Center for International Studies, retrieved 18 Febru- Canberra. ary 2013 [24] In 1980 this included the now separate Banten province. • Errington, James Joseph (1998), Shifting languages : [25] According to James J. Fox and Peter Gardiner (Wurm and interaction and identity in Javanese Indonesia, Cam- Hattori, 1983). bridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-63448-9

[26] Collins Concise Dictionary Plus (1989). • Horne, Elinor Clark (1963), Intermediate Javanese, [27] The distribution of persons living in Javanese-speaking Yale University Press, retrieved 18 February 2013 households in East Java and Lampung requires clarifica- • tion. For East Java, daily-language percentages are as fol- Horne, Elinor Clark (1974), Javanese-English dic- lows: 74.5 Javanese, 23.0 Madurese, and 2.2 Indonesian. tionary, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300- For Lampung, the official percentages are 62.4 Javanese, 01689-5 16.4 Lampungese and other languages, 10.5 Sundanese, and 9.4 Indonesian. The figures are somewhat outdated • Keeler, Ward (1984), Javanese, a cultural approach, for some regions, especially Jakarta; but they remain more Ohio University Center for International Studies, or less stable for the rest of Java. In Jakarta the num- ISBN 978-0-89680-121-9 ber of Javanese has increased tenfold in the last 25 years. On the other hand, because of the conflict the number of • Robson, S. O. (Stuart Owen); Wibisono, Singgih Javanese in might have decreased. It is also rele- (2002), Javanese English dictionary, Periplus Edi- vant that Banten has separated from West Java province tions (HK) ; North Clarendon, VT : Tuttle Pub, in 2000. ISBN 978-0-7946-0000-6

[28] Pigeaud (1967:10-11). • Robson, S. O. (Stuart Owen); Monash University. [29] Many commuters to Jakarta live in the suburbs in Banten, Monash Asia Institute (2002), Javanese grammar among them also Javanese speakers. Their exact number for students (Rev. ed ed.), Monash Asia Institute, is unknown. Monash University, ISBN 978-1-876924-12-6 16 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

• Robson, S. O. (Stuart Owen); Monash University. Centre of Southeast Asian Studies (1991), Patterns of variation in colloquial Javanese, Centre of South- east Asian Studies, Monash University, ISBN 978- 0-7326-0263-5 Pegon vowels • Siegel, James T (1986), Solo in the new order : lan- guage and hierarchy in an Indonesian city, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-00085-5 Pegon is an used to write the Javanese • Uhlenbeck, E. M; Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, and Sundanese languages, as an alternative to the Roman Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1964), A crit- alphabet or the pre-colonial Javanese script and the old ical survey of studies on the languages of Java and . In particular, it was used for religious [1] Madura, Martinus Nijhoff, retrieved 18 February (Islamic) writing and poetry from the fifteenth century, 2013 particularly in writing commentaries of . The word Pegon originated from a Javanese word pégo which means • Uhlenbeck, E. M; Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, “deviate”, due to the practice of writing Javanese lan- Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1978), Stud- guage with Arabic script, which was considered uncon- ies in Javanese morphology, Martinus Nijhoff, ISBN ventional by Javanese people. 978-90-247-2162-7 The main difference between Jawi and Pegon is that the latter is almost always written with vocal signs. This is be- 1.2.18 External links cause the Javanese language contains more variations of aksara swara (vowel symbols) than their Malay counter- • Javanese Writing System part resulting in vocal signs needing to be written to avoid phonetic confusion. If written without vocal signs, as in • Javanese in Suriname strive to preserve origins Jawi, the script is called Gundhul. Pegon includes sym- Jakarta Post article bols for sounds which are not present in standard Arabic.

• International Symposium On The Languages Of Java

• http://unicode-table.com/en/sections/ 1.3.1 References javanese-alphabet/ [1] Javanese alphabet 1.3 Pegon alphabet

1.4 Jawi alphabet

“Jawi script” redirects here. It is not to be confused with Javanese script.

-Jāwī; Pattani: Yawi; Acehnese: Ja جاوي :Jawi (Jawi woë) is an Arabic alphabet for writing the Malay lan- guage, Acehnese, Banjarese, Minangkabau, and several other languages in Southeast Asia. Jawi is one of the two official scripts in , and is used as an alternate script in Malaysia. Usage wise, it was the standard script for the but has since been replaced by a Latin alphabet called Rumi, and Jawi has since been relegated to a script used for religious, cultural and some administrative purposes. It can be typed with the Jawi keyboard. Day-to-day usage of Jawi is main- tained in more conservative Malay-populated areas such [1] Pegon consonants. Letters not present in the Arabic alphabet are as in Malaysia and Pattani. Jawi is still use in marked with a yellow circle. Brunei especially at sign boards, Religious Schools and primary school subjects. 1.4. JAWI ALPHABET 17

1.4.1 Etymology been found on the Inscription Stone, dated 702 H (1303 CE), nearly 600 years after the date of the .is an adjective for the Arabic first recorded existence of Arabic script in the region (جاوي) ”The word “Jawi -Both terms may have originated from The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation is .(جاوة) noun Jawah the term “Javadwipa”, the ancient name for Java. “Jawah” sued by the “Sri Paduka Tuan” of Terengganu, urging his and “Jawi” may have been used by the Arabs as the catch- subjects to “extend and uphold” Islam and providing 10 all terms in referring to the entire Maritime Southeast basic laws for their guidance. This has attested the Asia and its peoples,[2] similar to the kind of understand- strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th ing by the later Europeans when coining the terms Malay century Terengganu specifically and the as Archipelago and Malay race. a whole.[2] The development of Jawi script was different from that 1.4.2 Early history of Pallava writing which was exclusively restricted to the nobility and monks in monasteries. The Jawi script was Prior to the onset of the Islamisation, when Hindu- embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of Buddhist influences were still firmly established in the class. With the increased intensity in the appreciation of region, the Pallava script was primarily used in writ- Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were trans- ing Malay language. This is evidenced from the dis- lated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Addition- covery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay, no- ally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the tably the Kedukan Bukit Inscription and Talang Tuwo Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings. More- inscription. The spread of and over, there were also individuals of the community who the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system be- used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously gan with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of written since the seventh century. Among the oldest archaeolog- literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated ical artefacts inscribed with Arabic script are; a tomb- form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th [6] stone of Syeikh Rukunuddin dated 48 AH (668/669 CE) century and lasted right up to the 19th century. Other in Barus, Sumatra; a tombstone dated 290 AH (910 CE) forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, no- on the mausoleum of Syeikh Abdul Qadir Ibn Husin Syah tably the Pegon alphabet of Javanese language in Java and Alam located in , ; a tombstone found in the Serang alphabet of Bugis language in . Pekan, dated 419 AH (1026 CE); a tombstone Both writing systems applied extensively the Arabic di- discovered in Phan Rang, dated 431 AH (1039 acritics and added several other than Jawi al- CE); a tombstone dated 440 AH (1048 CE) found in phabets to suit the languages. Due to their fairly limited , Brunei; and a tombstone of Fa- usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo timah Binti Maimun Bin Hibat Allah found in Gresik, similar advance developments and modifications as expe- [7] East Java dated 475 AH (1082 CE).[2][3] Islam was spread rienced by Jawi script. from the coasts to the interior of the island and gener- ally in a top-down process in which rulers were converted and then introduced more or less orthodox versions of Is- 1.4.3 The spread and extent of Jawi script lam to their peoples. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136 and King Merah Silu of The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, Samudra Pasai in 1267 were among the earliest examples. as the Malays found that the earlier Pallava script was totally unsuited as a vehicle to relay religious concepts. At the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran. The use of jawi script was a key factor driving Quran as well as salat. It is not too far-fetched to say the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the re- that the Arabic script was accepted by the Malay com- gion, alongside the spread of Islam.[10] It was widely used munity together with their acceptance of Islam and they in the Sultanate of , Sultanate of Johor, Sultanate only took a short time to modify the script and adapt it to of Brunei, , Sultanate of Pattani, the suit the spoken Classical Malay – it is written from right to Sultanate of Aceh to the in the east left and has 6 sounds not found in Arabic: ca pa ga nga as early as the 15th century. The jawi script was used va and nya. Many Arabic characters are never used as in royal correspondences, decrees, poems and was widely they are not pronounced in Malay language, and some let- [4][5] understood by the merchants in the port of Malacca as the ters are never joined and some joined obligatorily so. main means of communication. Early legal digests such This was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing as the Undang-Undang Melaka Code and its derivatives in , Persia and which had taken place earlier including the Codes of Johor, , Brunei, Kedah, Pat- and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing [6] tani and Aceh were written in this script. It is the medium of the Muslims. of expression of kings, nobility and the religious schol- The oldest remains of Malay using the Jawi script have ars. It is the traditional symbol of Malay culture and 18 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

the romanised script. This is because the jawi script belongs to us and is part of our heritage.” — Pendeta Za’ba in the foreword of the book Panduan Membaca dan Menulis Jawi (1957) [12]

Today, the script is used for religious and Malay cultural administration in Terengganu, Kelantan, Kedah, and Johor. Various efforts were in place to revive the Jawi script in Malaysia and Brunei due to its important role in the Malay and Islamic spheres. Jawi scripts are also seen at the rear of and Brunei dol- lar banknotes. The Malays in Pattani still use Jawi today for the same reasons.[10] Indonesia, having multiple regional/native languages, uses the in general. Nonethe- less, the Jawi script does enjoy a regional status in Malay dominated areas in Indonesia such as , Riau archipelago, Aceh, or (example the Banjar language).[13][14] This is partially due to the fact that re- gional/native languages are compulsory studies in the ba- sic education curriculum of each region (examples in- clude Javanese for Javanese region, Sundanese for Sun- danese region, Madurese for Maduranese region, and jawi for Malay region).[13] Today Jawi script is widely used in Riau and Riau Island province, where road signs and government buildings signs are written in this script. A copy of Undang-Undang Melaka ('Laws of Melaka'). The Melaka system of justice as enshrined in the text was the le- It is still widely used in traditional religious school across gal source for other major regional sultanates like Johor, Perak, Java, however, in the form of Pegon script, a variant of Brunei, Pattani and Aceh.[8][9] it, and is not used in common writing when the Latin al- phabet and in some cases the Javanese script.

civilization. Jawi was used not only amongst the ruling class, but also the common people. The Islamisation and 1.4.5 Letters Malayisation of the region popularised jawi into a domi- [11] nant script. • Letters with no initial and middle forms adopt the Royal correspondences for example are written, embel- isolated form, because they cannot be joined with ( ء, ۏ, و, ز, ر, ذ, د, ا) lished and ceremoniously delivered. Examples of royal other letter correspondences still in the good condition are the letter between Sultan Hayat of Ternate and King John III of • The letter hamzah is only present in isolated form in Portugal (1521) ; the letter from Sultan the Malay language. of Aceh to King James I of England (1615); the letter from Sultan Abdul Jalil IV of Johor to King Louis XV of (1719).[11] Many literary works such as epics, 1.4.6 Examples poetry and prose use the Jawi script. It is the pinnacle of the classic Malay civilization. Historical epics such as the Akin to the Arabic script, Jawi is constructed from right- , as listed by UNESCO under Memories of to-left. Below is an exemplification of the Jawi script the World, are among the countless epics written by the extracted from the first and second verse of the notable :English) غاذال اونتوق ربيعة ;Malay people. The Sufic poems by and untuk Rabiah many others contributed to the richness and depth of the Ghazal for Rabiah).[16] Malay civilization. Jawi script was the official script for during British protectorate. 1.4.7 Gallery 1.4.4 Jawi today • A Japanese propaganda in Jawi script found in the “We should not discard or abandon the jawi town of , Sarawak after the capturing of the script even though Malays are generally using town by the Australian forces. 1.4. JAWI ALPHABET 19

the signboard of a royal mausoleum in Kelantan (a state in Malaysia). The signboard reads “Makam Di- raja Langgar”.

• The frontispiece of a Jawi edition of the Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals.

• Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa in Jawi text.

• The coat of arms or state emblem of Selangor. The jawi script writing expresses the State motto mean- ing “Under the protection of Allah”. Below the motto is the broad belt or sash worn at the waist by warriors in the past.

• A sign in old Melaka (probably, a company name), in (which would be Nan fa in ), transcription (Nam Fatt) and Jawi.

• Coat of arms of the (1948- 1963). The banner translates in Jawi as “Unity is strength”.

• Road names in Kelantan are written in Jawi and Rumi (Roman).

Pages from Hikayat Abdullah in the Jawi script. 1.4.8 See also

• Arabic alphabet

• Malay alphabet

1.4.9 References

[1] Andrew Alexander Simpson (2007). Language and Na- tional Identity in Asia. Oxford University Press. pp. 356– 60. ISBN 0-19-926748-0.

[2] Shahrizal bin Mahpol (2002). “Penguasaan tulisan jawi di kalangan pelajar Melayu : suatu kajian khusus di UiTM cawangan Kelantan (Competency in Jawi among Malay students: A specific study in UiTM, Kelantan campus)". Digital Repository, Universiti Malaya. Retrieved 2012- 07-08.

[3] Abdul Rashid Melebek; Amat Juhari Moain (2006). Se- jarah Bahasa Melayu (History of Bahasa Melayu). Utusan Publications. p. 52. ISBN 967-61-1809-5.

[4] John U. Wolff, Indonesian Readings Edition: 3, SEAP Publications: 1988: ISBN 0-87727-517-3:480 pages

[5] Robert Leon Cooper Language spread: studies in diffusion and social change, Center for Applied Linguistics, Indiana University Press,: 1982 p. 40 ISBN 0-253-32000-3: 360 The Terengganu Inscription Stone, written in year 1303. It is the pages oldest written artifact with Jawi script on it. The Jawi inscriptions [6] Siti Hawa Haji Salleh (2010). Malay Literature of the 19th are of local laws influenced by the Shariah and thus one of the Century. Institut Terjemahan Negara Malaysia Berhad. p. earliest proof of Islamic influence in Malaysia. 8. ISBN 978-983-068-517-5.

[7] Matlob (2007). Pandai Jawi. Cerdik Publications. pp. • Jawi script written in khat () on 237–238. ISBN 983-70-1054-1. 20 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

[8] Fauzia 2013, p. 81 1.5 Old Javanese

[9] Abd. Jalil Borham 2002, p. 94 Old Javanese is the oldest phase of the Javanese lan- guage that was spoken in areas in what is now the eastern [10] “An overview of Jawi’s origin in Brunei”. Brunei Times. July 16, 2007. part of Central Java and the whole of East Java. While evidence of writing in Java dates to the Sanskrit [11] The Legacy of Malay Letter, Annabel Teh Gallop, The "Tarumanegara inscription” of 450, the oldest example British Library and Arkib Negara Malaysia, ISBN 0- written entirely in Javanese, called the "Sukabumi inscrip- 7125-0376-6 tion”, is dated March 25, 804. This inscription, located in the district of Pare in the Kediri Regency of East Java, [12] AKSARA-The Passage of Malay Scripts. Exhibi- tions.nlb.gov.sg. Retrieved on 2010-10-26. is actually a copy of the original, dated some 120 years earlier; only this copy has been preserved. Its contents [13] (Indonesian) TULISAN ARAB MELAYU BAGIAN concern the construction of a dam for an irrigation canal DARI KHAZANAH BUDAYA RIAU near the river Śrī Hariñjing (nowadays Srinjing). This in- scription is the last of its kind to be written using Pallava [14] Bagian Kesenian Bara Ai Kesusasteraan Indonesia script; all consequent examples are written using Javanese Catatan-Catatan Tentang Amir :Bagian Kesenian script. Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Yogyakarta: 1955 1.5.1 Development [15] Daftar Kata Bahasa Melayu Rumi-Sebutan-Jawi, Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, 5th printing, 2006. Old Javanese was not static, and its usage covered a - riod of approximately 500 years – from the Sukabumi [16] Lirik - Ghazal untuk rabiah inscription until the founding of the Majapahit empire in 1292. The Javanese language which was spoken and writ- ten in the Majapahit era already underwent some changes 1.4.10 Further reading and is therefore already closer to the Modern Javanese language. • H.S. Paterson (& C.O. Blagden), 'An early Malay Inscription from 14th-century Terengganu', Journ. Mal. Br.R.A.S., II, 1924, pp. 258–263. Austronesian origins

• R.O. Winstedt, A History of Malaya, revised ed. The most important shaping force on Old Javanese was its 1962, p. 40. Austronesian heritage in vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar that it shared with its sister languages in • J.G. de Casparis, Indonesian Paleography, 1975, p. Southeast-Asia. 70-71. Sanskrit influence 1.4.11 External links The Indian linguistic influence in Old Javanese language was almost exclusively Sanskrit influence. There is no ev- • DOWNLOAD jawi keyboard for windows 8 idence of Indian linguistic elements in Old Javanese other than Sanskrit. This is different from, for example, the in- • Omniglot article about written Malay fluence of Indian linguistic in the (Old) Malay language. • eJawi.net Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact on the vo- cabulary of the Javanese language. The Old Javanese • Jawi writing for PC – English Dictionary, written by professor P.J. Zoetmul- der in 1982, contains approximately 25,500 entries, no • softwares and articles related to Jawi fewer than 12,500 of which are borrowed from Sanskrit. Clearly this large number is not an indication of usage, • DOWNLOAD Papan Kekunci Jawi Fonetik (Jawi but it is an indication that the Ancient Javanese knew and Phonetic Keyboard) employed these Sanskrit words in their literary works. In any given Old Javanese literary work, approximately 25% • Unicode Font for Jawi Writing of the vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit. • Transliteration of Rumi to Jawi Phonology Despite the tremendous influence of San- • Transliteration of Rumi to Jawi skrit on Old Javanese, the latter has remained an Aus- 1.6. JAVANESE LITERATURE 21 tronesian language. However, Sanskrit has also influ- 1.6 Javanese literature enced both the phonology and the vocabulary of Old Ja- vanese. Old Javanese also contains the retroflex conso- Javanese literature is, generally speaking, literature nants, which might have been derived from Sanskrit. That from Java and, more specifically, from areas where is disputed by several linguists, who hold the view that Javanese is spoken. However, similar with other liter- it is also possible that the occurrence of these retroflex ary traditions, Javanese language works were and not consonants was an independent development within the necessarily produced only in Java, but also in Sunda, Austronesian . Madura, Bali, Lombok, Southern Sumatra (especially around Palembang) and Suriname. This article only deals with Javanese written literature and not with oral litera- Vocabulary A related question is the form in which ture and Javanese theatre such as . Sanskrit words were loaned in Old Javanese. The bor- rowed Sanskrit words in Old Javanese are almost with- out exceptions nouns and adjectives in their undeclined 1.6.1 Overview form (Sanskrit lingga). A wordlist of 200 basic vocabu- lary items is available at the Austronesian Basic Vocabu- The Javanese language is an Austronesian language and lary Database which shows some of these loans heavily influenced principally by Sanskrit in its earliest written stage. Later on it has undergone additional influ- ences from mainly Arabic, Dutch, and Malay/Indonesian. 1.5.2 Old Javanese literature Beginning in the 9th century, texts in Javanese language using a Brahmic derived script were written. The old- Old Javanese literature can be divided in several genres est written text in Javanese is the so-called Inscription of such as the aforementioned kakawin and prose. Sukabumi which is dated March 25, 804. Although this is not a piece of literature, this inscription is often men- tioned as the starting point of Javanese literature. 1.5.3 References The Dutch scholar Theodore Pigeaud divides the history of Javanese literature in four major periods:[1] 1.5.4 Further reading

• (Dutch) Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder, 1950, De Taal Pre-Islamic period van het Adiparwa, Bandung: Nix The first era is a pre-Islamic period of about six centuries, • (English) Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder, 1982, Old beginning about 900 AD, up to about 1500 AD: the tra- Javanese-English Dictionary, The Hague: Martinus ditional date of the victory of Islam over pre-Islamic be- Nijhoff. 2 v. (xxxi, 2368 p.) In collaboration with lief in the East Javanese kingdom of Majapahit. Javanese S.O. Robson. ISBN 90-247-6178-6 texts indubitably written in the pre-Islamic period have been preserved for posterity mainly in eighteenth and • (Indonesian) Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder, 1995, nineteenth century Balinese manuscripts. The idiom is Kamus Jawa Kuna-Indonesia In collaboration with called Old Javanese. In Java the original Javanese tradi- S.O Robson. Translators, Darusuprapta, Sumarti tion of literature was interrupted and all but cut off by the Suprayitna. Jakarta: Hasil kerja Perwak- rise of Islam. ilan Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde dengan Penerbit PT Gramedia Pus- The remnants of pre-Islamic Javanese literature are taka Utama, 1995. 2 v. ; 1. A-0 -- 2. P-Y. scanty. In some cases, it is doubtful whether a given text was written in Java or in Bali. In the relatively small num- • (English) Teeuw, A. and S.O. Robson. 2005 ber of Old Javanese texts a chronological distinction can edited and translated Bhomāntaka : the death of be made between works of authors living in the period of Bhoma Leiden: KITLV Press, Series:Bibliotheca suzerainty of the Kadiri Kings (up to about 1200 AD) and Indonesica; 32. ISBN 90-6718-253-2 their predecessors, on the one side, and books written in the subsequent Singosari Majapahit period on the other. Almost all Old Javanese texts were written in East Java, 1.5.5 See also mainly in districts situated in the basin of the river Bran- tas. The few exceptions are some very old texts probably written in the tenth century in Central Java in the district • Kawi language of Mataram, in the basin of the rivers Opak and Praga. • Kakawin In the pre-Islamic period Indian culture was a most im- portant factor in the development of Javanese literature. • Classical language During some centuries, perhaps up to the twelfth cen- 22 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA tury, Indian literary influence was dominant in all re- in the latter texts. spects. Afterwards indigenous Javanese concepts came Javano-Balinese literature developed out of Old Javanese gradually to the fore. In the fourteenth and fifteenth letters and Balinese tradition. No foreign influence was in centuries Javanese authors wrote some books containing evidence except Islam. Though the ruling classes of Bali, ideas and mythic speculations which seem pre-eminently the Courts and the clergy, adhered to ancestral religious autochthonous Javanese. At that time an amalgamation of concepts and ritual, somehow Javanese imported elements of Indian culture and native Javanese penetrated into mercantile middle-class communities in concepts was effected in literature. the country, and a small Muslim Javano-Balinese liter- ature developed. Its exact chronology is unknown, but its relationship with seventeenth and eighteenth century Javano-Balinese period Javanese Pasisir literature or the following era is indu- bitable. The second era of the chronological scheme is a Javano- Balinese period of about four centuries, beginning about 1500 AD and lasting up to the present time. Javano- Islamic era or Javanese Pasisir literature Balinese literature is written in the Javano-Balinese lit- erary idiom. Since the thirteenth century, or even earlier, the island of Bali seems to have been brought gradually C. The third era of the chronological scheme introduced within the sphere of influence of East Javanese Kings, and in the present Synopsis is the era of Javanese Pasisir lit- in the fourteenth century the dynasty of Majapahit ruled erature of about three centuries, beginning about 1500 the country. According to Javanese historical tradition, AD. So it coincides with the first half of the era of about 1500 AD the last Majapahit King, ousted from his Javano-Balinese literature. Texts belonging to era C of Royal residence by Muslim insurgents, fled eastwards and the scheme were written in the literary idioms of East Java, Madura and the North Coast districts. Pasisir is a found a refuge in Bali. There may be some truth in this tradition. Anyway the Balinese rulers did not embrace Javanese word meaning 'coast' or 'costal line'. Islam, and in Bali Old Javanese literature was preserved In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Islam was in the and cherished. In the course of time at the Courts of the ascendant in Java. Political power devolved from the in- sixteenth and seventeenth century South Balinese land Court of Majapahit to Muslim dynasts ruling in var- Kings of Gèlgèl and Klungkung, Old Javanese letters de- ious maritime districts and trading centres on the North veloped into a Javano-Balinese literature with character- Coast. In these districts, from Surabaya and Gresik in the istic features of its own. Indigenous Balinese mythical east up to Cerbon and Banten in the west, a rejuvenated and historical traditions were introduced, and a new style Javanese literature developed under the influence of Is- of prosody, well suited to the structure of the Balinese lam. and Javanese languages, was cultivated. In the period of Pasisir culture authors were very active Side by side with Javano-Balinese literature, and stimu- in writing books on all subjects belonging to the sphere lated by it, a purely Balinese literature developed. Before of Muslim Javanese civilization. Far from ignoring pre- Islamic literature, however, they assimilated many ele- the period of Javanese cultural and political domination in Bali, since the thirteenth century, an Old Balinese liter- ments of Old Javanese culture. The result was an amal- gam of Muslim and pre-, in several re- ary idiom had been in use at the Courts of native Balinese rulers. Like Old Javanese, Old Balinese had developed spects showing survivals of ancient indigenous Javanese concepts. under the influence of Indian culture. After an interval of about five centuries, the period of Javanese domination, The three centres of Pasisir literature in Java were the native was used again as a medium Surabaya (with Gresik), Demak (with Japara) and Cér- of literary activity. Probably this was in the seventeenth bon (with Banten). East Javanese Pasisir texts came or the eighteenth century. Balinese language and litera- first, for in East Java Muslim religious influence first be- ture of the second flourishing period, which endures up to came an important element in civilization. Starting from the present time, are strongly influenced by Old Javanese Java, Islamic Pasisir culture spread to some other islands and Javano-Balinese. In some cases it is difficult to decide of which the coasts are washed by the Java sea. The whether a given text should be registered as belonging to most important outlying cultural provinces were Lombok Javano-Balinese or to Balinese literature. and Palémbang. In the island of Lombok a remarkable It is very difficult to establish any kind of chronologi- Islamic Javano-Balinese literature came into existence. cal order in the mass of Javano-Balinese literature, be- The texts contain reminiscences of indigenous Sasak cul- cause scarcely any text is dated. In some cases older ture. The native developed into a medium texts belonging to the Gèlgèl period can be distinguished of literary activity side by side with the Javano-Balinese from younger texts belonging to the subsequent eigh- idiom. teenth and nineteenth century Klungkung reigns by the Probably for centuries, even in the pre-Islamic period, the growing prominence of Balinese forms and vocabulary district of Palémbang in was ruled by dy- 1.6. JAVANESE LITERATURE 23

nasts of Javanese extraction. In the seventeenth and eigh- cal. Geographically, seventeenth and eighteenth century teenth centuries Javanese Pasisir literature was cultivated Javanese Pasisir culture was interinsular. But then it was at Court. In the nineteenth century Javanese cultural in- mainly confined to the maritime districts of the islands. It fluence in Palémbang declined in consequence of the fall was not in all respects unified, using different languages of the dynasty. Malay took the place of Javanese. and idioms. Nineteenth century Central Javanese pu- The important oversea expansions of Javanese Pasisir lit- jangga culture, on the other hand, was national Javanese. erature, both eastwards and westwards, started from East Belonging to the interior of the country, and using the Java. Minor expansions, of Javanese Pasisir culture took mannered Court idiom of Surakarta and Yogyakarta, it was unified to a high degree. their course from Banten and from Central Javanese mar- itime towns. The districts affected by them, Lampung in Ideologically the difference between Pasisir and pujangga South Sumatra by Banten, and Bañjar Masin in literature consists in their origin and development. In by Central Java, did not produce Javanese literary texts the Pasisir literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth of any importance, however. century, on the one hand, the principal concern was re- In, Javanese Pasisir literature, the influence of Islamic ligion. It superseded the culture of the preceding non- culture was strong. Islam first reached Java by the inter- Islamic period, in the meantime retaining several features mediary of Malay literature, Malay being the medium of of pre-Islamic civilization. Its origin was middle-class. In the interinsular commerce which brought Muslim traders the Central Javanese civilization of the nineteenth cen- from India to the Archipelago. Asa result, Pasisir litera- tury, on the other hand, Muslim religion was taken for ture contains borrowings, from Malay and from Arabic, granted. The pujanggas were mostly interested in the re- the sacred language of Islam, but also, from other con- mains of pre-Islamic belletristic literature. Their books tinental languages, in the first place Persian, which was were meant to be reading-matter for gentlemen. the universal Islamic medium in India in the fifteenth and Eighteenth and nineteenth century renaissance authors sixteenth centuries. were masters in adapting the products of former periods of literature, as far as known to them. Some Old Javanese epic kakawins were turned into modern Javanese po- Renaissance of classical literature ems. Historical, romantic and theatrical literature flour- ished. The wayang theatre became the favourite pastime The fourth era of the chronological scheme is the pe- at Court, and plays were composed by Kings and princes,. riod of the renaissance of classical Javanese literature in Originating from the interior of the country, Surakarta re- the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Literature be- naissance literature lacked stimulating contacts with for- longing to this era was written in the Surakarta and Yo- eign cultures oversea, like its predecessor in Central Java, gyakarta idioms. The cultural centre was the Court of Pasisir literature, had. Neither international Islam nor the inland Central Javanese Kings in Kartasura, Surakarta interinsular Malay literature were appreciated at Court. and Yogyakarta. The fame of the Surakarta authors, Javano-Balinese letters, which in the eighteenth century called pujanggas, spread all over Java, and their style was were flourishing in Bali, were unknown in Central Java. much imitated. In consequence in the nineteenth cen- Eighteenth and nineteenth century renaissance literature tury Surakarta renaissance literature was considered as was heavily indebted to eighteenth century Pasisir litera- the Javanese literature par excellence, and works of au- ture, especially of the Central and East Javanese maritime thors belonging to the preceding Pasisir era fell into obliv- districts. After a long period of dynastic troubles and ion or were disregarded. The Surakarta Court idiom with internal wars, which were detrimental to the mercantile its rigid rules of class distinction in vocabulary (the so- towns on the seacoast, peace was finally restored in Cen- called manners of speech, krama and ngoko etc.) was tral and East Java in the middle of the eighteenth century. accepted almost everywhere as exemplary. Probably in Probably since that time traffic by prao on the river Ben- the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth cen- gawan was instrumental in establishing contacts between tury Pasisir literature was already on the decline in con- Surakarta and Gresik, the ancient centre of the decaying sequence of economic and political retrogression in the East Javanese Pasisir culture. It is a fact that the Surakarta mercantile towns on the North Coast where the authors scholars’ knowledge of the admired Old Javanese kakaw- and their patrons lived. One by one the maritime districts ins was second-hand. Manuscripts written in Pasisir dis- were vanquished by the forces of the despotic Kings of tricts were intermediaries. The superior Balinese codices inland Mataram. Their over-sea trade, the source of their of Old Javanese texts were not available in Central Java. prosperity, receded as a result of the rise of Batavia. In the nineteenth century Surakarta authors were stimu- The Central Javanese, renaissance culture of the nine- lated by the presence of three European scholars: Win- teenth century was the successor of seventeenth and ter, Gericke and Wilkens, who were studying Javanese eighteenth century Pasisir civilization, which in its time language and literature in Central Java. Through their in- formed a cultural link between maritime districts along termediary some knowledge of European culture spread the coasts of Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok. The dif- at Court. The Bible was translated into Javanese. ferences between the two are geographical and ideologi- 24 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

The second half of the nineteenth century and the first • (English) George Quinn, 1992, The novel in Ja- decades of the twentieth century were the period of de- vanese : aspects of its social and literary character. velopment of Surakarta renaissance letters into a com- Leiden: KITLV Press. ISBN 90-6718-033-5 mon Javanese belletristic literature characterized by its • (English) The. Pigeaud, 1967-1970 Literature of predilection for the wayang theatre and wayang plays. In Java :Catalogue raisonne of Javanese : Catalogue consequence of the maintenance of peace and order in raisonne of Javanese manuscripts in the library of the interior of the country and an unprecedented increase the University of Leiden and other public collections of traffic by means of the railways, Surakarta (and, in in the Netherlands The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff. a minor degree, also Yogyakarta) Court culture devel- oped into a common spiritual sphere of the priyayi class, • (Javanese) Raden Mas Ngabehi , the gentlefolk of Java. Probably never before the nine- 1952, Kapustakan Djawi. Djakarta: Djambatan teenth century such a sense of cultural unity was preva- • lent among the members of the well-educated classes in (Indonesian) Raden Mas Ngabehi Poerbatjaraka the interior of the country. Henceforth the Court culture & Tardjan Hadidjaja, 1952, Kapustakan Djawi. radiating from Surakarta and Yogyakarta was considered Djakarta: Djambatan by educated people as the only genuine Javanese civiliza- • (English) J.J. Ras, 1979, Javanese literature since in- tion. dependence. An anthology. The Hague: Uitgeverij Notwithstanding the early nineteenth century contacts of Nijhoff, VKI 88, ISBN 90-247-2309-4 Surakarta authors with Dutch scholars, the modern Eu- • (English) P.J. Zoetmulder, 1974, Kalangwan. A ropean novel and short story did not begin to develop in Survey of Old Javanese Literature. The Hague: Javanese literature before the second or third decade of Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-1674-8 the twentieth century. Apparently for a long time the ap- peal of the well-known phantastic wayang play literature was stronger than the interest in new fiction dealing with 1.6.4 Further reading problems of modern times. In all periods of history conservatism and a tendency to Florida, Nancy K. (1995) Writing the past, inscribing the retrospection and mythography have been characteristic future: history as prophecy in colonial Java Durham, N.C. features of Javanese literature. Its endurance for many Duke University Press, centuries, adapting elements of foreign cultures, Indian and Islamic, but not superseded by them, is, remark- able. Apparently cultural conservatism upheld Javanese 1.7 Javanese name authors and scholars in the critical periods when foreign ideologies were introduced into their national society. It Javanese people have various systems for naming. Many remains to be seen whether in times to come Javanese Javanese have only one name and no surname. Oth- conservatism will prove strong enough to adapt and inte- ers use their father’s name as well as their own, in a grate foreign elements with the same success as it did in similar manner to European patronymics. For exam- the past. ple, Abdurrahman Wahid's name is derived from Wahid Anyway Javanese cultural conservatism seems a valuable Hasyim, his father, an independence fighter and minister. asset in the amalgam of modern Indonesian civilization In turn, Wahid Hasyim’s name was derived from his fa- which is developing in the twentieth century. The present ther named Hasyim Asyari, a famous cleric and founder Synopsis of Javanese literature up to about 1900 is not of the Nahdlatul Ulama organization. Another example the place to discuss modern developments at any length, is former president Megawati Sukarnoputri; the last part however. of the name is a patronymic, meaning “Sukarno’s daugh- ter”. Culturally, Javanese people use a patrilineal system that 1.6.2 References traces the hierarchic lineage of the father. This system is particularly used to determine descendants’ rights to [1] Pigeaud. Literature of Java. Volume I. 1967:4-9 use royal titles before their names. However, it is not customary for Javanese to pass on a family name, ex- cept in Suriname, which has a large Javanese popula- 1.6.3 Bibliography tion. Surnames in Suriname Javanese are usually derived from the names of their ancestors who immigrated from • (Dutch) Cornelis Christiaan Berg, 1928, Kidung Java between 1890-1939. Suriname Javanese people usu- Sundayana : (Kidung Sunda C) : voor schoolgebruik ally use Western (mostly Dutch) given names, and Ja- uitgegeven, en voorzien van aanteekeningen, een wo- vanese surnames, many of which are archaic in Java itself. ordenlijstje en een inleiding tot de studie van het Oud- The example of Suriname Javanese surnames are At- Javaansch. Soerakarta: De Bliksem. modikoro, Bandjar, Dasai, Hardjoprajitno, Irodikromo, 1.9. JAVANESE HISTORICAL TEXTS 25

Kromowidjojo, Moestadja, Pawironadi, Redjosentono, Like English, Javanese has compound forms for the teens; Somohardjo, etc. Other Javanese communities who have however, it also has a series of compound 'tweens’, 21– surnames are the Jatons (Jawa Tondano/Tondano Ja- 29. The teens are based on a root -(wə)las, the tweens on vanese), descendants of Prince Diponegoro’s followers -likur, and the tens are formed by the combining forms. exiled to North Sulawesi. Some of their surnames are Hyphens are not used in the orthography, but have been Arbi, Baderan, Djoyosuroto, Guret, Kiaidemak, Modjo, added to the table below to clarify their derivation. Ngurawan, Pulukadang, Suratinoyo, Wonopati, Zees, etc. Final orthographic -a tends to [ɔ] in many dialects, as does Many Javanese have just a single name, for example, any preceding a (as in sanga [sɔŋɔ] 9). Sukarno, Suharto, or Boediono. Many names have Parallel to the tens are the hundreds (satus, ronga- come from traditional Javanese language, many derived tus); the thousands (sèwu, rongèwu), and the millions from Sanskrit. Names with the prefix Su-, which means (sayuta, rongyuta), except that the compounds of five good, are very popular. After the advent of Islam, and six are formed with limang- and nem- (séket 50 and many Javanese used Arabic names, especially among suwidak/sewidak 60 are suppletive). clerics and the northern coast population, where Is- lamic influence is strong. There are many Javanese-style Old Javanese Numerals Arabic names such as Marpuah (from Marfu'ah), Ngab- durohman (from Abdurrahman), Slamet (from salam), Sarip (from Sharif), Solichin (from Salihin), etc. 1.8.1 See also

Commoners usually have only one-word names, while • Balinese numerals, a related but yet more complex nobles use names of two or more words, but rarely a numeral system. surname. Due to the influence of other cultures, many people started using names from other languages, mainly European. Catholic Javanese usually use Latin baptismal names followed by a traditional Javanese name, for exam- 1.9 Javanese historical texts ple Albertus Soegijopranoto, the first Indonesian bishop. Albertus is his baptismal name, while Soegijopranoto is “Babad” redirects here. For the talmudist, see Yosef his traditional Javanese given name. Babad. For the village in , see Babad, Iran.

1.7.1 See also Javanese literature has a very large historical component. In all sorts of texts, such as laudatory poems, chronicles, • Indonesian name and travelogues, writers have interpreted the how and why of certain circumstances. These texts are important for the knowledge of Javanese 1.7.2 External links perspectives on the past. Scholars of Javanese history have paid much attention to theoretical questions, aiming • (English) Javanese girl names at a balanced evaluation of Javanese historiography next • http://web.archive.org/web/20051225081222/http: to Western historiography. In doing so they focused on //www.geocities.com/omimachifuri/names.htm Old and Modern Javanese sources, drawing both on writ- ten sources and archaeological and epigraphic material. • http://www.kampungnet.com.sg/modules.php? The debate continues up to the present. op=modload&name=Subjects&file=index&req= viewpage&pageid=60 1.9.1 Babads

1.8 Javanese numerals Babads as a genre belong to the traditional literature. Characteristic for this kind of literature is that it is written The Javanese language has a decimal numeral system in metrical form and is governed by a set of strict conven- with distinct words for the 'tweens’ from 21 to 29, called tions. Anything written in prose (gancaran) was in tradi- likuran. tional Javanese society not considered as belles letters, but merely served as a kind of note-book or aide-mémoire. The basic numerals 1–10 have independent and combin- ing forms, the latter derived via a suffix -ng. The com- This is connected with the way in which literature used to bining forms are used to form the tens, hundreds, thou- be presented: it was not usually read in silence, but was sands, and millions. The numerals 1–5 and 10 have dis- recited or sung to an audience. Every metre had is own tinct high-register (halus, or in Javanese krama) and low particular melody or melodies to which it was sung, in register (ngoko) forms. The halus forms are listed below harmony with the contents of the story. in italics. (Dasa 10 is derived from Sanskrit désa.) The word babad means 'a story about past events’, 'text 26 CHAPTER 1. TENTANG AKSARA JAWA DAN BAHASA JAWA

on the clearing of (the land...)', i.e. 'story about the origin in the late 19th century, at the time of Paku Buwana IX of this or that settlement'. (r. 1861-93).[2] The Babad Basuki relates the clearing of the jungle and founding of a new settlement in Besuki (East Java), while 1.10.2 Sekar madya and tembang macapat the Babad Dipanegara relates the events connected with the insurrection of Diponegoro. Sekar madya (Low Javanese: Tembang tengahan; “mid- dle songs”) are supposed to lie between the other two 1.9.2 Kakawin and kidung genres, but there is no agreement about which genres are considered sekar madya and which are tembang maca- pat (old orthography: machapat). Both of these, in con- Kakawin are long epic poems in a defined metre inherited trast to sekar ageng, use varying number of lines of vary- from Sanskrit poetic forms. Kidung are epic poems in ing length, but always in a specific form. Furthermore, Javanese metres. the vowel sound of the final syllable must match a spe- cific pattern (note that this is different from syllable rime, 1.9.3 See also as consonants that follow, if any, do not have to match). The pattern of the length of lines is known as guru wilan- • Hans Ras gan, guru pètungan, or guru wichalan, while the pattern of vowels is known as dhongdhing or guru lagu. In the schemes below, the number represents the guru wilan- gan, while the letter is the guru lagu of the corresponding 1.10 Javanese poetry line. In addition to these formal structures, each of these forms Javanese poetry (poetry in the Javanese or especially the has a specific mood. The typical use is indicated after the Kawi language; Low Javanese: tembang; High Javanese: form for many of the structures below. sekar) is traditionally recited in song form. The standard forms are divided into three types, sekar ageng, sekar Padmasoesastra listed 11 types of sekar madya forms [3] madya, and tembang macapat. All three types follow used in Surakarta. Many of them, however, are no strict rules of poetic construction. These forms are highly longer used. The ones in modern use are: influential in Javanese . • Juru demung: 8A, 8U, 8U, 8A, 8U, 8A, 8U 1.10.1 Sekar ageng • Wirangrong: 8I, 8O, 10U, 6I, 7A, 8A • Balabah: 12A, 3É, 12A, 3Á, 12A, 3Á The most sacred are the sekar ageng (Low Javanese: tem- bang gedhé; “great songs”). These were traditionally held to be the most ancient of the forms, but Jaap Kunst be- Two meters were classified as macapat forms in the past, lieved that the indigenous forms represented an older tra- but are now considered sekar madya: dition. The ancient forms of these, known as kakawin, use meters from Indian poetry, specifying the number of • Megatruh (or Duduk wuluh): 12U, 8I, 8U, 8I, 8O syllables in each line, their vowel length, and the loca- • tion of caesurae. Exactly how this ancient form sounded Gambuh: 7U, 10U, 12I, 8U, 8O (there are a num- when sung is hard to know, as the modern form has been ber of variants of this form) influenced by gamelan structures. It may have resembled modern Indian or Balinese chant. The common macapat forms are: The modern form of sekar ageng are always in stanzas of • four lines, and the number of syllables in each (lampah) Dhangdhang gula: 10I, 10A, 8É(O), 7U, 9I, 7A, is fixed and divided into parts (pedhotan) by caesurae. 6U, 8A, 12I, 7A; neutral character, used especially (Vowel length is no longer distinguished.) These indica- for introducing another poem tions are ordinarily indicated with the form; for example, • Sinom: 8A, 8I, 8A, 8I, 7I, 8U, 7A, 8I, 12A; didactic sekar ageng Bongsa patra, lampah 17, pedhotan 4,6,7. poems According to Padmasasustra, there are 44 types of sekar ageng used in Surakarta.[1] • Asmarandana: 8I, 8A, 8O(É), 8A, 7A, 8U, 8A; A sekar ageng is sometimes used as a type of buka (song love poems introduction) known as a bawa. It is sung solo, or may • Kinanthi: 8U, 8I, 8A, 8I, 8A, 8I; love poems be supported by the gendér. Only the first line is used in the introduction, and the rest may follow in the actual • Pangkur: 8A, 11I, 8U, 7A, 12U, 8A, 8I; violent gendhing. Martopangrawit believes that this began only passions or fighting 1.10. JAVANESE POETRY 27

• Durma: 12A, 7I, 6A, 7A, 8I, 5A, 7I; violent pas- sions or fighting • Mijil: 10I, 6O, 10É, 10I, 6I, 6U; love poems • Mas kumambang: 12I, 6A, 8I, 8A; longing or homesickness • Puchung: 12U, 6A, 8I, 12A; neutral character, used for riddles

As an example, consider the following Kinanthi verse, a stanza from the Serat Centhini:

Ki Jayèngraga agupuh anggamel rebab respati rebabé langkung prayoga watangan pinonthang gadhing kosok pinatra pinrada batok jamangan balenggin[4]

These forms are the basis of kidung poetry. The text for these songs is frequently used in works for the gamelan, frequently sung by the gerong. Indeed, many modern gendhing share common macapat texts, espe- cially Kinanthi, fit into their individual melodic pattern. Sumarsam believes that the singing of these forms led to the development of the early gendhing gerong, in the mid- 19th century.[5] Wayang performances make use of the Mahabharata and Ramayana in macapat form, created in the 18th and 19th centuries.[6]

1.10.3 Notes

[1] Padmasoesastra, Tatatjara; publication no. 2 of Volkslec- tuur, 1891, page 249 et seq. Cited in Kunst, 123.

[2] Sumarsam, page 97.

[3] Padmasoesastra, Tatatjara; publication no. 2 of Volkslec- tuur, 1891, page 251. Cited in Kunst, 123.

[4] Serat Centhini, Canto 276, stanza 5; cited in Kunst, 224.

[5] Sumarsam, page 98-99.

[6] Sumarsam, page 96.

1.10.4 References

• Kunst, Jaap. Music in Java: Its History, Its Theory and Its Technique. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1949. Pages 122-125 discuss the forms, and is the source for the article except when noted above. • Sumarsam. Gamelan: Cultural Interaction and Mu- sical Development in Central Java. Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1995. Chapter 2

Aksara-Aksara

2.1 Ha (Javanese) (Whether a word is considered a native Javanese or not will depend on the dic- (ha), is a syllable in the Javanese script which represent tionary definition.) the sound /ɦɔ/ or /ɦa/. The letter can also represent a null consonant, in which it would be pronounced as /ɔ/ or /a/. 2. in the middle of a word is almost always translit- It is commonly transliterated to Latin as “ha” or “a” and erated as “ha”. sometimes as “ho” and “o”. • - tahu (tofu), not tau • - ra-hayu (blessed), not rah-ayu (from 2.1.1 Pasangan rootword ayu (beauty))

The letter’s pasangan (◌) is one of six which are lo- With the exception cated on the right hand side of previous syllable, mak- ing it possible to stack two pasangans without the use of • Certain words such as - maos (read- pangkon. ing) or - kaos (shirt) • Words that end with “a” and has suffix -a, such as - ana-a (let there be) 2.1.2 Extended form • Reduplicated word, where in the beginning of the second word always transliterated as “a” doesn't have a murda form. 3. In root word that ends with /h/ sound (in this sense, 2.1.3 Final consonant using wignyan) and has suffix (-i, -an, etc.), (as in “ha”) is added before the suffix.

has a syllable-final form called wignyan () which re- • - panembah-han (to address a places ha-pangkon combination. For example: “gajah” royalty), from the rootword - nembah (elephant) is written as , not (to bow, to respect)

4. Rootwords that ends with vowel sound and has suffix 2.1.4 Glyphs -ake, its suffix is written as • 2.1.5 Orthography - katamtokaké (have been chosen), not katamtokhaké, from the rootword - tamtu - (certain) There are several rules regarding the writing of , whether pronounced as “ha” or “a”. 5. are added in front of rootwords with prefix ng-, ny-, m-, and n-, although this is not mandatory. 1. in front of a word is always transliterated as “a”, • except for foreign loan words. The same rule applies - ngandika (said), not hangandika when sandhangan swara (vowel diacritics) is used. nor angandika

• Read as “a": - aku (me), - ora (not), 6. Rootword that starts with if added prefix pi- or - ilang (lost) pri-, the syllable became (ya) • Read as “ha": - haji (hajj), - • - piyagem, from root word - hotèl, - hikmat (wisdom) agem.

28 2.4. RA (JAVANESE) 29

2.1.6 References 2.3.1 Pasangan

2.1.7 See also It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable. For example - anak • Ha (Balinese) cacing (little worm).

2.2 Na (Javanese) 2.3.2 Murda The letter has a murda form, which is . is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the sound /nɔ/, /na/. It is transliterated to Latin as “na”, and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “no”. It has an- 2.3.3 Glyphs other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A9A4.[1][2][3] 2.3.4 References

2.2.1 Pasangan [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable. For example - mangana [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (eat, imperative), which, although transliterated with a (1995): 69-103. single 'n', is written using double '' because the rootword ('mangan', to eat) ends in ''. [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 2.2.2 Murda

The letter has a murda form, which is . 2.3.5 See also

• 2.2.3 Glyphs Ca (Balinese)

2.2.4 References 2.4 Ra (Javanese) [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working sound /ɾɔ/, /ɾa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ra”, and Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “ro”. It has an- (1995): 69-103. other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A9AB.[1][2][3] [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 2.4.1 Pasangan

2.2.5 See also It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable. The pasangan only occurs if a word is ended with a consonant, and the next word starts • Na (Balinese) with 'r', for example - anak raja (king’s child). If it is located between a consonant and a vocal, it didn't form a pasangan, instead it uses a special panjingan called 2.3 Ca (Javanese) a cakra () or cakra keret (), for example - griya (house). is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the sound /tʃɔ/, /tʃa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ca”, and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “co”. It has an- 2.4.2 Murda other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A995.[1][2][3] The letter doesn't have a murda form. 30 CHAPTER 2. AKSARA-AKSARA

2.4.3 Final consonant 2.5.3 Glyphs

cannot became final consonant (e.g. ). It’s being 2.5.4 References replaced by layar (). For example: - layar (sail), not [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

2.4.4 Glyphs [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter 2.4.5 References (1995): 69-103.

[1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (1995): 69-103. 2.5.5 See also [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New • Ka (Balinese) York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

2.4.6 See also 2.6 Da (Javanese)

• Ra (Balinese) is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the sound /d̪ɔ/, /d̪a/. It is transliterated to Latin as “da”, and • Ra Agung () sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “do”. It has an- other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A9A2.[1][2][3] 2.5 Ka (Javanese)

is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the 2.6.1 Pasangan sound /kɔ/, /ka/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ka”, and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “ko”. It has two It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side other forms (pasangan), which are ◌ and ◌(if fol- of the previous syllable. For example - anduk lowed by ''and several other glyphs), but represented by (towel). a single Unicode code point, U+A98F.[1][2][3] 2.6.2 Extended form 2.5.1 Pasangan The letter doesn't have a murda form. It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side Using cecak telu (),the syllable represents /dz/. of the previous syllable. For example - anake (his/her child), which, although transliterated with a sin- gle 'k', is written using double '' because the rootword 2.6.3 Glyphs ('anak', child) ends in ''. The pasangan has two forms, the other is used when the 2.6.4 References pasangan is followed by '','','', '', or ''. For example - anakku (my child) [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

2.5.2 Extended form [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter The letter has a murda form, which is . (1995): 69-103. /ħ/) ح Using cecak telu (),the syllable represents Arabic or /x/). [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New with a cerek () is called Ka sasak. York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 2.9. WA (JAVANESE) 31

2.6.5 See also sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “so”. It has an- other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by • Da (Balinese) a single Unicode code point, U+A9B1.[1][2][3] • Da Mahaprana () 2.8.1 Pasangan

2.7 Ta (Javanese) It’s pasangan form ◌, is one of six pasangan that’s located on the right hand side of the previous syllable. is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the Therefore it is allowed to write two pasangan at the time sound /t̪ɔ/, /t̪a/. It is transliterated to Latin as “na”, and time without having to resort to use pangkon (). sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “to”. It has two The location of the sandhangan ,,or is on top the pasan- other forms (pasangan), which are ◌ and ◌(if fol- gan, not on the previous syllable. (See glyph table below) lowed by ''and several other glyphs), but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A9A0.[1][2][3] 2.8.2 Extended form

2.7.1 Pasangan The letter has a murda form, which is .

It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side Using cecak telu (),the syllable represents /ts/. of the previous syllable. For example - ped- hete (his/her buffalo), which, although transliterated with a single 't', is written using double '' because the root- 2.8.3 Glyphs word ('pedhet', buffalo) ends in ''. 2.8.4 References The pasangan has two forms, the other is used when the pasangan is followed by '','','', '', or ''. For example [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- - anak tuma (little flea) guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

[2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working 2.7.2 Murda Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (1995): 69-103. The letter has a murda form, which is . [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New 2.7.3 Glyphs York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

2.7.4 References 2.8.5 See also [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. • Sa (Balinese)

[2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working • Sa Mahaprana () Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (1995): 69-103.

[3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing 2.9 Wa (Javanese) Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the sound /ʋɔ/, /ʋa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “wa”, and 2.7.5 See also sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “wo”. It has an- other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by [1][2][3] • Ta (Balinese) a single Unicode code point, U+A9B3.

2.9.1 Pasangan 2.8 Sa (Javanese) It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the the previous syllable. For example - anak sound /sɔ/, /sa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “sa”, and wadon (a girl). 32 CHAPTER 2. AKSARA-AKSARA

2.9.2 Extended form [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter The letter doesn't have a murda form. (1995): 69-103. Using cecak telu (),the syllable represents /f/. [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 2.9.3 Glyphs

2.9.4 References 2.10.5 See also • [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- La (Balinese) guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working 2.11 Pa (Javanese) Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (1995): 69-103. is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing sound /pɔ/, /pa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “pa”, and Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “po”. It has an- York: Oxford University Press, 1996. other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A9A5.[1][2][3] 2.9.5 See also 2.11.1 Pasangan • Wa (Balinese) It’s pasangan form ◌, is one of six pasangan that’s located on the right hand side of the previous syllable. 2.10 La (Javanese) Therefore it is allowed to write two pasangan at the time time without having to resort to use pangkon (). is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the The location of the sandhangan ,,or is on top the pasan- sound /lɔ/, /la/. It is transliterated to Latin as “la”, and gan, not on the previous syllable. (See glyph table below) sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “lo”. It has two other forms (pasangan), which are ◌ and ◌(if fol- lowed by ''and several other glyphs), but represented by 2.11.2 Extended form a single Unicode code point, U+A9AD.[1][2][3] The letter has a murda form, which is . Using cecak telu (),the syllable represents /f/. 2.10.1 Pasangan with a cerek () is called Pa cerek. It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable. For example - anak loro (two kids). 2.11.3 Glyphs The pasangan has two forms, the other is used when the 2.11.4 References pasangan is followed by '','','', '', or ''. For example - anak lurah (the child of a lurah) [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. 2.10.2 Murda [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter The letter doesn't have a murda form. (1995): 69-103. [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New 2.10.3 Glyphs York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

2.10.4 References 2.11.5 See also [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. • Pa (Balinese) 2.14. YA (JAVANESE) 33

2.12 Dha (Javanese) 2.13.2 Extended form

is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the The letter doesn't have a murda form. sound /d̪ʱɔ/, /d̪ʱa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “dha”, Using cecak telu (),the syllable represents /f/. and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “dho”. It has with a cerek () is called Nya murda. another form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A99D.[1][2][3] 2.13.3 Glyphs 2.12.1 Pasangan 2.13.4 References It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable. [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

2.12.2 Murda [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (1995): 69-103. The letter has a murda form, which is .

[3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New 2.12.3 Glyphs York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

2.12.4 References 2.13.5 See also [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. • Ja (Balinese)

[2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working • Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter Ja Mahaprana (1995): 69-103.

[3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New 2.14 Ya (Javanese) York: Oxford University Press, 1996. is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the sound /yɔ/, /ya/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ya”, and 2.12.5 See also sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “yo”. It has an- other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A9AA.[1][2][3] • Dha (Balinese)

2.14.1 Pasangan 2.13 Ja (Javanese) It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the the previous syllable. The pasangan only occurs if a word sound /dʒɔ/, /dʒa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ja”, is ended with a consonant, and the next word starts with and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “jo”. It has 'y', for example - anak yuyu (little crab). If it another form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented is located between a consonant and a vocal, it didn't form by a single Unicode code point, U+A997.[1][2][3] a pasangan, instead it uses a special panjingan called a pengkal (), for example - ampyang (a kind of snack). 2.13.1 Pasangan

It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of 2.14.2 Murda the previous syllable. For example - anak jaran (little horse). The letter doesn't have a murda form. 34 CHAPTER 2. AKSARA-AKSARA

2.14.3 Glyphs 2.16 Ma (Javanese)

2.14.4 References is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the sound /mɔ/, /ma/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ma”, [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “mo”. It has guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. another form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented [1][2][3] [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working by a single Unicode code point, U+A9A9. Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (1995): 69-103. 2.16.1 Pasangan [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable. For example - anak macan (little tiger). 2.14.5 See also

• Ya (Balinese) 2.16.2 Murda

The letter doesn't have a murda form. 2.15 Nya (Javanese)

is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the 2.16.3 Glyphs sound /ɲɔ/, /ɲa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “nya”, and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “nyo”. It has an- 2.16.4 References other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by [1][2][3] a single Unicode code point, U+A99A. [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

2.15.1 Pasangan [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of (1995): 69-103. the previous syllable. For example - anak nyamuk (little mosquito). [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 2.15.2 Murda

The letter has a murda form, which is . 2.16.5 See also

• Ma (Balinese) 2.15.3 Glyphs

2.15.4 References 2.17 Ga (Javanese) [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working sound /ɡɔ/, /ɡa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ga”, and Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “go”. It has an- (1995): 69-103. other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by a single Unicode code point, U+A992.[1][2][3] [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 2.17.1 Pasangan

2.15.5 See also It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable. For example - anak • Nya (Balinese) gajah (little elephant). 2.19. THA (JAVANESE) 35

2.17.2 Extended form [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New The letter has a murda form, which is . York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Using cecak telu (),the syllable represents /gh/. 2.18.5 See also 2.17.3 Glyphs • Ba (Balinese) 2.17.4 References

[1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- 2.19 Tha (Javanese) guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

[2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter sound /ʈɔ/, /ʈa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “tha”, and (1995): 69-103. sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “tho”. It has an- other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by [3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing a single Unicode code point, U+A99B.[1][2][3] Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 2.19.1 Pasangan 2.17.5 See also It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of • Ga (Balinese) the previous syllable.

2.18 Ba (Javanese) 2.19.2 Murda The letter doesn't have a murda form. is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the sound /bɔ/, /ba/. It is transliterated to Latin as “ba”, and sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “bo”. It has an- 2.19.3 Glyphs other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by [1][2][3] a single Unicode code point, U+A9A7. 2.19.4 References

2.18.1 Pasangan [1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working the previous syllable. For example - anak babi Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (piglet). (1995): 69-103.

[3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing 2.18.2 Murda Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. The letter has a murda form, which is . with a cerek () is called letter I, while is called long 2.19.5 See also I. • Tha (Balinese) 2.18.3 Glyphs

2.18.4 References 2.20 Nga (Javanese)

[1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- is one of syllable in Javanese script that represent the guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000. sound /ŋɔ/, /ŋa/. It is transliterated to Latin as “nga”, and [2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working sometimes in Indonesian orthography as “ngo”. It has an- Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter other form (pasangan), which is ◌, but represented by (1995): 69-103. a single Unicode code point, U+A994.[1][2][3] 36 CHAPTER 2. AKSARA-AKSARA

2.20.1 Pasangan

It’s pasangan form ◌, is located on the bottom side of the previous syllable.

2.20.2 Extended form

The letter doesn't have a murda form. with a cerek () is called I kawi.

2.20.3 Final consonant

cannot became final consonant (e.g. ). It’s being replaced by cecak (). For example: - cacing (worm), not

2.20.4 Glyphs

2.20.5 References

[1] Campbell, George L. Compendium of the World’s Lan- guages. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2000.

[2] Soemarmo, Marmo. “Javanese Script.” Ohio Working Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 14.Winter (1995): 69-103.

[3] Daniels, Peter T and William Bright. The World’s Writing Systems. Ed. Peter T Daniels and William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

2.20.6 See also

• Nga (Balinese) Chapter 3

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

3.1 Text

• Javanese script Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_script?oldid=630204973 Contributors: The Anome, Michael Hardy, To- bias Conradi, Andrewman327, Topbanana, Bearcat, Robbot, Robbyjo, Meursault2004, J. 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Circeus, The shaggy one, Man vyi, Hintha, Ogress, Zachlipton, Sl, Cdc, Ish ishwar, Kdau, Suruena, Garzo, HenkvD, Woohookitty, Jannex, Dangerous-Boy, Noetica, Jon Harald Søby, Stevey7788, Mandarax, BD2412, Grammarbot, Fox Mccloud, Rjwilmsi, Amire80, Bubamara (usurped), Hottentot, ApprenticeFan, ChongDae, Algri, Malhonen, Chobot, Banaticus, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Wester, SatuSuro, C777, CambridgeBayWeather, Aeusoes1, Anclation, That Guy, From That Show!, Sassisch, SmackBot, Vfx, Unyoyega, Lawrencekhoo, Kilo-Lima, Eagleswings, Eskimbot, Kintetsubuffalo, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, BenAveling, MalafayaBot, Colonies Chris, Philip Howard, BesselDekker, Cybercobra, Caniago, Dream out loud, TGC55, Dejongstebroer, Kahuroa, Rigadoun, Korean alpha for knowledge, JorisvS, Bjankuloski06, Bjankuloski06en, Psapsuwan, Mr Stephen, Interlingua, Ryulong, Jose77, Tasfan, Espreon, Norm mit, Knightdna, Bruinfan12, CmdrObot, Irwangatot, John Riemann Soong, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Apiquinamir, Australian Jezza, PKT, Thijs!bot, Anggerik, Merbabu, Nick Number, Northumbrian, Storkk, Deflective, Magioladitis, Ling.Nut, Nyttend, Avicennasis, In- don, JaGa, Karanacs, Naniwako, Egard89, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, LittleWhisky, TXiKiBoT, JhsBot, Gian-2, Billinghurst, Logan, Munci, Enkyo2, SieBot, Happysailor, BenoniBot, Tomaradze, Oi sanjaya, Fiet Nam, Pras, No such user, Alexbot, Centralpowers1914, Sun Creator, Bentu, Geo0910, NoiX180, MelonBot, XLinkBot, Kembangraps, Addbot, Andunie, Offenbach, Fentener van Vlissingen, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Jarble, Contributor777, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Elmju, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, TalkChat, Dan Murphy, Xqbot, Milono77, GrouchoBot, JanDeFietser, FrescoBot, AlexanderKaras, A412, Y4n, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Lotje, Ilham Jenor, TjBot, EmausBot, K6ka, ZéroBot, Hzb pangus, Bagus Priyambada, BagusBagus, ChuispastonBot, Jcaraballo, Gletour, Suharto-Fan, יהודה ,Awewe, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, 123Hedgehog456, CSiedjan, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mahali syarifuddin, BG19bot, CitationCleanerBot Fabi Fuu 76, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Winarto km, Mogism, Mrjulesd, Aladdin Ali Baba, PC-XT, Way2veers, Alteaven, KCE ,שמחה ולדמן remember that, Prabu Ngudut, OccultZone, Ken Cot En, Georgeagent, Trackteur, Mufidkce, Kidungmalam and Anonymous: 116 • Pegon alphabet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegon_alphabet?oldid=618562217 Contributors: Bennylin, Kwamikagami, Arab Hafez, Dr. Blofeld, Rumping, Ashashyou, Addbot, JackieBot, RedBot, Og of Bashan, Lo Ximiendo, Bogdan Nagachop, Si Gam and Anonymous: 6 • Jawi alphabet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawi_alphabet?oldid=628291200 Contributors: Earth, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Jpatokal, Kaihsu, Tobias Conradi, Crissov, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Rorro, Rholton, Meursault2004, Zhen Lin, Kandar, Antandrus, ,Alessio, Keenan Pepper ,לערי ריינהארט ,Mike Storm, Avihu, Kooo, Bennylin, Kwamikagami, Martijn, Chan Han Xiang, .:Ajvol:., Yuje Sl, Pippu d'Angelo, Velella, Woohookitty, Mr Tan, Kam Solusar, Tabletop, Cbdorsett, Amikeco, Anan, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Amire80, Pavlo Shevelo, Algri, Timothykhoo, Vmenkov, EamonnPKeane, Osomec, SatuSuro, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, - ber, Ptcamn, , Chriswaterguy, Wikipeditor, SmackBot, Imz, Aiman abmajid, Blackbanner, Pataniraya, Bluebot, Shunpiker, Arab Hafez, Dwchin, Caniago, Anss123, Euchiasmus, Hvn0413, Pere Serafi, Jaksmata, LadyofShalott, RobScholar, JamesAM, SeNeKa, Merbabu,

37 38 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Escarbot, Niduzzi, Alphachimpbot, Zack2007, Joshua, Magioladitis, 1549bcp, R'n'B, Gunkarta, Huzzlet the bot, Azndragon126, Sh1t slinger, Egard89, Swoof, VolkovBot, LokiClock, Emmenite, Icalouse, BotKung, Mouse is back, Oneeyedboxer, Awangmamat, Botev, SieBot, MuzikJunky, Luciengav, Wwishnu, Unbuttered Parsnip, Mild Bill Hiccup, RafaAzevedo, Starstylers, Zack wadghiri, Ashashyou, Bagworm, Drrumbowe, DerBorg, XLinkBot, Amir Hamzah 2008, Addbot, Kerina yin, Lightbot, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, V85, Againme, AnomieBOT, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Aris riyanto, Tarikes, Alvin Seville, FrescoBot, Alexan- derKaras, Orhanghazi, Gouerouz, TruHeir, Mohdzamrimurah, Île flottante, DixonDBot, Alph Bot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZxxZxxZ, Giladzuc, Cobaltcigs, Labnoor, DeMonsoon, Acecon, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mahali syarifuddin, 26 , Si Gam, Tome- Hale, Ranking Update, Liam987, Arcandam, Hmainsbot1, Malaysiaboy, Imfeelyoung, Monkbot, Vieque, Gati123, Arshaript80, Benhafni, Dehalvie and Anonymous: 82 • Old Javanese Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Javanese?oldid=630090996 Contributors: AnonMoos, Meursault2004, Bennylin, Kwamikagami, Ogress, Stevey7788, SatuSuro, Nlu, SmackBot, Peter Isotalo, SimonGreenhill, TXiKiBoT, Fratrep, Addbot, Andrew K. Zimmerman, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Anypodetos, AnomieBOT, პაატა შ, EmausBot, Ikasgill, ZéroBot, SporkBot, Chrisminter, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mark Arsten, Hmainsbot1, Ken Cot En, Mufidkce and Anonymous: 7 • Javanese literature Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_literature?oldid=572002764 Contributors: John K, Meursault2004, Bennylin, SatuSuro, Hmains, Afghana, VolkovBot, HuskyHuskie, Psychless, JL-Bot, WikHead, Addbot, Jarble, Dr-moomin, 14Ave, John of Reading, SporkBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and JoshyDinda • Javanese name Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_name?oldid=572440464 Contributors: The Anome, Shii, WhisperToMe, Meursault2004, Lacrimosus, Bennylin, SatuSuro, FiggyBee, Carabinieri, SmackBot, Hmains, Paul 012, Rigadoun, CmdrObot, Acong, Northumbrian, Shirt58, Xeno, Rathersane, JBH23, Mallerd, Fratrep, ClueBot, 1ForTheMoney, Addbot, Landon1980, Jarble, Bility, AnomieBOT, Kjnelan, Updatehelper, TjBot, SporkBot, Scbs.radio and Anonymous: 20 • Javanese numerals Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_numerals?oldid=559181396 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Bennylin, Kwamikagami, SmackBot, Arif doudo and Anonymous: 1 • Javanese historical texts Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_historical_texts?oldid=631296331 Contributors: Rmhermen, Carlossuarez46, CanisRufus, Bennylin, Mitsukai, SatuSuro, Ericorbit, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, Sepa, Rigadoun, Merbabu, Indon, Brewcrewer, Luckas-bot, Erik9bot, MerlIwBot and Anonymous: 2 • Javanese poetry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_poetry?oldid=575580656 Contributors: Bennylin, Keenan Pepper, Rjwilmsi, SmackBot, Stevage, Rigadoun, Corpx, JavierMC, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Addbot and Anonymous: 3 • Ha (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha_(Javanese)?oldid=622306865 Contributors: Bennylin, FrescoBot, John of Read- ing, Mogism and Alteaven • Na (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na_(Javanese)?oldid=627684157 Contributors: Bennylin, Fanatix, Kmzayeem and Acetotyce • Ca (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ca_(Javanese)?oldid=562554580 Contributors: Bennylin and Kmzayeem • Ra (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra_(Javanese)?oldid=628052447 Contributors: Bennylin, Fanatix and Kmzayeem • Ka (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka_(Javanese)?oldid=628053253 Contributors: Bennylin and Fanatix • Da (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_(Javanese)?oldid=591270437 Contributors: Bennylin • Ta (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_(Javanese)?oldid=562554738 Contributors: Bennylin • Sa (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa_(Javanese)?oldid=591270622 Contributors: Bennylin • Wa (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wa_(Javanese)?oldid=591267600 Contributors: Bennylin • La (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_(Javanese)?oldid=562552688 Contributors: Bennylin • Pa (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa_(Javanese)?oldid=591269569 Contributors: Bennylin • Dha (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dha_(Javanese)?oldid=562678860 Contributors: Bennylin • Ja (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ja_(Javanese)?oldid=591269613 Contributors: Bennylin • Ya (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya_(Javanese)?oldid=591154093 Contributors: Bennylin • Nya (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nya_(Javanese)?oldid=591267771 Contributors: Bennylin • Ma (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_(Javanese)?oldid=562569592 Contributors: Bennylin • Ga (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga_(Javanese)?oldid=591270344 Contributors: Bennylin • Ba (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba_(Javanese)?oldid=591269933 Contributors: Bennylin • Tha (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tha_(Javanese)?oldid=562570159 Contributors: Bennylin • Nga (Javanese) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nga_(Javanese)?oldid=591269993 Contributors: Bennylin

3.2 Images

• File:AbdullahbinAbdulKadir-HikayatAbdullah-1849.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/ AbdullahbinAbdulKadir-HikayatAbdullah-1849.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nla.gov.au/worldtreasures/ html/theme-people-7-hikayat.html. Original artist: Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir. • File:Aksara_Jawa.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Aksara_Jawa.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto • File:Aksara_Jawa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Aksara_Jawa.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin 3.2. IMAGES 39

• File:Aksara_Jawa_-_basa.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Aksara_Jawa_-_basa.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Aksara_Jawa_-_jawa.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Aksara_Jawa_-_jawa.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Allah-green.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: Converted to SVG from Image:Islam.png, originally from en:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia by Mr100percent on 4 February 2003. Originally described as “Copied from Public Domain artwork”. Original artist: • File:Ambox_content.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f4/Ambox_content.png License: ? Contributors: Derived from Image:Information icon.svg Original artist: El T (original icon); David Levy (modified design); Penubag (modified color) • File:Angka_0.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Angka_0.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_1.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Angka_1.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_2.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Angka_2.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_3.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Angka_3.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_4.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Angka_4.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_5.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Angka_5.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_6.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Angka_6.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_7.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Angka_7.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_8.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Angka_8.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Angka_9.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Angka_9.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfered to Commons by User:Sdrtirs using CommonsHelper. Original artist: murraytheb Original uploader was Murraytheb at en.wikipedia • File:Awatcornertower01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Awatcornertower01.JPG License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_Pakoe_Boewono_X_soesoehoenan_van_Soerakarta_TMnr_10001886. jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_Pakoe_ Boewono_X_soesoehoenan_van_Soerakarta_TMnr_10001886.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Tropenmuseum Link back to Institution infobox template Original artist: unknown • File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_met_de_echtgenote_van_kunstschilder_Raden_Saleh_en_een_ bediende_Batavia_TMnr_60043601.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/COLLECTIE_ TROPENMUSEUM_Studioportret_met_de_echtgenote_van_kunstschilder_Raden_Saleh_en_een_bediende_Batavia_TMnr_ 60043601.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Tropenmuseum Link back to Institution infobox tem- plate Original artist: niet bekend / unknown (Fotograaf/photographer). Woodbury & Page (Fotostudio). • File:Central_java_flag.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Central_java_flag.png License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AlexR.L. • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Distribution-jv.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Distribution-jv.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Based on Image:BlankMap-World-v2.png and information from the w:Javanese language article. Original artist: Jon Harald Søby • File:East_Java_Flag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/East_Java_Flag.svg License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: East Java Flag.png

data-file-height='1500' />

coat of arms element extracted from: Coat of arms of East Java.svg Original artist: Fred the Oyster

• File:Flag_map_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_map_of_Indonesia.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Indonesia_provinces_blank_map.svg Original artist: Indonesia_provinces_blank_map.svg: en:User:Indon • File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/ lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Ganten_nga_lelet.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Ganten_nga_lelet.png License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Ganten_nga_lelet_raswadi.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Ganten_nga_lelet_raswadi.png Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Ganten_pa_cerek.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Ganten_pa_cerek.png License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Hanacaraka-bali.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Hanacaraka-bali.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Uploader’s own work. Based on a font by Jason Glavy. Original artist: Tasnu Arakun • File:Hanacaraka-jawa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Hanacaraka-jawa.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Uploader’s own work. Based on a font by Jason Glavy. Original artist: Tasnu Arakun • File:Hanacaraka.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Hanacaraka.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin • File:History_of_Indonesia.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/History_of_Indonesia.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gunawan Kartapranata • File:Java_languages.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Java_languages.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: presumably, Meursault2004 at en.wikipedia (not stated at original upload) • File:Javanese_ba.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Javanese_ba.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ca.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Javanese_ca.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_da.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Javanese_da.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_dha.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Javanese_dha.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ga.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Javanese_ga.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ha.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Javanese_ha.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ja.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Javanese_ja.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ka.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Javanese_ka.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_la.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Javanese_la.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ma.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Javanese_ma.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_na.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Javanese_na.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_nga.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Javanese_nga.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_nya.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Javanese_nya.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_pa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Javanese_pa.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ra.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Javanese_ra.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) 3.2. IMAGES 41

• File:Javanese_sa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Javanese_sa.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_script01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Javanese_script01.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vberger • File:Javanese_ta.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Javanese_ta.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_tha.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Javanese_tha.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_wa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Javanese_wa.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Javanese_ya.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Javanese_ya.svg License: ? Contributors: Self made, using Tuladha Jejeg font by R.S. Wihananto Original artist: Bennylin (yes?) • File:Jawa_Ba.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Jawa_Ba.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ba_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Jawa_Ba_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ca.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Jawa_Ca.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ca_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Jawa_Ca_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Da.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Jawa_Da.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Da_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Jawa_Da_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Dha.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Jawa_Dha.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Dha_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Jawa_Dha_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ga.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Jawa_Ga.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ga_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Jawa_Ga_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ha.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Jawa_Ha.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ha_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Jawa_Ha_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ja.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Jawa_Ja.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ja_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Jawa_Ja_Pasangan.png License: Public do- main Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ka.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Jawa_Ka.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ka_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Jawa_Ka_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_La.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Jawa_La.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ma.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Jawa_Ma.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ma_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Jawa_Ma_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Na.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Jawa_Na.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Na_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Jawa_Na_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Nga.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Jawa_Nga.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Nga_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Jawa_Nga_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Nya.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Jawa_Nya.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Nya_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Jawa_Nya_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? 42 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Jawa_Pa.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Jawa_Pa.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Pa_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Jawa_Pa_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ra.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Jawa_Ra.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Ra_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Jawa_Ra_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Sa.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Jawa_Sa.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jawa_Sa_Pasangan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Jawa_Sa_Pasangan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? 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• File:Pada_piseleh_terbalik.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Pada_piseleh_terbalik.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_rangkep.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Pada_rangkep.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_rerengan_kanan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Pada_rerengan_kanan.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_rerengan_kiri.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Pada_rerengan_kiri.png License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_surat_andhap.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Pada_surat_andhap.png License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_surat_luhur.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Pada_surat_luhur.png License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_surat_madya.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Pada_surat_madya.png License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_tembang_madya.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Pada_tembang_madya.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_tembang_purwa.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Pada_tembang_purwa.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_tembang_purwa1.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Pada_tembang_purwa1.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pada_tembang_wasana.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Pada_tembang_wasana.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Palmleaf_of_Kakawin_Sutasoma_from_Java01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Palmleaf_ of_Kakawin_Sutasoma_from_Java01.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? 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• File:Pasangan_murda_ca.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Pasangan_murda_ca.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pasangan_murda_da.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Pasangan_murda_da.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pasangan_murda_ga.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Pasangan_murda_ga.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pasangan_murda_ka.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Pasangan_murda_ka.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pasangan_murda_na.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Pasangan_murda_na.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alteaven • File:Pasangan_murda_nya.png Source: 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• File:Pegon.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Pegon.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Trans- ferred from id.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Dmitri Lytov using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Meursault2004 at id.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Aris riyanto at id.wikipedia. • File:Pegon_swara.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Pegon_swara.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: Transferred from id.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Dmitri Lytov using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Meursault2004 at id.wikipedia • File:Prasasti_Masjid_Sholihin01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Prasasti_Masjid_Sholihin01.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Meursault2004 • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: ? 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