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Copyright by Elizabeth Ann Burnett 2012 The Dissertation Committee for Elizabeth Ann Burnett Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Bourdieu’s Linguistic Market and the Spread of French in Protectorate Morocco Committee: Carl Blyth, Co-Supervisor Keith Walters, Co-Supervisor Jean-Pierre Montreuil Barbara E. Bullock Alexandra Wettlaufer Bourdieu’s Linguistic Market and the Spread of French in Protectorate Morocco by Elizabeth Ann Burnett, B.A., M. A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2012 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my boys, Peter and Timothy. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my husband, Michael Henderson, for his enduring and boundless encouragement; my father, Peter Burnett, who instilled the desire and drive to finish; my sister, Heather Royse, for her insight; Dr. Lindsy Myers Douglass for setting the professional and personal example; Dr. Nadia Mamelouk for her many perspectives; the Fulbright Commission and the American Institute of Maghreb Studies for providing me the opportunities to study in Morocco; Dr. J. P. Montreuil for teaching me how to think critically; Dr. Moha Ennaji for believing in this project and inspiring the research; and Dr. Carl Blyth and Dr. Keith Walters for their gracious support and counsel. v Bourdieu’s Linguistic Market and the Spread of French in Protectorate Morocco Elizabeth Ann Burnett, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2012 Co-Supervisors: Carl Blyth and Keith Walters The French colonizer from 1912–1956 brought not only the French language to Morocco but also a colonial administration that reinforced divisions between various indigenous social groups. European, Jewish, Muslim, and Berber communities were segregated into separate schools providing different levels of French-language education. As a result, French linguistic dominance and economic opportunity were assured among some groups more thoroughly than others. Acquisition of the French language for European and Jewish communities through advanced educational opportunities at the European lycées and Jewish Alliance Israélite Universelle granted certain higher educational, economic, and administrative privileges within the colonial administration and workforce. Meanwhile, those attending schools created for Muslim and Berber Moroccans where curricula insisted on rudimentary French skills were unable to seek advanced educational or economic opportunity. This research describes the different types of access to the French language that were intended for the diverse European, Jewish, Berber, and Arab speech vi communities through the various educational institutions created by the French government during the French protectorate in Morocco. Through the application of Bourdieu’s language market theory, this dissertation examines the ways that access became linked to the job market and the attainment of symbolic, economic, and cultural capital. This research offers explanations of how language shift occurred among European and Jews in Morocco and how French continued to confer socioeconomic value long after independence, despite efforts to oust the “colonizer’s language” for all Moroccans. Furthermore, in contradiction to Bourdieu’s language market theory, this research exposes how multiple language markets in Morocco emerged for Muslim and Berber communities as a result of access to different kinds of instruction and how both French and Arabic became legitimate languages with very different social functions. vii Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1: THE SPREAD OF FRENCH IN MOROCCO ........................................................1 1.1 French Colonial Influence: Educational Institutions and Social Divisions ..........3 1.2 French Dominance After the Protectorate in Morocco .........................................4 1.3 Outline of Dissertation ..........................................................................................8 CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND MULTILINGUAL MOROCCO ..................12 2.1 Multilingualism and Diglossia in Morocco ........................................................13 2.2 Applying Bourdieu’s Theory to Language Spread in Protectorate Morocco .....26 2.3 Language in Bourdieu’s Theories .......................................................................29 2.3.1 Primary and Secondary Habitus .............................................................30 2.3.2 Dominant Language as Legitimate Language ........................................32 2.3.3 The Role of the School and Legitimate Language ..................................33 2.3.4 Legitimate Language as Capital ..............................................................35 2.3.5 Distinction, Misrecognition, and Symbolic Domination ........................37 2.3.6 Beyond Bourdieu: Resistance .................................................................40 2.4 Previous Research on the French Language in Protectorate Morocco ...............45 2.4.1 Colonial Discourse ..................................................................................47 2.4.2 Nationalist Discourse ..............................................................................52 2.5 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................60 CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL DIVISIONS IN PROTECTORATE MOROCCO .....................................61 3.1 Morocco in Contrast to Algeria and Tunisia .......................................................62 viii 3.2 Influence of Religious Organizations .................................................................66 3.3 The Kabyle Myth and Moroccan Berbers ...........................................................69 3.4 Social Divisions in 1912 Morocco ......................................................................72 3.4.1 Europeans ................................................................................................73 3.4.2 Jewish Communities ...............................................................................75 3.4.3 Arab Communities ..................................................................................80 3.4.4 Berber Communities ...............................................................................81 3.5 Difficulty of Dissecting Moroccan Communities ...............................................83 3.6 The Strategy of Divide and Rule: Institutionalized Ideologies ...........................85 3.7 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................92 CHAPTER 4: DIFFERENTIAL ACCESS TO FRENCH SCHOOLS AND FRENCH INSTRUCTION: SOCIAL REPRODUCTION AND DISPOSSESSION .........................................95 4.1 Education and the Mission Civilisatrice .............................................................96 4.2 Separate Schools for Separate Communities ......................................................99 4.2.1 Schools for Europeans ..........................................................................102 4.2.2 Schools for Jewish Moroccans..............................................................106 4.2.3 Schools for Non-Jewish Moroccans: Elite and Nonelite, Arab and Berber .............................................................................................................109 4.2.3.1 Schools for the Moroccan Elite ..............................................111 4.2.3.2 Schools for the Nonelite .........................................................113 4.2.3.3 Vocational Schools and Schools for Arab Girls ....................114 4.2.3.4 Schools for Berbers ................................................................118 4.3 Educational Alternatives: European, Traditional, and Free Schools ................125 4.4 Selection of Students.........................................................................................134 ix 4.5 The Diversity of the Teaching Staff ..................................................................138 4.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................148 CHAPTER 5: THE LINGUISTIC MARKET AND BOURDIEU ...............................................151 5.1 French as a Legitimate Language in Morocco ..................................................152 5.2 Symbolic Domination: Inequity in the Workforce ...........................................159 5.3 Dual Legitimacy: Arabic and French as Cultural Capital .................................162 5.4 Community Involvement and Resistance to French Dominance ......................169 5.5 From Solidarity and Resistance to New Forms of Symbolic Domination ........176 5.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................183 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................186 6.1 Overview of the Dissertation ............................................................................187 6.2 The Maintenance of French After Independence ..............................................192