Astonomy, Myts & Legends

of te Ancient Egyptans Volume 1

by Monica Sevila Contnts

Stars and Galaxies Te Constlatons Te and te Belts Stars of Ancient Egyptan Pyramids: Resurrecton Machines Ancient Egyptans and te Sphinx Te Sun Ancient Egyptans and te Creaton of te World Te Pharaohs: Te Kings Ancient Egyptans and teir Tombs Te Sun and te Gods Stars and Galaxies

The early universe was extremely hot. As it cooled, sub atomic particles began to clump together and formed the first atom, the hydrogen atom. Later, as the universe began to cool even further, dust and hydrogen gas joined together through the force of gravity and became dense enough to form the first stars, the protostars. Through extreme heat and pressure, hydrogen gas atoms began to fuse together. The result of this nuclear fusion produced light and heat energy. This process describes the formation of the first stars.

Billions and billions of stars were created through this process and grouped together to form the galaxies within the universe today. Galaxies are massive systems of stars, dust, and gas held together by gravity. Gravity causes stars to attract each other and clump together into groups. Because stars have extreme amounts of mass, they exert the force of gravity, the attractive force which draws other objects with mass, such as other stars, to itself.

Our sun and our solar system is part of a galaxy known as the Milky Way. It is described as a spiral galaxy because its shape looks like a spiral. On a dark night, the edge of the Milky Way can be seen in the Northern Sky. The Milky Way was named after the fact that the multitude of stars that could be seen in this region of the sky looked milky white.

One of the closest galaxies to the Milky Way is the Andromeda galaxy which is 1 million light years away. The distance between galaxies is measured in light years. A light year is about 9.5 trillion kilometers or it is the distance light travels in a year. Knowledge and Comprehension Words to Know:

Protostars:

Stars:

Galaxy:

Gravity:

Milky Way

Light Year 1. How would you describe a galaxy?

2. How is the distance between galaxies measured?

Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis

3. Explain how the stars within a galaxy are held together in a group.

4. Describe the formation of the first stars. 5. Describe the process of how stars began to shine.

6. Is it possible for humans to travel to the Andromeda galaxy? Explain why or why not.

7. Why do you think the distance between galaxies is measured in light years and not kilometers. ! The ! ! ! The universe is made up of trillions of stars. Some of these stars are close to the Earth, and some are more distant. Some of these stars are located within the Milky Way while others are located in other galaxies. A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars. The constellations are groups of specific stars that can be seen in the night sky. Constellations are also known as “asterisms.”! ! In ancient times, the early stargazers noticed that some groups of stars had different shapes and different patterns. Some of these shapes were of familiar animals, people, and other objects. As they watched the sky from night to night, they noticed that the constellations moved from one location to another throughout the year. This was easily seen with the constellations of the . The zodiac includes 12 groups of stars, each representing one month of the year. The constellations include Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius. This later became the basis of the 12 month Julian calendar adopted by Julius Caesar and the Romans. Each month and of the zodiac was dedicated to a god. They can be seen just above the Earth’s horizon. The horizon is where the earth meets the sky. They are also seen traveling on the ecliptic or the plane on which all of the orbits of the planets travel upon as they make their journey around the sun. !

! Constellations were incorporated into many myths and legends in ancient times. One of the most ancient astronomical systems was the Babylonian system. This system began in the middle of the . These early astronomers based the names for the constellations on the older astronomical system used by the Sumerians. The Sumerians were conquered by the Akkadians, and the Babylonians, who were themselves members of an Akkadian kingdom, “borrowed” this astronomical knowledge and incorporated it into their belief system.! Knowledge and Comprehension! Words to Know:! ! ! Constellation:! ! ! ! Horizon:! ! ! ! Ecliptic:! ! ! ! Zodiac:! ! ! ! Borrowed:! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1. In your own words, explain what the zodiac is.! ! ! ! ! ! 2. What is a constellation? ! ! ! ! ! ! Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis! ! ! ! 3. Are constellations made up of stars that are close to one another in distance? Justify your answer with evidence from the text.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 4. How were the constellations of the zodiac related to the first 12 month calendar? How does this also connect with their religious beliefs?! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 5. In your opinion, why do you think the Babylonians based their astronomy system on the Sumerian system?! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! The Giza Pyramids and the Belt Stars of Orion! ! ! The constellation of Orion was a very important part of ancient Egyptian myths and legends about . The constellations are groups of specific stars that can be seen in the night sky as shapes or symbols. The Egyptians knew the constellation of Orion as their god, Osiris. He was the God of rebirth and eternal life. Osiris was known as the first ruler or King of . Osiris became memorialized in the sky as a constellation.! ! It was the pharaohs belief that they were the descendants of Osiris and his sister-wife, . They believed that when they died, Osiris would transform them into a star in the sky. They would spend their eternal lives in the heavens with Osiris and the other gods. They also believed that their divine right to rule over Egypt came from the Gods. As part of their reverence for the Gods, they incorporated archeoastronomy into their architecture into their temples and cities. Archeoastronomy is the use of the phenomenon in the sky within their culture and the alignment of the planets, the moon, the sun or the stars to the structures they built such as the pyramids at Giza. ! ! The three largest pyramids on the Giza Plateau were aligned, or in line with, and constructed about 5,000 years ago with the same pattern as the belt stars of Orion. The belt stars are the three stars in the middle of the constellation Orion. Robert Bauval, the author of The Orion Mystery, made this discovery in 1983. The River, in relation to the Giza Plateau, was also in the same relative position as the edge of the Milky Way galaxy in the sky. These two findings, taken together, demonstrated that the Egyptians created a perfect reflection of the sky at that exact moment in time and superimposed it upon the Earth in Egypt. If a picture is taken from sky looking down on to the Giza Plateau and the Nile River, it would look as if this was a star map of the night sky from thousands of years ago. ! ! ! ! ! Knowledge and Comprehension! Words to Know:! ! ! ! Constellations:! ! ! ! Orion:! ! ! ! Archeoastronomy:! ! ! ! Aligned:! ! ! ! Belt Stars of Orion:! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1. Who was Osiris?! ! ! ! 2. Why was the constellation Orion important to the ! Ancient Egyptians?! ! ! ! ! Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis! ! ! ! 3. What did the ancient Egyptian Pharoahs believe about ! their God Osiris?! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 4. Explain did the Egyptians practice archeoastronomy ! with the late pyramids of Egypt?! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 5. Explain what author Robert Bauval discovered about ! the belt stars of Orion and the Milky Way. How is this ! discovery important?! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 6. In your opinion, what would the Egyptians have needed ! to know or have knowledge of in order to align the ! Pyramids to Orion’s belt?! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ancient : Resurrection Machines

The ancient Egyptians believed that when the Pharaoh died, he or she could be resurrected and live in the afterlife. They also believed that the Pharaoh was divine and his or her soul or ba would be transformed into a star where he or she would live eternally.

In predynastic times, they associated the physical location where this would occur and this place was among the circumpolar stars, the stars that moved around the North pole. These stars never rose and never . They looked as if they were fixed in the sky. They were seen as “eternal” because they were always present in the northern sky. These stars became associated with eternal life and were also believed to be the immortal forms of their gods as well.

The pyramids were constructed as “resurrection machines” to help the soul or ba of a Pharaoh transition from the bodily form into its immortal form. The soul was believed to transform into the form of a star through the help of the high priest and the funerary rites that were performed. The pyramids and tombs were aligned or lined up in a north-south orientation so that they faced north. These structures were constructed to face the circumpolar stars, which at this time, were the stars of the Big Dipper in the Northern region of the sky. The Big Dipper is an asterism, a group of stars, within the constellation of Ursa Major or the “Big Bear.” It was thought that the Pharaoh’s soul would be able to ascend or rise up to this location in the sky if the or tomb was aligned with the star, Alkaid, located in the handle of the Big Dipper. Once the soul reached this destination, it became one of the “eternal” stars.

Source: Bauval, Robert and Thomas Brophy, PhD. , The African: Architect of the Cosmos. 2013. Disinformation Books. Pp. . Knowledge and Comprehension Words to Know:

Ba:

Circumpolar Stars:

Resurrection Machine:

Big Dipper :

Asterism:

Ursa Major:

Alkaid: 1. What did the Egyptians believe about the happens to a Pharaoh when he dies?

2. Explain why the Big Dipper is an asterism.

Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis

3. Explain why the circumpolar stars were viewed as “eternal” by the Egyptians. 4. How did the pyramid fulfill the role of a “resurrection machine.”

5. Explain why tombs and pyramids were constructed to face in the Northern direction. Ancient Egyptians and

The ancient Egyptians were masters of re-creating what they observed in the night time sky onto the Earth. This concept, known as dualism, is the division of something within the physical world into two opposing or contrasting aspects. As part of their spiritual beliefs, they imagined the Earth to be the counterpart or opposite to the celestial realm, or the sky. They believed that the Earth and the sky were intimately connected, and achieved a sense of balance and order together. They recounted these beliefs in the form of stories or myths. A myth was one way in which they could communicate and explain their understanding of the natural phenomenon that they saw and observed on the Earth and in the sky, as well as, social conditions.

A classic example of dualism in the ancient world of the Egyptians includes the Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza. The constellation Leo, in Egyptian myth, was known as the protector of the underworld. This mythological creature stood at the gates of the underworld and watched over this realm, as well as, the

Osiris, the God of the Underworld. Every year, the Egyptians watched a celestial or sky drama unfold as the their God Horus, the son of Osiris, embarked on his journey to visit his father, crossing the great cosmic river, the Milky Way, and reuniting with Osiris in the underworld. The constellation Orion was believed to be the God Osiris, and that region of the sky, the Underworld. The sun was seen to rise from the paws of the constellation Leo on the horizon, or the place where the Earth meets the sky, at dawn on the day of the vernal or spring equinox, March 21. This journey took 70 days as the Sun was observed to change its position in the sky until it finally rose near the constellation of Orion.

The pharoahs were believed to be the divine, the children of the God Osiris. They believed that they represented his son on Earth, the God Horus, and were known as the Horus Kings. Every year, they re-enacted this celestial drama to prepare for their journey into the afterlife when they died. They physically set out on a journey, on the day of the vernal equinox, crossed the Nile river, and disembarking at the Giza Plateau, which was known to them as the earthly counterpart of the “underworld on the horizon.” The pharoah would then travel to the location in between the paws of the Sphinx, the earthly location of the gates of the Underworld, then walk up a concourse to the Great Pyramid. The Great Pyramid, they believed, was where they were reunited with their father, the God Osiris, in the Underworld. Knowledge and Comprehension Words to Know:

Dualism:

Counterpart:

Myths:

Celestial:

Horizon:

Vernal or Spring Equinox:

Horus Kings: 1. What is dualism?

2. What are myths?

Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis

3. Is the Sphinx an example of dualism? Explain why or why not. Use evidence from the text to support your answer. 4. Why did the ancient Egyptians create a myth about the journey of the sun from the constellation Leo to the constellation Orion? Support your answer with evidence from the text.

5. Why, in your opinion, did the ancient Egyptians use dualism? Do we still use this concept today? Why or why not? The Sun

Stars are celestial objects that shine brightly in the sky through the production of its own light and energy. The sun is a normal main sequence star that is a type G2 star. The sun is the brightest object in our Solar System. It is over 4.5 billion years old. It is 99.8% of the total mass, or total amount of matter, of the Solar System. The sun was known to the Greeks as Helios and to the Romans as Sol. It was known as the giver of life in the ancient world. Without the sun, life would not be possible on Earth.

The sun is made up of plasma that is mostly of the two lightest elements within the universe, hydrogen (70%) and 30% helium. A plasma is a state in which subatomic particles such as electrons have been stripped away from the nuclei of atoms. The sun actively converts hydrogen atoms to helium atoms through nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion reactions, within the core or the center of sun, fuse the nuclei of hydrogen atoms together to produce helium atoms. In order for this to occur, the conditions within the core must be at a high temperature and pressure. The temperature within the core is 15.6 million Kelvin. The pressure, the force per unit area, within this region is 250 billion atmospheres. One day, our sun will run out of hydrogen atoms to use as fuel and its life cycle will end. The result is that our sun will expand, explode, and collapse in on itself becoming a white dwarf star.

The energy produced by the sun is given off in different forms. Electromagnetic radiation, energy within the electromagnetic spectrum, is emitted in the form of light and ultraviolet (UV). The sun also produces gamma rays, energy outside the electromagnetic spectrum, as well. The sun has a power output of 386 billion billion megawatts. Its corona, latin or crown, extends millions of kilometers into space and distributes this energy in all directions away from the surface of the sun. Knowledge and Comprehension Words to Know:

Stars:

Mass:

Plasma:

Nuclear Fusion Reactions:

Core:

Pressure. Electromagnetic Radiation:

Corona:

1. What is a star?

2. How is a plasma formed?

Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis

3. Explain how the sun produces its own energy.

4. Describe the 2 most important factors that need to be present within the core of the sun for nuclear fusion reactions to occur. Why is this important?

5. Explain what will happen when the sun runs out of fuel? 6. If 70% of the sun’s hydrogen supply is left, and its age is approximately 4.5 billion years old, how long would it take it to use the rest of its supply?

7. How many sun-like stars do you think we have in our Milky Way galaxy? Justify your answer. The Ancient Egyptians and the Creation of the World! ! ! The Ancient Egyptians recounted or explained their understanding of cosmology or study of the cosmos in the form of stories called myths. They believed that the universe came into being by the actions of the creator god or sun god , who rose up out of the primordial waters and came to rest upon the back of the God . Atum then created 8 more gods from four pairs of parts of own body. These 8 gods represented the first creatures to inhabit or live on the Earth and included: and (air and water), and (earth and sky), Osiris (god of the underworld) and Isis ! (wife of Osiris); and Seth (opposite of good) and (wife of Seth). All together they formed the or group of 9 gods. This myth, as it turns out, may explain the astronomical phenomenon of the creation of our Solar System from a solar nebula. ! ! The French astronomer Pierre Simon Laplace, in the 18th century, proposed a theory, called the Nebula theory, to explain the origin and the evolution of our Solar System. This model suggests that the Solar System was formed from a nebula of cloud of dust and gas. The dust and condenses together to form a solar disc which will later become a star such as our sun. The material that is left over clumps together to form the planets, asteroids, meteorites and comets.! ! Incredible as it may be, their is a possible connection between the Egyptian creation myth and Laplace’s proposed theory. The sun god Atum may have been the solar disc that gave rise to our Sun, the creator of life. The 8 “gods” or “the four pairs of parts from his own body” may have represented the 8 major planets in our solar system that were seen traveling in the ancient sky: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto was too small to be seen by the naked eye. ! ! How did the Egyptians possess this knowledge? Can we infer that they viewed our Solar System as heliocentric (sun-centered) and not geocentric (Earth-centered)? Historical records suggest that the ancient Egyptians have been tracking and studying the sun, the stars, and the planets in the night sky since 9,500 B.C. Their superb knowledge of astronomy was preserved and passed down from generation to generation, and from millennium to millennium. It was written in hieroglyphics within the books of , and were kept in the temples and libraries by the astronomer-priests who served their Pharoahs. Some of this knowledge, known as the , was also written on the walls of the pyramids. As scholars, these astronomer-priests taught famous Greek intellectuals and philosophers who wanted to study science and mathematics in Egypt, within their famous centers of learning such as the temples of Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes, and . ! ! ! Source: Stolen Legacy: Greek Philosophy is Stolen Egyptian Philosophy by George G. M. James, Ph.D. University of Arkansas, Pine Bluff! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Knowledge and Comprehension! Words to Know:! ! ! Cosmology:! ! ! ! Myths:! ! ! ! Atum:! ! ! ! Ennead:! ! ! ! Nebula:! ! ! ! Heliocentric:! ! ! ! Geocentric:! Focus Questions:! ! ! 1. Summarize what the Egyptians believe about the creation of the world was created in your own words.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 2. Compare what the Egyptians believed about the creation of the Earth and the Nebula theory. Point out the similarities and the differences between the two. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 3. How was knowledge about astronomy preserved from millennium to millennium?! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Construct an Argument! ! ! Read the article “The Ancient Egyptians and the Creation of the World and develop an argument to support the claim: the Ancient Egyptians used stories to explain the natural phenomenon they observed. Use evidence from the text to support your response. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Gathering Evidence! ! Create a list of evidence from the text that supports the claim the Ancient Egyptians used stories to explain the natural phenomenon they observed.! The Pharoahs: The Horus Kings

The god Horus was one of the most important gods in . He was also known as nekheny which means “falcon.” Horus was first worshipped in the city of Nekhen, or the city of the hawk. He may have originated from another deity that was worshipped in that location. He became the patron of all the pharoahs during dynastic times. Dynastic times is the period of time during which the Pharoahs ruled Egypt. This began with King Menes in 3000 BC and ended about 300 A.D. with . He is represented as a man with a falcon’s head.

Horus, in Egyptian myth, was the son of the the gods Osiris and Isis. Osiris, was killed by his brother Set, and became god of the underworld, or . He is also believed to have transformed into the constellation known as Orion by the Greeks. Horus battles his Uncle Set and frees his father Osiris from the underworld. Osiris is said to have been resurrected back to life with the help of his wife Isis and the God Thoth. The pharoahs of Egypt believed that Horus was the first King of Egypt and the divine right of kingship was handed down to them by the god Horus. They became the physical embodiment of Horus or Horus in physical form, and were known as the Horus Kings. During their reigns, they worshipped Horus and built temples and monuments out of respect and reverence. An example of this is the Step Pyramid in Saqqara that was built for his King, Pharoah Djoser in the 3rd dynasty. The pyramid is dedicated to Horus and contains many inscriptions about him that also appear in other pyramids as well.

Knowledge and Comprehension Words to Know:

Horus:

Dynastic Times:

Osiris:

Duat:

Horus Kings:

Embodiment:

Horus King: 1. Who was Horus? Describe what you know about this god?

2. Explain why Horus was important to Egypt?

Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis

3. How is the myth about Horus saving his father Osiris connected to astronomy or the study of the stars. What did they want to explain with this myth. 4. Explain one of the ways the Ancient Egyptians worshipped their gods.

5. In your opinion, why was Horus represented by a falcon. What are some possible reasons for this? Ancient Egyptians and their Tombs

The Egyptians believed in an afterlife. The afterlife is the belief that a person’s soul, or consciousness or identity, continues to live after death. In order for the soul or the ba to live, Egyptians believed that the body must be fed and preserved. Mummification techniques were created to protect the bodies of the dead.

During predynastic times and the first first two dynasties in Egypt, mastaba tombs were used to bury the pharaohs and many important Egyptians such as high officials and royalty. Mastaba means “house for eternity.” They, along with the pyramid in Saqqara, were all aligned or lined up with a north-south orientation. This alignment allowed these structures to face North and allow the observer to gaze into the sky where the Big Dipper was. This north-south alignment was critical for the soul to enter the afterlife. The Big Dipper was a group of stars that rotated around the North Pole. They were never seen to rise or set in the sky. They were always present. The Egyptians believed that these stars were eternal, and associated them with the afterlife.

The mastabas were rectangular-shaped, flat roofed structures, that were built using stone such as limestone or sun-dried, mud bricks that were fashioned out of clay and reeds. of the deceased Pharaohs were also housed in this structure.

Built underneath the mastabas were elaborate under-ground systems of tunnels and chambers. Serdabs or cellars were built into the tunnels and used to store grains, beer, clothing and other items that could be used in the afterlife. These offerings or gifts were offered to the deceased Pharoahs so that they may be fed in the afterlife.

King Djoser, in the 3rd dynasty, had the first pyramid structure known as the Step Pyramid of stone built for him in Saqqara by his high priest and architect, Imhotep. The idea for this structure was taken from the layered mastaba of Zer which included layers of bricks around its base. The pyramid of Pharoah Djoser began as a traditional mastaba. Subsequent smaller layers were added to the initial mastaba to give the final structure 6 levels. The burial chambers were were placed underneath the pyramid to house the remains of the Pharaoh. This pyramid became the “standard” for all other pyramids that were built after it.

Sources: http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn174-pyramid- precision.html#.U2E8hq1dUtM http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/ 2012/08/20/planetary-alignment-pyramid-scheme/ #.U2FGZq1dUtM Knowledge and Comprehension Words to Know:

Afterlife:

Ba:

Mastaba:

Aligned:

Serdab:

Offerings:

Step Pyramid: 1. What is a mastaba?

2. What does it mean to align a temple or pyramid?

Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis

3. Explain, in your own words, how Egyptians aligned their mastabas. 4. In what ways did the Egyptians take care of the body of the deceased Pharaoh?

5. Why was it important to preserve the body of the Pharoah? 6. How was Pharaoh Djoser’s pyramid built? Why is this pyramid important? The Sun and the Gods

The sun has been described by almost every culture as the giver of life. Many early agricultural societies and civilizations that settled in one location and based their livelihoods and their source of nourishment on the crops they grew, worshipped sun deities or gods. The ancient Egyptians understood that the sun provided the light and warmth that enabled their crops to grow. These crops, in turn, played a very important role in providing sustenance for them. They saw the sun as the ruler of all life created on Earth.

Out of deep respect and reverence for the sun, they deified the it, transforming it into the god . They envisioned this powerful god traveling across the sky everyday in a barge or boat made of reeds during the day. In the night, he was believed to ride an underground channel, from the west to the east, so he could rise in the East in the morning.

, The sun god was worshipped by the Egyptians at the city of Iunu or “the place of pillars.” The Greeks called this place Heliopolis or “city of the sun.” The god Horus, the son of Osiris, was also worshipped as a sun god. The astronomer-priests of Heliopolis called the “Followers of Horus” tracked and recorded the movements of the sun at the Temple of Heliopolis. These priests, which the famous architect and scribe Imhotep was a member of, were said to have ruled Egypt for 13,000 years in its prehistory. They were said to have preserved and transmitted the traditions and knowledge of Egypt to the Pharoahs starting in 3000 B.C. These priests were scholars or experts in astronomy, geometry, and writing. They taught some of the most notable historical Greek figures astronomy, math, and philosophy at the Temple of Heliopolis. some of the famous Greek scholars and philosophers included Pythagoras and Plato studied there. Knowledge and Comprehension Words to Know:

Deities:

Ra:

Heliopolis:

Followers of Horus:

Scholars: 1. What is a deity?

2. What did the ancient peoples believe about the sun?

Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis

3. Explain why the sun became a God. 4. The myth about the God Ra traveling across the sky on a boat made of reeds explains which astronomical event?

5. Who were the Followers of Horus and why were they important in Egyptian history?