Dluwang Cultural-Historical Aspects and Material Characteristics

DLUWANG CULTURAL-HISTORICAL ASPECTS AND MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Research Report

René Teijgeler Utrecht, July 1995

Leiden University Faculty of Languages and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania Projects Department René Teijgeler Springweg 104 3511 VV Utrecht The Netherlands

Preface

In June 1993, at the instigation of the University of Leiden (Faculty of Languages and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania, Projects Department), a subsidy was applied for from the Ministry of Education and Science for the research project, ‘Dluwang’. The subsidy was awarded in December of that year and on 1 May 1994 the one-year project started. This study was also submitted before the Cultural Anthropology Department, Utrecht University in 1996. In that year the author obtained a cum laude Master of Arts degree in Cultural Anthropology.

The aim of the study was to increase knowledge about dluwang. The research is focused in particular on the development of the physical characterization of dluwang through the analysis of botanical and biochemical properties. In addition, the project aims to provide insight into the cultural-historical aspects of the manufacture and use of this material.

The research focused on the following questions:  What is the production process of dluwang?  What materials are used for the production of dluwang?  Are there any determining botanical and/or biochemical properties based on the composition of dluwang that could enable a quick, adequate distinction between dluwang and other similar proto-papers?  By whom, for whom, where and when was dluwang produced; is it still being produced?

An interdisciplinary team of scientists carried out several experimental investigations for this project. During the research it became apparent that the proposed test images with X-ray, ultraviolet and infrared radiation would not contribute to a better understanding of the material so this part of the research was abandoned. The National Library of the Netherlands (Koninklijke Bibliotheek) was prepared to share its experiences using the Iso-Electro Focusing separation method for the research: a welcome addition to the other tests. The Central Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science (Centraal Laboratorium voor Onderzoek van Voorwerpen van Kunst en Wetenschap; now part of the Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage) Amsterdam attempted to characterise dluwang with X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) and Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC).

The National Herbarium of the Netherlands (Rijksherbarium) in Leiden examined the anatomy of more dluwang specimens than originally planned at no extra cost.

From 31 October 1994 to 10 January 1995, fieldwork in Indonesia (Java, Madura, Bali) and northern Thailand was carried out. The latter has a traditional paper industry that was initially supported by the Thai government 20 years ago in the form of projects and has now become a flourishing cottage industry.

The raw material for this industry is the same as for dluwang and in the future such a project could also be realised in Java. Vienna and Paris were not visited, as there was too little new information to be gained. However, the Indonesian collection of the British Library in London was extensively examined. The economic botany collections of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands yielded a surprising amount of interesting information as it holds parts of collections from the Colonial Institute, afdeling Handelsmuseum (Colonial Institute, department Trade Museum) and from the Technische Hogeschool, Delft (Delft University of Technology). Very valuable data was also collected at the Paper-historical Department (Papierhistorische afdeling) of the National Library of the Netherlands in The Hague. Due to unforeseen circumstances, the research at the Central Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science lasted longer than planned, so that the final phase of the dluwang project was delayed.

It only remains to extend my thanks to the many in the Netherlands and Indonesia without whom this project could not have been realised, including in particular Prof. W. Stokhof (International Institute of Asian Studies) for his efforts in getting the project off the ground, Dr. W. van der Molen (University of Leiden, Faculty of Languages and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania) for his enthusiastic commitment and linguistic advice, Dr. H. Porck (Paper-historical Department of the National Library of the Netherlands) for his experimental research and for the many encouraging discussions, Prof. P. Baas (National Herbarium of the Netherlands) for his kindness and patience, drs. J. Hofenk de Graaf (Central Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science) for removing the many obstacles, drs.Titik Pudjiastuti (Universitas Indonesia, Fakultas Sastra) for her guidance in the field, drs.J. Erkelens (University of Leiden, KITLV) for his time and affability, Pak Ading (Tunggilis, Indonesia) for his extensive information and his display of dluwang beating.

Over the years the interest in tapa and dluwang grew slowly. Colleagues asked me once in while to translate my research on dluwang as they considered the multidisciplinary approach of special interest. As I was always very busy in other research projects I never took the time to answer the request of my colleagues. Finally, in 2011 I asked J.C. Barnett to make the translation into English. Now, at the age of retirement I had a good look at the research again and decided to publish it in English. I realize of course that since 1996 when I finished this research much has changed. All the same I do not want to withhold my early work on tapa to new generations of researchers who share my interest in beaten tree bark.

Drs. René Teijgeler Utrecht, 4 August 2016

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Content

Preface i Introduction vi 1 History 1 1.1 Tapa 1 1.2 Javanese literature 2 1.3 Malay literature 3 1.4 Ancient Chinese texts 3 1.5 Image support 4 1.6 Writing support 4 1.7 Colonial era 6 1.8 Post World War II 7 2 Production process 10 2.1 Different qualities 10 2.2 Overview of dluwang production 11 3 Scientific research 16 3.1 Anatomical examination 16 3.2 Iso-Electro Focusing 17 3.3 X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry 19 3.4 Thin Layer Chromatography 19 3.5 Examination using the sense 20 4 Application 23 4.1 Use on Java and Madura 23 4.1.1 Writing support 23 4.1.2 Kertas Telo 24 4.1.3 Image support 26 4.1.4 Bookbinding material 26 4.1.5 Other 27 4.2 Use in the Netherlands 28 4.2.1 Material for arts and crafts 28 5 Balinese tapa? 29 5.1 Bali 29 5.2 Sulawesi 29

6 Future 31 6.1 Sustainable production 31 6.2 Dluwang, a luxury and everyday article of use? 32 6.3 Can these ideas be realised? 32 Appendix 1: Map of dluwang production on Java and Madura 34 Appendix 2: Means of polishing dluwang by region 35 Appendix 3: Reference materials from the Economic Botany collection at the 36 National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden Appendix 4: Fibre thickness measurements of four possible plant species for 38 dluwang, 3 tapa specimens and 25 dluwang specimens Appendix 5: Examined dluwang and tapa samples 41 Appendix 6: Table of anatomical features of four possible plant species for dluwang and 25 dluwang specimen 43 Appendix 7: X-ray Fluorescence. Comparative indication of the levels of determined elements and metals in 16 (beaten) tree barks from the reference collection of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands 46 Appendix 8: Thin-Layer Chromatography of Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. 48 Appendix 9: Thin-Layer Chromatography of dluwang samples both with the Resin system and Red dye system 49 Appendix 10: Indicative outline for determining dluwang using visual examination 50 Appendix 11: Javanese manuscripts in the Netherlands (Pigeaud, 1967) 51 Appendix 12: Manuscripts in the collection of Museum Sonobudoyo, (Behrend, 1990) 52 Appendix 13: Manuscripts in the collections at Cirebon (Titik Pudjiastuti et al, 1994) 55 Appendix 14: Javanese manuscripts on dluwang in four different collections 57 Appendix 15: Native and Latin plant names 58 Appendix 16: Glossary 60 Appendix 17: Iso-Electro Focusing patterns of different specimen 62 Appendix 18: Dluwang bibliography 63 Notes 72

Introduction

Many Javanese literature experts wonder what dluwang really is. Is it a typical Javanese product or is it made elsewhere, is it just a name for paper, is it made from cassava, and is it a beaten bark known under the generic name of tapa? It seemed only logical to examine beaten tree bark after studying the Batak folded book written on raw tree bark. When this opportunity presented itself I grasped it with both hands.

Based on the following study, dluwang may be defined as follows:

Dluwang is a beaten bark (tapa) of the paper mulberry tree (Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.) of Java and Madura

The tree sort was determined with the highest possible probability by the National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden by studying the anatomy of 16 reference sections and 25 dluwang specimen. The literature has already made clear that dluwang must be a beaten bark. This was confirmed in interviews with dluwang makers in Tegalsari, Ponorogo and Tunggilis, Garut. In Tunggilis I was fortunate to find someone who could make the material for me. Pak Ading proved to be a patient and friendly informant who could relate a great deal about dluwang and its production. The paper mulberry tree is known as one of the oldest suppliers of raw paper material and as a good substitute for hemp and linen. With the spread of paper technology, the tree became known in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Northern Thailand and Burma. In Southern Asia the paper mulberry was already renowned as a raw material for the first tapa. Evidence for tapa production dates back to north Taiwan around 4300 BC. Today this paper fibre is still popular in Japan (kozo), Vietnam (giay ban/giay lenh), Northern Thailand (saa), and in Polynesia and Melanesia as a raw material that yields the best tapa.

The Broussonetia papyrifera is not native to Indonesia. On the basis of geographical, ethnological and botanical developments we can assume that the paper mulberry tree arrived in Java from China by way of Taiwan, the Philippines, the Moluccas and Sulawesi. The discovery of two Neolithic bark beaters suggests that tapa was being beaten on Java even before the Christian era. The tree is very popular on Sulawesi and the most refined tapa that does not last longer than one holiday is made from this ambo tree. vi

The Chinese traded the Sulawesi tapa quite early to places like Macau and Manila. It is not easy to distinguish this tapa from dluwang. The anatomical tests produced no results nor did the two determination methods used. For now we have to make do with historical knowledge and much experience to separate these two tapas. For example, many Sulawesi tapa are decorated whereas this is unknown in Java. The Bali tapa, which is now used for religious purposes, appears to have been imported from Sulawesi. Further study should clarify the differences between dluwang and Sulawesi tapa. It is for this reason that location is included in the definition of dluwang. Two distinguishing methods were applied to bark materials for the first time. Isoelectric focusing (IEF) distinguishes between Broussonetia and Ficus on the one hand and Artocarpus and Gnetum on the other, but not between the Ficus and the Broussonetia. An unexplained dichotomy still occurred in this cluster that raised great curiosity. The version of Thin- Layer Chromatography (TLC) for distinguishing between natural resins is unsuitable for bark, however the dye system did work. Using this latter method the dluwang specimen may be cautiously identified as Broussonetia. However the results were still not satisfactory enough to recommend this distinguishing method: further research is required to confirm the initial results. In addition to the scientific research, a diagram was designed to determine dluwang using simple visual examination.

Historically, Dluwang has been extant from the 9th century: the Javanese literature contains many clues. There is little on dluwang to be found in the Malay literature and only a few reports were found with much difficulty in the archives and literature of the VOC period (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie [Dutch East India Company]). Much was initially written about dluwang in the Indonesian colonial period. Reports appeared on the production of dluwang in the first half of the 19th century. By the end of that century the alarming news of the impending end of the dluwang production began to be heard. At the dawn of World War II it was assumed that the beating of dluwang was gone for good. However, up until 1980, an old couple from Tunggilis had carried on the production of dluwang. Now, their children are the only ones who occasionally produce dluwang for those interested.

Dluwang is used for various purposes depending on the quality. Initially the material was used as clothing fabric but little is known about this. More is known about the use of dluwang as an image support. In the late 13th century the wayang beber, the Javanese scroll painting, was painted for the first time on dluwang. vii

This old wayang form had already been threatened with extinction early in the 19th century however, two copies were found in the mountains of East Java in the 1960s. The material became renowned due to its unique application as a writing support; 2% to 13% of Javanese manuscripts are written on dluwang. Also, the tapa was much used for wrapping paper, book covers, bookbinding material and folders. Pieces of dluwang bearing script have been found in the bindings of Javanese manuscripts. These ‘liber disjecta’ can be valuable contributions to the study of Javanese literature. It has occasionally served as a paper substitute for the colonial government. In the Netherlands dluwang was barely known and found a limited use as artists’ materials.

As the project progressed the myth surrounding kertas telo was also solved. This local paper was supposed to be made from cassava, but it seems to be nothing more than a paper imported from the Chinese province of Guangxi. Similarly, the term kertas merang merang bagor was unravelled; it is not a paper but a contamination of kertas merang, paper made from rice straw and bagor that is plaited palm leaf. Inspired by a project in Northern Thailand, the idea has arisen to set up a similar project on Java. With government support over 20 years, the Thai project has grown into a small-scale but thriving cottage industry with a market that reaches far beyond its borders.

All Indonesian words are in italic and can be found in the glossary (Appendix 16). The indigenous and Latin names of plants are listed in Appendix 15. Appendix 1 attempts to map out the places of dluwang production. This is based on the current naming and the old regencies, districts and sub-districts have been translated into the current Indonesian administrative structure. Appendix 18 contains a bibliography of all the literature on dluwang known to the author. The abbreviation LOr stands for Codex Orientalis, Leiden University Library. A modest exhibition following on from this research was held at the National Library of the Netherlands in The Hague from 26 October 1995 to 4 January 1996.

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1 History

1.1 Tapa The earliest evidence of the existence of Javanese tapa (fuya) was the discovery of two bark cloth beaters, one in the village of Pakauman in East Java and one in Bogor on West Java. An exact date cannot be given but it is assumed that the beaters originate from the prehistoric era (Willems, 1938; Hope, 1941).1 Since the time of the VOC (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie [East Indian Company]), scant reports have been handed down that confirm the use of beaten bark as clothing fabric in Java. In 1646 a people were reported who moved from East Java to West Java and dressed in ‘...white paper made from tree bark, from which they tie a piece around the head and a large cloth on the body which is all their clothing is...’ 2 Striking in this phrase is the use of the word paper that was white. The word paper could have presented a major interpretation problem but for the addition made from bark of trees that clearly indicates that the author wrote about tapa. Here paper is only used in comparison with cloth. The white colour suggests the use of the paper mulberry tree as it can yield beautiful white tapa. Thirty-three years later in 1679, in a description of Minhassa by the Robertus Padtbrugge the Governor of Ternate, the word (Javanese) paper is also to be found associated with bark clothing.3 Here the statement suggests not only a comparison of material but also of quality. In particular, the fine, thin white fuya of the paper mulberry tree from Sulawesi would, even today, give the impression of paper. The idea that writing material is indicated with the word paper would seem to be highly unlikely since only the Buginese and Macassar from South Sulawesi had developed their own writting culture and only one fragment of Buginese text on tapa is known (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977:38 MS 12915). Another possibility could be that the material served as a writing support for coastal settlements of Malay traders. There is no evidence for this assumption and above all, as far as it is known, only a few Malay manuscripts were written on tapa or dluwang on Java. A single early European eyewitness report mentions that some Javanese were still making tapa into clothing in the seventeenth century. Also here, confusing enough, the term paper was used for dluwang.

Raffles wrote in 1817, at the beginning of the colonial era, that dluwang was still used as clothing fabric in Java and that its production formed a major occupation of the priesthood (Raffles, 1978). The Javanese use of loincloths made from beaten bark is also known in this period. Mention is made of the use of such cloths for medical purposes.

In West Java, according to the medicine sellers, the beaten inner bark of the wild breadfruit tree helps against lumbar pain: one loincloth for medical use from Jakarta survives.4 Also, the bark of this tree was thought to be effective against unwanted pregnancy (de Clercq, 1909, no. 338). A note by J. Knebel mentions that already in ancient times the Javanese covered their nakedness with a piece of bark wrapped around the loins (Knebel, 1901).

1.2 Javanese literature The Ramayana contains the first report of dluwang in Old Javanese literature. In this work that, according to Poerbatjaraka stems from the ninth century, the word dluwang is mentioned a few times.5 Later the word appears in three texts from the time of the court of Kediri, the Sumanasantaka (beginning of the 12th century), the Bhoma Kawya and the Rama Wijaya (end of the 12th century).6 The 1297 charter Sarwadharma, found in the Wilis massif and originating from the Singasari period, tells of the right of the priesthood to plant the paper mulberry tree, undoubtedly for the production of dluwang.7 The charter mainly concerns the separation of the estates of the priesthood and that of the simple farmers. It is expressly stated that the priesthood were permitted to plant the paper mulberry in the vicinity of their property. Since the Shiwa priests were forbidden to perform manual labour, their secular neighbours would have worked the land for them. It is unclear whether the priests beat the dluwang themselves. There is a reference to dluwang in the Rajapatigundala in the fourteenth century.8 This shows us that there was a tax on the dluwang trade that was to be paid to the priesthood. This probably emphasizes the monopoly of the religious caste that in any case, as indicated above, had held the right to plant the paper mulberry tree since the thirteenth century. Daluwang is also reported in the Ratna Wijaya and Parthayajna, two poems from the Balinese- Javanese period, and the Uttarakanda, an Old Javanese prose version of the seventh chapter of Ramayana.9 Finally, the spelling dluncang is to be found in the Tantu Panggelaran, most probably written by a Shiwa hermit in the fifteenth or sixteenth century.10

The above texts from the Hindu era of Javanese history all have in common that they mention dluwang as a clothing fabric of the priesthood, in particular of ascetics. Moreover, the priests had the right to cultivate the raw material (the paper mulberry tree) and also the right to levy taxes on trade in the end product.

1.3 Malay literature The Malay literature clearly provides less references than the Javanese. Dluwang is mentioned in a seventeenth century Malay text, once again referring to a hermit dressed in cloth of beaten tree bark.11 A Malay pakem fragment mentions the royal family dressed in robes and headdresses of dluwang.12 Other fragments are similar: as a sign of asceticism (read humility) the king and his followers receive a robe and headdress of beaten tree bark.13

1.4 Ancient Chinese texts In an old Chinese text, there is early mention of a material used as an image support. Before 1433, Ma Huan (a travel companion of the Chinese admiral Zheng-ho) noted that the Javanese had no paper but engrave their text on leaves with a stylus (palm leaf manuscripts). He goes on to report that there are some men that draw things on paper; they unroll the image before the public and explain the contents.14 This text has been taken to be the earliest evidence for the existence of the wayang beber, the Javanese scroll painting. From what this so-called paper was made is not easy to retrieve. Chinese paper seems out of the question given the denial of the existence of paper on Java as a writing support. The use of Arabic paper also seems unlikely since while Islamization was underway, the Hindu-Javanese kingdom of Mojopahit still largely dominated Java. Another possible material could be ‘rough tree bark’. In later times its use as a writing support was known by the Batak of North Sumatra and the Lampung and Rejang of Southern Sumatra (Teygeler, 1993). However the Chinese text states that the image support is unrolled which would be almost impossible with the rough, often thick and stiff tree bark. Then the fuya remains as a final possibility. That the people of Java at that time were already familiar with fuya has been previously stated. At the time of the early twelfth century Kediri kingdom, an earlier Chinese text also refers to paper on Java that was about 7.5 to 10 meters long.15 It seems to concern a local product, so it could probably have been rough tree bark or fuya: it is not clear which of the two it was. Given the length of the material it is unlikely that it would have been used for a wayang beber as these paintings are almost never longer than four metres. Conversely, manuscripts on rough tree bark can reach a length of sixteen metres but the use of rough tree bark as a writing support is completely unknown in Java (Teygeler, 1993). Perhaps the early wayang beber were much longer than the known examples. In that case we can assume that the Javanese scroll painting already existed, which is unlikely.

1.5 Image support It is thought that wayang beber was first created in 1223 and it was not until the end of the thirteenth century that it was painted on dluwang. This was called yellow paper, dlancang gedog or dlancang Ponorogo; ‘Ponorogo’, as this was the only place where the paper was produced (Sayid, 1980).

Six wayang beber in the collection of the National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden are thought to be painted on dluwang.16 On examination without technical analysis it was difficult to determine whether the rolls were painted on dluwang or not, as they have been repaired innumerable times over the years. It is known that wayang beber was also painted on European paper.17 In any case, on this occasion it can be said that the image support was not a European paper. Two ancient scrolls have been extensively described: the wayang beber of Gedompol and wayang beber of Gelaran (Kant-Achilles, 1990). The former is dated between 1690 and 1739, the latter between 1700 and 1735. Both were painted on dluwang and were found fifteen years ago in the villages of Gedompol and Gelaran in Java. These old scrolls may be called unique, especially given the fact that the wayang beber was already perceived as rare at the beginning of the 19th century and regarded as nearly extinct since the 20 century. It can be carefully assumed that the wayang beber existed in the early fifteenth century on Java with fuya as the image support. It is not inconceivable that wayang beber was created earlier still on Java and that at the end of the thirteenth century, dluwang or fuya of the paper mulberry was being used. The use of dluwang for Javanese scrolls is certain from the eighteenth century.

1.6 Writing support Dluwang is the most renowned writing support. Of all the peoples who make tapa, it is only the Javanese and some peoples of Central American who have used this material as for writing.18 Next to a few exceptions, the manuscripts on dluwang in public collections are mostly Javanese and a few are Malay or form Madura. These manuscripts are frequently compilations of texts in more than one language and in several types of script: they did not hesitate to bind paper and dluwang together in one book. The earliest known manuscript on dluwang is a Javanese-Islamic work from the late sixteenth century.19 The first Javanese-Islamic texts arose with the growth of Islam in Java in the sixteenth century. Initially they were written on palm leaves (266 LOr, LOr 10.811) but the writers soon sought a material to be made into the typical Islamic book form, the codex.20

Palm leaf breaks when folded and so was unsuitable. However paper was no direct solution for Javanese Muslims: all papers in the sixteenth century were imported and therefore expensive. With the new book form, the use of pen and ink was introduced. These writing instruments were much more suitable for the Arabic and Pégon script than the stylus. The engraving of a text in the new script on palm leaves would split the pages. The Malays, who had not yet developed a great literary tradition, used paper as a writing support at the end of the sixteenth century, although Chinese, Arabic and European papers were used interchangeably.

The trading Malays, who mainly inhabited the coastal areas and for whom the paper was easily available, had to use the expensive paper for their budding literature through lack of better. The fact remains that there are still some Malay manuscripts on dluwang known. On the other hand, the Javanese knew dluwang as clothing for Javanese-Hindu ascetics and as an image support for the wayang beber. Therefore dluwang must have seemed very suitable as a writing support for the new Javanese religion. The step of image support to writing support was not great and the material was already traditionally associated with religion. Moreover, it could be produced locally and the costs were low. While all these books are bound as codices, two early Javanese-Islamic manuscripts (LOr 8657, LOr 11.092) form an exception. They are indeed written on dluwang but constructed as folding books.21 Perhaps the book form of the Javanese-Islamic manuscript underwent a short period as a folding book in the transition of palm leaf book to codex. In South Sumatra the folding book existed in 1630; perhaps it came to Java along this route (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977:105, MS Jav.e.2.). From the seventeenth century the use of dluwang for Javanese-Islamic texts proceeded in leaps and bounds. In the next two centuries, in particular under the influence of rising imports of Dutch paper, the production of books on paper grew. Paper became slowly but surely the favourite writing support of the royal courts that could well afford such an expensive product. The poorer Javanese remained writing on dluwang, even when more and more people had access to paper from the middle of the 19th century onwards. Besides the use of dluwang and paper for Javanese-Islamic manuscripts, palm leaves were still in use for other literature up until in the 20th century. Around 1900 an increasing number of books were being printed, paper was available almost everywhere and the making of dluwang became a dying occupation.

1.7 Colonial era Most reports about dluwang are known from the era of colonial domination of Indonesia. Many are anonymous and the Javanese wrote very few.22 The interest of the colonial officials was low although a short description was delivered on request (Anonymous, 1878a). Officials suffered a constant shortage of paper already in the period of the Dutch East India Company. The short-lived existence of a private Dutch East India Company paper mill (1665-1681) did not change the situation. At the beginning of the19th century, when the Dutch government took over the bankrupt affairs of the Dutch East India Company, the paper shortage was more pressing than ever due to a great shortage on the European market. In 1809, this situation impelled a representative from Semarang to send out notices to use ‘Javanese paper’ for making envelopes and Chinese paper for letters, a requirement that still existed in 1810 (Chijs, 1896). For a long time dluwang served for the making of folders and wrapping paper for both the Javanese as well as the colonial authorities. In 1858, the post office of Batavia used 10,000-15,000 sheets of dluwang as wrapping paper (Chijs, 1861) and it was not uncommon around the turn of the century for the government in Madiun to order 300 to 400 sheets from Tegalsari in Ponorogo. In the last quarter of the 19th century the scientific study of language and culture of ‘The East’ was well underway. The ethnographic museums were busy laying the foundation for their collections. One beater from Ponorogo then landed in an American museum and the academic libraries were able to strongly expand their ‘Oriental Departments’. It became time to document the production of dluwang.23

The home front received some interest when it was suspected that the raw material of dluwang, the paper mulberry tree, could be a useful fibre, an idea that had been formulated earlier (Anonymous, 1859). The interest grew when it emerged that a fabulous paper was made from the same raw material in Japan. However after some research commissioned by the government, further development was not pursued (Burg, 1905; Bahrfeldt, 1937). The costs would be too high for export. The material was found to be suitable for the local paper industry yet did not really get going. Around the beginning of the 20th century it became clear that the production of dluwang was at an end. Most likely the Javanese fuya was still produced only in Tunggilis, Garut and Tegalsari, Ponorogo.24 A few local authorities kept up attempts to stimulate the production as well as the colonial rulers who promoted the ‘native industry’ within the framework of Ethical Politics.25

The Departement van Landbouw, Handel en Nijverheid (Department of Agriculture, Trade and Industry) commissioned a research into the material (Burg, 1905). Other departments, like that of Kantoor voor de Volkslectuur (Bureau of Literature), then ordered folders of dluwang and efforts were made to sell the material in the Netherlands. It never really caught on but did earn some fame as an artists’ material. In particular, two publishers made the effort to use dluwang as bookbinding material.26 Its use was limited to de-luxe editions as it was difficult to work. Despite all efforts, dluwang had practically disappeared by the outbreak of World War ll.

1.8 Post World War II The conquest of Java by the Japanese meant that the import of ‘katoenjes’ [cotton cloths] stagnated. In those days the Bisri family of Tunggilis, Garut were forced by necessity to make all kinds of garments of dluwang while elsewhere on Java, rubber sheets (a half-finished product) were made into clothing. The Bisri family was the sole producer around Garut still making dluwang after the World War II. In the early fifties, at the instigation of the governor Mohammad Sanusi Hardjadinata from Tunggilis, the West Javanese government and the Forestry Commission again ordered dluwang from the Bisri family for folders. By the late sixties the orders stopped coming and so this source of income dried up. Pak Bisri and his wife Nonya Nyio Uki continued the tradition into old age. When Pak Bisri died in 1965 his wife continued the production until her death in 1980. It is a miracle that the family was found from the Netherlands in the late sixties.

In 1968 through a paper factory, the curator of the Paper-historical Department of the National Library of the Netherlands managed to acquire 100 sheets of dluwang made by Nonya Nyio Uki.27 Today some descendants of the family are still proficient in the production process judging by the performances in 1993 and 1994.28 However, small details in the process have changed. While Pak Bisri polished the sheets with a shell, in 1993 his son Pak Ading used a marble doorknob. In 1994, this was however lost, upon which Pak Ading decided to omit the polishing altogether. Pak Bisri earned a great deal of his income with dluwang but his son Pak Ading has become a shoemaker in Bandung. Even if Pak Ading wanted to make dluwang, he would still lack the raw material. At the end of 1994 there was still one miserable tree with a few shoots in a yard not far from his home. According to him, there is not a single saeh tree to be found in the vicinity.

Undoubtedly he was not aware of experiments with planting of the saeh tree that the government carried out between 1968-1975 near Garut. It appeared that the plant was very suitable for afforestation as well as reforestation.

In Japan it was concluded that the inner bark could produce excellent paper particularly suitable for luxury papers. In 1977 a study by the Research Centre for Forest Products followed. On the one hand, the technical capabilities were examined to make paper pulp from the Broussonetia papyrifera, and on the other, the economic feasibility of a paper industry based on this raw material was assessed. Although certainly technically feasible, further development was not pursued for economic reasons.29

Before World War II it was already clear that the production of dluwang in the village of Tegalsari, Ponorogo was ending. The Ponorogo region was so famous for its dluwang production that there was often spoken of ‘Ponorogo paper’. There must have been more places around Ponorogo where dluwang was made but Tegalsari is the only known place. The village was known for its seminary, which was praised far and wide. Kjai Agung Kasan Besari founded the school in about 1744 after the ruler of Surakarta, Pakubuwono II, bestowed the village on him in gratitude for his help in the Javanese- Chinese War (Fokkens, 1877). Students flocked to the school from near and far and at one point 300 pupils were accommodated. The traditional teaching of the Koran meant that a great need for ‘paper’ was created. As imported paper was too expensive, the students had to make their own. Thus began the dluwang production in Tegalsari. During the Japanese occupation dluwang was used for clothing including shrouds.

Imam Witono, who claimed to be the ninth descendant of Besari, the village founder, made dluwang for the Forestry Commission for the last time in 1946. His grandfather, Purnomo, was master of the technique, as was Witono's cousin, Suwarso. The trade can be practised by anyone who wishes to. The leadership however, so I was told, remains in the hands of Besari’s descendants. It is not entirely clear what this means. Maybe the makers of dluwang had to pay a fee to Besari’s descendants for manufacturing rights. When Guillot (Guillot, 1983) visited the village in 1981, there was no longer any paper mulberry tree to be seen. In late 1994 someone was able to show me a beater; many had been sold to tourists. The ancient industry of beating bark into a strong writing support had also died a quiet death here.

Tapa is made almost everywhere in the tropics and evidence for its ancient use has also been found on Java. The first written sources date from the ninth century. The trade with India and China began early and the Javanese liked to dress in the cottons imported from India. The wearing of bark clothing only still remained with the Javanese-Hindu ascetics. For many peoples in the Indonesian archipelago, the beating of fuya disappeared for the most part with the advent of Islam. In Java, the use of dluwang for clothing fabric largely disappeared along with the old religion, but it found a new and unique application as a writing support. The new tradition lasted certainly 350 years. When Indonesia gained independence, there was just one man remaining who produced dluwang and the centuries-old craft later died with him.

2 Production Process Discovering how dluwang is made is no easy affair. The sources contradict each other on a number of points. Moreover, one may wonder how reliable they are. Many are anonymous, translated ‘from an old book’ or written by a colonial official who perhaps not always possess the right expertise. Authors like P. van der Burg (1905) and K. Bahrfeldt (1937) had the exclusive task of investigating the technical and commercial value of the raw material dluwang. Articles written by the Javanese themselves are sparse. First Henk Voorn (1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1978) and later Claude Guillot (1983) devoted considerable attention to the product of dluwang.

2.1 Different qualities The question of whether there were different qualities of dluwang can be answered affirmatively. In East Java there were three distinguishable types: fine, medium and coarse. By contrast, in West Java, Central Java and Madura there were only two distinct types: fine/medium and coarse. The variety was clearly related to the purpose for which the material was used. In general it can be said that the different sorts were used for the following purposes:  fine: for the better and more luxurious manuscripts, often books of religious texts, stationery  medium (lengkono): for everyday books, often note books for administrative recordkeeping of some sort, writing paper, bookbinding material, wayang beber  coarse (kaper): kite paper (sanokkan), wrapping paper, folders, book covers, bookbinding material These differences are reflected in the production method. To start with, the bark is selected by age: for the fine sort, bark is taken from a shoot about six months old and for the coarse sort, a two year old stem. In East Java, only the top half of the branch is used for fine, the lower half for the medium and the whole branch for the coarse type. The coarse grade is neither fermented nor polished, the medium is fermented for a relatively short period and usually polished on one side. The fine grade of dluwang undergoes the longest fermentation. The sheets are well polished on both sides. On Madura the mode of production differs yet again in the polishing method. While on Java the sheets are initially rubbed smooth with a piece of coconut shell, on Madura a bamboo or rattan beater is used.

The dluwang production method will vary by region, just as the forest products used for polishing vary locally (Appendix 2), yet the production processes are generally similar.

2.2 Overview of dluwang production The following description of dluwang production has been summarised from the available sources:  The shoots, that grow up to ten meters (10 m) from the tree are cut off close to the ground. Depending on the desired quality, they are between six months and two years old. After six months, the shoot is as thick as a finger and about one metre (1 m) high. At two years the tree has reached a circumference of 20 centimetres (20 cm) and an average height of four metres (4 m). The side branches of the mother tree are also used, but the shoots are preferred.  The bark is peeled by making a vertical cut from one end along the length of the branch and then stripped off. In Tunggilis, first the tip of the branch is cut off, made into a point, and then inserted in the groove to split the bark from the trunk. The bark is easily separated.  In Tunggilis, to facilitate the separation of outer bark (kulit ayam) and inner bark (lulup) the whole bark is first rolled inside out (golong) to flatten it. The bark on a few centimetres of an end is removed with a knife (sabit) with the last piece left as a raised flap. This part is grasped with one hand and the peeled end is held with the other hand or foot; the outer bark is then easily separated from the inner bark.  Should the bark be stored for later manufacture, it is first dried in the sun or over a small fire (dipun tarang). One author advises shelter from the wind (Anonymous, 1858).  Often the bark strips are cut to the desired size in advance. On Madura a measuring stick could be used. The length of the bark is about equal to the length of the sheet of dluwang and rarely more than forty centimetres (40 cm). When the length is not pre-cut, the material must be folded a few times (also in the length) during the beating. The bark of older stems is cut in pieces of five to ten centimetres (5 to 10 cm) wide.  Dried bark must first be soaked in water before beating. This may take several hours or some days, depending on the desired quality. The finer the quality, the longer the soaking time. 11

The water must be regularly changed during this period to give bacteria no chance of breaking down the raw material. A white residue appears on the bottom of the evil-smelling soaking vat that must be removed with the water. The beating can begin once the bark is soft and elastic enough.  If used immediately after peeling the trunk, the bark is first washed (diseuseuh) or immersed in water (dipun ekum) then wrung out (dipun peres).  The moist bark is then ready to be worked with a beater (kemplongan, pangemplong) on a beating table (balok, dingklik, padung). This takes place indoors on the veranda (pendoppo) or outdoors in the yard. The aim of the beating is to separate the fibres so that the fibre bundles and fibre cells are loosened. During the beating (kemplong, pameupeuh) the bark is regularly kept wet by a sprinkling of water with the beater that is dipped in water every now and again or by immersing the whole sheet in water. Should this be omitted, the bark often sticks to the table from the beating. In Tunggilis, the beating went from the middle to the left and right with the bark lying across the narrow twenty centimetre (20 cm) beating table. Both the front and the back are beaten. During the beating the bark is pulled toward the beater with the result that the beaten bark lands on the ground and becomes soiled. When the table is sufficiently wide, as with most beating tables used in Ponorogo, this is not a problem. The bark is regularly folded during the beating.

In Purwokerto, a package of twelve by twelve centimetres (12 x 12 cm) is made that will be extensively beaten on both sides. The folds are given extra attention. In order not to hamper unfolding, the folds are not laid over each other. After that they are once more thoroughly beaten. While unfolding, tears, holes or creases can occur that are difficult to remove. To obtain a uniform whole, now and then the bark is stretched slightly in the width during the beating. When a thick, firm quality of dluwang is desired, then two or three, sometimes four separately beaten sheets are stacked and then beaten to form one sheet with the size remaining the same. Through continued beating, the bark can be expanded to five times the original width. In Tunggilis during beating, the piece is measured at intervals to see if the desired size has been reached. Generally, it can be presumed that the finer the desired quality, the more careful and longer the beating process will be to achieve a uniform sheet of dluwang.  To lengthen the bark, pieces are added piece by piece to the ends with an overlap of about one centimetre (1 cm), which is then beaten into one layer. 12

This process can be repeated indefinitely until the desired length or width is reached. The joint remains visible but shows no weak areas. For making a wayang beber the material has to be increased in the width as well as the length to achieve a final size of one by two to three metres.  Then the sheets are washed again, wrung out and dried in the sun (dipun jereng), sometimes for two days. In some places the sheets are dried on bamboo sticks. So ends the production process for the coarse quality; the sheets still have to be cut to size and packaged. The fine and medium quality sheets undergo a further processing.  The bark fibre cells generally determine the strength and flexibility of the cellulose material. The space between these cells is filled with resins and waxes etc. Two ancient techniques are still in use to remove these so-called incrustations: 1. boiling in a lye solution; the Toraja use this method in the preparation of their best paper mulberry tapa; 2. fermentation; by soaking the material in water over time a rotting process begins that performs the breakdown of the non-cellulose material. The Javanese do not boil the fibrous mass, but do make use of the fermentation process to obtain a better tapa. The fermentation (peyeum, didep, dipun epep, ditape) of the sheets takes place after they have been evenly moistened. Sometimes they are simply dipped in water but in East and Central Java the sheets are soaked for a short time. After wringing they are folded and wrapped in fresh banana leaves and laid in a basket (rinjing, kemarang, keranjang). In Tegalsari, ten to fifteen sheets are laid in a basket to ferment. It also occurs that the wrapping in banana leaves is omitted. The inside is also lined with banana leaf to keep out any pests. Rice, oil and salt are also undesirable substances as they also attract animals, especially rodents. Depending on how ‘done’ the sheets must be, they remain fermenting from one night to two weeks. In Ponorogo a fermentation period of twelve days is prescribed for top quality and three days for the second. Here again, the longer the better. It is certainly necessary to check that no insects or their eggs are nestling between the sheets. Any insect found must of course be removed to prevent the material from being damaged. One writer even believed that the sheets should be shaken every two days in order to ward off the moths (Winter, 1894).

During the fermentation, a glue-like liquid (jijit) forms on the material. The more jijit the better the quality of dluwang. An attempt is made at intervals to tear the sheet to check how far the fermentation has developed. If it tears easily the material is ‘done’.  Once the sheets are fermented sufficiently, they should be washed.  While wet, the sheets are stretched. In Ponorogo, they are individually spread on a long, wide, smooth table made of kesambi, walikukun (harikukun) or sawo, all tough and hard Indonesian woods. First the table is thickly coated with the colourless juice of the unripe klejo fruit. Forty (40) sheets can be prepared on such a prepared table top without them sticking to the table.30

If any holes had formed during beating or removal they are now repaired. A piece of beaten bark is placed in the hole and then beaten until the hole disappears. Often these repairs are clearly recognizable afterwards.  The sheets are smoothed in various stages. The first step is to polish them with a small piece of a coconut shell. The shell is serrated or has lengthwise grooves.31 Sometimes the result of this treatment can be found in the final product as long thick stripes that appear to lie in the dluwang structure. On Madura the use of coconut shells for this task is unknown, instead a cane or bamboo beater is used.32

 While in Purwokerto the treatment continues with a smooth coconut shell, on East Java the material is further processed with the gandu, the bean of the bindoh. The flat and almost round bean in its pod is perfect to render the bark smoother but they must be washed before use. On Madura, in addition to the gandu, the kernel of the balang is used.  In the next step, the still moist sheets are smoothed with various tree leaves. Except on West Java, where kandel leaves are used, the leaves of nanka, the well-known breadfruit tree are used.33 On East Java, the leaves of the karet and the plosso are also utilized. In this way most blemishes and wrinkles disappear. The use of beans and pits, and tree leaves are interchanged on Madura. In Bagelen apparently a wooden cylinder is used in this step for the top quality; it is rolled back and forth over the wet sheet.  Now the final processing step is almost in sight. The sheets are dried on a banana tree (gedebog, gedebong) trunk, from which the outer dirty rind has been removed. It is recommended not to overlap the sides of the sheets. 14

Hence on Ponorogo, the pisang bung with its relatively thick trunk is preferred. Once the skin is laid over the trunk, the whole sheet is once more smoothed out with a leaf or a bean. It must be taken into account that the sheets shrink and work loose during drying. If the sheets have worked loose, a certain sheen can be observed on the side that has been in contact with the banana trunk. This is due to the polishing action on the trunk in combination with the sap from the stem. It is precisely this side that makes a good writing surface. The drying process can take several hours to one day, depending on the amount of sun.  The last step, only undergone for sheets for writing purposes, is polishing with a shell (kuwuk, kerang). This is most likely the Cypraea tigris tigris Linne.34 On Ponorogo such shells, amongst others, are acquired from Pacitan. To polish, the shell is attached to a bamboo stick that is inserted in the floor or attached to the roof beam of the house. The shell is passed over the dry sheet in regular movements while the bamboo provides the correct tension. This is a long and tedious job and is chiefly carried out by the young children of the dluwang maker.35 In Tunggilis in the sixties, an old marble doorknob was used instead of a shell. During the demonstration in 1994, the children of the dluwang maker had lost it and so this part of the production process was then entirely omitted.  There still remains the cutting and packaging of the finished dluwang sheets. Around 1800 in Garut, sheets were sold per twenty (20) pieces and packed in so- called ‘korsjes’ [sheets]. Hence dluwang was also called ‘korstjes’paper.

3 Scientific research A number of tests were carried out to enable a fast, adequate distinction between dluwang and other similar proto-papers. The tree from which the dluwang bark comes was determined using anatomical examination at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden. Characteristic chemical elements were searched for using X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) at the Central Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science in Amsterdam. At the same time Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) was used to look for specific properties. The same was tried using isoelectric focusing (IEF) at the National Library of the Netherlands in The Hague. One aim of the literature research and fieldwork was to find notable properties that are easy to determine using the human senses. 3.1 Anatomical examination It is known that dluwang is made of beaten bark but the plant species remains uncertain. A number of species mentioned in the literature are possibly used in the preparation of dluwang: Gnetum gnemon Linn., Artocarpus elastica Reinw., Ficus (several species) and Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. Except for Gnetum (belonging to the Gnetaceae family) the above species belong to the Moraceae family. Plants from this family are used everywhere in the tropics to make tapa and the Broussonetia in particular is often used to produce the most refined examples (Bell, 1992). Another possible plant species is the Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. but this seems very unlikely. Since tapa from this species is easily distinguishable from the rest, it was decided not to test this plant. Four reference sections per plant species (Appendix 3) were made, two bark and two fibre sections, from material from the economic botany collection of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden.36 Fibre sections were also made from 25 dluwang specimen. These specimen were taken partly from Dutch and Indonesian collections and partly collected during fieldwork. The origin and date of most is known (Appendix 5). All sections were carefully examined under the light microscope for characteristic features and the average fibre diameter was measured.37 Firstly the reference sections were examined to find any distinct properties that could distinguish between species. The average fibre thickness of Artocarpus and Gnetum are significantly larger than those of Broussonetia and Ficus (Appendix 4). Furthermore, only the genus Gnetum presented diamond-shaped crystals and no rolled-up fibre walls, while the Ficus showed quite distinct ladder-shaped speckling and the Broussonetia had no stone cells (sclereids).38 Based on these characteristics, the four plant species are relatively easy to distinguish (Appendix 6).

All dluwang specimen except for two have a smaller fibre diameter than Artocarpus and Gnetum. Sample numbers 92 and 94 are somewhat on the high side but score positively on the other properties. That leaves the distinction between Broussonetia and Ficus. Cells with ladder-like speckling in the specimen were absent or rarely found which certainly does not indicate Ficus. Stone cells were found in only one sample but in large amounts in the Ficus. Only one paper sample (D1968) contained a few stone cells clumped together, probably a contamination. In sample 85, one starch grain was found, possibly originating from the insecticide with which it was treated.39 Under the microscope it was clear from sample 87 that insects and fungus had seriously affected the dluwang. The surface is covered with a dense network of hyphae and there are many short fibres between the fibres and contamination by fibre fragments. Possibly this is the reason why only the rolled outer wall layer was detected and no other characteristic. The absence of a loose outer wall in specimen 88 and 107 is striking, perhaps a result of the preparation method. However, other characteristics do suggest Broussonetia. For unknown reasons no characteristics were found in sample 91 under the microscope: in regard to fibre thickness, it could be Broussonetia or Ficus. Based on the anatomical characteristics of the dluwang specimen it seems highly likely that all samples except for no. 91 belong to the genus Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. Based on their anatomical characteristics the three tapa specimen belong to the genus Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.

3.2 Iso-Electro Focusing Electrophoresis mobility shift essay (EMSA) methods are often used to characterize and identify the different protein components of various materials in biochemical, medical and forensic research.40 One of these electrophoresis techniques, isoelectric focusing, is ideal for analysing the usually small differences between plant and animal species. In particular, the genetically dependent variation between functionally similar proteins is measured. The separation resulting from this method is based on the differences in the isoelectric points of proteins.41 Since this isoelectric focusing technique had previously been successfully applied in the research of leather and parchment in the laboratory of the National Library of the Netherlands, it was decided to test this method and adjust it for the characterization of dluwang. Plant species from the reference sections of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands were used. Except for Artocarpus, of which three specimen were analysed, two specimen were analysed per plant species.42

Ten of the 25 dluwang specimen were analysed by this method as well as tapa sample 68.43 The final extraction method, the focusing and detection procedure were the result of trying out a range of different options. Different solvents were tested for extracting protein from the bark.44 Extraction in 8 M urea was the most suitable method. When optimizing the focusing case, particular attention was paid to the choice of sampling area of the specimen on the gels and the duration of both the pre-focusing and focusing.45 Focusing was performed with a PhastSystem apparatus (Pharmacia). The specimen were placed directly onto the gels on the side of the cathode using a Perspex comb.46 After the isoelectro focusing the proteins in the gels were stained.47 Proteins with known isoelectric points were used as references for interpreting the resulting focusing patterns. With the final experimental setup it seemed possible to be able to achieve well reproducible protein band patterns for the different bark samples. The main protein bands of the references seemed to have isoelectric points between 5.0 and 5.5. The patterns for the bark references from the National Herbarium of the Netherlands were clearly identified (Appendix 17). The focusing patterns of Ficus and Broussonetia specimen seem to show a similar pattern. There is no conclusive explanation for this. Of the 10 tested dluwang specimen, five have a pattern similar to the Ficus/Broussonetia pattern (nos. 29, 32, 53b, 75, 77). Besides this pattern, the other five dluwang specimen have an additional diffuse protein band close to the sampling area (nos. 53a, 53c, 57, 58, 76). The tapa sample no. 68 falls in the latter category. A possible explanation for the additional protein band could lie in a variation in the dluwang manufacture method: by adding a fermentation step in the preparation process, certain protein degradation could have occurred, perhaps leading to an additional fraction in the focusing pattern. Often the dluwang colour is an indication of whether the material was fermented or not: brown to yellow-brown indicates no fermentation and yellow to white-yellow does indicate fermentation. Here the colour of the specimen within the two patterns was so divergent that the above explanation seemed inadequate. An explanation for the difference in the protein band pattern was also not found in the anatomical features of the specimen; they showed no similarities within one band pattern. Neither the site/origin, nor the date of the sample provides a plausible explanation for the difference. In anticipation of the following, the chromatograms of specimen of the two band patterns were compared, but again results could not be explained. Based on the results it can be assumed that isoelectricphoresis protein separation techniques are a potential tool for the identification of certain bark materials.

It has become clear that dluwang specimen do not belong to the genus Artocarpus elastica Reinw., Artocarpus spec. or Gnetum gnemon. A distinction between the species Ficus spec. and Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. is yet to be carried out with this method. The dichotomy in the band pattern of the dluwang specimen is remarkable; an explanation has not yet been found. Additional research involving the analysis of other well-documented specimen would possibly provide an explanation for this remarkable difference. 3.3 X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry This non-destructive method provides a spectrum of qualitatively verifiable metals and elements.48 Although mostly used for the analysis of metals and rocks, in principle this method could also show differences in plant material through the number and concentration of detected elements and metals. All 16 reference materials of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands were tested (Appendix 7). A dozen elements and metals were indicated: silicon (Si), sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), titanium (Ti), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), strontium (Sr) and rubidium (Rb). However these elements are not specific to this research but can be found in every plant. These are the typical elements and metals that are absorbed in solution from the soil by the plant and remain in the fibre material. Still, there are differences in concentration between the following: silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium and calcium. With the other elements, the content is so low that differences in concentration, although measurable, are irrelevant. An exception is the iron content that shows a larger variation. These differences in concentration are too few for a meaningful analysis. Overall, the results were not encouraging enough to examine the dluwang specimen with X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. 3.4 Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) Chromatography is a separation method in which the components of a mixture are separated by a selective distribution between two phases; the mobile phase (gas, liquid) is flowed through the stationary phase. There are several chromatographic separation methods depending on the combination of the two phases. In principle, they are destructive methods but the samples required are very small. Thin-Layer Chromatography is a simple, quick and convenient method. This research method is often used alongside others for the analysis of organic materials.

For this investigation of dluwang, the Central Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science used a TLC developed to identify natural resins and another developed to identify natural dyes (anthraquinones). All 16 reference specimen from the National Herbarium of the Netherlands were examined with both TLC methods. It was not possible to distinguish between the different plant species with either the resin or the dye chromatography systems. It also proved impossible to establish an identification pattern within a single plant species (see Appendix 8 for the TLC of Brousonnetia papyrifera). Despite these initially discouraging results, 10 dluwang specimen were tested with both TLC methods. The resin TLC yielded no results, but surprisingly 8 of the 10 specimen appeared to match one of the reference materials (B1) with the dye chromatography; specimen 75 and 77 diverged from the pattern (Appendix 9). The X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry shows that this sample contained more silicon and potassium compared with the other reference materials, probably because these are dluwang in the first phase of processing. As a fibre preparation, this sample did not stand out in the table of anatomical features whereas it did as a bark preparation (Appendix 6). Sample B1 has significantly more rhombic crystals than the other specimen; possibly potassium or silicon crystals. With the isoelectric focusing, both 75 and 77 specimen matched one of the two found band patterns. Whether the found dye chromatography can characterise dluwang can be established by testing more specimen: it seems likely. Comparison of the different applied research methods gives plenty of subjects for further investigation. Further experiments should determine whether this component can indeed be used for a ‘finger-print’ identification for dluwang. 3.5 Examination using the senses It is not rare that careful looking at and listening to materials produces surprising results. An expert can often tell a paper he holds by its sound; a leather worker smells the leather and feels it thoroughly with his hands before determining the type. Each sensory perception can be important in identifying a material, however it is scientific research that ultimately should provide the deciding factor. Previously it was supposed that the plant Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. is one of the plant species to which dluwang could belong. On Java and other places, the latex of the plant is used for the manufacture of arrow poison. Toxicological examination has revealed that this latex contained a poison that causes cardiac arrest: antiarine. A harmless amount of this substance is also found in the tapa of the tree.49 Hence this tapa has a typically bitter and pungent taste by which it can be identified.50

Besides the taste test, this tapa can also be identified by its intense white-yellow colour, the resilient, fuzzy surface and the thickness: the inner bark of the Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. can be as much as 1.5 cm thick. The tapa of Ficus, Artocarpus and Gnetum are harder to distinguish from dluwang. The Gnetum gnemon produces a pale yellow tapa with a loose structure. Ficus spec. makes a whitish or a brown tapa and Artocarpus elastica results in a typical red-brown tapa. Over time, the Artocarpus in particular gives a hard and stiff tapa that darkens in colour. Depending on the quality, Broussonetia papyrifera produces a soft yellowish white, beige or light brown tapa. All tapa discolour with age. Above all, the colour depends on the length of drying time; the longer in the sun, the lighter the colour. The age of the tree also plays a role: the older the tree, the darker the bark. Fermenting results in a lighter colour, and once again, the longer the fermentation, the lighter the colour. Colour alone can never provide a firm conclusion. Dluwang can also be distinguished from other tapa by use and a characteristic step in the production process:  use as writing support; with blank pages, pre-creased lines and gloss on one or both sides from calendering indicate the tapa sort; only on Java, Madura and Sulawesi is local tapa occasionally used as a writing support;  use as image carrier; in the past on Bali, tapa from Sulawesi was sometimes used as a painting canvas and is currently imported on a small scale from the same island for religious purposes;

 use as bookbinding material and endpaper;  long, two to four millimetre wide stripes across the entire sheet, that appear to lie within the tapa. These are caused by rubbing the wet sheets with a small piece of coconut shell, which is serrated or grooved in the length (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977: IOL Jav.7). This method was never used on Madura. The framework in Appendix 10 maybe helpful for assessing a piece of tapa of uncertain origin without scientific examination but with a suspicion that it is from Java. The framework is but an indication, again only scientific research can provide conclusive results.

In conclusion, it was established that the anatomical tests revealed that dluwang most probably is made from the inner bark of Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. There is no point in examining dluwang with X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. A real ‘finger-print’, a combination of typical chemical characteristics, was not found with the applied research methods. 21

Yet both isoelectric focusing and TLC with the dye method offer sufficient leads for further research. It must not be forgotten that both research methods were applied for the first time on bark material.

4 Application

4.1 Use on Java and Madura

4.1.1 Writing support Dluwang is best known as a writing support. Dluwang is particularly utilized for Javanese and Maduran manuscripts and a few Malay books. Little is known about the Maduran manuscripts, even less of the Javanese.51 Let us consider a few figures.

Nearly 20% of the 459 Javanese manuscripts in Great Britain are written on dluwang and just over 1% of 600 Malay manuscripts. Exceptional books on beaten bark in the English collections are a Batak folded book (Add.19385) and two Buginese notes (MS 12915). It is not known whether the beaten bark is dluwang (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977).

Of the nearly 5000 Javanese manuscripts in the Netherlands there are 131 (2.6%) written on dluwang (Pigeaud, 1967). There were almost no Javanese manuscripts to be found outside the Leiden University Library collections. Slightly more than half of the dluwang manuscripts deal with religion, the rest is equally divided over history, belles- lettres and science (Appendix 11). One remarkable manuscript (not mentioned in Pigeaud) is a blank manuscript on dluwang in a blind-tooled, brown leather envelope binding. It is in the bookbinding collection of the National Library of the Netherlands in The Hague under number I.B.15.h. On the binding is written ‘No. 9’ that suggests that at least eight similar books have been made, probably for administrative purposes. Gratzl (1924) believed that still more of such bindings must exist in other Dutch libraries, however this cannot be confirmed. That blank dluwang books were produced for administrative use seems likely, however it seems unlikely that they would have such a luxury binding. An unknown number of Malay manuscripts are written on dluwang however there is no complete catalogue.52

Of the 1255 Javanese manuscripts in Sonobudoyo Museum, Jogjakarta, 54 (4.3%) are written on dluwang (Behrend, 1990). A simple analysis shows that all but one are written in Javanese, more than 90% in Javanese script and that more than 60% are about literature (Appendix 12).

Of the handwritten books in Cirebon, 17.5% are written on dluwang, 58% entirely in Javanese and 33% both in Javanese and Arabic (Titik Pudjiastuti, 1994). Javanese script is used in more than half (58%) of the books, either alone or in combination with Arabic and/or Pégon. In addition, 58% are on religious teachings and it is especially these containing many types of script used together (see Appendix 13).

Each collection was randomly put together; to start with, they are dependent on the individual taste of the collector, the ‘market’, financial resources, the impermanence of the material, etc. A statistical analysis only indicates something about the collection in its current state. Yet a simple comparison of figures from various collections can provide some insight into the possible construction of the entity. It is clear that this comparison must be practiced with great caution.

Comparison of the percentage of manuscripts on dluwang in the four previously mentioned collections yields the following result: of the largest collection (Dutch), less than 2% is written on dluwang; of the Cirebon collection, 12%; Sonobudoyo 3% and of the English collection nearly 13% (Appendix 14). The relatively high percentages of dluwang book objects in the English and Cirebon collections are noteworthy. One would expect the ‘kraton’ [palace] collections to contain fewer manuscripts on dluwang since these scriptoria were earlier converted to the use of expensive imported paper. The high percentage of the Cirebon collection might be explained by the fact that the catalogue contains manuscripts from the 4 kraton (Kasepuhan, Kanoman, Kacirebonan, Keprabonan) as well as others. But after closer analysis it seems that this difference is irrelevant. An explanation for the large portion of dluwang manuscripts in the English collection could be that the collection has relatively few manuscripts from the kraton. And perhaps the low percentage in the Dutch collection is explained by the opposite effect, namely that many manuscripts were acquired from within the kraton walls. The same may hold true for the Sonobudoyo collection. A Javanese literature historian could possibly provide answers to these questions.

Of the content of the manuscripts it can be said that most deal with religion or literature and that the majority are in the Javanese language and script. The Arabic language and Pégon script are used more in those on the subject of religion. It is striking that religion has a minor ranking in the Sonobudoyo collection with over half of the manuscripts dealing with a literary subject.

It has become clear that dluwang generally occupies a modest place in these cited collections of Javanese manuscripts and that the differences in quantity between them are striking. Not only manuscripts, but also letters are written on dluwang. There are not many known examples; the English collection has a Javanese letter of 1798 on a single sheet of dluwang (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977: MS 12159).

4.1.2 Kertas telo In the catalogue of Sonobudoyo and the provisional catalogue of Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Indonesia in Depok, Behrend makes a distinction between kertas telo and kertas gendhong.53 Kertas telo could be made from Cassava and kertas gendhong could be the same as dluwang. I fully agree with the latter: kertas gendhong is an onomatopoeic word derived from kemplong that means ‘beat to make flexible’, and is used in East and Central Java in particular as a synonym for dluwang.54 Five specimen, three kertas gendhong and 2 kertas telo, were examined anatomically and all appeared to be the bark of Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.55 During the fieldwork I searched extensively for kertas telo. My conclusion was that kertas telo is a Chinese paper, probably with cotton as raw material and imported from the province of Guangxi.56 When asked about kertas telo in various toko buku [book shop] and toko kertas [paper shop] all over Java the answer was invariably ‘handmade Chinese paper’. The same paper is also for sale under the names kertas kapuk (= kapok), kertas kapas (= cotton), kertas singkong (= cassava), kertas pohong and kertas jarit (= pattern). It is used as waxed paper, wrapping paper and sewing pattern paper. Telo is the Javanese word for sweet potato (Ipomua Batatas Poir.) and not for cassava (Manihot utilissima Pohl.). It is chemically almost impossible to make paper from this root, at the most perhaps from the skin. Rumphius (1741) determined that the plant is not indigenous and was probably introduced by the Spaniards in the late 16th to early 17th century from the West Indies. Cassava, on the other hand, was introduced as a cultivated plant only around 1800 with the intention of processing the raw material industrially. It is impossible to make paper from it as well. Chinese owned the processing companies. Only in the second half of the 19th century did it became known to the rest of the population. Over the years the sweet potato has gradually gained more importance than cassava. Kertas telo is therefore neither ‘cassava paper’ nor ‘sweet potato paper’. It could possibly be that certain papers were sized with cassava starch or sweet potato starch. In any case, the Chinese kertas telo papers that I purchased were not sized.

4.1.3 Image support Another known application of dluwang is as an image support. The 6 wayang beber in the National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden have been previously mentioned. Kant-Achilles (1990), in her brief discussion on the nature of the raw material of this wayang image carrier, mentions two other different materials besides dluwang, i.e., bago or bagor and kertas merang merang bagor. The substance bagor is easily distinguished from dluwang. In Yokyakarta and surrounds it is the name of a fabric woven from the strap-like leaves of the gebang, a versatile and well-known palm tree (Spoon, 1940). The population traditionally plaited this material to manufacture mats, bags, nets, clothing, etc. In East Java, the material is called agel and it is also known on Madura and Sulawesi. That this substance served as an image support for the wayang beber seems very unlikely since it is not easy to paint. In any case, it is easy to recognise the plaiting. The name kertas merang merang bagor is a contamination of the material name bagor and kertas merang. The latter is not a weaving or beaten bark but a paper type made from rice straw stripped of the stubble. The first Dutch paper mill in Padelarang in 1923 used rice straw as a raw material. Today it is still made in a small factory in the desa [village] of Gilang (kecamatan Ngunut, kabupaten Tulungagung). Some twenty years ago there were six of these small factories producing kertas merang but they all disappeared due to the scarcity of raw materials. The paper is very cheap and is still sold here and there on the pasar [market] as wrapping paper. The current mode of production would suggest that the Chinese probably introduced the paper to Java long ago for the purpose of producing their ceremonial offering papers. Still, it seems to me unlikely that this paper is used for the wayang beber [scroll painting]. Considering its intended use high quality would not have been a requirement for kertas merang. It seems hardly suitable as a writing support and little more so as an image support. It is easy to distinguish between kertas merang and dluwang; the former is a paper with a typical mustard yellow colour, often of coarse quality, in which rice straw remains can be found. It is possible that rice straw paper from the Padelarang factory is used for wayang beber with a much better quality than the Chinese and be of a soft, very light yellow colour. The scroll painting must then be post 1923. That Javanese paintings, except for wayang beber, are made on dluwang is known from the literature, but I do not know of any physical examples.

4.1.4 Bookbinding material Certainly not all manuscripts have a binding. A protective binding, in whatever form, always costs money.

The Javanese bound manuscripts can be roughly divided into two types: the simple wrapper and the flap binding, also known as the envelope binding.57 Dluwang is used for both. Both manuscripts on dluwang and on paper can be fitted with a wrapper of dluwang. The wrapper can be seen as a cheap alternative to a ‘full’ binding, and the use of dluwang is again a cheap replacement for paper. Bindings are made of fine leather for sumptuous and more important books, often decorated with gilded medallions and corner pieces. These bindings can also include paper manuscripts as well as dluwang manuscripts. The endpapers, which form the connection between book block and binding, can be of dluwang, even if the manuscript is written on paper (LOr 2048). Every conceivable combination of paper and dluwang is encountered in Javanese manuscripts. Not only was the book form created under the influence of Islam, the bindings also show typical Islamic features that may go back to ancient Persian styles (Plomp, 1993).

The core of a bookbinding can be made from many materials: wood, leather, cardboard, leather or paper scraps glued together. Further investigation of manuscripts with badly degraded bindings has revealed that dluwang has also been used as core material. Blank and written strips of dluwang are glued together to form a nucleus over which the leather can be mounted. The re-use of old parchment manuscripts for making new books is known from the European Middle Ages. Parts of such cut up pages from older manuscripts can be found throughout the manuscript, binding and book blocks. These ‘membra disjecta’, as they are called, proved to be more valuable than originally thought: whole pages of lost manuscripts have been discovered in this way. As in Europe, driven by economy and poverty, the Javanese scriptoria cut up old (damaged) dluwang manuscripts and re-used them to make new books. These scattered written fragments of (beaten) inner bark, these ‘liber disjecta’ as they could be called along the lines of the ‘membra disjecta’, can be found especially in the core of the binding. This fact should certainly be taken into account in the conservation or restoration of Javanese manuscripts. This ‘liber disjecta’ could possibly supply the Javanicus just as valuable information as the ‘membra disjecta’ has done for the European codex scholar.

4.1.5 Other uses Many simple binders of the coarse dluwang quality were made for the Javanese and Dutch government. For example, a former desa chief in Cinunuk Hilir, Garut showed me a folder of dluwang and the head of the Forestry Commission in Garut gave me a folder and verified the large extent of use in the past.

Even at the headquarters of the forestry commission in the province of Garut there was earlier extensive use of these binders and use was certainly known in Batavia. Dluwang also found general acceptance on Java as packing material. It was frequently used to cover boxes for shipping indigo in the Bagelen province and, as previously mentioned, the Batavia post office devoured large quantities each year in the middle of the 19th century. A less utilitarian application was using dluwang as material for making kites. It has previously been mentioned that dluwang has served as clothing fabric, even up until recently in times of need.

4.2 Use in the Netherlands

4.2.1 Material for arts and crafts Dluwang has been used in the Netherlands as artists’ material on a very limited scale. In 1932, the department Trade Museum, in collaboration with the Industry department of the Colonial Institute in Haarlem, imported dluwang from Java and Madura. A year later, sales were handed over to De Erve Wijsmuller’s Papierhandel N.V of Amsterdam; the Trade Museum department remained monitoring the material quality. The paper trade actually imported no more than 75 sheets per year, we cannot speak of a flourishing trade. Artists used it as a curiosity; it was made into passe-partouts and treated with paraffin to make it into lampshades. It also served as a substrate for the popular batik technique, like the example of Mr. Grootes (1926) in the collection of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden (no.583). The National Library of the Netherlands in The Hague (no.I.A.5.j.) has two 1931 watercolours from the artist A.J. Hondius, who used dluwang as a painting canvas. In 1934, the Trade Museum department of the Colonial Institute sent 20 publishers a sheet of dluwang with the request to try it out as bookbinding material (Anonymous, 1934). Most of the 15 respondents did see possibilities for the material, especially for de-luxe editions. Disadvantages however were the high price, uneconomical size and the difficulty of pasting it that rendered it less suitable for machine processing. Moreover, for the Dutch market the dluwang could not be too old because it was then too stiff for processing. Publishers P.N. van Kampen & Zn and C.A. Mees used some dluwang for de-luxe editions of which 3 are now in the Meermanno-Westrenianum Museum, The Hague. Two other dluwang bookbindings are known to exist but their current locations are unknown.58 The Paper-historical Department at the National Library of the Netherlands in The Hague (no.I.A.5.k.) has three so-called ‘half-linen’ hard covers of dluwang in its possession.

5 Balinese tapa?

Dluwang is explicitly defined as a tapa of Broussonetia papyrifera originating from Java and Madura. The question immediately arises whether the same Indonesian tapa was also produced outside these two islands.

5.1 Bali Before the start of this project, it became known that contemporary Balinese priests used ‘dluwang’ inscribed with magical characters for the sacrifice ritual during cremation. Field research showed that some Balinese-Hindu priests at Sanur indeed used a tapa during cremations.59 Depending on the caste of the deceased, it is inscribed with a sacred formula by the priest and laid on the body during the cremation. Small pieces (8 x 5 cm) are used to make streamers for the same ritual. The Chinese imported tapa from Ujung Pandang, Sulawesi and sold it at the Den Passar market.60 The original format is that of a night sarong from which the seller cuts the desired piece. A sarong cost 200 guilders 61 and an 8 x 5 cm piece cost 15 guilders. 62 The priest used this very expensive material for 25 to 30 years and thought that it was also used earlier. According to him, it is the first Balinese paper and was introduced by the Chinese. A sample of this tapa was examined anatomically and identified as Broussonetia papyrifera (Appendix 5:105). The collections of KIT (Koninklijk Instituut van de Tropen [Royal Tropical Institute]), Amsterdam and the Museum Volkenkunde (National Museum of Ethnology) Leiden have some Balinese paintings on tapa which tapa are most probably imported from Sulawesi. 63 Covarrubias (1994) reports in 1937 that on Bali, the use of tapa from Sulawesi for this purpose in earlier times was not unusual, although he noted that most paintings are made on hand-woven cotton.

5.2 Sulawesi There was a strong trade in tapa at various times in the past. With Sulawesi in particular it is known that its tapa was sold in remote areas. The Chinese first became acquainted with beaten bark as a commodity in Minahassa. For large quantities they bought it in the form of large pieces. In 1657, in Central Sulawesi, fuya from the Palu valley (Kaili) was exported to Macao, Mainland China and Manila in the Philippines where, among other things, it served as bed curtains (Cummins, 1962). Earlier, Sulawesi fuya was also exported to Java where it was used to copper ships. From 1857, the Chinese firm Sie Boen Tiong Bros. of Gorontalo, Sulawesi exported fuya to Surabaya and Singapora where it was used as an underlay in the coppering of ships instead of felt.

In 1901 the trade ceased completely (Adriani and Kruyt, 1901). It is quite possible that tapa from Sulawesi was also imported to Java in the period of the Dutch East India Company. The Dagh-Register [Daily Register] of 1681 states that 50 or so bundles of ‘Cayelys paper’ from Butan, South Sulawesi entered Batavia (Haan, 1919). Undoubtedly the so-called ‘Kaili paper’ is meant here, being the name of the fuya from the Kaili Kingdom, Central Sulawesi. However, this tapa became so renowned that every tapa from Sulawesi was designated as such.

Whether these Sulawesi tapa of the paper mulberry, also known as ambo (Pamona) or omu (Uma), had ever been used as a writing support is uncertain. In 1875, P. Schmidt van Gelder donated a blank book made of tapa to the Industry Department of the Royal Colonial Institute, Haarlem.64 It originated from Sulawesi, has no binding and ‘No. 9’ is written on the first page. Presumably the book was intended for administration, as previously mentioned. The beaten bark is of Broussonetia papyrifera, as determined by the anatomical examination of a sample (Appendix 5:68). In this connection one is also reminded of the two Buginese tapa in the English collection (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977: MS 12915). Another tested sample of a recent Sulawesi night sarong appears to have been beaten from the same plant species (Appendix 5:124). The plant grows abundantly in Sulawesi and is very popular as a raw material for fuya; it is supposed to yield the best quality (Adriani and Kruijt, 1901). The tapa collections of the National Museum of Ethnology and the Royal Tropical Institute (KIT) are dominated by Sulawesi tapa. The most specimen of Broussonetia papyrifera in the collection of the Herbarium Bogoriensi in Bogor come from Sulawesi.

The Sulawesi fuya of paper mulberry cannot be distinguished from the dluwang with the naked eye, especially the medium quality. Differences in production are to be found, for example stone beaters are often used on Sulawesi as to brass beaters on Java and Madura. Above all, the bark is boiled in Sulawesi and not on Java. More thorough investigation is needed to establish whether the two tapa are chemically or otherwise clearly distinguishable from each other.

6 Future

Dluwang has already had its day as a writing and image support. In Indonesia today, paper is for sale in every kampung and desa. Locally produced printing and writing paper is cheap but the quality leaves much to be desired. On the other hand, imported paper is expensive and difficult to obtain. The lack of good artists’ materials, including paper, is a common complaint of many Indonesian artists. Dluwang has long been replaced as packaging by plastic; much cheaper and more durable. Bookbindings are now made by machine and if the book has a ‘hard cover’ then it is one with a cardboard core. And folders are now legion in all types of plastics and cardboard. Yet I do believe that this beaten bark still has a future.

6.1 Sustainable production In the last 20 years, the ecological consciousness of Western man has grown slowly but surely. This has created new markets in which environmentally friendly products are doing increasingly well. Organically grown food crops have become commonplace, most people know what a free-range chicken is and the green butcher makes greater inroads. In recent years a market has also arisen for everyday and luxury consumer goods that are produced ecologically. ‘Environmentally friendly’ has become a trademark. The developing countries in particular could take over a large part of this emerging market as raw materials like wood, leaves and bark are on hand in large quantities and do not cost much.

Initially, ‘environmental consciousness’ was a luxury of the West. However, the rapidly developing countries are becoming more and more concerned about the environmental costs of their runaway economic growth. For example, Malaysia is concerned about the swift pace at which its rivers are becoming polluted. Local environmental groups have formed in these countries despite oppression. The desired fast growth is often accompanied by large-scale production systems. This often results in the rich becoming richer and the poor poorer. Small-scale, environmentally aware manufacturing is a good alternative for the large-scale production company that causes a significant proportion of industrial pollution.

6.2 Dluwang, an everyday and luxury article of use? The previous use as writing and image support could be reintroduced. Dluwang could become an artists’ material; a few artists in Jogjakarta and Ubud have already shown a willingness to experiment with it. For the exhibition in autumn (1995) at the National Dutch Library, 2 Dutch artists and a Javanese artist are actively investigating dluwang as a raw material for graphic techniques. The artistic work of the Malay artist Michael Lim (Yeoh-Jin Leng, 1994) proves that it is very useful as a raw material for textile techniques. Dluwang is ideal for book wrappers. A company in Ubud, Bali uses tapa from various parts of Indonesia for their book covers. Small printing jobs is another market sector for which dluwang may be appropriate. If dluwang can also be printed with the small offset printing technique, the potential of the material would be considerably extended. Some local authorities, particularly the Forest Commission in Bandung and Garut, are sympathetic to the idea of bringing dluwang back into use for folders. Amongst other possibilities, a growing flow of tourists provides a thriving souvenir industry. This has stimulated some traditional crafts and certainly not always at the cost of quality. Old blank sheets of dluwang manuscripts in Sumenep, East Java are already sold at high prices to tourists. The newly made pustaha (Batak folding books) are equally popular amongst tourists around Lake Toba, Sumatra.

For tourists, dluwang is at least a curiosity and therefore attractive to buy. Outside Indonesia, the locally made finished product can be exported to the West by organizations such as ‘Fair Trade’ and S.O.S. As a semi-finished product it could find a ready market if more specialty shops like Paper Chase in London become interested. They sell papers and proto-papers from all over the world and convert the semi- manufactured product locally to make luxury goods. The previously mentioned firm in Ubud exports its paper products mainly to the USA where the market for such products could be enormous. Within Asia, a small import/export company in Kuala Lumpur has shown interest.

6.3 Can these ideas be realised? In the Garut region 20 years ago, the attempt to re-forest the area with Broussonetia papyrifera was successful in itself. The project was abandoned because the plan was to establish a large-scale paper industry with the plant as raw material and this proved too expensive.

At the same time in Thailand, the commercial possibilities of the inner bark of Broussonetia papyrifera, the saa tree, were investigated. In Chiangmai in northern Thailand, the saa paper has been handmade for two hundred years for the local umbrella industry. The umbrellas are offered to the monasteries for religious and ritual services. The paper of the Thai folded books does not have the paper mulberry tree as raw material but the Streblus asper (khoi) that is deemed to be of lesser quality. The Thai government has set up a project with the aim of stimulating the local paper industry. Now Broussonetia papyrifera is being planted in Chiang Mai and neighbouring provinces. The raw inner bark is collected and sold through local businesses. New techniques have been introduced such as paper-batik, bleaching, dyeing in the pulp, and adding flowers and plant parts to the pulp. As a result, dozens of cottage industries have been created in and around the city of Chiangmai. Besides the production of paper from the raw material, finished products such as books, stationery, written works, scrolls, etc. are also made. That production is not only intended for the local tourist industry is demonstrated by the fact that the paper products are for sale in Kuala Lumpur and, during Christmas 1994, in the Dutch department store De Bijenkorf. In other words, the paper industry that pined away 20 years ago in northern Thailand has developed into a thriving small-scale industry whose products are distributed worldwide.

In order for such a project to succeed with dluwang on Java, the setup must be small- scale initially. At the original production sites of Tunggilis, Garut and Tegalsari at Ponorogo, where knowledge of dluwang production lives on in a dormant state, people would have to be financially supported to start up their own businesses. The reforestation of Broussonetia papyrifera should be undertaken with cooperation from the government preferably as close as possible to the production regions. The market in dluwang products lies in raw material for book wrappers, folders, small printing jobs for the local market, in consumer articles for the Western, environmentally conscious people, raw material for artists at home and abroad.

Scientific institutional support may be expected from the LIPI-Dokumentasi dan Informasi, [Indonsesian Institute of Sciences] Jakarta and from the university in Bandung: both institutions have recently expressed interest in dluwang. Many obstacles will have to be overcome before the sound of dluwang beaters will again be heard in the desas. Perhaps Western governments will have the funds to spare to develop and shape these ideas.

Appendix 1

Map of dluwang manufacture on Java and Madura

Appendix 2

Means of polishing dluwang by region

Means* Region West Java Central Java East Java Madura Java Nangka leaf x x x x

Kandel leaf x

Kenanga leaf x

Karet leaf x

Plosso leaf x

Gandu-bean x x x

Balang pit x

Bamboo/rattan beater x

Coconut shell x x x

Shell x x x x

* For the Latin names of the Indonesian forest products see Appendix 15: Native and Latin plant names

Appendix 3

Reference materials from the Economic Botany collection at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden

Code Specimen Section Type material Origin Artocarpus spec. C, V * Capoca bark Delft University of Technology, drawer 33 (vv. Fa. G de Vries Zn. A1 Supposedly shipped from Borneo to Japan for the production of paper. Received from Fa. van Gelder Zn. by letter of 29 July) A2 Artocarpus elastica V Roll of bark, rolled Delft University of Technology Reinw. out after being (Collection II) drenched in water Ag8 Artocarpus elastica V Bark of the Terep tree, nr. 608/2 Koloniaal Museum beaten (Colonial Museum), Haarlem. T.A. Reinw. van Stürler Ab9 Artocarpus elastica C Bark of the Tarok Koloniaal Instituut, Reinw. Handelsmuseum (Colonial Institute, department Trade Museum), HM no. 1840-55-1931, Afd. Poear Datar, Padangse Bovenlanden (Received Dec 1906 from Museum van Economische Botanie [Museumof Economical Botany], Buitenzorg, original nr. 1391) B1 Broussonetia C, V Deloewang bark, first Delft University of Technology papyrifera Vent. stage of paper (Received from Museum van manufacture (no. 2) Economische Botanie, Batavia, May 1935) B2 Broussonetia V Deloewang bark, third Delft University of Technology papyrifera Vent. stage of paper (received from Museum van manufacture (no. 4) Economische Botanie, Batavia, May 1935) Bg5 Broussonetia V Deloewang bark papyrifera (processed) Bb6 Broussonetia C 1 Packet with bark, Display, cupboard 2 (used to be papyrifera Vent. probably Deloewang classified as Hibiscus tiliaceus bark

* C = bark cuts, V = fibre preparation 36

Code Specimen Section Type material Origin

Bb7 Broussonetia C Saëh bark (verz. II) Delft University of Technology, papyrifera Vent. cupboard in the attic (Received from Koloniaal Instituut, HU no. 37 39-1937, for the purpose of study by L.K. Bahrfeldt) F1 Ficus Rumphii Bl. C, V Bark, Hatè djawa Koloniaal Instituut, afd Ternate Handelsmuseum HM. no. 1840-203- 1931 (Received Oct 1921 from Museum voor Economische Botanie Buitenzorg, original nr. 6663) F2 Ficus spec. V Length of beaten bark Delft University of Technology, fibers drawer 34 (Received April 1924 from Mr J. Tromp from Renkum Fg3 Ficus spec. V Beaten bark Delft University of Technology, drawer 34 (Received Dec 1921 from Controleur W. Hoven at Moeara Doewa, Res. Palembang) Fb4 Ficus spec. C Bark Delft University of Technology, , drawer 34 (Received Dec 1921 from Controleur W. Hoven at Moeara Doewa, Res. Palembang) G1 Gnetum gnemon L. C, V Tangkil bark Delft University of Technology, Laboratory for Technical Botany, Poortlandhr 35, Delft (de Clercq 1671) G2 Gnetum gnemon L. V Tangkill, beaten Delft University of Technology

Gg1 Gnetum gnemon V Beaten tree bark 36 (?)

Gb2 Gnetum gnemon L. C Tangkil bark Koloniaal Museum, Haarlem 2776- 14-1911, Netherlands India, Soemba

* C = bark cuts, V = fibre preparation

Appendix 4

Fibre thickness measurements of four possible plant species for dluwang, 3 tapa specimen and 25 dluwang specimen

Fibre thickness measurements of known species

Fibre thickness in Fibre micron

Specimen number

= Measurement by National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden 1995

= Measurement by T. Collings and D. Miller, 1978

paper samples 1

Fibre thickness in Fibre micron

Specimen

= Measurement by National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden 1995

= Measurement by T. Collings and D. Miller, 1978

= Measurement by National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden 1995

= Measurement by T. Collings and D. Miller, 1978

Appendix 5

Examined dluwang and tapa samples

Dluwang samples (n=25) No Origin* Place Year 2d Museum van Economische Botanie, Batavia 1935 Batavia (National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden) 29 (Kraton Kasepuhan, Cheribon) Cheribon unknown 32 (Kraton Kasepuhan, Cheribon) Cheribon unknown 34b H. Teding van Berkhout, Haarlem unknown <1900 (National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague, no.IB 15 h) 53a Dienst Zoutregie, Pamekasan, Ambutan, Madura 1933 Madura, (National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden) 53b Dienst Zoutregie, Pamekasan, Ambutan, Madura 1933 Madura, (National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden) 53c Dienst Zoutregie, Pamekasan, Waru, Madura 1933 Madura, (National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden) 57 Afdeling Nijverheid, Buitenzorg unknown 1931 (National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden) 58 Afdeling Nijverheid, Buitenzorg Madura 1925/29 (National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden) 75 Instituut voor de Tropen, afd. Java 1920 Handels-museum A'dam (National Library of the Netherlands, Den Haag, no.IA5 e 17) 76 Instituut voor de Tropen, afd. Java/Madura 1920/23 Handels-museum A'dam (National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague, no.IA5 g)

* Origin refers to the earliest known holder and the present holder is between brackets ( ).

No Origin* Place Year 77 Nonya Nyio Uki, Tunggilis Tunggilis 1968 (National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague, no.IA5 i) 85 Herbarium Koorders (Herbarium Garut 1899 Bogoriensis, Bogor) 87 (Universitas Indonesia, Fakultas unknown unknown Sastra, Depok, Hss PR 390) 88 (Universitas Indonesia, Fakultas Cheribon 1939 Sastra, Depok, Hss PR 307) 89 (Universitas Indonesia, Fakultas Soerabaja 1941 Sastra, Depok, Hss PR 514) 91 (Kraton Kasepuhan, Cheribon, KS Cheribon unknown 82) 92 Pak Bisri, Tunggilis (private) Tunggilis <1965 93 Pak Ading, Tunggilis (private) Tunggilis 1994 94 (Perpustakaan Museum Surakarta unknown Sonobudoyo, Hss P 210) 95 (Perpustakaan Museum Sampang, Madura 1934 Sonobudoyo, Hss L 47) 107 Mohammad Hariyanto, Sumenep, Madura 1821 ? Madura (private) 109 Pak Purnomo, Tegalsari (private) Tegalsari unknown 120 Mohammad Hariyanto Sumenep, Madura unknown (Perpustekaan Nasional, Jakarta) 123 (Universitas Indonesia, Fakultas Madura unknown Sastra, Depok, KB 03)

* Origin refers to the earliest known holder and the present holder is between brackets ( ).

Tapa samples (n=3)

No Origin* Place Year

68 P. Schmidt van Gelder (National Sulawesi 1875 Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden) 105 Toko Jadnya, Pasar Kumbasari,Den Ujung Pandang, 1994 Passar, Bali (private) Sulawesi 124 Inhabitant Gintu, Sulawesi (private) Gintu, Sulawesi <1985

* Origin refers to the earliest known holder and the present holder is between brackets ( ).

Appendix 6

Table of anatomical features of four possible plant species for dluwang and 25 dluwang specimen

Specimen † Code Outer wall Brachy- Scalariform Laticifers Druses Rhombic Diamond Starch layer with sclereids pitting (1) crystals -shaped grains corrugated (stone crystals appearance cells)

Sections with bast cuts

Artocarpus spec. A1 not applicable * * * * *

Artocarpus elastica Ab9 not applicable *

Broussonetia papyri- B1 not applicable * * * * fera

Broussonetia papyri- Bb6 not applicable * * * * * fera

Broussonetia papyri- Bb7 not applicable * * * fera

Ficus rumphii F1 not applicable * * * * *

Ficus spec. Fb4 not applicable * * * * * *

Gnetum gnemon G1 not applicable * * * * * *

Gnetum gnemon Gb2 not applicable * * * *

Fibre sections

Artocarpus spec. A1 * * *

Artocarpus elastica A2 * *

Artocarpus elastica Ag8 * * * *

Broussonetia papyri- B1 * * * * fera

Broussonetia papyri- B2 * * * * fera

Broussonetia papyri- Bg5 * * * fera

† For explanation see page 45

Specimen † Code Outer wall Brachy- Scalariform Laticifers Druses Rhombic Diamond Starch layer with sclereids pitting (1) crystals -shaped grains corrugated (stone crystals appearance cells)

Ficus rumphii F1 * * * *

Ficus spec. F2 * * * * * *

Ficus spec. Fg3 * * * * * * *

Gnetum gnemon G1 * * * *

Gnetum gnemon G2 *

Gnetum gnemon Gg1 * * * *

Unknown paper samples

(D1928 * * * ) 76

(D1968 * * (2) * * * ) 77

2d * * * * *

29 * * *

32 * * *

34b * * *

53a * * * *

53b * * * * *

53c * * * * * *

57 * * *

58 * * * * * *

68 * * * *

75 * * * *

85 * * * * * * * (3)

87 *

88 (4) * * * *

89 * * * * *

92 * * * * * *

† For explanation see page 45

Specimen † Code Outer wall Brachy- Scalariform Laticifers Druses Rhombic Diamond Starch layer with sclereids pitting (1) crystals -shaped grains corrugated (stone crystals appearance cells)

93 * * * *

94 * * * *

95 * * ? * *

105 * * * *

107 (4) * * *

109 * * * * * * *

120 * * *

123 * * * * * *

124 * * * *

† For explanation see below

Generally: * = characteristics found but only in small quantities * * = characteristic found in large quantities

(1) In the column Scalariform pitting the meaning of the asterisk deviates: * = Scalariform pitting unclear (only demonstrated under polarized light) * * = Scalariform pitting strikingly present and clearly distinguishable (even without polarized light) (2) In specimen D1968 a bunch of stone cells showed up in the preparation that was probably contaminated with another specimen (the cells were separated from the fibre material) (3) In specimen 85 one starch grain was found (4) Fibres without (loose) outer wall layer

Appendix 7

X-ray Fluorescence. Comparative indication of the levels of demonstrated elements and metals in 16 (beaten) tree barks from the reference collection of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands

X-ray Fluorescence (n=16)

Code 1 Si S P K Ca Ti Fe Mn Cu Zn Sr Rb

A 1 ++ 2 ++ + +++ + - + - - - + -

A 2 ++ + + - + - ++ + + + - -

Ab 9 +++ ++ + ++ + + + + - - - +

Ag 8 ++ + + ++ + + ++ + - + - -

B 1 +++ ++ + ++ ++ + + - - - + -

B 2 + ++ + - + - + - + + - -

Bb 6 + ++ + + +++ + - - + + - -

Bb 7 - + + + +++ - + - - - + +

G 1 - ++ + - + - + + + + - -

G 2 - ++ ++ + ++ - + + - + - -

Gg 1 - ++ + + + - + - + + - -

Gb 2 ++ + + + +++ + +++ + - - - +

F 1 + + + +++ ++ - + - - - - -

F 2 ++ ++ + + ++ - + - - - - -

Fb 4 - ++ + + + ------

Fg 3 - ++ + + ++ + + - - - - -

1 For the origin of the specimen see Appendix 3 2 For explanation of the levels of demonstrated elements and metals see table next page

Values demonstrated elements and metals - + ++ +++ Si < 0,05 > 0,10 0,10-0,18 > 0,2 S < 0,1 > 0,1 P 0,01-0,03 > 0,03 K < 0,02 < 0,05 0,1-0,05 > 0,1 Ca > 0,01 0,01-0,02 ca.0,02 Ti < 0,005 > 0,005 Fe 0,03-0,06 0,08-0,09 > 0,1 Mn < 0,01 > 0,01 Cu < 0,01 > 0,01 Zn < 0,01 > 0,01 Sr < 0,01 > 0,01 Rb < 0,005 > 0,005

Appendix 8

Thin-Layer Chromatography of Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.

Thin-Layer Chromatography (Resin system)

In the four specimen are components that match. In this case it relates to the left-shaded components ( ) in specimen Bb7, Bb1 and Bb2. Also in the right-shaded components ( ) in Bb7 and B1, and the dark-shaded components ( ) Bb7 and B2.

Conclusion

All four specimen are from Broussonetia papyrifera (Dluwang) but they differ in their Chromatography picture. In principal Bb7 and Bb6 can be differentiated from each other. However, that is much more difficult with B1 and B2.

Thin-Layer Chromatography (Dye system)

In two specimen is one component that matches. In this case it relates to the left-shaded component ( ) in specimen Bb7 and Bb2.

Conclusion

All four specimen are from Broussonetia papyrifera (Dluwang) but they differ in their Chromatography picture. In principal B1, B2, Bb6 and Bb7 can be differentiated from each other.

Appendix 9

Thin-Layer Chromatography of dluwang samples both with the Resin system and Red dye system

Appendix 10 Indicative outline for determining dluwang using visual examination

Indicative outline for determining dluwang using visual examination

Tapa use

Writing support ► Java/Madura ► dluwang ► subdued yellow ► 1st quality

► beige ► 2nd quality

► other islands ► possibly tapa from Sulawesi

Image support ► Javanese painting ► wayang beber ► dluwang

► dluwang

► possibly tapa from Sulawesi

► Balinese painting ► tapa from Sulawesi

Bookbinding ► book cover ► dluwang material

► endpaper ► dluwang

► board ► dluwang

Tapa colour

Yellow-white ► deep yellow-white ► bitter, biting taste and fluffy, springy surface ► Antiaris toxicaria L.

► pale yellow-white ► loose structure ► Gnetum gnemon

► shiny firm surface ► dluwang

► Ficus

Brown ► reddish brown ► Artocarpus elastica Reinw.

► pale brown ► dluwang ► 3rd quality

► Ficus

Tapa production

Characteristic ► 2 to 4 mm wide ► dluwang from Java stripes stripes covering the entire smoothened sheet

Appendix 11

Javanese manuscripts in the Netherlands (Pigeaud, 1967)

Javanese Mss in the Netherlands (Pigeaud, 1967) On dluwang number %

major collections in Leiden 113 2,3 minor collections in Leiden 2 0,04

minor collections outside Leiden 16 0,3

subtotal 131 2,6

Other writing supports 4823 97,6

sum total 4954 100

Javanese Mss in the Netherlands on dluwang by subject (Pigeaud, 1967) Subjects* number religion 57 history 27 belles-lettres 27 science 20

total 131 * Subject classification according to Pigeaud, 1967

Appendix 12

Manuscripts in the collection of Museum Sonobudoyo (Behrend, 1990)

Mss in Sonobudoyo by subject (Behrend, 1990) Subjects (English)* Subjects (Indonesian)* number language bahasa 20 Islam religion agama islam 50 literature sastra 450 instruction/mysticism piwulang dan suluk 200 divination/pawukon primbon dan pawukon 90 wayang bab wayang 100 wayang literature sastra wayang 50 chronicle silsilah 10 law hukum 15 music musik 20 dance tari-tarian 20 customs & practices adat-istiadat 40 other lain-lain 30

total 1255 * Subject classification according to Behrend, 1990

Mss on dluwang in Sonobudoyo by subject, language and script (Behrend, 1990)

Kertas gendhong* Languages Scripts Subjects** Jav. Arab Jav. + Jav Arab Jav + Pégon Jav + Latin . Arab. . Arab Pégon language 3 2 1 Islam religion 1 1 2 literature 26 1 23 1 2 1 instruction/mysticis 3 2 1 m divination/pawukon 4 3 1 history 3 3 wayang 1 1 other 4 1 4 1 total (n=48) 44 1 3 38 2 2 2 3 1

Kertas tela* Languages Scripts Subjects** Jav. Arab Jav + Jav Arab Jav + Pégon Jav + Latin . Arab . Arab Pégon instruction/mysticis 3 3 m divination/pawukon 2 2 total (n=5) 5 5 * Behrend, 1990 does not use the term dluwang but instead kertas gendhong and kertas tela. My research shows that with both dluwang is meant ** Subject classification according to Behrend, 1990

Mss in Sonobudoyo by writing support (Behrend, 1990) number % (sum total) mss on dluwang kertas gendhong 49 3.9 kertas tela 5 0.4 subtotal 53 4.3 Other writing supports 1201 95.7 sum total 1255 100

Appendix 13

Manuscripts in the collections at Ceribon (Pudjiastuti et al, 1994)

Mss on dluwang in Ceribon by subject, language and script (Pudjiastuti et al, 1994)

Koleksi Keraton* Languages Scripts Subjects** Jav. Jav + Jav + Jav Arab+ Jav + Pégon Jav + Arab+ Arab Mal Pégon Arab Pégon Pégon + Jav religious teachings 7 4 5 1 1 1 3 divination 1 2 1 2 customs & practices 1 1 law 1 1 incantation 1 1 history 1 1 chronicle 1 1 Islamic narrative 1 1 wayang narrative 1 1 subtotal (n=21) 13 7 1 8 1 1 2 5 4 *Koleksi Keraton refers to the collections found in the libraries of the royal palace of Ceribon; Koleksi Masyarakat refers to the mss held in private collections throughout the community Ceribon ** Subject classification according to Pudjiastuti et al, 1994

Mss on dluwang in Ceribon by subject, language and script (Pudjiastuti et al, 1994) Koleksi Languages Scripts Masyarakat* Subjects** Jav Jav+ Arab Jav Arab Jav + Pégon Jav + Arab+ Arab Arab Pégon Pégon religious teachings 4 3 1 3 1 1 3 divination 2 1 3 doa-doa 1 1 literature 1 1

subtotal (n=13) 7 4 2 4 2 0 3 1 3 * Koleksi Keraton refers to the collections found in the libraries of the royal palace of Ceribon; Koleksi Masyarakat refers to the mss held in private collections throughout the community Ceribon ** Subject classification according to Pudjiastuti et al, 1994

Mss in Ceribon by writing support (Pudjiastuti a.o., 1994) number % (sum total) mss on dluwang Koleksi Keraton (n=120) 21 11.2 Koleksi Masyarakat (n=69) 13 6.8

subtotal 34 18

other writing supports 155 82

sum total 189 100

Appendix 14

Javanese manuscripts on dluwang in four different collections

Javanese Mss on dluwang in 4 collections number % (total mss)* UK (Ricklefs and 85 1.2 Voorhoeve, 1977) Netherlands 131 1.9 (Pigeaud, 1967) Indonesia, Sonobudoyo 53 0.8 (Behrend, 1990) Indonesia, Cirebon 34 0.5 (Pudjiastuti a.o., 1994)

Total 303 4,4 * Total number of mss in the 4 collections n = 6856

Appendix 15

Native and Latin plant names

Plant names Native name Latin name Reference Language balang Pterosppermum Heyne 1062: 178/5080 Javanese acerifolium Willd.? benda Artocarpus elastica Heyne 558: 64/1946 Javanese, Reinw. (Artocarpus Sundanese Blumei Tréc.) bindoh Entada Heyne 723: 128/3468 Javanese phaseoloides Merr. gandu red bean of the Heyne 723: 128/3468 Javanese, Entada Malay phaseoloides Merr. gebang Corypha utan Heyne 317: 21/537 Javanese, Lamk. Sundanese glugu/galuguh Broussonetia Heyne 547:64/1923 Javanese papyrifera Vent. harikukun Actinophora Heyne 1021: 174/4963 Sundanese fragrans R.Br. karet Ficus elastica Roxb Heyne 570:64/1961 Sundanese kenanga Canangium Heyne 628:98/2684 Javanese, odoratum Baill. Malay kesambi Schleichera oleosa Heyne 990:165/4767 Javanese Merr. ketela Ipomoea Batatas Heyne 1301: 249/7003 Malay Poir khoi Streblus asper Heyne 550:64/927 Thai Lour. klejo Diospyros Heyne 1250: 240/6406 Javanese Embryopteris Pers. kandel Hoya coronaria Bl. Heyne 1296: 248/6907 Sundanese nangka Artocarpus integra Heyne 560:64/1946 Malay, Merr. Sundanese pisang bung ? plosso ? saa Broussonetia Heyne 547:64/1923 Thai papyrifera Vent.

Plant names Native name Latin name Reference Language saeh Broussonetia Heyne 547:64/1923 Sundanese papyrifera Vent. sawo Manilkara kauki Heyne Javanese, Dubard 1247:239/6386a Malay, Sundanese singkong, Manihot utilissima Heyne 944: 147/4444 Javanese, Pohl. Sundanese sono kling Dalbergia latifolia Heyne 797:128/3821 Javanese Roxb. telo Ipomoea Batatas Heyne 1301: 249/7003 Javanese Poir. tela Ipomoea Batatas Heyne 1301: 249/7003 Javanese Poir. tanjung Mimusops Elengi Heyne 1246: 239/6386 Javanese, Linn Malay, Sundanese turi Sesbania Heyne 780: 128/3747 Javanese, grandiflora Pers. Malay, Sundanese tutup Mallotus or Javanese Macaranga or Pipturus, etc walikukun Actinophora Heyne 1021: 174/4963 Javanese fragrans R.Br.

Appendix 16

Glossary

Glossary word meaning language balok beating table Malay cukin loincloth Javanese didep (to) ferment Javanese dingklik beating table Malay dipun ekum (to) dip (in water) dipun epep (to) ferment (to become gendong paper) dipun jereng (to) dry Javanese dipun peres wring out dipun tarang (to) dry (above a fire) diseuseuh wash Sundanese ditape leaven Malay dluwang beaten tree bark eron leaf fuya beaten tree bark Malay gedebog banana tree-trunk Javanese gedebong banana tree-trunk golong roll up Malay jijit glue-like liquid ka glue kaper ? kemarang basket kemplong (to) beat Sundanese kemplongan beater kerang shell Malay kertas gendong beaten tree bark

Glossary word meaning language keranjang basket Malay kulit ajam bark Malay kuwuk shell Javanese langes ink (of soot + latex) lengkono ? lulup bast Javanese padung beating table pakem manual (wayang) Javanese pameupeuh (to) beat Sundanese pangemplong beater Sundanese pendopo porch Malay peyeum (to) ferment Sundanese rinjing basket sabit lawn knife Malay sanokkan kite

Appendix 17

Iso-Electro Focusing patterns of different specimen

Diagram of the Iso-Electro Focussing patterns of bark specimen

Diagram of the Iso-Electro Focussing patterns of dluwang specimen

Appendix 18

Dluwang bibliography anonymous 1845 'Reisje van Solo naar Patjitan'. In: Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's-Indië, 7(2):119-136. anonymous 1858 'De papierplant en het bereiden van papier op Java'. In: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, 20(7/12):175-178. On basis of the content it has been established that this article is mainly on Ponorogo. anonymous 1859 'De wijze om Javaansch papier te maken'. In: Tijdschrift voor nijverheid en landbouw in Nederlansch-Indië, 5:364-365. This article is adopted from ‘an old work' and was written on 23 December 1832. anonymous 1876 'Bestuurs-Vergadering van dinsdag 1 augustus 1876 des avonds ten 8 ure'. In: Notulen van de Algemeene en Bestuursvergaderingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Appendix 14(IIl):82. anonymous 1878a 'De gloegoe-kultuur en de bereiding van het zoogenaamd Javaansch papier uit die plant'. In: Notulen van de Algemeene en Bestuursvergaderingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Appendix 5, 18-20. This article was written by the ‘Resident van Bagelen’ (see anonymous 1878c) anonymous 1878b 'Bestuursvergadering van 8 Januarij 1878 des avonds te 8 uur'. In: Notulen van de Algemeene en Bestuurs-vergaderingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Appendix 16(IIa):2-3. anonymous 1878c 'Bestuursvergadering van 2 april 1878 des avonds te 8 uur'. In: Notulen van de Algemeene en Bestuurs-vergaderingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Appendix 16(IIk):37-38.

anonymous 1933 'Deloewangpapier'. In: Inlichtingen en onderzoekingen van de afdeeling Handelsmuseum in 1932. Mededeeling no. 33, Afdeeling Handelsmuseum no. 13. Koninklijke Vereening Koloniaal Instituut, 131-133. anonymous 1934 'Deloewangpapier'. In: Inlichtingen en onderzoekingen van de afdeeling Handelsmuseum in 1933. Mededeeling no. 35, Afdeeling Handelsmuseum no. 14. Koninklijke Vereening Koloniaal Instituut, 98. anoniem 1956 Hikayat Huang Tuah. Jakarta: Bulai Pustaka.

Adriani, N. and A.C. Kruijt 1901 'Geklopte boomschors als kleedingsstof op Midden-Celebes en hare geografische verspreiding in Indonesië', Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie 14:139-91.

Bahrfeldt, K. 1937 Onderzoek naar de geschiktheid van Nederlandsch Oost-Indische bastsoorten voor het vervaardigen van Japansch papier. [Unpublished report nr.8:16-10-19'37 for Boschbouwproefstation, Afdeeling Wildhoutbedrijf, Buitenzorg. [In the National Library of the Netherlands, Papierhistorische Afdeling.]

Behrend, T.E. 1990 Katalog induk naskah-naskah Nusantara. Musuem Sonobudoyo, Yokyakarta. Jakarta: Djambatan. Jilid 1.

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1968b 'Javanese Deloewang paper'. In: Paper Maker, 37:30-38.

1969 'Deloewang of Javaans papier'. In: Papierwereld, 24: 95-99.

1978 Het papier in voormalig Nederlands Oost-Indië. Een historisch-biblio- grafische studie. Leiden: Papierwereld.

Vorderman, A.G. 1894 'Javaansche geneesmiddelen'. In: Geneeskundig tijdschrift voor Neder- landsch-Indië, 34:269 e.v.

Webber, P. and M.Huxtable 1985 'Karibari - the japanese drying board.' The Paper Conservator 9: 54-60.

W(inter), G. 1894 'Hoe de Javanen papier fabriceren'. In: Indische Gids, 16(1):142-145. This is not always the correct translation of the illustration on papermaking in a Javanese manuscript originally written by deputy-jaksa Raden Terdodieporo from Ponorogo, 1 September 1882. For a better description see Schmeltz, 1904.

Willems, W.J.A. 1938 Het onderzoek der megalieten te Pakaoeman bij Bondowoso. Rapport [van de] Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indië, No.3. Batavia: Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indië.

Wolff van Westerrode, W. de 1899 'Bereiding van Javaansch papier uit den bast van den Dloewang-boom (Broussonnetia)'. In: Teysmannia, 9: 552-554.

Yeoh-Jin Leng 1994 Fiber, bentuk dan keindahan. Pameran seni fiber sezaman Malaysia/ Fibre, form and beauty. Contemporary fibre art of malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Balai seni lukis negara/ National art gallery.

Zoetmulder, P.J. 1982 Old javanese-english dictionary. 's Gravenhage: Nijhoff. 2 vols.

Notes

1 More about tree bark beaters: ● Sieveking, G. de G., 1956, ‘The distribution of stone bark cloth beaters in prehistoric times’, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 29/3:78-85. ● Hoop, A.N.J.Th à Th. van der, 1935, ‘Een neolitische boomschorsklopper uit Borneo’, Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 75:468-470. ● Fischer, H.W., 1905, ‘Een houten klopper om boombast te bewerken van het eiland Nias’, Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie 17:222. ● Shun-Sheng Ling, 1963, Bark-cloth, impressed pottery and the invention of paper and printing, Nankang, Taiwan: The Institute of Ethnology/Academia Sinica.

2 '...Achter de stad Bantam ende de kust van Sunda aen de voet van de bergh die men Gonon Besar noemt [Gede-Pangrango massief, iets ten zuidoosten van Bogor], daar de peper wast, woont een zeer goed volk dat tevoren woonachtig was aen de bergh van Passaruan [Tengger-Semeru massief, ten oosten van Malang], gelegen aan het Oosteinde van Java, haar wooninge hadden. Maar zeer verdrukt wordende van de koning aldaar zijn met content van de koning van Bantam, onder sekere voorwaarden, onlangs aldaar metter woone gekomen ende hebbender een stadt gebouwd genaamd Sura [Jakarta], daar zich hunne koning houdt ende d'andere hebben zich hier ende daar in veel dorpen verdeelt. Dese leven zeer vreedzamelijk haar met lantbouwinge genereende...' (... Behind the town of Bantam, the coast of Sunda ended at the foot of the mountain called Gonon Besar [Gede-Pangrango massif, just southeast of Bogor], there where the pepper was cleaned, live a very good people who had previously resided at the mountain of Passaruan [Tengger-Semeru massif, east of Malang], lying on the eastern end of Java, they had their home. But having become very oppressed by the king there, with satisfaction of the king of Bantam, under certain conditions, recently came to take up residence there and have built a city called Sura [Jakarta], where their king established himself and the others divided themselves into many villages. They live very peacefully with farmed produced ...’)

'...Sijn ook seer sober ende en houwelijken nimmermeer ge¬kleedt gaande met wit papier van bast van bomen gemaakt, waarvan zij een stuk om het hoofd binden ende een groot doek om 't lijf hetwelk alle haar kleedinge is, levende een recht filosofich leven: brengen tot Bantam de peper ende andere vruchten te koop...' (‘... Are also very frugal and never again married go clothed in white paper made from tree bark, from which they tie a piece around the head and a large cloth on the body which is all their clothing is, living an honest philosophical life: bringing the pepper and other fruits to sell in Bantam ...’) In: Cummins, 1962 (72: no.23).

3 '... Dus worden hunne [bewoners van Manado] klederen, en zoo ook al het papier gemaakt, dat van Kajeli [Midden-Sulawesi], Bool [desa op Saparua eiland] en Tontoly [Toli Toli, Noord-Sulawesi] zeer veel komt en Javaansch papier gemeenlijk genoemd wordt; doch wordt dit van een andere bast gemaakt...' (‘... Thus are their [residents of Manado] garments, and thus all the paper made thereof, that very often comes from Kajeli [Central Sulawesi], Bool [village on Saparua island] and Tontoly [Toli Toli, North Sulawesi] and is commonly called Javanese paper; but this is made from a different bark ...’) In: Leupe, 1866 (325).

4 '...Bij medicijnverkopers in West Java zijn stroken van de geklopte binnenbast (van de Artocarpus elastica Reinw.) veelal in voorraad, naar men mij mededeelde om als buikband te dienen bij lendenpijn...' (‘...With medicine sellers in West Java, strips of the beaten inner bark (of the Artocarpus elastica Reinw.) are usually in stock, as I am told, to serve as a waist cloth in the case of back pain ...’) In: Heyne, 1927 (560)

'... Lendegordel (cukin benda), vervaardigd uit de geelbruine geklopte schors van de benda boom (Artocarpus Blumei Trec.). - Wordt tegen pijn in de lenden gedragen. Batavia. L. 200, br. 28 cm...' 72

(‘... Loincloth (cukin benda) made from the yellow brown beaten bark of the benda tree (Artocarpus Blumei Trec.). - Is worn against pain in the lumbar region. Batavia. L. 200, W. 28 cm...’) In: Juynboll, 1914:84 (no.830/17) literature: Chijs, 1877:no.1078; Vorderman, 1894:269 ff

5 Ramayana 4, 66: ‘...Apa tan pasahaya tunga-tungal, daluwang wedihanya ruksa duhka, phalamulasana yamanan ganan, ikanan saksana yalahata denta...’. ([Rama and Laksmana] have no allies, they eat only fruits, tubers and vegetables. They were dressed only in worn-out beaten tree bark [as ascetics] of poor quality. You can kill them in a second.)

Ramayana 5, 66: ‘...Atisaya suddha huntu maputih sphatikopama ya, tuwi maganitrikundal waluh ya sinandan ira, lituhayu warna laka daluwang nira ramya maban, lumaku manasya yeka dalihan ira tan katener...’. (His [Dasanana as hermit] teeth were very clean and white as crystal. He wore a garland of roses and a gourd over his shoulder. His clothes of beaten bark were beautiful and coloured red like wax. His disguise, which was difficult to detect, was to beg for food.)

Ramayana 10, 71: ‘...Dasawadana huwus nirojar tekanan raksasa, hana alalang aking pamungkus nya riku nirang Maruti, apusi ta daluwang lawan bwat keling kusyara mwang jamang, asing-asing anipis dilah nyahangan ndan bebed nyapageh...’. (Dasawadana said. The Devils stood up. She wrapped Maruti’s tail in long dry grass, beaten tree bark and [silk] from Keling, and set a diadem on his head. Then he was packed in with all kinds of thin things that could easily catch fire.)

Literature: Pigeaud, 1967: § 30.001 ff; Poerbatjaraka, 1952; Zoetmulder, 1982(1):354-5.

6 Bhoma Kawya 1, 27: ‘...Wangkaynyanglahlah ing mandala saha daluwang kandi-kandinya kontal...’. (Their [hermits’] corpses lay scattered in the hermitage, with their clothing of beaten bark and their plaited sacks, flung away.)

Bhoma Kawya 3, 39: ‘...Stri wahw adaluwang...’. (These [women who went to bring their dead husbands gifts] only wore the hermit cloth.)

Bhoma Kawya 12, 4: ‘...Daluwangnya rujit kasambit...’. (Their [the monks’ and nuns’] clothing of beaten bark hung in tatters.)

Bhoma Kawya 32, 5: ‘...Daluwang irakusut lukar i baddha nira(r.-an) katiling...’. (His [Narada, messenger of the gods] cloth of beaten bark was unkempt.)

Sumanasantaka 4, 3: ‘...Subaddha daluwang singi pinaka-baddha nira mapadar ing (r. pamadar ing?) raja tamah...’

Sumanasantaka 29, 2: ‘...Endah mwang palu wastra ramya kadi de ning amalu daluwang rinengwaken...’

Sumanasantaka 37, 8:’...Tan sah ring daluwang kukap nika subaddha sekar ikang ulur padajata...’

Sumanasantaka 42, 15: ‘...Yan kangen sukha ning licin dumadak ahyun adaluwanga harsa ring jamang...’

Sumanasantaka 46, 9: ‘...Sang wwang inuttama sampun adaluwang adoh sira ring wisaya...’

Rama Wijaya 38, 30: ‘...Maka bagawan bijasa pon sigera mangambil daluwang maka di berikannja kapada maharadja darmawangsa...’

Literature: (Sumanasantaka) Pigeaud, 1967, § 30.040 en LOr 4519; (Bhoma Kawya) Pigeaud, 1967, § 30.060, LOr 3735 en Teeuw, 1946; (Rama Wijaya) Pigeaud, 1967, §§ 30.065, 30.214, LOr 3887, van der Tuuk, 1899(2): 490 en Zoetmulder, 1982(1): 354-5.

7 Sarwadharma 6, recto 1: ‘... Ananema galuguh ...’. (Will they plant paper mulberry plants?) Literature: Pigeaud, 1960 (1): 102 and 1960 (3): 148.

8 Rajapatigundala 13a: ‘... Padagang daluwang ...’. (Reimbursement regarding the trade in beaten tree bark used for clothing.) Literature: Pigeaud, 1960 (3): 129; Pigeaud, 1967, § 47.010 and LOr 5056.

9 Ratna Wijaya 3, 5: ‘...Paran pwa haleping mawalkala manandang daluwang...’ (After all, what is the beauty of wearing beaten bark [celestial ladies tell hermits to encourage them to turn back]?)

Uttarakanda 116, 2: ‘...Yan tan pajata sang bhujangga kalih, haywanandang daluwang...’

Parthayajna 41, 3: ‘...Daluwang ika n lana panusupan kadi wana gahana...’

Literature: (Ratna Wijaya) Pigeaud, 1967, §§ 30.155, 30.156 en LOr 3888; (Uttarakanda) Pigeaud, 1967, §§ 20.170, 20.180, 30.125, 30.145 en LOr 3717/3, LOr 4627, LOr 4628, LOr 4629, LOr 4630, LOr 5031, LOr 9745, LOr 4556, LOr 4557, LOr 4558, LOr 4559; (Parthayajna) Pigeaud, 1967, §30.136 en LOr 5024; Poerbatjaraka, 1919; van der Tuuk, 1899(2): 490; Zoetmulder, 1982(1): 354-5.

10 Tantu Panggelaran 92:13 ‘...Tan siningelan ta ya daluwang, siningelan ta ya rwan ing halalang...’ Literature: Pigeaud, 1924; Pigeaud, 1967 §§ 20.400, 20.430 en LOr 2212

11 Hikayat Hang Tuah 150: (The Laksamana then rises to the top of the mountain, which he finds magnificent. Sang Pertala emerges from his hut cabin at the moment he wishes to return. The Laksamana lived as a very honourable old man, dressed in beaten bark and wearing a headdress.) Literature: anonymous, 1956.

12 loc. cit. Malayan pakem fragment 48: ‘...Maka maharadja Darmawangsa dengan segala sudaranja itu pon memakeilah berkain daluwang dan berketopong pon daluwang...’ ( King Darm-awangsa and his brothers dressed in a cloth of beaten bark and also covered their heads with a headdress of beaten bark.) Literature: Van der Tuuk, 1899(2): 490; Adriani & Kruijt, 1901:178(note)

13 loc. cit. 29: ‘...Maka di adjar olih baginda ilmu orang bertapa sjahadan maka di berinja memakei ketu daluwang dan berkain daluwang...’. ( The ruler learned to carry out the art of asceticism and he was given a priest’s headdress of beaten bark to wear and a garment of beaten bark.) loc. cit. 30: ‘...Memakaei ketu daluwang itu seperti adjar adjar sungguh rupanja...’. ((They) put on a headdress of beaten bark (so that) they appeared to be proper ascetics.) loc. cit. 75: ‘...Maka di adjar olih sang radja guru ilmu orang jang bertapa dan di beri ketu daluwang dan berkain daluwang...’. (The ruler learnt to perform the art of asceticism and he was given a hat of beaten bark cloth and a garment of beaten bark). loc. cit.: van der Tuuk, 1899(2): 490

Literature: Adriani & Kruijt, 1901:178(note); van der Tuuk, 1899(2): 490.

14 ‘... The Javanese have neither paper nor pens, they use the leaves of the qiao-zhang, on which they engrave letters using a pen...There are certain men who draw on things on paper like people, birds, beasts, eagles or insects... Seated cross-legged on the floor, the man takes the image and places it on the ground. Every time as he unrolls it and exposes a part of the picture, he turns to the audience and explains it ...’ In: Ma Huan, 1970.

15 loc. cit. ‘…en dehors de Chine, l'on en produit également au Gaoli (Corée) et au Shepo (Java)…’ ‘…Ce papier est épais et résistant; les feuilles ont une longueur de 3 à Azhang (soit 7,5 à 10 m. environ)…’ In: Salmon, 1983.

16 Juynboll, 1918: 360-5254, 360-5255, 360-5256, 360-5257, 360-5258, 360-5259.

17 Juynboll, 1918: 37-567, 37-693, 37-567a.

18 For Central America see: ● Hagen, W. von, 1944, The Aztec and Mayan paper makers. New York: Augustin ● Lenz, H., 1961, Mexican Indian paper: its history and survival. Mexico City: Editorial Cultura ● Sandstrom, A.R. and P.E. Sandstrom, 1986, Traditional papermaking & paper cult figures of Mexico. Norman/London: University of Oklahoma

19 Drewes, 1970 en Pigeaud, 1967: LOr 1928

20 A codex is a text consisting of several folded sheets collected into quires and sewn into a text block, often protected by a binding.

21 Raffles also mentions a Javanese folded book on dluwang. It would have been written in Kawi, richly illustrated and originating from Ceribon. Unfortunately, it has not yet been traced (Raffles, 1978 (2): 67). See also the Batak Pustaha on dluwang (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977: Add.19385).

22 Javanese authors: Soetikna, 1939; (Winter), 1894

23 '...Deze zoo oude tak van nijverheid is, zoo hij [J.A. van der Chijs] zich niet vergist, bijna of geheel op Java uitgestorven en daarom geeft hij in overweging, alvorens de herinnering daaraan geheel verloren gaat, voor de etnografische verzameling eene collectie te maken van de daarbij gebruikte gereedschappen, en ten behoeve van het tijdschrift eene nauwkeu¬rige beschrijving der fabricatie te trachten te verkrijgen...' (‘... This branch of industry is so old, if he [J.A. van der Chijs] was not mistaken, almost or entirely died out in Java and therefore he suggests to consider, before the memory of it is lost entirely, making a collection of the tools used for the ethnographic collection, and for the journal, to attempt to obtain an accurate description of the manufacturing...’) In: Anonymous, 1878b: 2.

24 The name Tegalsari caused problems. The village of that name near the town of Ponorogo was switched with the council of that name near the town of Garut. In the literature on dluwang, in Ponorogo, the desa [village] Tegalsari invariably indicates the regency, district or town of Ponorogo. The current desa of Tegalsari, 10 km southeast of the town Ponorogo, now falls under kecamatan [district] Jetis and kabupaten [regency] Ponorogo.

The kampung Tunggilis now falls under the desa Cinunuk, kecamatan Wanaraja, kabupaten Garut, situated 14 km north of the kota Garut. Previously Tunggilis lay in the desa Tegalsari, Wanaraja district, Garut regency. When that administrative unit became too large, it was necessary to split the desa into Cinunuk and Tegalsari. The village name Tegalsari appears in a few more places on the map of Java.

25 '...dat tijdens de bestuursperiode van regent Pangeran Koesoemojoedo [P.T.A. Koesoemo Joeda, circa 1918] deze hoofdambtenaar tot de wetenschap kwam dat in ge¬noemde desa [Tegalsari, Ponorogo] de kertas- gendong-makerij bestond, maar dat genoemde huisvlijt gedoemd was ten onder te gaan, indien niet de nodige hulp werd verschaft. Van de gloe¬goe plant was niet veel meer overgebleven, terwijl de kunst van kertas- gendong aanmaak zo goed als niet meer werd beoe¬fend. Door de persoonlijke bemoeienis van genoemden regent kwamen bestellingen van kertas-gendong binnen, waardoor Kjai Mochamad Djaelani weer hoopvol aan het werk toog...' (‘... that during the tenure of regent Pangeran Koesoemojoedo [P.T.A. Koesoemo Joeda, circa 1918] it came to the notice of the principal officer that in the said desa [Tegalsari, Ponorogo] the kertas-gendong manufacture existed but that the home industry was doomed to fail if the necessary help was not provided. Little remained of the gloegoe plant, while the art of kertas-gendong making was almost no longer practiced. Through the personal involvement of such persons, orders for kertas-gendong were received whereby Kjai Mochamad Djaelani set hopefully to work again...’) In: Soetikno, 1939:193.

26 P.N. van Kampen & Zn., Amsterdam en C.A. Mees, Santpoort.

27 Henk Voorn ordered sheets from Reekum Papier-Gepacy N.V. in 1967. The order was submitted to the Forestry Commission in Bandung (Djawatan Kehutanan Propinsi Djawa Barat), which passed it to their local department at Garut. The head of the Garut department personally went to Tunggilis and ordered 100 sheets from Nonya Nyio Uki. The order was completed in early 1968 and followed the same route back. From Bandung it was sent on 22 April to Amindex P.T., P.O. Box 2189, Jalan Jakarta 115, Jakarta. This company organised the shipment to the Netherlands. Today the sheets are stored at the Paper-historical Department of the National Library of the Netherlands under number I.A.5.i.

28 In the summer of 1993 Pak Kosim and Pak Suma Sutarman, respectively a son and a son-in-law of Pak Bisri, showed W. van der Molen and Titik Pudjiastuti how dluwang was made. A year later they repeated this for John H. McGlynn and Edi Suhardi Ekadjati. At the end of the year, the author met with Ading Pak (another son of Pak Bisri) several times and on one of these occasions he was shown how dluwang was made.

29 . ● Sudradjat and T.Silitonga, 1977, Saeh (Broussonetia payrifera Vent.) sebagai bahan baku pulp dan kertas. Laporan No.85. [Saeh (Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.) as raw material for pulp and paper. Report no.85]. Bogor: Lemabaga Penelitian Hasil Hutan [Forest Products Research Institute]. ● Sudradjat and S. Antaatmadja, 1977, Kemungkinan pengembangan produksi kertas saeh di Garut. Laporan No.98. [Development possibilities of saeh paper production in Garut. Report no.98]. Bogor: Lembaga Penelitian Hasil Hutan [Forest Products Research Institute]. ● Otjo Danaatmadja, 1992, Saeh (Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.) Sebagai bahan baku kertas mewah [Saeh (Broussonetia papyrifera Vent) as raw material for luxurious hand-made paper].’ Duta Rimba 139/140(18): 14-17.

30 When, in the middle of the Ming Dynasty (1400-1500), the scroll increased in length, the drying board was invented in China (pi, chuang-pan). This lightweight wooden frame mounted with thick paper serves to tension and dry the long rolls. It is impregnated with persimmon (Diospyros) juice to prevent moisture absorption, thereby aiding the drying of the scroll. In Japan, the same type of drying board (karibari) is used, also widespread today in Western paper conservation. This board is waterproofed with shibu, the fermented juice of the Diospyros lotus or Diospyros japonica fruit. It is interesting that Indonesians use the juice of a similar fruit, Diospyros Embryopteris, for the same purpose. Had they adopted this use from the Chinese? (Webber and Huxtable, 1985)

31 A long piece of carved coconut shell from Pasuruhanis is depicted in Adriani and Kruyt, 1901: 179- Fig.12. The object is now in the National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden under number 370/1581 (Juynboll, 1916).

32 Juynboll, 1920, numbers 370/735 and 370/732. Perhaps there is a similarity between the Maduran use of rattan beaters and the custom on Java and Sumba to beat cotton before spinning with cane beaters instead of a bow. (Hitchcock, 1991:31 and Fischer, 1916:143).

33 The leaves of the nangka [jackfruit] are also used for polishing wood. (Bisschop Grevelink, 1883:383).

34 This highly diverse species, also known as the cowry shell, belongs to the porcelain shell family (Cypraeidae). The shell is especially known for its use as currency in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is a thick, solid shell with a compact egg shape, a smooth surface, and a symmetrical split shaped opening with toothed edges. It occurs commonly at a depth of 2 to 10 metres. The shell is beautifully mottled, very hard and shiny. (Senders, 1984)

35 In late 1994 in the kraton [palace] of Jogjakarta, I saw at a puppet maker that cowry shell was also used for polishing wayang kulit puppets. One side of the shell was so far worn that 10 old spirals could be seen.

36 Small specimen were taken from all reference materials. These pieces were placed briefly in boiling water (until the material sank in cold water). Then the material was preserved in 50% alcohol. Two types of preparations were made: 1) Bark preparations (Prep. C): These specimen of untreated bark were sectioned in transverse, radial and tangential directions. The sections were laid on a slide with glycerine and covered with a cover slip. The resulting preparations were examined with the light microscope to gain an impression of the anatomy of the intact bark. 2) Fibre preparations (as prep V): These specimen were prepared by teasing the fibres apart and spreading them out in a drop of glycerine under a cover slip. Preparations of the unknown paper specimen were made in the same way as the reference material.

37 The diameters of 20 to 40 fibres of the preparations were measured. The thin outer layer of the fibre that is often loose and partly rolled up was not included in the measurements. The arithmetic mean and standard deviation were calculated from the measurements of each sample. The resulting values range from 5.4 - 19.1 μm. Collings and Milner (1978) however arrived at slightly different measurements: 6 - 24 μm; perhaps they included the thin outer layer. The appearance of the fibres, presence of other types of cells and crystals were examined in the search for characteristic features. The preparations of bark sections were also examined in order to find additional information but mainly to verify the characteristics of the fibre preparations.

38 When viewing the sections it was noticeable that some structures were very much limited to a particular layer in the bark. The properties reflected in the fibre specimen are therefore largely dependant on the particular part of the bark that has been processed. A great many stone cells are to be seen in the sections of Gnetum. This type of cell was also found in two of the three fibre preparations. There are many stone cells in the sections and in the fibre preparations of Ficus. The ladder-shaped speckles are very obvious even without polarized light. Latex vessels were found in the Broussonetia sections but not in the fibre preparations. Latex vessels were found in one of the two specimen of Artocarpus sections but here also, not in the fibre preparations.

39 The insecticide used is a sublimate of mercury (II) chloride (HgCl2), highly toxic and a known disinfectant in a high dilution and naphthalene (C10H8), an insect repellent.

40 Electrophoresis = the migration of electronically charged particles present in a colloid solution to the oppositely charged electrode when two electrodes are placed in the solution and connected to an external source of electromotive force (Uvarov and Chapman, 1962:82).

41 Isoelectric point = pH value at which a substance or system (e.g. a protein solution) is electrically neutral: at this level, no electrophoresis occurs when a direct electric current is applied (Uvarov and Chapman, 1962:122). 77

42 Artocarpus elastica (A2, Ab9), Artocarpus spec. (A1), Ficus spec. (F2, Fg3), Gnetum gnemon (G1, G2), and Broussonetia papyrifera (B1, B2).

43 The investigated dluwang specimen are nos. 29, 32, 53a, 53b, 53c, 57, 58, 75, 76, 77 (Appendix 3). Small specimen (ca. 3 mm²) were mechanically homogenized in 100 microliters of 8 M urea (BDH Laboratory Supplies). After an incubation period of at least 60 minutes, the specimen were centrifuged (15,000 g, 5 min.), after which the supernatants (extracts) were analyzed immediately.

44 The tested solvents included combinations of Tris-HCl with EDTA and Tris-HCl with urea. A major problem was the precipitation of a portion of the protein onto the test area.

45 For a good separation of the urea extracts it appeared necessary to incubate the focusing gels beforehand with urea. To prevent the loss of ampholytes from the gels during incubation, the incubation solution was enriched with Pharmalyte pH 3-10.

46 For the PhastSystem, PhastGels IEF 3-9 (43 x 50 x 0.35 mm) were used: these contain the Pharmalyte carrier ampholyten (pH 3-9) that has a polyacrylamide matrix (5% T, 3% C) and a polyester backing layer. Before application, the gels were incubated for 30 minutes in a 10:1 mixture of 8 M urea and Pharmalyte pH 3-10. After incubation the surplus solution was carefully removed from the gel. Bark extracts of 0.3-4.0 microliter were analyzed under the following conditions: prefocusing (20 min) at 2000 V, 2.5 mA, 3.5 W and 5 °C; sample application (5 min) at 200 V, 2.5 mA, 3.5 W and 5 °C; and focusing (45 min) at 2000 V, 2.5 mA, 3.5 W and 5 °C.

47 The extracts were stained with a silver stain (Silver PhastGel Kit) in the development unit of the PhastSystem machine, after which the gels were air-dried. The standard Coomassie protein staining (PhastGel Blue R) appeared to be too insensitive.

48 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry is a non-destructive research method where an object is radiated with two X-rays and a crystal catches the fluorescence. This method is used to distinguish between the different fluorescence of each element. This only works well with inorganic elements.

49 The latex contains the highly toxic antiarine, which only has effect when in the blood circulation. Small amounts do not appear to be dangerous. In making tapa, the most latex disappears with a small amount remaining as residue. Apparently this is released again by rain on the tapa causing an itching sensation on the skin (Burkhill, 1966; Chadha, 1985; Manjunath, 1948; Horsfield, 1814).

50 A Sumatran tapa maker taught me this test in 1994. When I asked whether this was dangerous to health, he replied that it was not the case. I myself tested tapa of Antiaris toxicaria several times in this way.

51 Late November 1994, a grandson of the former sultan of Sumenep, Madura, showed me about 70 manuscripts, of which only a small part were in a decent condition. Nearly all the manuscripts were written on dluwang and the owner claimed they came from the kraton [palace]. I purchased a dozen for the KITLV [Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies] in Jakarta, which in turn donated them to the Perpustakaan Nasional RI [National Library of the Republic of Indonesia], Jakarta.

52 E. Wieringa, who has worked on an inventory of Malay manuscripts, has assured me that a number of Malay manuscripts were written on dluwang.

53 Manuscripts in Sonobudoyo on kertas gendhong: B7, B8, B11, I34, I35, L2, L7, L15, L20, L25h, L42, L62, L155, L156, L158, L159, L161, L164, L177, L178, L214, L216, L224, L244, L245, L296, L300, L313, L314, L334, L394, L405, LL16, LL19, LL21, LL24, LL28, P25, P126, P135, Pr48, Pr50, Pr51, Pr80, S36, S68, S90, W50. Manuscripts in Sonobudoyo on kertas tela: P23, P46, P48, Pr31, Pr86.

54 Gericke, 1901(1): 593. Fillet (1888: no.4236) even believes that the Broussonetia papyrifera was called kendong. According to Kiliaan (1898), kemplong was derived from the noise that the beater makes: dong, dong. In a text from the time of the 12th century Court of Kediri, the word kempong is used in the sense of ‘beating’, the Bhoma Kawya 4, 2: ‘...Makempong-kempong tang palu daluwang asrang masawuran (r.masahuran)...’ The bark hammers constantly beat heatedly [in a secluded forest] at each other (or echoing?) [Pigeaud, 1967, § 30.060 en LOr 3735; Zoetmulder, 1982:355; Teeuw, 1946].

55 Kertas gendhong: Fakultas Sastra, U.I., Depok, manuscripts PR 65 and PR 63; from Museum Sonobudoyo document L47 (resp. specimen 87, 88 en 95). Kertas telo: Fakultas Sastra, U.I., Depok manuscript PR 514; van Museum Sonobudoyo manuscript P 210 specimen 89 en 94).

56 The Chinese owner of the paper wholesaler, Pt. Bima Alpha, Jl Merak no. 2, Surabaya, confirmed this.

57 A cover/wrapper = a piece of flexible material fixed to the book block, (at least) enclosing the spine, front and back boards and forming the essential part of the binding (Gnirrep et al, 1992:67). A flap binding is a binding where the ‘... material of the wrapper or flat cover ... extends at the edge to the extent that it continues past the cut edge and further over (or under) a substantial part of the other board ...’ (Gnirrep et al, 1992:68).

58 Books with a bookbinding of dluwang in the Museum Meermanno-Westrenianum, The Hague: A. Doijer, 1908, Dessa-leven. Amsterdam: P.N. van Kampen & Zn. (K 067 C 011); Karel van de Woestijne, 1933, De nieuwe Esopet. Amsterdam: Wereldbliotheek (D 021 G 002); C.K. Elout, 1926, Indisch Dagboek. Oosterse Bibliotheek. Santpoort: C.A. Mees, 1926 (K 092 D 026).

There remain 2 untraceable bookbindings of dluwang: A. Doijer, 1910, In het binnenland. Amsterdam: P.N. van Kampen & Zn. and a book ‘with illustrations of Mesquita, bound in library binding in dluwang and with a hand- tooled title on the spine’. This last book was bound by Elizabeth Menalda, a renowned Dutch bookbinder in the 1920s, who submitted the book to the lottery of the Tentoonstellingsraad voor architectuur en beeldende kunsten [Exhibition Council for architecture and the arts], according to a letter to Mr. J.F. van Royen (5 February, 1936), presently in the Van Royen Archive at the Museum Meermanno-Westrenianum, The Hague.

59 Informant: Ida Pedanda Gede Ketut Sidemen, Griya Taman Sari, Sanur, Bali.

60 Selling address: toko Jadnya, passar Kumbasari, Den Passar, Bali.

61 Fl 200 in 1920 was worth €1000 in 1996

62 Fl 15 in 1920 was worth €165 in 1996

63 The Balinese painting on tapa at KIT [Royal Tropical Institute], Amsterdam is dated pre-1933 and listed under serial number 809/159; it depicts the Battle of the Kuruveld. The Reesink collection of the National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden, has several paintings on Balinese tapa

64 This book is now in the National Herbarium, Leiden, under number 297.