India L M S Palni, Director, GBPIHED

Home , Ashy wood pigeon, Askot, Celaenorrhinus leucocera, Changuch, Chaudhara, Darma Valley

Lead Coordinator - India L M S Palni, Director, GBPIHED

Nodal Person(s) – India R S Rawal, Scientist, GBPIHED

Wildlife Institute of India (WII) G S Rawat, Scientist

Uttarakhand Forest Department (UKFD) Nishant Verma, IFS Manoj Chandran, IFS

Investigators

GBPIHED Resource Persons K Kumar

D S Rawat GBPIHED Ravindra Joshi S Sharma Balwant Rawat S C R Vishvakarma Lalit Giri G C S Negi Arun Jugran I D Bhatt Sandeep Rawat A K Sahani Lavkush Patel

K Chandra Sekar Rajesh Joshi WII S Airi Amit Kotia Gajendra Singh

Ishwari Rai WII Merwyn Fernandes B S Adhikari Pankaj Kumar G S Bhardwaj Rhea Ganguli S Sathyakumar Rupesh Bharathi V K Melkani Shazia Quasin V P Uniyal Umesh Tiwari

CONTRIBUTORS Y P S Pangtey, Kumaun University, Nainital; D K Upreti, NBRI, Lucknow; S D Tiwari, Girls Degree College, Haldwani; Girija Pande, Kumaun University, Nainital; C S Negi & Kumkum Shah, Govt. P G College, Pithoragarh; Ruchi Pant and Ajay Rastogi, ECOSERVE, Majkhali; E Theophillous and Mallika Virdhi, Himprkrthi, Munsyari; G S Satyal, Govt. P G College Haldwani; Anil Bisht, Govt. P G College Narayan Nagar

CONTENTS

Preface i-ii Acknowledgements iii-iv

1. Task and the Approach 1-10 1.1 Background 1.2 Feasibility Study 1.3 The Approach

2. Description of Target Landscape 11-32 2.1 Background 2.2 Administrative 2.3 Physiography and Climate 2.4 River and Glaciers 2.5 Major Life zones 2.6 Human settlements 2.7 Connectivity and remoteness 2.8 Major Land Cover / Land use 2.9 Vulnerability

3. Land Use and Land Cover 33-40 3.1 Background 3.2 Land use

4. Agriculture, Farming Systems and Livestock 41-54 4.1 Background 4.2 Traditional agriculture 4.3 Food crops and production 4.4 Livestock 4.5 Indigenous Knowledge and Domesticated Biodiversity 4.6 Challenges and priorities

5. Hydrology and Water Resources 55-74 5.1 Background 5.2 Status of water resources 5.3 Surface and ground water resources 5.4 Water supply and sanitation 5.5 Soil conservation and watershed management 5.6 Water infrastructure 5.7 Priorities and gap areas 5.8 Future priorities for action

6. Biological Diversity of the Landscape 75-102 6.1 Overview 6.2 Vegetation types 6.3 Distribution, diversity and forest trends 6.4 Floristic diversity and uniqueness 6.5 Faunal diversity and uniqueness 6.6 Threatened and sensitive components 6.7 Plan of action for conservation and management

7. Wildlife Habitat Management and Conservation Areas 103-118 7.1 Major habitats and key wildlife species 7.2 Habitats of migratory species and corridors 7.3 Conservation areas and their management 7.4 Conservation and Management efforts and gaps 7.5 Wildlife management strategies and action points

8. Forests and Rangeland- Utilization & Management 119-140 8.1 Overview- forests and forestry 8.2 Rangeland and pastoral practices 8.3 Transhumance, nomadic hearding v ́ i s -a- v́ isa Lands cape 8.4 Priority identification 8.5 Gap assessment

9. Bioresources- traditional knowledge and practices 141-152 9.1 Review of ethno-biological knowledge 9.2 Status of high value medicinal plants 9.3 Diversity and status of wild edible plants 9.4Status of other non wood forest products 9.5 Livelihood options and extraction of MAPs 9.6 Subsistence economy, diversified resource use 9.7 Strategies for sustainable use of wild plant resources

10. Settlements, Demography and Livelihoods 153-166 10.1 Settlements 10.2 Demographic profile 10.3 Occupational structure 10.4 Out migration 10.5 Gender issues 10.6 Developmental trends

11. Sacred Values- culture, religion and tourism potential 167-192 11.1 Background 11.2 Geo-cultural context 11.3 The Sacred pantheon 11.4 Other socio-cultural expressions 11.5 Pilgrimage and trade 11.6 The landscape of wilderness and tourism potential

12. Community Perception 193-206 12.1 On-site consultations 12.2 Stakeholders consultation meeting 12.3 Analysis of community perceptions

13. Status of Environmental Degradation, Cultural integrity and 207-220 Priorities 13.1 Background 13.2 Trends of degradation 13.3 Priorities for the target landscape

14. Policy review and enabling environment (Report prepared separately)

References 221-224 Appendices (6.1 to 6.8; 9.1; 12.1 & 12.2)

PREFACE

I would like to begin with a deep appreciation for this initiative of International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu towards making a welcome beginning to systematically address the issues of data deficiency and socioeconomic development in the Himalayan region, following the concept of transboundary transects/landscapes. ICIMOD has succeeded in identification of seven such critical landscapes to represent most of the bio-physical, environmental and socio-cultural dimensions of the Himalaya, and has initiated activities and programmes to build regional cooperation on the identified landscapes.

Among such landscapes, the Greater Mt. Kailash region, which covers the remote southwestern portion of the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) of China, and adjacent parts of northwestern Nepal, and India, contains a highly diverse array of ecological conditions, rich and unique biodiversity components, indigenous systems of livelihood, and distinct local cultures. The sacredness values attached with the landscape elements have been, from times immemorial, the driving force for the existence of some of the most natural sites, and time tested traditions of management and sustainable harvest of natural resources. The region being the source of the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the Karnali and the Sutlej rivers, provides transboundary ecosystem services vital to the region and far beyond. However, on accounts of its geological fragility, climate sensitivity and ever increasing threats to biological diversity, the landscape is one amongst the most vulnerable ecosystems. The indigenous communities and their value based traditional systems are also passing through a stage of rapid transformation. So is the case with retreating glaciers and changing hydrological regimes, consequently affecting the biodiversity elements in the region. All these issues and many more, are also of great concern to large populations inhabiting downstream areas.

The project, therefore, attempts to initiate and convene a process, in collaboration with UNEP, and other partners, to engage regional, national, local partners and other stakeholders among ICIMOD’s Regional Member Countries (RMCs), namely India, Nepal, and China, towards establishment of a transboundary cultural and biodiversity conservation landscape – the Mt Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL), for developing and facilitating a transboundary Regional Cooperation Framework (RCF).

The project, with its major goal to generate long-term ecological, climatic, socio-cultural and biodiversity datasets within the KSL, would contribute substantially to address the issue of knowledge gaps, a serious impediment for understanding, and predicting impacts of changing patterns, including climate change.

Realizing that the proposed landscape is of great bio-physical, cultural and religious significance for the three countries of HKH region (i.e., China, India, Nepal), that the landscape is extraordinarily fragile and ecologically sensitive having significant value in terms of ecological services for the three countries, and that the proposal is timely and relevant under national/regional/global initiatives towards developing mechanisms for: (i) adaptation under changing climate, (ii) poverty alleviation and gender equity, the Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests, approved the proposal and designated G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development (GBPIHED) as lead institute, and Wildlife Institute (WII) and Uttarakhand Forest Department (UKFD) as major partner organizations for implementation of this project in the Indian part.

India considers this, first of its kind trans-boundary project in the region, of particular relevance under existing national priorities and programmes. For example, the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) of India through a National Mission on Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (one of eight National Missions) envisages evolving management measures for sustaining and safeguarding the Himalayan glaciers and mountain ecosystem. The mission, among others, emphasizes upon the need for exchange of information with the countries sharing the same Himalayan ecology. It also underlines the need for establishing an observational and monitoring network for the Himalayan environment. And, to make the network comprehensive in its coverage, cooperation from neighbouring countries is envisaged. In this context the KSL project, which attempts to establish a long-term ecological monitoring framework, and on the ground climatic and biodiversity network, would provides unique opportunity for furthering cooperation and establishing a suitable network with neighbouring countries, China and Nepal in this case.

Furthermore, in accordance with the need for community-based management of vulnerable ecosystems (e.g., mountain farming systems) as highlighted under the mission approach on Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, and in harmony with the relevant suggested measures for conservation of mountain ecosystem under the National Environment Policy (2006) of India, the KSL project would help promote community-based ecosystem and sustainable development approaches that empower local communities, promote gender equity, and improve people’s livelihood through appropriate resource management, and identification of alternative livelihood strategies.

As the first envisaged outcome of the project, this feasibility document for the Indian part of KSL has been prepared, following the approach of thorough consultation with diverse stakeholder groups. Besides the expertise of three designated organizations (i.e., GBPIHED, WII, and UKFD), various experts on relevant aspects (i.e., individuals and institutions) and officials of government departments were consulted, and the information received has been used for preparing a status report for the target landscape. The target landscape in itself was defined through extensive consultation. The information generated, through rapid field surveys, by different teams of three institutions was used to fill in the gaps, as far as possible. The extensive on site consultations with the community representatives and NGOs, followed by an open consultation workshop with stakeholder groups provided desired guidance to identify priorities for the future action. I am sure, this status report will provide a strong basis for environmental monitoring plans and conservation strategies, and ultimately feed in to the envisaged process of Regional Cooperation Framework to support cooperation and common understanding on transboundary landscape issues.

June 15, 2010 Dr. L.M.S. Palni Director GBPIHED Lead Coordinator, KSLCI –India

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The nodal ministry, Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India (GoI), after thorough consultation with concerned ministries and organizations agreed to the concept of the proposal “Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative : Developing a Trans-boundary framework for Conservation and Sustainable Development in the Greater Mt. Kailash Region of China, India and Nepal”, and designated the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development (GBPIHED) as Lead Institute for implementation of the project in the Indian part. Further, MoEF also identified Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and Uttrakhand Forest Department (UKFD) as major national partners, and provided guidance to streamline the process of project execution.

From the Ministry of Environment & Forests, GoI, Shri Hem Pande, Joint Secretary, and Shri Vivek Saxena, Director, took special interest and provided valuable facilitation.

The Chief Secretary, Govt. of Uttrakhand, Shri N.S. Napalchyal, showed his keen interest and provided continued support and advice.

This report is an outcome of a collaborative effort between Lead and Partner Institutions. The authorities of these Institutions deserve deep appreciation for effectively steering the assignment. Both, Director WII, Mr. P.R. Sinha, and Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (UKFD), Dr. R.B.S. Rawat, were Instrumental in giving direction and necessary support all through the process.

Dr. R.S. Rawal, Scientist GBPIHED; Dr. G.S. Rawat, Scientist WII; Shri Nishant Verma, Divisional Forest Officer, Pithoragarh, and Shri Manoj Chandran, Deputy Conservator of Forests (Working Plan), Pithoragarh, UKFD were designated nodal persons from respective organizations. Their able and dynamic leadership enabled us in timely and successful completion of the task.

The work of this nature is a result of contributions from wide range of partners and stakeholders. Among expert, Prof. Y.P.S. Pangtey, Nainital; Dr. D.K. Upreti NBRI Lucknow; Dr. S.D. Tewari, Girls Degree College, Haldwani; Dr. Girija Pande, Kumaun University, Nainital; Drs. C.S. Negi and Kumkum Shah, Govt. P G College, Pithoragarh; Dr. Ruchi Pant and Mr. Ajay Rastogi, ECOSERVE Majkhali; Mr. E. Theophillous and Mrs. Mallika Virdhi, Himprkrthi, Munsyari; Dr. G.S. Satyal, Govt. P G College Haldwani; Dr. Anil Bisht, Govt. P G College Narayan Nagar, provided valuable inputs. The information received from, Herbal Research & Development Institute (HRDI), Gopeshwar; Directorate of Cold Water Fisheries Research (DCFR), Bhimtal; Commandant 130 Inf Bn (TA), Eco Kumaun; Himalayan Study Circle (HSC), Pithoragarh; Himalayan Gram Vikas Samiti (HGVS), Gangolihat; and DFO Bageshwar, etc., was very useful.

The District Administration, Pithoragarh, and ITBP Mirthi (Pithoragarh) facilitated information collection and logistics to the research teams while in the field. Various other departments (as listed along the text) provided valuable information.

Dr. Eklabya Sharma and Dr. K.P. Oli, Dr. Robert Zomer at ICIMOD, Kathmandu, were always and readily available for any clarification and various kind of support. Prof. Sekhar Pathak, Pahar Nainital, shared his vast experience of the landscape and provided valuable ideas during inception phase.

The strongest acknowledgments are, however, due to various members of research teams from WII, UKFD and GBPIHED and also the associated researchers and resource persons, who enthusiastically and sincerely participated in the process and conducted Rapid Assessment Surveys in remote and difficult terrains in the landscape. Other stakeholders (as listed along the text) willingly contributed information and participated during various consultations.

Local inhabitants were keen in sharing their ground level experiences, and at several occasions provided logistic support and helped research teams to understand ground realities.

Many academic and other sources have been used freely in this report and we gratefully acknowledge all such sources. Last but not the least, on behalf of the entire project team (lead institute as well as the partner institutions), we wish to thank all those who could not be listed above but their direct or indirect involvement helped us in completing this task within the stipulated time.

1 Task and the Approach

1.1 Background

The project ‘Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative: Developing a Transboundary Framework for Conservation and Sustainable Development in the Greater Mt. Kailash Region of China, India, and Nepal’ attempts to initiate and promote transboundary biodiversity and cultural conservation, ecosystem management, sustainable development, and climate change adaptation within the Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL). This landscape covers remote southwestern portion of Tibet in China, and contiguous areas of northwestern Nepal, and India. The identified landscape represents a wide range of bio-physical; socio- cultural and environmental conditions, and is considered amongst most revered sacred landscapes of the world. The spiritual and sacred values of this landscape attract tens of thousands of pilgrims every year. Unfortunately, the landscape is equally known for its extreme vulnerability to changing faces of development and global climate. As a result, the rich and unique biological diversity, the ecosystem goods and services, and the value based cultural heritage of this landscape are severely threatened.

All these attributes and many more, qualify it for urgently taken-up as transboundary landscape so as to promote transboundary biodiversity and cultural conservation, ecosystem management, sustainable development, and climate change adaptations. With this realization, ICIMOD in collaboration with UNEP and in consultation of three countries (i.e., China, India and Nepal), formulated the above project to address following broad objectives:

• Enhance cooperation among the regional member countries through establishment of a Regional Cooperation Framework (RCF), development of a strategy for conservation of Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL), and developing a transboundary regional knowledge base; • Increase collection of climate change data in the KSL and facilitate coordination among the various actors and stakeholders within the KSL landscape through enhancing transboundary collaboration in ecological and climate change monitoring and information exchange networks; and • Recognize, and strengthen local capacity efforts for community-based participation in conservation and sustainable development, and enhance cultural-socio-ecological resilience.

The envisaged major outputs and deliverables of the project include the following:

Output 1: Regional Cooperation Framework Agreement • Feasibility Assessment Report • Policy and Enabling Environment Report • Conservation Strategy • Web-Based Environmental Knowledge Hub

Output 2: Comprehensive Ecological Monitoring Plan • Common Ecological Sampling and Monitoring Protocols • Training Manual for Capacity Building for Ecological Monitoring • Ecological and Climatic Data Collection Report

Output 3: Assessment of Community Based Adaptation and Co-Management Options • Adaptation and Co-management Options Synthesis Report • Training Manual for Community Based Monitoring

1.2 Feasibility Study

Realizing that the (a) area of target landscape is not clearly defined, and (b) systematic information on status of: (i) bio-physical resources, (ii) socio-cultural dimensions, and (iii) environmental degradation in the target landscape, is not available, it was agreed to focuses on preparation of a preliminary feasibility document in first six months of project inception. The objective of the Preliminary Feasibility Study is the delineation of the target landscape so as to bring clarity on landscape, description, and delineation, as well of a needs analysis for the KSL and RCF. The Feasibility Assessment Report was to be prepared based upon following set of sub-activities (Box 1.1).

Box 1.1: The Feasibility Assessment Report

Basic Objectives and Purpose

• Delineation of Target Landscape – to bring clarity on landscape, description and delineation. • Needs analysis for the Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) and a Regional Cooperation Framework (RCF).

Outline of major components • Description of target landscape (within the Regional Member Country) with extent and precise delineation of boundaries. • Resource (bio-physical) status of the target landscape. • Status report on environmental degradation and cultural integrity within the target landscape. • Identification of priorities (i.e. biodiversity, environmental, cultural) for the target landscape. • Community perception on (a) biodiversity and cultural values, and best-suited livelihood options, and (b) in respect to policies and plans. To be carried out through community consultation. • Enabling environment (review of existing policies). This activity to be completed under a separate TOR, but incorporated into final synthesis document. • Gap assessment (of all points listed above)

The process needed to include: • Detailed geospatial analysis, including land cover mapping and watershed analysis; • Delineation of the target landscape, by national partners within national boundaries based upon ecosystem management criteria; • Stakeholder consultations to solicit local perspective and community input, assess livelihood options, and identify local adaption approaches and climate change impacts, to be conducted by the partners using various participatory tools; • Rapid ecological survey and field assessment of representative sites; • Compilation, analysis and synthesis of available information relevant to biodiversity, environmental. and cultural conservation within the KSL and the RCF process; • Needs assessment for biodiversity, environmental and cultural conservation in the KSL, and the proposed RCF;

1.3 The Approach

1.3.1 Implementing Organizations

The nodal ministry, Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India (GoI), having agreed with the project objectives, designated the G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development (GBPIHED) the Lead Institution. The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and Uttarakhand Forest Department (UKFD) were identified as major national partners.

1.3.2 Process of Feasibility Assessment

Considering the above requirements of Feasibility Assessment, and in view of the specific needs and obligations under Indian set of conditions, the present assignment was taken-up. The major steps and processes involved:

National Partners Consultation – delineation of target landscape Based on the experience and considering preliminary discussions held with different stakeholders, especially the partner organizations, and keeping in view the suggested criteria for area delineation (Box 1.2), the lead institute (GBPIHED) prepared different scenarios for possible landscape to be included from Indian part.

Subsequently different scenarios were discussed in national partners consultation held at Dehradun. The partners consultation were organized to look into: (i) the technical feasibility (i.e., ecological, socio-cultural and developmental dimensions); and (ii) management feasibility (i.e., workability and long term management considerations).

For the first part a consultation, meeting was held on March 27, 2010 (F/N) at WII. The list of participants is given (Table 1.1).

Box 1.2: Need and suggested criteria for delineation of landscape boundaries

For the Feasibility Assessment of KSL, as well as the eventual Regional Cooperation Framework, the technical delineation of the area is an essential and very important first step. This needs to be done by each of the partner countries. It is to be specifically noted that international boundary issues will not be raised by the participating States while delineating the area and only internal area scope should be considered. Some of the following criteria have been identified and being applied to delineate the project area for feasibility assessment.

Some of the identified/suggested criteria to delineate the target area for feasibility

assessment include the following:

• Trans-boundary ecosystem services and ecosystem contiguity • Key biodiversity areas, including migratory habitats and biodiversity corridors • Endemism (biodiversity and culture) • Indicator /flagship, and rare, endangered and threatened species (and their ranges) • Protected areas/ and Ramsar sites and other conservation priority areas • Cultural Heritage sites and pilgrimage routes; and existing and potential ecotourism sites • Linkages of livelihoods of mountain communities • Vulnerability of the area (globalization, migration and other change processes) • Urbanization and infrastructure development • Watershed and river basin coverage for the headwater areas of major rivers originating from the landscape • Representation of ecological zones [Based on the feasibility guidelines prepared for KSLCI project]

Table 1.1: Participants of the consultation meeting held at WII (march 27, 2010; F/N) Name of Participant Organization

1. Dr. P.R. Sinha Director WII 2. Dr. L.M.S. Palni Director GBPIHED 3. Dr. V.B. Mathur Dean WII 4. Dr. G.S. Rawat Professor WII 5. Dr. V. P. Uniyal Scientist WII 6. Mr G.S. Bharadwaj Scientist WII 7. Mr. Manoj Chandran Dy Conservator Forest Working Plan), Pithoragarh 8. Mr. Ajay Rastogi Director Ecoserve, Majkhali, Almora 9. Mr. E. Theophilus Sarmoli, Munsiyari, Pithoragarh 10. Dr. R.S. Rawal Scientist, GBPIHED, Almora 11. Dr. S. Sharma Scientist, GBPIHED, Almora

After thorough discussions the group recommended two proposals for discussions in next meeting.

The next meeting was held at Seminar Hall of UKFD, and the participants of this meeting are listed (Table 1.2). Considering the recommendations of earlier meeting and looking into the long term management possibilities, the group agreed with the proposal of including almost entire district of Pithoragarh and some part of district Bageshwar (mainly to include upper Ramganga catchment.

Table 1.2: Participants of consultation meeting at UKFD, Dehradun (March 27, 2010; A/N)

Participants 1. Dr. R. B. S. Rawat, PCCF Uttarakhand, UKFD 2. Dr. L.M.S. Palni, Director GBPIHED 3. Shri K.L. Arya, PCCF (wildlife), UKFD 4. Shri A. K. Mahajan, Additional PCCF, UKFD 5. Dr. Rakesh Shah, Chief Conservator of Forests (Admin) 6. Shri S.C. Pant, Chief Conservator of Forests (Kumaon), UKFD 7. Shri S.T.S. Lepcha, Chief Conservator of Forests, UKFD 8. Shri Manoj Chandran, Dy Conservator Forest Working Plan), Pithoragarh 9. Shri Ram Gopal Verma, DFO Mussoorie 10. Dr.G.S. Rawat, Professor WII 11. Shri G.S. Bharadwaj, Scientist WII 12. Shri P.S. Dangwal, Commandant (Academy) ITBP, Mussoorie 13. Shri Ajay Rastogi, Director Ecoserve, Majkhali, Almora 14. Shri E. Theophilus, Sarmoli, Munsiyari, Pithoragarh 15. Dr. R.S. Rawal, GBPIHED, Almora 16. Dr. S. Sharma, GBPIHED, Almora

The group agreed that the proposed landscape is:

• Contiguous with the proposed landscape from other two countries (i.e., China and Nepal) • Representative of most of the bio-physical diversity in the region • Rich in unique and high value biodiversity elements • Socio-culturally diverse and has traditional systems of natural resource conservation and use • Having protected and other conservation sites, including sacred sites/groves • Historically connected with Kailash pilgrimage and has cultural linkages with neighboring areas in Nepal and China

• Facing threats from urbanization and other ongoing developmental activities • Vulnerable to global climate change

Compilation of information and expert consultations In view of the expertise available with the participating organizations work elements were assigned. Each organization subsequently followed following process for status report preparation.

• Collection, compilation and synthesis of secondary research based information available for KSL within Indian territory • Consultation with subject specialists/experts who have worked in the landscape for updating and gap filling • Consultation with the relevant government officials for information and perception

Rapid assessment surveys

Realizing that information is poorly available for many areas and also to update the existing information, extensive field investigations were conducted in Rapid Assessment mode. Different teams consisting of experts and researchers from WII, GBPIHED and UKFD made extensive surveys in the target landscape. After detailed consultation among three organizations it was agreed that at least one survey is made in each of the sub-watershed of the landscape. Broadly following areas of the landscape were covered by different organizations:

GBPIHED [Biodiversity, Socio-cultural milieu, Land & Water and Community Perception, etc.] i) Kali valley: Pancheshwar to Nabidhang ii) Ramganga Valley: Rameshwar –Thal-Namik iii) Gori Valley : Jauljibi - Munsiyari iv) Dhauli Valley: Tawaghat – Dugtu

WII [Biodiversity- Threatened and sensitive components of biodiversity, Ethnobotanical information NTFP, Wildlife habitats and management, Rangeland management] i) Kali & Dhauli valley: Dharchula-Narayan Ashram-Gunji ii) Ramganga Valley: Rameshwar-Thal-Nachani-Kalamuni iii) Gori Valley : Jauljibi – Milam; Baram – Chiplakot – Sobla (Dhauli valley)

UKFD [Forests, forestry, production forestry and forest management, etc.] i) Extensive survey in forests of Pithoragarh forest division. ii) Gori & Kali valley – focusing on Chiplakot area

In this way, almost all the river valley transects in the landscape were covered under Rapid Surveys. During these surveys broadly following activities were performed: • Rapid information generation (both qualitative and quantitative), following standard protocols, on biodiversity components, in particular community patterns in different altitudinal transects. Preparation/authentication of biodiversity inventories for different groups of flora and fauna. • Enlisting of threatened and sensitive components of biodiversity along with their distribution and status within the landscape. For each species, specific habitats, threats if any and conservation measures have been suggested. • Filling in the information gaps w.r.t., ethnobiology of the landscape, following reconnaissance and rapid assessments by a team of ethnobiologists, especially in Raji tribal areas. Also, to obtain feedback from various communities and forest managers, to attempt a comprehensive conservation plan for medicinal plants and other NWFPs. • Identifying the broad habitat types and key wildlife species in the landscape, and locating crucial corridors for the movement of migratory species especially a few mammals and birds.

• Preparing brief account of different rangelands, current patterns of livestock grazing and conservation status. • Generating information on reserved forests, forest panchayats and other conservation areas of the landscape, with a special focus on finding best possible options for redefining boundaries of the existing PA. • Consulting representatives of various community groups for information collection on traditional systems of conservation and use of natural resources, people’s perception regarding environment and development in the area. • Updating the information on different aspects collected from secondary sources. • Collecting all possible evidences, as photographs and location specific information reports, on state of environment and development in different parts of the target landscape.

On site community consultations As indicated in previous section, representatives of communities were randomly consulted during the Rapid Assessment surveys. The consultation covered the following: i) Information on diversity of forests, bugyals (alpine meadows) and agriculture types, including indigenous cropping systems. Dependence and knowledge on wild bioresources. ii) Traditional systems of conservation, including existing system of fairs and festivals associated with conservation and use of natural resources. iii) Perception on degradation of existing resources, especially the forests and bugyals. iv) Trends of agriculture, in particular the traditional mixed cropping. Other associated systems of livelihood. v) In puts on cultural values, community feelings, and cooperative activities. vi) Perceptions on soil and water conservation and options of livelihood. vii) Perception about changing climate/weather and perceived impacts on livelihood and other natural resources. viii) Reactions on existing/ongoing policies, projects and programmes in the landscape.

Stakeholders consultation - workshop A stakeholder’s consultation was organized on June 12, 2010. Participants represented four major groups: (i) People’s representatives (representatives of Forest Panchayats, Village Panchayats, Farmers group, etc.); (ii) Representatives from Government Departments/ Academia/Educational Institutions; (iii) NGO’s/Community Organizations; and (iv) Senior Citizens, Advocates, social workers, etc. The meeting concentrated on extensive group discussions (each group separately and finally discussions on outcome of each group).

Each group focused discussing four basic issues: (i) landscape biodiversity – peculiarities (uniqueness) and threats; (ii) livelihood options and development; (iii) adaptation to climate change; (iv) Cultural and Ecological integrity of landscape; and (v) possibilities for people participation in Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative. In each group one identified moderator facilitated discussions.

The outcome of each group discussion was discussed during a plenary session and finalized recommendations were considered as the perception of respective group of the community and included in the report.

Analysis of information and Synthesis for priority identification • At individual organization level each of the participating organization analyzed information (from all sources) for assigned aspects of study and prepared status reports for identified sectors independently. • Each individual report was submitted to lead institute (i.e., GBPIHED). • Individual reports were synthesized at GBPIHED to prepare a comprehensive document, which, among others, also includes identification of gaps and future priorities for action in the landscape.

2. Description of Target Landscape

2.1 Background

Conservation of upper catchments of Himalayan Rivers, crucial watersheds and threatened high altitude ecosystem requires landscape level planning and inter-disciplinary approach along with trans-boundary cooperation. North-eastern Uttarakhand that has been designated as a part of Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) makes an appropriate case for such a transboundary conservation planning. This tract, flanked by Nepal and Tibetan plateau (P.R. China) on eastern and northern side respectively, is extremely rich in biodiversity, socio- cultural milieu and trans-boundary historical linkages. Within Indian Territory, Pithoragarh (most of the district) and Bageshwar (small part) have been included in KSL for the present conservation planning. The people of this landscape share several commonalities including worship of principal deity, Lord Shiva, in various forms. The northern boundary of this landscape is contiguous with that of Tibetan plateau where sacred Kailash Mountain and Manasarovar Lake are located. Further, the KSL which is spread across three countries (India, China and Nepal) at this tri-junction provides contiguous habitat to threatened high altitude fauna such as snow leopard (Uncia uncia) and its major prey, i.e., blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). It is hoped that the proposed plan would provide an impetus to conserve the entire landscape along with its key elements including vulnerable ethnic communities, such as primitive tribe Rajees.

2.2 Administrative Units

The target landscape for Kailash Sacred Landscape Initiative – KSLCI in Indian part extends over two districts of Kuamun division in Uttarakhand State (Fig. 2.1). Majority of the landscape area (6826.35 km2, ~96% of the total project area) falls within the district of Pithoragarh, which shares international boundaries with China (Tibetan Autonomous Region) on north and with Nepal on east side. The landscape shares its boundaries with Champawat district of Uttarakhand in the south and Almora district in the west. Small part (293.81 km2, 4.1%) of the target landscape (i.e. watershed of the east Ramganga River) falls within the district Bageshwar of Uttarakhand state.

At sub-district level the project area covers six sub units (i.e., tehsil) in district Pithoragarh and two in district Bageshwar (Fig. 2.2; Table 2.1). The target landscape covers a total of 10 developmental units (i.e., Development Blocks, Fig. 2.3 and Table 2.2).

Table 2.1: Sub-district level unit coverage of the target landscape No District Sub-unit (tehsil) coverage ( % of total area covered in respective districts) Complete Partial 1 Pithoragarh Dharchula (40.1) Munsiyari (35.5) Didihat (8.1) Gangolihat (4.9) Berinag (4.0) Pithoragarh (7.6) 2 Bageshwar -- Kapkot (76.2) Bageshwar (23.8)

Table 2.2: Developmental units in the target landscape No Disitrict Developmental Blocks 1 Pithoragarh Munsiyari, Dharchula, Didihat, Kanalichhina, Gangolihat, Bin (Pithoragarh), Munakot, and Berinag, 2 Bageshwar Kapkot and Bageshwar

7 2.3 Physiograhy and climate

The landscape described above has a distinct geographical identity and represents one of the diverse cultural landscapes. Sir E.T. Alkinson in his Gazetteer describes this area under a different “Pattis” which represent different ethnographic units. During British rule this region formed part of Almora district. Most significant and striking feature of the landscape which defines its regional personality is its connectivity to the Great Himalayan ranges or to the rivers flowing from the upper catchments of these districts.

The target landscape exhibits great variability in geological and physiographic forms. Broadly the area covers three major physiographic zones viz., Trans Himalayan zone in the north (occupies > 40%), followed by the Greater Himalayan zone towards the south, and the southernmost Lesser Himalayan zone (most inhabited zone), which is nearly forms 40% of the target area. The landscape shows great variation in altitude which ranges from < 500 m to peaks ranging > 7000 m above mean sea level (amsl). The major peaks of the landscape with height over 6000m amsl are listed (Table 2.3). Distribution of target landscape under different altitude zones is given (Fig 2.4 & 2.5).

Table 2.3: Major mountain peaks in the target area. Peak Altitude (m) Peak Altitude (m) Nanda Devi East 7434 Changuch 6,322 Hardeol 7,151 Nanda Gond 6,315 Trishuli 7,074 Nanda Pal 6,306 Rishi Pahar 6,992 Suli Top 6,300 Nanda Kot 6,861 Kuchela 6,294 Chiring We 6,559 Nital Thaur 6,236 Rajrambha 6,537 Kalganga Dhura 6,215 Chaudhara 6,510 Jonglingkong or Baba Kailash 6,191 Sangthang 6,480 Lalla We 6,123 Panchchuli 6,437 Kalabaland Dhura 6,105 Nagalaphu 6,410 Telkot 6,102 Suitilla (Suj Tilla West) 6,374 Bainti 6,079 Suj Tilla East 6,393 Ikualari 6,059 Bamba Dhura 6,334 Nagling 6,041 Burphu Dhura 6,334 Menaka Peak 6,000 (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pithoragarh_district)

Fig.2.4: Land coverage under different altitude zones of the landscape

8 The slope category classes reveal that a small portion of the project area has plain or very less inclination (< 2%). In general, slopes of 20o - 40o are common in the area (Fig. 2.6). However, steeper slopes (41-60o) are more common towards higher altitudes or in narrow river valleys. The inclination and orientation of the slopes (aspect) in the target landscape are depicted (Fig. 2.7 and 2.8; Table 2.4).

Figure 2.6: Coverage under different steepness classes of the landscape

The Indian part of KSL comprises a complex physiography which include river valleys lesser Himalayan ranges aligned in various directions. The great Himalayan ranges are mostly above 6000m largely aligned in northwest-southeast direction. The south-western part of the landscape is hot and semi-arid in nature while a few valleys in the central part of landscape are lush green and humid. The upland, glaciated valleys viz., Byans, Darma and Malla Johar have quite extensive alpine scrub and meadows, which have had a long history of human use for agriculture and animal husbandry. The western part of LS is formed by the mountain basins of eastern Ramganga. Likewise, the Great Pancha-Chuli range, running south-east divides the basins of Gori from that of Darma Ganga (eastern Dhauli). A sub-ordinate but prominent ranges of Pancha-Chuli i.e., Balchidhura-Chhipla and Najuri lies between Gori and Kali basin towards lower end. On the north-east, Chhota Kailash a snowy range divides Darma Ganga and Kutti- Yangti, Chhota-Kailash also called Ardh-Kailash is connected towards lower area by Yuchikang range, where some of the peaks rise to the height of over 6000m asl.

Trans-Himalayan region divided into two parts by Kyogar. The major land marks in the region are Topidhunga (4400m), Kungri-bingri La (5500m), Jaintidhura (4900m), Laptel or Laphkhel (4400m), and Sangchamalla (4600m), and Balchha pass (5200m). From Topidhunga a steep ascent called the Kalamattiya-charhai, from its being covered with dark stones and black crumbling slate, leads to the crest of the Khigrudhura. Most striking feature of this landscape is cold desert vegetation, typical of the Trans-Himalaya representing the Tethyan sea bed, much of which is fossiliferous where ammonites and belemnites are found in high abundance, especially around Laptel and Tsojan. The Girthi and Kyogar catchments are bounded on the north by Balchha dhura, Kyo-Ghatmila and Kungri-Bingri La forming the international boundary with the Tibetan Autonomous Region of the P.R. of China.

The climate in the landscape is primarily governed by the monsoon in the southern part (Greater and Lesser Himalayan zones), and by rain shadow zone (cold desert conditions) in the extreme north (i.e, Trans Himalayan zone). Temperature and rainfall patterns of three stations located in the southern Himalayan ranges are given (Fig. 2.9 & 2.10). An increase in

minimum temperature has been observed in all the locations; however rainfall does not fluctuate much between the years, save extreme years like 1990.

Table 2.4: Slope faces in the target landscape No Aspect Area (% of landscape) 1 North 11.9 2 North-East 12.3 3 East 12.7 4 South-East 14.4 5 South 13.8 6 South-West 13.7 7 West 10.7 8 North-West 10.6

40 Dharchula temp_min

35 Munshyari temp_min

Pithoragarh temp_min 30

0 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 -5

Figure 2.9. Temperature profile of three locations in the target landscape

150 Dharchula Munsiyari Pithoragarh

120

90 mm

0 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Year

Figure 2.10. Pattern of rainfall at three locations in the target landscape

2.4. Rivers and glaciers

The entire landscape can be divided into six hydrographic units or watersheds (refer Fig 5.1) which ultimately form part of a larger watershed of the River Kali (or Sharda). Nearly one- third of the project area falls in Goriganga watershed (Table 2.5) while other two watersheds

(Dhouliganga and Ramganga-E) contribute about 20% each. Major attributes of different hydrographic units are presented (Table 2.5), and the drainage network is shown (refer Fig. 5.2).

Table 2.5: Major hydrographic units in the target landscape No Hydrographic unit Attributes (% of the Total) Watershed Area Length of Drainage System 1 Kuti Yangti 7.9 2.7 2 Dhouliganga 20.4 14.1 3 Goriganga 31.2 29.5 4 Ramganga (E) 20.6 27.0 5 Kali / Sharda 15.3 19.9 6 Saryu (Partial) 4.6 6.8

The landscape harbours various glaciers (Fig 2.11, Table 2.6), which together cover nearly 10% of the landscape. More details on glacier and hydrographic units are included in Chapter 5.

Table 2.6: Major Glaciers in the Target Area River Basin Glaciers Catchment Area (km2) Approx glacier Area (km2) Gori Milam 212.21 39.50 Kalabaland 60.00 12.00 Northern Lwanl 49.00 10.00 Bamlas 46.00 9.00 Lower Lwanl 45.00 8.00 Balati 40.00 10.00 Baldimga 31.00 8.00 Terahar 31.00 4.50 Poting 30.00 8.50 Ralamag upper 26.00 8.50 Talkot 24.00 5.00 Ralamag lower 22.00 8.00 Sankalpa 19.00 3.20 Middle Lwanl 15.00 2.00 Lower Poting 6.50 2.00 Lassar Upper Lassar 131.60 32.1 Lower Lassar 126.00 34.9 Middle Lassar 115.51 21.6 Dhauli Lower Dhauli 130.00 24.5 Sona Glacier 72.00 4.00 Baling Golfu 45.00 3.00 Upper Dhauli 32.00 8.2 Sobla Tejam 22.00 4.00 Middle Dhauli 19.00 3.1 Kali Lower Kali 30.00 5.2 Upper Kali 10.00 5.0 Kuti Glaciers of Kuti Yangti 208.00 20.00 Basin (Source- http://pithoragarh.nic.in/Glaciers.htm)

2.5 Major Life-Zones

From about 400m asl at Pancheshwar, at the confluence of the Saryu and Kali or Sharada, to 7434m at the summit of Nandadevi East, the Indian part of GKSL represents most diverse ecosystems in the Western Himalaya within a short distance. Biogeographically this

11 landscape lies at the confluence of Western, Central and Trans-Himalaya where floral and faunal elements converge. The landscape is divisible into following major life-zones or eco- climatic zones based on the altitude and climate: (i) Sub-tropical belt, (ii) Warm temperate (iii) Cool temperate, (iv) Sub-alpine zone, (iv) Alpine zone of greater Himalaya, (vi) Alpine arid zone of Trans-Himalaya. Characteristic features of these zones are summarized below:- • Sub-tropical zone (<1000m): The low-lying warm valleys are characterized by climate that is similar to that of tropics, except having a short and mild winter when minimum temperature (January) may drop to 8 -10o. Depending upon the corridors and connectivity, this zone exhibits close affinities with the flora and fauna of Bhabar belt of Uttarakhand. Notable species among fauna include Red jungle fowl, King Cobra, and among flora Shorea robusta, Terminalia chebula and T. bellirica. Major corridor’s connectivity of this linking the Bhabar belt is through the Sharada Valley. The river Sharada (lower stretch of Kali) harbours a great deal of affinities with Upper Gangetic plains in terms of aquatic fauna. • The Warm Temperate Zone (1000-2000 m): The inter-montane valleys and low hills are characterized by prominent winters (mean minimum temperature in January up to 2 – 3o c), fall under this category. Two species of trees viz, Banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) and Chirpine (Pinus roxburghii) form the climax species of forest vegetation in this belt depending upon the geology, soil and frequency of fire. • The Cool Temperate Zone (2200 – 3000 m): This zone represents the upper montane region marked by a prolonged and severe winter with heavy snowfall during winter that may stay on the ground for 2 – 3 months. Also, the summers are wet owing to local convections. The forests are generally broad-leaved, deciduous as well as evergreen. Few south facing, steeper slopes support coniferous forests and anthropogenic grasslands. This zone is quite rich in flora and fauna, typical of mid elevation zone in Western Himalaya. • Sub-alpine Zone (3000-3500m): This is a narrow belt between the cool temperate and alpine zones, often terminating at a natural timberline. Depending upon the exposition, topography and degree of anthropogenic pressures, the elevation and nature of timberline ecotone varies considerably. Being at the junction of two major life zones the sub-alpine belt harbours the species from both the regions. Besides, several species of flora and fauna in this region can be used as indicators for monitoring the changes in the habitat conditions and climate in the region, notably, Rhododendron barbatum, Piptanthus nepalensis, Angelica glauca, Triosteum himalayanum, Syringa emodi, Calanthe tricarinata. Among faunal species, Himalayan musk deer, Royle’s pika, Himalayan monal and others typically represent this zone. • Alpine Zone of Greater Himalaya (3600-5000m): The area between natural tree line and snowline in the region represents one of the district and fascinating biomes on account of extremely harsh climatic conditions, stark seasonality and patterns of adaptations (morphological and physiological) among the biota. The area remains under snow for 4 - 6 months where mean minimum winter temperature goes several degrees below zero. The alpine zone is home of a large number of high value medicinal and aromatic plants, which are collected by the local communities to earn cash income. Alpine Zone also harbours a large number of threatened and endangered species. • Alpine Arid Regions: The trans-Himalayan region lying to the north of Great Himalayan massif, especially in the upper catchment of Girthi Ganga; Kyo-gar, Sangcha Malla and areas adjacent to Tibetan Plateau harbours sparse vegetation cover and very primary productivity. Unlike most alpine zone of Greater Himalaya, the alpine arid pastures have low species diversity. The typical faunal elements in this region include endanger Snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Tibetan snowcock (Tetraogallus tibetanus), most of which move freely across the larger landscape covering Tibetan Autonomous Region (P.R. China) and N.W. Nepal.

2.6 Human Settlements

Barring the inhospitable conditions of higher Himalaya, which lies on the north-west of Untadhura pass (5418 m) in the catchment of Girthi River, across the target landscape human habitations are distributed with varying concentrations (Fig 2.12). Although, concentration of human settlements is more in the southern part of the landscape, which is largely represented by moderate altitude, human settlements are also present in deep interior Himalayan valleys those lead to historical trade routes to Tibet. Over 2500 settlements (permanent or seasonal), representing >1700 revenue villages, are present in the landscape. Distribution of these villages is depicted (Fig. 2.13).

2.7 Connectivity and Remoteness

Historically all the pilgrims to holy Kailash and sacred Manasarovar and the traders used to walk either from Almora, Tanakpur or Bageshwar towards north and north-eastern corner of the target landscape which would eventually lead to Tibetan Plateau where these destinations are located. There were at least six mountain passes across northern flank of this landscape leading to Tibet used by the native traders who would carry food grains, jiggery, clothes and various other commodities from the lower parts of this region and bring rock salt, borax and wool from Tibet. On the eastern flank, that is bounded by Mahakali or Sharda river, the linkages with Kingdom of Nepal have been much closer all across.

In spite of being historical trade route of ancient time, new trade openings between India and China through Lipulekh pass, and an important pilgrimage route to Kailash Mansarovar from India, the transport infrastructure has remained neglected in most of the landscape.

Owing to rugged topography, the road network, which forms the only transport connectivity, relatively remains poorly developed in the area (Fig 2.14). All weather roads, till the end of year 2005, were 873 km providing round the year connectivity to only 45% of villages. Remoteness is prevailing factor in the landscape which is reflected in number of villages distant from the road (Fig 2.15). The state highways cover only 3.6% length followed by 12.3% as allweather roads. Remaining 84.1% connectivity is through footpath/bridle paths.

800

700

600

500

Number 400

300

200

100

0 In Village <1 km 1-3 km 3-5 km 5 > Road Avilalbility

Figure 2.15. Road connectivity of villages in major part of landscape

2.8 Major Land cover / Land use

The forest with > 26% coverage forms a major land cover in the landscape. An increase in forest cover (approx. 61 km2) has been observed between the year 2001 and 2009 in an assessment done by Forest Survey of India. The increase includes 12 km2 is dense forest cover and 49 km2 is open forest. In southern part of the landscape, which is dominated by human habitation, forest patches appear relatively smaller and fragmentary as compared to the northern part (refer Fig 3.4).

A rapid Land use/land cover assessment indicates nearly 32% of plants cover which may include village forests and trees outside forests in the landscape. Nearly five percent of the project area is occupied by alpine meadows, and more than one third is covered by snow and glaciers in the high altitude region.

2.9 Vulnerability

Geological instability, steep topography, extreme climatic conditions, and turbulent nature of rivers make the project area vulnerable to various kind of natural hazards. Well known Malpa tragedy on the religious route of Kailash Mansaorover Yatra is on global map of disasters, and recent cloud burst of 2009 in the landscape has cause immense loss of human lives and land resources. The area is greatly prone to landslides (Fig. 2.16) and at few places evacuation has been flagged for residents. Landslips in the rainy season are common phenomenon to break connectivity within or with outside the area.

The remoteness associated attributes, like poor infrastructure-such as transportation, poor educational and health facilities, lack of livelihood options, and the influence of modern life style changes have made the indigenous communities of the landscape, especially the tribal communities, extremely vulnerable. Furthermore, under the global climate change scenario, the landscape people and biodiversity is likely to face acute threats towards sustenance.

3. Land use and land cover

3.1 Background

The term ‘land use’ refers to entire natural and cultural or human-made uses of land. In other words, all the uses of land, which exist on the earth surface, come under some categories of land use. The land use classification forms an important component of spatial planning, management and utilization of land. Land use is mainly governed by natural factors, socio- cultural and infrastructural facilities of an area. In hills and mountains, particularly in the high altitudinal areas, natural factors play a significant role as compared to socio-cultural and infrastructure conditions to determine the land use patterns (Rawat et al, 1996). In the target landscape, owing to wide range of variation in environmental and socio-cultural settings, land use pattern shows a great diversity.

3.1.1. Rapid assessment of Land Use-Land Cover

A rapid land use/land cover assessment using satellite data (LISS-III, year 2007) for the landscape reveals considerably large proportion (35.5%) under snow. Forest cover accounts for nearly 32% of the landscape. Among others, alpine meadows (5.2%) and high altitude grass lands & rocks (3.9%) form substantial area in higher regions. Area under operational agriculture (6.3%) and fallow land (5.6%) occupied large chunk of landscape on southern side mainly in low to mid altitude areas. Grasslands including forest blanks (4.8%) and barren land (6.3%) are other land classes discernible in the Landscape (Fig. 3.1).

However, there is a need to further authenticate these datasets using multi- season satellite images.

Figure 3.1. Landuse/Landcover in the target landscape

15 3.2 Land-use district Pithoragarh

Considering the availability of official information, this report has included land use statistics of District Pithoragarh (which forms over 96% of the landscape). The terminology followed for describing land use classes in this report is as in the Agricultural Census of India, which considers nine different categories [i.e., forest, cultivable waste, current fallow, old fallow, area not suitable for cultivation, area not available for cultivation (i.e., under other uses), grazing land, area under tree crops and groves, and net sown area].

The proportional distribution of land under different land use categories is depicted (Fig 3.2).

Figure3.2. Proportional distribution of land under different use classes in the landscape (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

As reflected the forests (nearly 50%) and grazing land (13%), net sown under cultivation (11%) and cultivable waste (10%) are the dominating land use classes in the landscape. However, while considering the different developmental blocks, the land use patterns vary considerably (Fig. 3.3). For instance, forest occupies more than district average for two northern most blocks (i.e., Munsiyari and Dharchula). In other blocks it accounts for less than district average. In these two blocks net sown area is considerably low; this is understandable on account of the fact large proportion of these blocks fall in high altitude uninhabited zone.

Figure 3.3. Comparative patterns of land distribution under different use classes in different developmental blocks (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

Brief account of different land use categories within the landscape is as follows:

Forests: of the total area of the landscape, forest land occupies nearly about half (49.9%). About 90% of the forest land is under the control of forest department. As elsewhere in the region, forest is one of the important natural resources for the inhabitants of target landscape and people are dependent on forests for different purposes for sustenance [e.g., fuel wood, timber, different agricultural and domestic tools, fodder for livestock, foliage for cattle bedding (making manure for agriculture), medicinal and edible plants, etc].

Area Not Suitable for Cultivation: the area under undulating topography, rocky hills, stony and steep slopes is considered not suitable for cultivation. The landscape has got considerable land under this category. About 5.07 % of total area is not suitable for cultivation and such land is mostly distributed in isolated patches mainly in steep sloping areas.

Area Not Available for Cultivation: this includes area under permanent construction such as buildings, roads, etc. About 2.43% of the total area is under this category. Considering the current trends of increasing human population and development activities, the area under this category is bound to increase with time. The increase of land under this category will cause reduction in the area under cultivation.

Cultivable Waste: About 10% of the landscape falls under this category. At present this land is being used for growing fodder grasses during rainy season and during remaining part of the year, this land is used for grazing. This type of land is mainly found on the mid and upper altitudinal zones of the landscape mostly adjacent or along the margins cultivated land.

Grazing Land: large proportion (nearly 13%) of the total area falls under this category. This category forms an essential part for animal husbandry as good quality of pasture lands support a good number of livestock. In the target landscape, grazing lands mostly occupy higher altitude areas in the northern part.

Old Fallow: In this category all those areas are included which have not been utilized for cultivation since last five years. A small portion of land (nearly 1%) falls under this category.

Current Fallow: The land under ‘current fallow’ is actually cultivable but it is temporarily not brought under cultivation mainly in winter season. Another 1% of the landscape falls under this category. As a common practice in the region, farmers of rain-fed areas generally keep a portion of their cultivated land as fallow for a period of six months.

Land under Tree Crops and Groves: this category is more frequent adjacent to the human dwellings and covers about 7% of the total area of the landscape. As such, it is a common traditional practice to use the land around dwellings for growing orchards, miscellaneous tree, (fruits, fodder, etc.) and groves etc., along with various crops and vegetables.

Net Sown Area: net sown area occupies around 11% of the landscape. Most of this category land is confined to the lower parts of the landscape. This land is being used for cultivation of different crops during ‘rabi’ and ‘kharif’ cropping seasons.

Based on one time rapid assessment of satellite data, the patterns of distribution and area coverage under forests and grazing lands within the target landscape are depicted (Fig. 3.4, 3.5).

Figure 3.4. Distribution of forested areas in the target landscape

Figure 3.5. Distribution of grazing lands in the target landscape

4. Agriculture, Farming Systems and Livestock

4.1 Background

As for most of the Himalaya, traditional agriculture is the most predominant form of livelihood for indigenous people in the target landscape. As such, the landscape forms an integral part of identified potential Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site in India (i.e., the western Himalayan region) where from time immemorial local inhabitants have explored diverse forms of productive interaction with nature, resulting in the cultivation of the largest number of plant species under diverse farming/production systems (Singh, 2009). The enormous heterogeneity in land and climate conditions along the wide range of altitude, accompanied by access to different cultural forms has contributed to extreme diversification of this farming landscape. Moreover, inaccessibility, marginality and unique micro-climatic conditions most often have favoured evolution of peculiar practices and maintenance of rich genetic diversity in the landscape. As such, owing to rugged topography and harsh climatic conditions of higher reaches, towards north of the landscape, agriculture area in more prevalent in southern part of the landscape (Fig. 4.1).

4.2 Traditional agriculture

Representing typical hill agriculture, the agriculture in the landscape is practiced in small and fragmented terraced fields, carved out of hill slopes. The cultivated land in the area is predominately rain-fed where three crops are taken in two successive years. The environmental heterogeneity, inaccessibility and associated socio-economic factors are responsible for making the traditional agricultural practices of hill farming rich in diversity so as to minimize the risk of crop failures. The hill farmers possess strong knowledge base for selection of suitable crops as the present rainfed agriculture in the region is an outcome of thousands of years of selection and other manipulations which farmers have tried through succeeding generations.

Figure 4.1. Distribution of agriculture area in the target landscape

21 4.2.1. Cropping patterns The predominant traditional rainfed agricultural system accounts for > 90% area of the total cultivated land. Only a small portion (<10%) of land is under irrigational system. As one moves from valleys to the higher Himalayan areas, a clear difference is visible in the cropping systems of irrigated and rainfed agriculture (Fig. 4.2).

Figure 4.3. Cropping patterns in the landscape (Source: Rawat et al, 1996) i) Irrigated or Valley Agriculture: as elsewhere in the Himalaya, irrigated agricultural land in the landscape is confined largely in valleys along the water channels/rivers. In the irrigated fields Rabi crops (wheat, barley, lentil and linseed along with mustard) are sown in September - October and harvested in April – May. Mustard is harvested about one month earlier (i.e., during March). Harvesting of Rabi crops is followed by sowing of Kharif crop (paddy). Thus in this system two crops (Rabi and Kharif) are cultivated in one year.

ii) Rainfed or Hill Agriculture: the area under this system largely occupies mid to high altitude areas. In this system, in general farmers manage their land into two parts for rotation of crops. In the first paddy is sown during Kharif season, whereas in the second finger millets are sown in the same time (i.e., Kharif season). For the first one paddy is followed by wheat and after the harvesting of wheat, finger millet is sown during May-June and harvested in September – October this part is kept fallow till next April. On the contrary, for finger millet part, after harvesting of finger millets during September–October, fields are kept fallow till next April when paddy is sown. Whereas, during this period finger millet is grown in the paddy part. Thus, in the following years, the finger millet part will be replaced by paddy and the paddy part will be replacing by finger millets (Rawat et al, 1996). This pattern seems to be adopted to refurnish soil fertility periodically through natural process. Further, more intensive crop rotations helps increase both grain yield and livestock carrying capacity. Thus, in this system three crop are cultivated into two years (Fig. 4.2).

Throughout the landscape, mixed farming system is prevalent for both irrigated and rainfed agricultural fields. Cultivation of leguminous crops, which have a symbiotic association with N-fixing micro-organisms, helps in maintaining soil fertility mainly nitrogen. In the higher altitudinal areas a different cropping pattern prevails wherein farmers cultivate only one crop in a year.

4.2.2 Farming systems The prevalent farming systems in the region are basically livestock based and highly responsive to climate and topographical features. Depending on the combination of

22 conditions, the inhabitants of this area, through generations, are following different kind of farming system for their sustenance. Broadly the farming system of the area (largely following south to north transition) can be divided into the following three categories: i. Mixed crop- livestock: includes about 47 % of the total cultivated land, and 32 % of total livestock of the landscape. Among livestock, cattle and buffalo are most popular. ii. Mixed livestock- crop: including 34 % of the livestock, and 26 % of the total cultivated land; with cattle, buffalo and goat forming popular livestock. iii. Livestock - crop farming: includes 34.02 % of the total livestock and 27% of the total cultivated area. Goat, sheep and cattle form most popular component of this system.

These farming systems are complex in nature and reflect various adjustments as well as objectives of the local farmers. These systems have evolved over time in response to changes in the natural, socio-economic and cultural environment and have drawn heavily from indigenous knowledge.

4.2.3. Land holding size Land holding is the basic decision making unit in agricultural development. It is in this context that the knowledge and information relating to the number, size, and tenure of holding assumes special importance in any planned development of an area and implementation of programmes relating to rural areas (Swarup, 1993). An operational holding refers to all land, wholly or partially utilized for agriculture production, and operated as one unit.

The agricultural census has classified all the land holdings into 14 size classes. Following these classes the landholding of the study area can be grouped under five different classes: (i) Marginal land holding (< 1 ha); (ii) Small land holding (1.0 to 2.0 ha); (iii) Semi-medium land holding (2.0 to 4.0 ha); (iv) Medium land holding (4.0 to 10.0 ha); (v) Large land holding (> 10.0 ha.). Proportional distribution of land holdings in greater part of the landscape (i.e., district Pithoragarh) is given (Fig. 4.3 & 4.4).

Figure 4.3. Proportional distribution of landholdings (number) under different classes (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

Figure 4.4. Proportional distribution of landholdings (area ha) under different classes (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

As elsewhere in the region, large chunk of holdings (87%), which account for nearly 59% of area coverage, is under marginal holdings. The small holdings are nearly 11% but they cover about 28% area in the landscape. Therefore, both of these two categories together account for >98% of holdings and cover 87% total area. Across the developmental blocks in the landscape, pattern of landholding distribution is shown (Fig. 4.5).

Figure 4.5. Patterns landholding (numbers) classes in different blocks of Pithoragarh (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

4.3 Food crops and production

4.3.1. Cereals and Millets The latest available records of district Pithoragarh (Sankhiki Patrika 2007) reveal that cereal (e.g., Wheat-Triticum aestivum, Barley- Hordeum vulgare, Rice- Oriza sativa, Maize - Zea mays), and millet crops (Finger millet - Eleusine coracana) were cultivated on 65643 ha land in year 2006. Considering the area coverage, wheat cultivation accounted for 39.7%, followed by paddy (34.6%), and finger millet (13%). Coverage of other crops was < 7% each. Of the total production of 81888 (year 2006), wheat contributed the most (38.8%), followed by paddy (34.8%), and finger millet (14.8%). Contribution of other cereals and millets was < 5% each.

Beside the above, in higher agricultural areas, especially in Dharchula and Munsiyari developmental blocks several lesser known crops such as Amarnath/Kedari chuwa (Amaranthus paniculatus), Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum, F. tataricum), and Uwa (Hordeum himalayens) are cultivated for various traditional foods. Such crops are well suited and adapted for harsh and unpredictable climatic conditions of higher Himalaya. The winter season crops (rabi) contribute about 43.8% of the total cereal & millet production, while 56.3% cereal & millet production was contributed by rainy season crops.

4.3.2 Pulses During the year 2006, pulses were cultivated on an area of 5124 ha with nearly 85% area of cultivation under lentil (Lens culinaris), followed by black gram (Vigna mungo) on about 14% area. Are under other pulse crops was therefore very small. As such, pulses form a regular part of the staple food in the landscape. At district level (i.e., Pithoragarh) total production of about 2919 MT was recorded during 2006. Of which lenti (84.8%) and black gram (14%) contribute the maximum.

Beside these reported values of cultivation of pulses, different kinds of beans (Kidney bean, Scarlet bean, lima bean, soybean, etc.) are widely inter-cropped and have market value. Few farmers who have surplus kidney bean stock earn sufficient cash from this crop. Kidney bean of higher reaches of Dharchula and Munsiyari blocks is priced high and considered delicacy.

4.3.3 Oil seeds Oil seeds, which form an important ingredient of the Indian cropping system, are also grown by the farmers in the landscape. The official record of district Pithoragarh (year 2006) suggest that about 2267 ha land was devoted for oil seeds, of which soybean (Glycine max) occupied largest share (76.5%). This has emerged as a very popular oil seed crop and climatic conditions of the district are suitable for this crop. Beside a source of oil, this is also used in several traditional food preparations of the area. Indian mustard and Toria (Brassica juncea and B. compestris), is next popular oil seed crop and accounts for 22.4% land under oil seeds. Production of total oil seed in year 2006 was 2915 MT and soybean contributed the largest share (91.1%).

4.3.4 Vegetables Among vegetable crops potato (Solanum tuberosum) is the major crop which forms an important ingredient of several Indian food items especially curry and vegetable. It is widely cultivated in the target landscape on an area of about 511 ha both. In year 2006 total production of potato was about 5621 MT. In the higher altitudes of the district potato is cropped as a cash crop because of its better yield and disease free tuber production which fetches premium price in the market.

4.3.5 Productivity of crops In the landscape, per unit area crop production varies considerably for crops and across different agro-climatic conditions. A comparative account of average per unit area/production of various crops grown in the landscape is given (Fig. 4.6). As compared to most other crops, potato (110.0 Qt/ha) shows considerably high per unit area production. Comparative account of production over three years for major crops is depicted (Fig. 4.7).

Throughout the landscape, barring a few exceptions of valley situations, traditionally prepared farm yard manure is used for maintaining the fertility of agriculture fields. Therefore, crop production in the landscape is by and large remains organic in nature. Moreover, cultivation of traditional land races/varieties predominate the agriculture in the area. Only a small proportion of improved varieties of food crops such, especially wheat and maize have received acceptance of indigenous farming communities.

Figure 4.6. Average production (Qt./ha) of major crops in the landscape (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

Figure 4.7. Comparison of average production (Qt./ha) of major crops in the landscape during 3 reporting years (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

4.4 Livestock

As indicated in previous section, the agriculture in the region is livestock based. Therefore, livestock rearing is one major form of livelihood. As per the livestock census 2003, the cow & ox with a total population of 240748 (indigenous breed – 223449; cross breed – 17299), contribute about 46% of total livestock population in the landscape. Goats -145173 and buffaloes – 86877 contribute respectively 28 and 16%. Proportional contribution of different types of animals to the livestock populations of district Pithoragarh is shown (Fig. 4.8). in addition a population of 50506 poultry birds has also been reported.

Figure 4.8. Contribution of different types of domestic animals to livestock population (Source: Sankhiki Patrika 2007, District Pithoragarh)

4.5 Indigenous knowledge and domesticated biodiversity

While considering agriculture and livestock in the landscape, the most striking feature is traditional system of maintaining diversity of genetic resources. As elsewhere in the Himalaya, the indigenous communities in the landscape hold a great deal of knowledge on traditional agriculture and animal husbandry which has accumulated through generations.

4.5.1. Diversity of domesticated food plants This knowledge has enabled them to sustain even in most difficult terrain conditions of high cold deserts. The subsistence agriculture systems of the district Pithoragarh harbour a huge variety of traditional crops and cultivars, about which very little is known to the outside world. More recently, a comprehensive documentation of diversity traditional crops in Uttarakhand has been worked out (Mehta et al., 2010) and almost all of these are grown in the landscape (Table 4.1). And within these species enormous genetic diversity (land races/varieties) prevails (Plate 4.1).

4.5.2 Diversity of domesticated animals Within the landscape, indigenous communities have tradition of keeping varieties of animal for various agriculture purposes and other uses. A summary of traditionally domesticated animals and their uses in the landscape are given (Table 4.2).

Table 4.1: Edible plants grown in traditional agricultural system of the landscape Crop group English/Common/Botanical names No of crops Cereals and Barley (Hordeum vulgare Linn.), Maize (Zea mays Linn.), Rice (Oryza 08 pseudocerals sativa Linn.), Wheat (Triticum aestivum Linn.), Amaranth/Caulai (Amaranthus viridis Linn.), Amarnath/Kedari chuwa (Amaranthus caudatus Linn.), Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Linn.), and Chinopodium (Chinopodium album Linn.) Millets and Barnyard millet (Echinochloa crus-galli Linn.), Finger millet (Eleusine 06 minor millets coracana Linn.), Foxtail millet (Setaria italica Linn.), Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum Linn.), Kodo (Paspalum serobiculatum Linn.) and Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare Linn.) Pulses Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), Chickpea (Cicer arietinum Linn.), Soybean 15 (Glycine max Linn.), Khesari (Lathyrus sativus Linn.), Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum Lam.), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris Linn.), Scarlet bean (Phaselous coccineus Linn.), Lima bean (Phaeolus lunatus Linn.), Garden pea or pea (Pisum sativum Linn.), Adzuki bean (Vigna angularis Wild.), Green gram (Vigna radiate Linn.), Blackgram (Vigna mungo Linn.), Rice bean (Vigna umbellata Thunb.), and Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Linn.) Oilseeds Yellow sarson / Indian mustard (Brassica juncea Linn. Cv. Yellow sarson), 11 Brown sarson (B. juncea Linn. Cv. Brown sarson), Toria (B. compestris Linn.), Sunflower (Helianthus annuus Linn.), Linseed (Linum usitatissimum Linn.), Perilla (Perilla frutescens Linn.), Sesame (Sesamum orientale Linn.), Indian butter tree (Aesandra butyracea Roxb.), Litsea (Litsea elongata Nees.), Principea (Prinsepia utilis Royle) and Lepidium (Lepidium sativum Linn.) Vegetables Okara (Abelmoschus esculentus Linn.), Elephant foot yam 28 (Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume ex Decene.), Jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), Woxgourd (Benincasa hispida Thunb.), Spinach (Spinacea oleracea Linn.), Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata Linn.), Elephant ear yam (Colocasia esculenta Linn.), Cucumber (Cucumis sativus Linn.), Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch. Ex Poir.), Meetha kerela (Cyclanthera pedata Linn.), White yam (Dioscorea rotunda Poir.), Tarur (Dioscorea belophylla Prain and D. deltoidea Wall.), Lablab bean (Lalab purpureus Linn.), Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria Molina.), Ridge gourd [Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb.], Sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica Linn.), Snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina Linn.), Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia Linn.), Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Miller.), Radish (Raphanus sativus Linn.), Chow- chow (Sechium edule Jacquin), Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.), Potato (Solanum tuberosum Linn.), Broad bean (Vicia faba Linn.), Lai [Brassica juncea var. rogusa (Roxb.) Prain], Turnip (Brassica rapa Linn.), Carrot (Docus carota Linn.) and Bell pepper (Capisicum annuum var. aviculare Dierb.) Spices and Wild Allium Spp., Onion (Allium cepa Linn.), Garlic (Allium sativum Linn.), 10 condiments Cleome (Cleome viscosa Linn.),Dalchini (Cinnamomum tamala Buch- Ham), Coriander (Coriandrum sativum Linn.), Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn. , Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn.), Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), Hemp (Canabis sativa Linn.) Fruits Papaya (Carica papaya Linn.), Orange [Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck], 19 Lemon [Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm. F.], Masumba [Citrus sinesis (Linn.) Osbeck], Kaku (Diospyrus kaki Linn.), Loquat [Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.)Lindl.], Walnut (Juglans regia Linn.), Chestnut (Castanea sativa P. Mill.), Mango (Magnifera indica Linn.), Apple (Malus domestica Borkh), Pear (Pyrus communis Linn.), Peach [Pyrus persica (Linn.) Batsch.], Apricot (Prunus armeriaca Linn.), Mulberry (Morus serrata Linn.), Banana (Musa bauensis Hakkinen & Meekion), Guava (Psidium guajava Linn.), Pomegranate (Punica granatum Linn.), Grape (Vitis vinifera Linn.) and Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.). Total species 97 Source: Mehta et al. 2010.

Table 4.2. Domesticated animal diversity of the target landscape

S.N. Name Breed/variety Major use

1 Cow Local Milk, Procreation 2 Ox Local Draught animal 3 Buffalo Local Milk 4 Yak* Tibetan Breeding 5 Jhupu* (sterile) Cross breed of Yak and Local cow Draught & pack animal 6 Jumo* (Fertile) Cross breed of Yak and Local cow Milk 7 Garu * (sterile) Cross breed of Yak and Jumo Draught & pack animal 8 Garmu* (Fertile) Cross breed of Yak and Jumo Milk 9 Talbu* Cross breed of Yak cow and local Draught & pack animal bull 10 Talbuni* Cross breed of Yak cow and local Milk bull 11 Sheep Local Wool, meat & pack animal 12 Goat Local Wool, meat & pack animal 13 Tibetan sheep Tibetan Procreation, wool & meat 14 Tibetan goat Tibetan Procreation, wool & meat 15 Horse Local Transportation & pack animal 16 Mule Local Transportation & pack animal 17 Dog Tibetan Watch & guard 18 Cat Local To control rodents 19 Hen Local Egg & meat Source: Farooqee at al (2004); *Confined to high altitude areas of the landscape.

One of the most interesting features of indigenous knowledge in animal husbandry is revealing in the higher Himalaya where the Bhotiya tribal communities have, considering their needs, have been practicing a perfectly functional system of breeding. The indigenous breed of Jhupu, jumo, Garu, Garmo, Talbu and Talbuni can be classified into four sub types based on their utility, i.e., dairy breeds, dual purpose breeds (used for draught with medium milk yield), draught cattle, and pack animal (Farooquee et al., 2004).

4.6 Challenges and priorities

In spite of the fact that the target landscape maintains rich traditions of agriculture, largely organic, it has not escaped from the impacts of modernization. The communities which were performing traditional self-sufficient agriculture in earlier time are now more inclined towards supply of food from outside. The huge diversity of domesticated edible plants, which were traditionally maintained through diverse practices of crop compositions and rotations, is rapidly losing ground.

Among others, the major threats to agriculture sector in the landscape, as perceived by the people include: (i) decreasing net sown area and predominance of wasteland; (ii) scattered and small land holdings and declining production; (iii) declining soil fertility; (iv) conversion of agriculture lands in other uses mainly human settlements; (v) crop damage by wild animals; (vi) declining interest of younger generation and their outmigration.

Considering the above, the biggest priority with respect to agriculture in the target landscape is to ensure: (i) long term sustenance of traditional form of agriculture so as to maintain diversity of genetic resources and diverse practices of their cultivation; (ii) documentation of indigenous knowledge practices of different community groups associated with domesticated biodiversity; (iii) benefits of modern techniques and tools to indigenous communities; (iv) retention of agriculture land by curbing ongoing practice of conversion into other uses. All this would require substantial policy interventions towards empowerment of local communities. The involvement of people in traditional agriculture, to maintain its heritage agriculture status, needs to be made rewarding both economically and ecologically.

5. Hydrology and Water Resources

5.1 Background

The Himalaya is considered as the water tower of Asia and many important rivers in the subcontinent originate in upper reaches of the Himalaya, which is covered by the snow and glaciers. Present glacier cover of the Himalaya is an outcome of the Quaternary Ice Age, about 10,000 years back. Since this glacial cycle, most of the glaciers have shown degeneration in mass and volume. Same is true of the glaciers in western part of Himalaya. The target landscape forms a vast mountainous region which includes lesser, great and the Trans Himalayan zones. The water resources of the study area are greatly influenced by the glaciers which cover an area of approx. 1178 km2, with nearly 382 glaciers. Availability of perpetual snow and glaciers in the landscape play an important role in maintaining continuity of water supply to the drainage system.

5.2 Status of the Water Resources

5.2.1 Drainage and Glaciers

As indicated in Chapter 2, the target landscape covers (partially or completely) five sub- watersheds [i.e., Kutiyangti, Dhauliganga, Goriganga, Ramganga (E) and Saryu], which ultimately feed to larger watershed of River Kali in Indian part (Fig. 5.1). First four of these are glacier fed whereas River Saryu, of which very small part falls in target landscape, does not receive glacier water. River Kali is the master stream of KSL in Indian part, which receives water from the above mentioned rivers and their tributaries (Fig. 5.2).

The target landscape has 382 glaciers of various dimensions. The Goriganga basin has maximum glacier area (558.8 km2) followed by Dhauliganga (373.2 km2), Kutiyangti (236.2 km2) and Ramganga (6.7 km2). The number of associated or feeding glaciers is highest in Dhauliganga basin -135) and lowest in Ramganga basin -7 (Table 5.1).

Figure 5.1. Major hydrographic units in the target landscape

Figure 5.2. Drainage system of the rivers in the target landscape

5.2.1.1. Kutiyangti River Basin: Originating from Parvti Tal near Chhota Kailash this river joins Kali at Gunji. Representing the extreme northeast basin of the landscape, this basin consists of 112 glaciers, covering an area of 236.2 km2. The maximum number of glaciers (40) is in the SE aspect followed by NE (34) and SW (24). In remaining aspects, the glaciers are less than 10 in number. The NE and SE aspect glaciers cover more or less same area. The largest glacier in this basin is the Sumzurkchanki, covering an area of 25.4 km2.

5.2.1.2. Dhauliganga River Basin This basin consists of 135 glaciers, covering an area of 373.2 km2. Most of the glaciers are oriented towards NE, SW, SE and NW in descending order. The largest glacier in this basin is the Chhiringtashi glacier with an area of 27.3 km2; it has the length of around 10 km. The main glaciers of this basin are Chipa, Nipa, Meol, Ngalaphu, Nimpchikang, Jhulang, Ghungtan, Damoloa, Nassa, Chhiringmabang, Chhiringtashi,, Lassar, Sinla, Ramabhitar and Gane.

5.2.1.3. Goriganga River Basin The Goriganga River originates from Milam glacier and joins the river Kali at Jauljibi. This basin consists of 128 glaciers, covering an area of 561.4 km2. The maximum number of glaciers (38) is in the NW aspect followed by NE (32), SE (28) and SW (25). The largest glacier in this basin is Milam glacier. It has the length of more than 18 km and area coverage of 103.8 km2. It is a south facing glacier originates from the slope of Kohli and Trishul peaks. The main glaciers of this basin are Shalang, Lwa, Nanda Ghutti, Pachhu, Timpu, Syskaram, Milam, Bamras, Saphed, Tringi, Gonkha, Rata, Kwalganga, Burphu, and Shyangalpa.

5.2.1.4. Ramganga River Basin The Ramganga River originates from the Namik glacier which is located in Nandakot range. This is the basin with the minimum number of glaciers in the landscape. There are altogether 7 glaciers, which cover only 6.7 km2 area. The largest glacier is this basin is Namik which covers about 2.4 km2 area.

Table 5.1: Size classification of glaciers in different basins of target landscape

Size River Basins Glacier (area in km2) Classes Ramganga Goriganga Dhauliganga Kutiyangti Total Glacie Area Glacier Area (% Glacie Area Glaci Area Glacier Area r (No) (% of (No) of total) r (No) (% of er (% of (No) (% of total) total) (No) total) total) Below 1 4 1.63 68 25.51 82 27.55 60 23.89 214 78.58 (24.18) (4.55) (7.38) (10.11) (6.68) 1-2 2 2.75 19 28.47 15 21.60 19 27.66 55 80.48 (40.81) (5.07) (5.79) (11.71) (6.84) 2-3 1 2.36 7 15.05 6 15.27 10 24.76 24 57.44 (35.01) (2.68) (4.09) (10.48) (4.88) 3-4 - - 4 14.58 6 19.82 11 37.18 21 71.58 (2.60) (5.31) (15.74) (6.08) 4-5 - - 5 21.62 7 31.08 2 9.34 14 62.04 (3.85) (8.33) (3.95) (5.26) Above 5 - - 25 456.13 19 257.87 10 113.41 54 827.41 (81.25) (69.09) (48.00) (70.26) Total 7 6.74 128 561.36 135 373.19 112 236.24 382 1177.5 3 Source: Sah, et. al. (2005)

5.2.2. Other critical high altitude aquatic sites

Limited information is available about the high altitude aquatic sites in the target landscape. Some of the important wetlands sites are as follows:

5.2.2.1. Parvati Tal (Jolingkong lake) Parvati Tal or Jolingkong Lake (4634m asl) is a sacred lake and with a Hindu temple. Above Jolingkong rises a striking peak, well over 6000 metres in altitude, known to local people as Adi Kailash (Chotta Kailash) because of its distinct resemblance to Holy Mount Kailash. Adi Kailash is now better known as Little Kailash (Chotta Kailash).

5.2.2.2. Anchherital Lake Anchherital Lake (tal) is situated at a height of 3,658 m asl, with a few beautiful old temples are also scattered around the lake.

5.2.2.3. Chhipla Kund Located at 3300 m asl Chhipla lake represents one of the holiest site in the landscape. The area is full of alpine flora and vegetation.

5.3 Surface and ground water resources and use

The basin characteristics and average discharge of some of the rivers of the region is given (Table 5.2 and 5.3) respectively. It is clear from the records that the surface flow is dominated by the snow and glacier melt during the summer season.

Table 5.2: Basin Dimension of rivers of the target landscape River Tributary Basin Dimension Stream Length system streams Perimeter Width Length Area (km) (km) (km) (km) (km2) Kali 620 70 190 10869 220 Gori 225 25 120 2128 100 Dhauli 180 30 75 1403 170 Kuti 100 15 45 560 45 Ramganga 200 20 80 1375 85 Source: Rawat (1998)

Table 5.3: Average Discharge of Main Rivers (Period, 1964-1975)

Rivers Average Monthly Discharge (in cu.m/sec) Averag (Place of e measure Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug. Sep Oct Nov De Annual ment) e t. . c. Dischar ge (in106 m3) Kali 8.41 6.82 7.37 9.63 10.19 12.27 22.79 29.30 30.41 18.4 13.5 11. 4.76 (Pachesh 3 6 4 war) Saryu 5.54 7.84 6.78 4.96 3.73 3.79 5.40 9.38 15.7 12.2 10.5 9.2 2.49 (Ghat) 3 6 9 1 Source: Rawat (1998)

Due to limitations of a mountain environment, however, the utilizable water resources may be much less than the actual availability.

The springs and subsurface water forms the major source of ground water in the landscape. Springs are the manifestations as well as characteristic features of the ground water hydrology of mountainous regions, frequently found on hill slopes, and actually reflects

concentrated outflow of the underground water. Springs are associated with the occurrence of joint-place in rocks that frequently serve as guiding path for sufficient quantities of underground water to give rise to springs.

Traditional water harvesting structures and natural sources of ground water in the region are Chaal/Khal, Naula, Dhara, Gul, Hauzi and Gharat. These resources are utilized in various ways such as domestic uses, irrigation, power generation, transportation & flour mills in the region. Apart from this, hand pumps have been installed at few locations to meet out the daily demand of the common people.

As a part of ground water developmental activities, Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan, has installed total of 581 India Mark-II hand pumps in various blocks of the district Pithoragarh (Kanalichhina 70; Munakot -65; Bin-Pithoragarh-68; Berinag 91; Gnagolihat – 103; Munsiyari -49; Dharchula -56; Didihat - 79). Status of villages having water supply through these handpumps is presented (Table 5.4). The Uttarakhand Pey Jal Sansadhan, Vikas Evam Nirman Nigam (popularly known as Jal Nigam) looks after the supply, distribution and maintenance of water for drinking, domestic and industrial uses.

Table 5.4: Status of water supply through hand pumps in Pithroragarh District

Name of Block No of villages having water supply through Handpump (India mark-2) 2001-2002 2002- 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005- 2006-2007 2003 2006 FC PC FC PC FC PC FC PC FC PC FC PC Munsyai 217 1 219 1 220 - 220 - 220 - 220 - Dharchua 70 1 70 - 70 - 70 - 70 - 70 - Berinag 261 9 266 6 272 - 272 - 272 - 272 - Didihat 159 4 160 3 163 - 163 - 163 - 163 - Kanalichhina 199 5 204 1 205 - 205 - 205 - 205 - Gangolihat 298 15 299 13 299 13 299 13 305 7 312 - Pithoragarh 158 - 159 - 159 - 159 - 159 - 159 - Munakot 163 - 165 - 165 - 165 - 165 - 165 - Total 152 35 154 24 155 13 1553 13 155 7 1566 - 5 2 3 9 Source: Sankhyakiya Patrika, 2007, District Pithoragarh [FC- fully covered, PC-partially covered]

Status of ground water resources in Pithoragarh district is given (Table 5.5). Information collected from different blocks indicate that there has been a significant deterioration of the status of natural water resources in the area.

Table 6: Status of springs in Pithroragarh District Name of No. of natural Water Status of natural water source (Springs) Block/ Town Source (Springs) Treated Proposed for Discharge treatment decreased by more than 50% Kanalichhina 17 ------17 Munakot 9 --- 3 6 Vin 11 4 2 5 Berinag DNA ------Gangolihat 6 5 --- 1 Munssyari DNA ------Dharchula DNA ------Didihat DNA ------Total 43 9 5 29 Source: Office of the DFO, Pithoragarh[DNA –data not available]

5.4 Water supply and sanitation

In the target landscape, two available sources for domestic water supply are rivers and natural springs. The rivers usually flow in deep valleys and, therefore, rarely serve the purpose of domestic water supply and irrigation of high altitude areas. Thus the natural springs are the major source of domestic water supply. Though, due to its snow and glacier fed river resources, the region is rich in water availability, but the water supply in the villages is inadequate.

The human settlements in different remote regions of target landscape are principally based upon the factor of the easy availability of drinking water. It is a notable feature of all upland habitations that the underground water reservoirs, capable of supplying drinking water perennially either in the forms of guided springs (called dharas) or covered storages (called naulas), have been a primary source of water supply. Status of water supply schemes in the region is such that 99% of the households spend around one hour on a round trip to get drinking water.

At present, of the total 1218 water supply schemes, 1092 are functional. Status of functional schemes in different developmental blocks of Pithoragarh is presented (Table 5.6). Status of various water supply schemes is depicted (Fig. 5.3).

Table 5.6: Status of water supply schemes in Pithoragarh District Name of Block/ No. of villages / GP Number of Schemes maintained by Town covered Swajal Peya Jal Jalsanstha Corporation n Total Kanalichhina 166 36 7* 123 166 Munakot 209 40 110(107+3*) 59 209 Vin 167 35 77 (72+5*) 55 167 Berinag 72 18 6 (3+3*) 48 72

Gangolihat 142 15 10 (2+8*) 117 142 Munssyari 149 15 46(16+22*+8**) 88 149 Dharchula 194 1 78(24+40*+14**) 115 194 Didihat 119 2 32(16+10*+6**) 85 119 TOTAL 1218 162 366 690 1218 Source: Office of Swajal, Peyajal & Jalsansthan, Pithoragarh [* Under construction;** Under planning phase]

Figure 5.3: Location map showing availability of drinking water in Pithoragarh District

In recent years, considerable attention has been paid to rural sanitation. Government of India has launched Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) with the objectives of improving the quality of life of the rural people and by providing privacy and dignity to women. CRSP was restructured in 1999; with a demand responsive community led “Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC)” which was introduced with emphasis on generating demand for sanitary facilities with extensive participation of communities. Sanitation coverage is estimated to have substantially increased after 2001.

However, the status of the sanitation in the landscape is far from satisfactory. For instance, even in the Pithoragarh town (district HQs), 476 houses still don’t have toilet facilities. However, under the Swajal programme, a total of 41262 toilets (18552 for APL and 21551 for BPL) have been constructed. In addition, 843 schools and 316 aganwadis were provided with toilets in Pithoragarh district (Table 5.7).

Table 5.7: Status of Rural Sanitation Schemes in Pithoragarh District B. Status of Toilet constructed Name of Block No. of individual toilets constructed School Aanganwadi For APL For BPL Sub Total P C P C Gangolihat 2004 5471 7475 26 Dharchula 1665 1724 3389 9 Berinag 2689 3188 5877 14 Munsiyari 2254 2544 4798 670 26 215 101 Kanalichhina 2788 3201 5989 31 Bin 2596 2786 5382 38 Munakote 2279 2039 4318 26 Didihat 2277 598 2875 3 TOTAL 18552 21551 40103 670 173 215 101 Source: Office of Swajal, Pithoragarh

5.5 Soil conservation and watershed management

The Land Survey Directorate has divided the Uttarakhand into 8 catchments, 26 watersheds, 110 sub-watersheds and 1110 micro-watersheds(MWS). Of these, number of sub-watershed in Kali river catchments are 16 and micro watershed 239. Uttarakhand Decentralized Watershed Development Project (UDWDP), a World Bank funded project, is being implemented in selected priority watersheds of Uttarakhand. In the Kumaun region the project is implemented in 39 micro-watersheds of all the five hilly districts. The aim of this project is to enhance the production efficiency of natural resources and income generation of watershed inhabitants in selected watersheds of the region keeping in view the sustainability of the resources and environmental concerns through village institutions (gram panchayats; GPs). In Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts under the UDWDP project a number of activities are being taken up in priority watersheds identified by the Watershed Management Directorate, Govt. of Uttarakhand (Table 5.8).

Table 5.8: Soil and Water Conservation works taken up in Pithoragarh district under different schemes of Govt. of U.A.

Name of the Block Number of Gram Total Area Name of Scheme Panchayats (GPs) Berinag 35 5335 DRDA Moonakot 59 22608 DRDA Munisyari 13 3478 DRDA Didihat 8 2022 DRDA Dharchula 6 4300 DRDA/ IWDA Vin/ Gangolihat 124 23381 DRDA Munsiyari/Didihat/Berinag/ 12 4551 DRDA Kanalicheena Total 257 65675

In addition to this, the Forest Department of these two districts has also employed some soil and water conservation measures. For example, in Pithoragarh district (Munsiyari Range) work have been done in the current year (2009-10) (Table 5.9).

Table 5.9: Summary of different SWC works undertaken by forest Department in Munsiyari range Locality Type of structure Numbers Tolanala Checkdam 13 (2 m length each) Laspanala Retaining wall 20 (3 m length each) Rilkot Retaining wall 17 (5 m length each) Jimianala Checkdam 9 Namik Retaining walls 8 Golfa Stone barrier, Crate wire structures 9; 8 Harkot Check dam 5 Virdhgethi van Retaining walls; Rain water harvesting tanks 5; 5 panchayat Tejam Van Check dams; Rain water harvesting tanks 6; 8 Panchayat

5.6 Water Infrastructure

5.6.1 Irrigation system The larger part of the landscape lies under perpetual snow and a considerable area is rocky and barren. Cultivation is, therefore, limited to the rivers valleys and the gently sloping hills. The usual limit of cultivation is up to about 2000 m asl, but certain crops are also grown up to the height of about 2,800 m. All the rivers flow through deep and narrow valleys at a much low level than the land to be irrigated. Therefore, the existing wealth of the water has little

39 use for irrigation. Only small rivers and rivulets flowing along steep gradients are used to draw the irrigation channels.

The region, however, has many successful examples of traditional canal irrigation system (Pande, 1993). Similarly, the state intervention in development of canal irrigation has also taken place in several areas of the landscape. Very little information exists on design parameters of traditional farmer managed schemes. These low cost irrigation systems (guls) are in use for a long period of time. In the study area, irrigation system is dominated by farmer managed schemes; however, state has supported some of these traditional systems through financial and technical help. Most of such schemes are presently managed by the State. Inappropriate design and construction have been reported to be the major cause of low water efficiency, and conflicts in most of the hill irrigation schemes. However, apparently low water use efficiency at the local scheme level, it can be shown quite high at the larger drainage basin.

The availability of irrigated area in different blocks exhibits a great variation ranging from 7.7% in Dharchula to the 30.8% in Didihat block. Munakot (25.0%) ranks second followed by Berinag (23.4) and Munsiyari (20.1%). Block like Bin-Pithoragarh (12.8), Gangolihat (12.5%) and Kanalicheena (11.5%) have very low irrigation facility (Bist, 2003).

The most widely used means of irrigation in the landscape is minor canal (guls), tanks (hauj) and hydrams. The block wise distribution of different type of irrigation schemes in district Pithoragarh are shown (Fig. 5.4).

Figure 5.4. Distribution of various type of irrigation in different blocks of district Pithoragarh.

At present, total 713 irrigation schemes have been completed by the minor irrigation and irrigation department of Uttrarkhand government. Out of these, 637 schemes are working. Remaining 76 schemes are not working due to the landslides, decreasing water availability in the water source or lack of maintenance, etc. In 2007-2010, 551 canals, 21 tanks and 141 hydram schemes have been constructed in district Pithoragarh. With the 1,188.88 km total

40 length of canal, irrigation facility is provided to 7,568.52 ha of cultivated land in 866 villages in the district (Table 5.10).

Comparative information over different time intervals for irrigation water tanks and hydram in the landscape is provided (Fig. 5.5). Also, the progresses in development of networks of irrigation canal have been depicted (Fig. 5.6).

Table 5.10: Block wise status (2009-2010) of irrigation schemes in District Pithoragarh S.N. Block Name Total Total Total Actual Condition Total Projects length irrigation irrigated Wor Non benefited (km) capacity area (ha) king workin village (ha) g 1 Bin 112 81.54 964.96 760.66 100 12 123 (Pithoragarh) 2 Gangolihat 103 523.89 1,529.00 1,100.00 90 13 115 3 Berinag 87 88.00 1,406.60 867.60 71 16 122 4 Munakot 63 87.76 1,237.65 806.15 62 01 80 5 Didihat 100 110.15 1,373.70 1,059.70 98 02 125 6 Dharchula 73 90.52 1,405.90 980.14 61 12 80 7 Kanalicheena 111 179.32 1,385.41 968.41 98 13 135 8 Munsiari 64 27.70 1,240.95 1,025.85 57 7 86 713 1,188.88 10,544.17 7,568.51 637 76 866 Source: Irrigation and Miner Irrigation department, Pithoragarh

Figure 5.5. Status of irrigation schemes in District Pithoragarh in different years (2000- 2010)

Figure 5.6. Status of canal network in District Pithoragarh in different years

5.6.2 Hydropower schemes In spite of the fact that hydropower is a non-polluting, renewable source of energy, a very little part of the surface water resources is being utilized through dams and canal systems for hydropower generation, irrigation and other human use. Optimal potential has still to be utilized, specially, for hydropower generation.

The preliminary survey of the landscape reveals that a total 14 hydro power projects are in operational phase. Out of 14 projects, eleven micro hydropower stations are with total installed capacity of 8.25 MW. Besides these micro-hydropower plants, there are two small hydropower (total installed capacity- 8.00 MW) and one large hydropower plants (capacity- 280 MW) operational (Table 5.11). Thus, the total installed capacity of these 14 plants is 296.25 MW.

Table 5.11: Operational hydropower projects in the target landscape. S.N. Project Name River Basin River/ Installed Implement agency Tributary capacity (MW) Operational Phase Micro Hydropower Project (<2MW) 1 Suringad Kali river Suringad 0.80 UJVNL 2 Barar Kali river Barargad 0.75 UJVNL 3 Taleshwar Kali river Katiyanigad 0.60 UJVNL 4 Garaon Kali river Gurghatiagad 0.30 UJVNL 5 Charandev Kali river Sanghrigad 0.40 UJVNL 6 Dharchula Kali river Galtigad 0.20 UJVNL 7 Kanchauti Kali river Kanchautigad 2.00 UJVNL 8 Sobla-II Kali river Soblanadi 2.00 UJVNL 9 Kulagad Kali river Kulagad 1.20 UJVNL 10 Chirkilla Kali river Dukugad 1.50 UJVNL 11 Bhikuriya Goriganga Paingad 0.50 UREDA Total 8.25 Small Hydropower Project (2-25 MW) 1 Sobla-I Kali river Soblanadi 8.00 UJVNL 2 Relagad Kali river Relagad 3.00 UJVNL Total 8.00 Large Hydropower Project (> 25 MW) 1 Dhauliganga Kali river Dhaulinadi 280.00 NHPC Total 280.00

About 25 projects are under construction or being developed in the area. On completion of these projects, it will generate 1,391.25 MW electricity for this region. Out of 25 projects, 3 are micro-hydropower (with estimated capacity 3.5 MW) and 13 are small with installed capacity 101.75 MW. Besides, there are 8 large hydropower projects are under developmental phase with total capacity of 1286.00 MW (Table 5.12).

Table 5.12: Hydropower projects in developmental phase in the landscape. S.N. Project Name River Basin River/ Installed Implement agency Tributary capacity (MW) Under construction/Being developed Micro Hydropower Project (<2MW) 1 Agarchatti Ramganga W Ramganga 2.00 Madkini hydro Power ltd 2 Birthi Ramganga Balchinn 1.00 E.Ramganga Valley Hydel Projects Co Pvt Ltd 3 Rotan Ramganga Rotan 0.50 UREDA Total 3.50 Small Hydropower Project (2-25 MW) 1 Eastern Ramganga Ramganga Eastern 30.00 E.Ramganga Valley Dam Ramganga Hydel Projects Co Pvt Ltd 2 Balgad Ramganga Eastern 8.00 E.Ramganga Valley Ramganga Hydel Projects Co Pvt Ltd 3 Mehalchaura-I Ramganga W Ramganga 4.00 -- 4 Mehalchaura-II Ramganga W Ramganga 3.00 -- 5 Burthing-Purdan Ranganga Jakula 5.00 E.Ramganga Valley Hydel Projects Co Pvt Ltd 6 Phulibagar-Kwiti Ramganga Jakula 4.00 E.Ramganga Valley Hydel Projects Co Pvt Ltd 7 Simkola SHP Kali river Simkhola gad 8.75 -- 8 Palang HSP Kali river Plang gad 6.50 -- 9 Kuti SHP Kali river Kuti yangti 6.00 -- 10 Najyang SHP Kali river Najyang gad 5.50 -- 11 Tankul Goriganga Shatkholigad 12.00 UJVNL 12 Suringad-II Goriganga Suringad 5.00 UJVNL 13 Paingad Goriganga Paingad 4.00 UJVNL Total 101.75 Large Hydropower Project (> 25 MW) 1 Sela Urthing Dhauliganga Dhauliganga 230.00 UJVNL 2 Sarkari Bhyol Goriganga Goriganga 210.00 UJVNL Rupsiyabagar 3 Budhi Kali river Mahakali 192.00 -- 4 Tapovan Kalika Kali river Mahakali 160.00 -- 5 Malipa Kali river Mahakali 138.00 Madkini hydro Power ltd 6 Garbyang Kali river Mahakali 131.00 Madkini hydro Power ltd 7 Kalika Baluwakot Kali river Mahakali 120.00 Madkini hydro Power ltd 8 Tawaghat Tapovan Kali river Mahakali 105.00 -- Total 1286.00

In addition, 34 more hydro projects are planned with total installed capacity with 3,243.255 MW. Out of 34 hydro projects, 14 are proposed in Kali river with 1422.275 MW capacity, 7 in Dhauliganga (1052 MW), 7 in Goriganga (747.78 MW), 2 in Ramganga (2.10 MW) and 1 in Sarju river with installed capacity of 3 MW.

5.7 Priorities and Gap Areas Water resources in the region are largely managed on the watershed approach. However, some of gap areas in the water resource management are highlighted (Box 5.1). Further based on stakeholders perception and analysis of information major gaps and priorities are highlighted below.

Box 5.1. Gap Areas and Future Priorities

• In the entire Uttarakhand state, including the target landscape, the required data is available from only few scattered sites and hardly any effort was made so far to initiate systematic data collection in this region. • Installation of appropriate hydro-meteorological instruments, data transmission & networking facilities, regular data collection, storage, processing and dissemination facilities are required. • Conducting systematic exploration for mapping of aquifers, identification of their recharge zones and establishment of groundwater sanctuaries near these recharge zones are required. • Application of RS/GIS, intelligent instrumentation and various modeling techniques for estimation of changing trends of hydrological units is required at micro-watershed scales. • Analysis of carrying capacity for watershed planning in the Himalayas for development interventions is imperative the region.

5.7.1 Stakeholders perception on soil conservation and watershed management

During the field survey about 20 different stakeholders were consulted and few common points emerged for watershed management in the study region.

• Vegetative measures should be preferred over engineering measures for SWC as these accrue other benefits also such as biodiversity enhancement and carbon sequestration, etc. • Often it is observed that the engineering measures do not withstand the extreme climatic events such as floods. Further, landslides in the catchment area also damage the engineering structures. Therefore, the structures should be strong enough to withstand such extremes. • As soil and water conservation do not provide direct benefits to the WS people some income generating activities are a must and need to be combined in such programmes for better participation. • Keeping in view the heterogeneity of bio-physical landscape the microplans for WM should be location-specific and participatory in nature since inception of the project. • It has been observed that in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Gurantee Scheme (MNREGA) some of the activities are not suitable and need location-specific modifications. Therefore, flexibility in work components and budget expenditure should rest with the GPs under the supervision of WM people.

5.7.2 Future priorities The following are recommended as future strategy to augment and develop the water resources of the landscape:

• Extent and status of glaciers and associated alpine habitats in the region need to be investigated using the state of the art approach/techniques. The glaciated areas, including the adjoining alpine habitats especially timberline and snowline, need to be included in effective protected area network to restrict anthropogenic activities. • Special eco-restoration programmes should be launched for rehabilitation of adjacent degraded habitats. Also, the traditional knowledge on glaciers needs to be explored and

documented. Mass awareness campaign for high altitude inhabitants and other stakeholders need to be undertaken to explain role of glaciers, their dynamics and likely impacts of glacier retreat. • Strengthening the glacial research through establishing site specific glacier research centers to help in identifying site specific conservation measures. • Monitor changes in discharge of natural springs and make provisions for recharge of drying springs. • Ensure installation of hand pumps at feasible sites and properly maintained. Maintain the springs and naulas in participatory manner by the local people and/or gram panchayat in active collaboration with Non Government and Voluntary Organizations and state government departments. • Monitor water pollution in ground water. Identify hand pumps operating in such areas and control unhygienic practices by the local populace near such hand pumps. • Properly educate and motivate the villagers through mass awareness programmes. A determined effort by the user and service provider can really make a significant difference in improving the ground water quality. • Encourage rural populace to tap roof top rain water as the system of roof top rain water harvesting. Revive indigenous technology for rainwater harvesting and aquifer recharge. Minimize wastage of ground water by putting valves or water taps in storage-cum-supply tanks constructed at the outlets of springs. • Promote afforestation in mountain slopes and catchment areas • Promote development of mini hydro and hydel- projects. Design and construct appropriate hydrological structures for conservation of soil and water and identification of suitable sites for location of these structures. • Address Personal and Household Sanitation, issues including individual cleanliness, water management and safe disposal of domestic liquid and solid wastes. Promote construction of Integrated Sanitation Complexes for addressing requirements of women. Build capacity of Village Panchayats, Village Water Supply and Sanitation Committees (UWSSCs), Non-Government organizations (NGOs), Community based organizations (CBOs), and Support Organizations (SOs). • Adopt Catchment area Conservation and Management Plan in every water supply project. Threat to the water source, people’s willingness to participate and technical feasibility should be the main criteria for the formulation of strategy for catchment area management in water scarce villages. • The small hill irrigation systems in this part of Himalaya can be successfully managed and operated through active role of farmers in operational as well as institutional arrangements. The schemes constructed by the state can also be handed over to farmer groups for operation and maintenance. • Adopt Basin wise Environmental Assessment (i.e., Strategic Environmental Assessment -SEA) for Policies, Plans and Programs (PPP) w.r.t. hydropower development. It should be conducted through a formalized, systematic and comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental impacts of such activities.

6. Biological Diversity of the Landscape

6.1 Overview The prevailing physiographic diversity and unique biogeographic location of the landscape at the juncture of Eastern and Western Himalaya (sensu lato) and with substantial representation of Trans-Himalayan conditions, provide enough opportunities to exhibit richness, representativeness, and uniqueness of biodiversity components at different levels (i.e., genetic to ecosystem). While the landscape, by virtue of its special position in east to west (longitudinal) Himalayan transition, shares biodiversity elements of both east and west Himalaya, it represents diversity of communities/assemblages across the wide vertical transition (<400 to >6000 m asl). Broadly, the landscape falls in two ecozones (i.e., Indomalayan and Palearctic) and represents 4 major ecoregions: (i) Himalayan Sub-tropical pine forests; (ii) West Himalayan broadleaf forests; (iii) West Himalayan sub-alpine conifer forests; and (iv) West Himalayan alpine shrubs and meadows. However, a good representation of the elements from Himalayan sub-tropical broadleaf forest ecoregion is also reflected along the valleys towards southern extreme of the landscape.

6.2 Vegetation Types The landscape harbours diverse vegetation types ranging from the categories similar to Tropical moist Deciduous Forests to alpine moist and dry pastures. Physiographically, the forests, scrub (natural and secondary), grasslands (natural and anthropogenic) and alpine meadows represent major categories which are further divisible into a number of communities/sub-classes. Some of the vegetation classes and their Champion & Seth’s (1968) equivalents are given (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 : Major Vegetation types in the Indian Part of KSL S.N. Vegetation Type Corresponding C&S Category Characteristic Species 1. Sal Forest 5B/C1a: Dry sal bearing forests Shorea robusta Terminalia alata Litsea monopetala Mallotus phillippensis 2. Pine Forest 9/C1b: Himalayan Chir pine Pinus roxburghii forest Glochidion velutinum Woodfordia fruticosa 3. Sub-tropical Not described Toona ciliata Riverine Forests Macaranga pustulata Engelhardtia spicata 4. Banj Oak Forest 12/C1a: Ban oak forest Quercus leucotrichophora Myrica esculenta Dendrobium spp. Lyonia ovalifolia Sinarundinaria falcata 5. Moru (Timsu) Oak 12/C1b: Moru oak forest Quercus floribunda Symplocos chinensis Thamnocalamus falconerii Sorbus vestita 6. Kharsu Oak 12/C2a: Kharsu oak forest Quercus semecarpifolia Taxus wallichiana Prunus cornuta Thamnocalamus spathiflorus 7. Alder Forest 12/1S1 Alnuns nepalensis Alnus nepalensis forests Pilea umbrosa Debregeasia hypoleuca 8. Cypress Forest 12/E1 Cupressus torulosa Cupressus torulosa Lespedeza gerardiana Pogonatherum paniceum 9. Temperate Grassy 12/DS3: Himalayan Secondary Themeda anathera slopes Grasslands Chrysopogon gryllus

Cymbopogon distans Andropogon munroi 10. Hemlock (Tansen) Not described Tsuga dumosa Forest 11. Temperate 12/DS2 Temperate Parkland Quercus leucotrichophora Secondary Scrub C1/DS1: Oak Scrub Berberis asiatica C1/DS2:Himalayan Temperate Prinsepia utilis Secondary Scrub Rubus niveus 12. Temperate 12 / C1 West Himalayan Acer villosum Broadleaf Forests Temperate Forests Betula alnoides (Moist Deciduous) Juglans regia Aesculus indica 13. Blue Pine (Kail) 13/C4: West Himalayan High- Pinus wallichiana Forest level Dry Blue Pine Forest Juniperus communis 14. Sub-alpine Forest 14/C1: West Himalayan Sub- Rhododendron campanulatum alpine Birch/Fir Forest Betula utilis (Betula/Abies) Lonicera spp. Birch-Rhododendron Scrub Rosa macrophylla Forest

15. Alpine Scrub 15/E1: Dwarf rhododendron Rhododendron anthopogon scrub Cassiope fastigiata 16/E1: Dwarf juniper scrub Salix denticulata Salix lindleyana Lonicera myrtillus 16. Alpine Pastures 15/C3: Alpine Pastures Danthonia cachemyriana (Dry and moist types) Potentilla argyrophylla Kobresia spp., Trachydium roylei

The landscape is bestowed with varied vegetation types ranging from tropical moist deciduous to alpine vegetation. In the lower altitude (< 800 m), moist tropical and dry deciduous forest of Sal (Shorea robusta) mixed with Syzygium, Aegle, Haldina, Acacia and Terminalia are found. At places, scrub forests having evergreen species are also prevalent. The common trees in this zone are Shorea robusta, Syzygium cumini (Jamun), Anogeissus latifolia (Bakli), Aegle marmelos (Bael), Haldina cordifolia (Haldu), Mitragyna parvifolia (Kaim), Mallotus phillippensis (Rohini), Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia (Mahua), Dalbergia sissoo (Sheesham), Ficus religiosa (Peepal), F. auriculata (Timla), F. semicordata (Khainu), F. virens (Pakad), F. benghalensis (Bargad), Acacia catechu (Khair), Albizia lebbeck (Siris), Terminalia alata (Asna, Asain), T. bellirica (Bahera), Oroxylum indicum, Holoptelea integrifolia (Dhamina), Streblus asper (Sehore), Diospyros melanoxylon, Butea monosperma (Dhak, Palas), Buchanania lanzan (Chirongi), Cassia fistula (Amaltas), Lannea coromandelica (Jigma Jhingan), Pongamia pinnata (Karanj), etc.

With an altitudinal increase a change in the vegetation is clearly visible. Higher up between 1000-3000 m mixed dominant types of Rhododendron arboreum (Burans), Quercus leucotrichopora (Banj), Lyonia ovalifolia (Anyar) and Myrica esculenta (Kaphal) are first to appear. In between Viburnum cotinifolium, Symplocos paniculata, Lonicera quinquelocularis, Neolitsea umbrosa, Cornus macrophylla, etc. are also seen mixed up. The undergrowth constitutes Sarcococca saligna, Daphne cannabina, Coriaria nepalensis, Deutzia staminea, Myrsine africana, Elaeagnus sp. together with herbaceous elements. Pinus roxburghii, is the first to make appearance among the gymnosperms. These mixed forests are followed by Quercus dilatata (Tilonj), Q semecarpifolia (Kharsu), Acer sp. (Thunder), Prunus puddum forest with species of Euonymus, Ilex excels, Aesculus indica (Pangar) and Carpinus viminea. Some trees, Cotoneasters and Juglans regia (Akhrot) also make scattered appearance. At certain places pure stands of Pinus roxburghii, Cedrus deodara, Taxus

wallichiana, Abies pindrow (Ransula) make a sight to watch. On dry slopes Pyrus pashia, Prinsepia utilis, Berberis lycium and B chitria are dominant.

The herbaceous growth at this altitude mainly consists of Morina longifolia, Anemone obtusiloba, A vitifolia, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis spp. Paeonia emodi, Paris polyphylla, and species of Geranium, Viola, Valeriana, Bergenia, etc. Species of Cypripedium, Pleione, Calanthe and Cardiocrinum giganteum are occasionally noticed. Another orchid Gastrochilus distichus makes frequent appearance on Quercus spp. Phalaenopsis taenialis is also seen perching on Albizia spp. and Lyonia ovalifolia at some places. Rubus paniculatus, Hedera nepalensis, Cayratia trifolia, Smilax glaucophylla, Clematis spp. Dioscorea spp., etc. are the common climbers while Holboellia latifolia, Schisandra grandiflora and Sabia campanulata are seen occasionally. Jasminum dispermum and Aristolochia dilatata are also seen hanging from rocks. Still higher up is Betula utilis (Bhojpatra) that forms the tree limit in this part of Himalaya. Above this altitude shrubby or herbaceos plants like species of Hippophae, Juniperus, Saussurea, Primula, Corydalis, Pleurospermum, Rheum, Rhododendron anthopogon, Meconopsis aculeata, etc. make the vegetational cover.

It is interesting to note that several forest formations given in the table are found only in this district and have not been reported from other parts of Western Himalaya for example, Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) stands in and around Askot wildlife sanctuary exhibits affinities of this landscape with that of central and eastern Himalaya and this landscape happens to be the westernmost limit of Tsuga in the Himalaya. In the lower riverine areas, Gori and Kali valleys there are extensive stands of Macaranga pustulata (Vern.- Rumal). This fast growing gregarine species is also typical of eastern Himalayan foothills.

Considering the climax communities, five species of oaks occupy the different habitats at successive altitudes viz., Quercus glauca (<1500m, riverine areas); Q. leucotrichophora (1100-2200m; gentle, south facing slopes); Q. lanuginosa (1500m – 2000m; confined to selected belts of the landscape adjacent to Q. leucotrichophora ); Q. dilatata (2200- 33000 m; shady moist slopes), and Q. semecarpifolia (2800 – 3500m; gentle, south–facing slopes often forming timberline).

Among various forest formations, Banj oak forms most prominent community in the landscape that has undergone tremendous anthropogenic pressure for fuel wood, fodder and land reclamation. Based on a rapid survey of Banj Oak forest conducted by Singh (unpublished report, WII) in the target area it can be stated that district Pithoragarh (the large part of landscape) has about 118 km2 area under Banj oak which is only a small fraction of the total forested area (Table 6.2).

Table 6.2: Species wise Classification of Forest Area under various ranges (km2) in larger part of landscape (i.e., Pithoragarh district) between 1000-2500m asl. Forest Types 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Chir Pine 99.52 22.73 135.87 192.26 82.63 99.09 109.72 Banj oak 26.69 8.10 16.25 20.22 8.75 15.88 22.58 Broadleaved mixed 138.10 68.42 53.99 23.97 4.45 7.64 26.88 Subtropical scrub 40.38 10.72 53.82 141.31 70.84 117.75 121.54 Temperate conifer mixed 76.94 22.10 64.23 37.01 6.15 10.56 24.52 Grassy slopes 45.06 26.81 8.58 24.46 32.10 57.02 70.78 Habitation 21.24 20.40 3.03 0.58 1.28 2.82 8.26 Range codes: 1-Munsiyari, 2- Dharchula, 3- Askot, 4- Didihat, 5- Berinag, 6- Gangolihat, 7- Pithoragarh

6.3 Distribution, Diversity and Compositional Trends of Forests: Although it is difficult to establish specific patterns of forest type distribution in the target landscape, however, through review of information accompanied by the datasets generated through rapid surveys during present study distribution of forests and their density ranges in different valleys of the landscape are presented (Table 6.3).

Table 6.3: Forests in Kumaun west Himalaya and relative presence in KSL-India part. Kumaun, west Himalaya KSL-India part

Described Forest TD FT Common TD Extent of type (tree ha-1) Presence in GKSL (tree ha-1) availability (Alt. range-m) valleys (alti range-m) Shorea robusta 610-1670 02 Gori, Saryu, 586-1120 Small stands to (300-900) Ramganga large continuous (<1000) stretches S. robusta-Pinus 480-1610 02/04 Gori, Saryu, 586-970 Small to medium roxburghii (900-1200) Ramganga, lower stands Kali (800-1100) Macaranga pustulata Not - Gori, lower Kali 470-760 Small to medium described valley size pure patches (700-1200) P. roxburghii-mixed 670-1660 04 Gori, Saryu 616-880 Medium to large broad leaf (1200-1500) (900-1800) continuous stretches P. roxburghii 350-590 04 Gori Valley, Saryu 370-616 Large continuous (1600-1700) Ramganga stretches (1200-1700) Quercus 320-1560 07 Gori, Dhauli and 580-1100 Sparse to large leucotrichophora Ramganga dense patches (1500-2100) (1300-2200) Alnus nepalensis- 520-1600 06 Gori, Dhauli, Kali 320-680 Medium mixed to mixed broad leaf and Ramganga large stands in (2000-2400) (1300-2000) gorges Q. floribunda (2000- 320-1960 07 Dhauli, Ramganga 600- 780 Small to medium 2400) (1900-2300) mixed stands Carpinus viminea Not - Ramganga 600-700 Medium to large described- (1900-2100) stands Aesculus indica-mixed 300-560 09 Ramganga, Darma 260-660 Medium to large broad leaf (2100- valley (2100-2400) stands 2200) Tsuga- mixed Not - Dhauli (2190-2500) 670 Medium to large coniferous described- stands Rhododendron 440-1180 07 Gori, Ramganga 440-660 Represented in arboreum dominated (1600-2400) degraded oak sites (2100-2900) Cupresus torulosa 425-599 - Gori, Ramganga 370-540 Medium to large (2100-2300) (2000-2700) patches Q. lanuginosa (2100- 1380- 07 Gori, Ramganga, 680-1100 Medium to large 2300) 1720 Dhauli valley mixed stand (1600-2400) P.wallichiana (2200- 540-690 08 Upper Dhauli,Gori 360-832 Small pure to large 2600) and Kali valley continuous (2600-3600) stretches Abies pindrow-mixed 420-680 08 Dhauli, Ramganga, 520-920 Large mixed (2300-2800) Kali (2700-3200) stands Abies spectabilis - 08 Dhauli (2100-3400) 360 Medium to large patches Hippophae salicifolia 780 - Upper Gori and 340-460 Small patches (2300) Kali valley (2600- 2900) Acer - mixed (2300- 260-700 09 Ramganga (2100- 680 Medium sized 2500) 2400) patches Q. semecarpifolia 650-2070 07 Ramganga, Gori 665-680 Large mixed (2400-3000) and Dhauli (2500- stands

50 3000) Salix-mixed broad leaf 650-880 10 Dhauli, Kali valley 480-620 Small mixed (3000-3200) (2600-3200) stands Betula utilis-mixed 160-360 10 Ramganga, Gori, 360-860 Large mixed broad leaf (3100-3300) Dhauli (3000-3400) stands B. utilis-R. 500 10 Ramganga, Dhauli 900-1140 Large patches campanulatum (3200) (3000-3400) R. campanulatum 300-880 11 Gori, Ramganga, 480-800 Medium to large (3100-3600) Dhauli (3200-3400) patches Source: Rawal & Dhar 2001; present study (Balwant et al. unpublished, GBPIHED). Abbreviations- TD- tree density; FT-functional types

The rapid surveys conducted in three valleys (i.e., Ramganga, Dhauli and Kali) of the landscape revealed the following patterns (Balwant et al, un-published):

Dhauliganga Valley (2000-3300 m): • The lower part of valley is dominated by broadleaf forest (i.e., Quercus spp., Aesculus indica and Corylus jaquemontii, etc. whereas the mid to high altitude zones are dominated by conifer-broadleaf mixed species (i.e., Abies spectabilis, Pinus wallichiana and Betula utilis, etc.). On upper part of valley P. wallichiana forms frequent patches. • The use pattern/dependence varies from one village to another depending on the availability of tree species (most of the species are restricted to a particular altitudinal zone). • At certain locations good stands of Corylus jaquemontii can be seen. • The overall species richness data shows decreasing pattern with increase in altitude (Fig 6.1). • The overall density for tree and sapling is unevenly distributed. It was revealing that the sapling density remained lower than the tree density across the altitude range. The seedling density showed decreasing trends with increase in altitude (Fig. 6.2).

Figure 6.1: Species richness in different layers of the forest across altitude range

51 Fig. 6.2: Density distribution across forest layers in Dhauliganga valley

Ramganga Valley (2100-3400 m): • Besides the evergreen broadleaf forests, the low to mid altitude zone of the valley is dominated by broad leaf deciduous species (Aesculus indica, Lyonia ovalifolia, Acer sp. and Carpinus viminea, etc.). The high altitudinal zones are dominated by conifer- broadleaf mixed species i.e., Abies spectabilis and Betula utilis etc. At places very good stands of Carpinus viminea are prevalent. • The overall species richness data shows decreasing pattern with increase in altitude for seedling and sapling while for tree it is uneven (Fig.6.3). The patterns of density distribution across different layers are depicted (Fig. 6.4). • Sacred forest patch of Carpinus viminea is located near Gogina village.

Figure 6.3: Species richness in different layers of the forest across altitude range in Ramganga valley

52 Figure 6.4: Density distribution across forest layers in Ramganga valley

Kali Valley (2200-4200 m): • As compared to other two valleys, upper kali valley showed relatively less diverse and rather diffused forests. Only a few forests were located along the trek and composition was not luxuriant in any of these communities. Most of the communities showed single species dominance (mostly Pinus wallichiana stands). Besides, Abies pindrow also forms forest stands. From Gunji (3250m) to Kalapani (3570m) a continuous strip of P. wallichiana exists. • The species richness is poor. The patterns of species richness across tree, sapling and seedling layers are depicted (Fig 6.5). The fig 6.6 shows density of individuals across these layers.

Figure 6.5: Species richness in different layers of the forest across altitude range in upper Kali valley

53 Figure 6.6: Density distribution across forest layers in upper Kali valley

6.4. Floristic Diversity and Uniqueness: The landscape harbours richness of floristic elements ranging from lower groups to the higher ones. Among lower groups information for algae and fungi is lacking. The review of information, expert consultations followed by rapid surveys have yielded following information with respect to various plant groups.

6.4.1 Bryophytes Considering the previous reports and expert consultation (Dr. S.D. Tewari, pers. Comm.; unpublished check-list) the landscape represents 211 species (Families- 54; Genera – 126) of bryophytes which include: Thalloid liverworts (26 spp.; 21 genera, 11 families); Hornworts (04 spp.; 03 genera, 11 02 families); Leafy liverworts (20 spp.; 13 genera, 09 families); and mosses (161 spp.; 89 genera, 32 families). The diversity in different families is represented (Table 6.4). Also, the distribution of bryophytes in different altitude zones is depicted (Fig. 6.7).

54 Table 6.4: Diversity of bryophyte flora in the target landscape Family Name Gener Specie Family Name Genera Specie a No. s No. No. s No. Thalloid Liverworts (Fam. 11; Gen.21; Spp. 26. Flassidentaceae 01 07 26) 1.Ricciacaea 02 07 27. Calymperaceae 01 02 2. Marchentiacaea 04 04 28. Pottiaceae 14 21 3.Conocepahlaceae 02 02 29. Grimmiaceae 03 08 4. Aloniaceae 03 03 30. Encalyptaceae 01 02 5. Sauteriaceae 01 01 31. Funariaceae 01 01 6. Exormotheaceae 01 01 32. Splachnaceae 04 05 7. Targioniaceae 02 02 33. Bryaceae 07 14 8. Pelliaceae 01 01 34. Mniaceae 03 06 9. Aneuraceae 02 02 35. Bartramiaceae 04 06 10. Metzgeriaceae 02 02 36. Timmiaceae 01 01 11. Fossombroniaceae 01 01 37. Ptychmitriaceae 01 01

Hornworts (Fam. 02; Gen. 03; Spp. 04) 38. Orthotrichaceae 02 04 12. Anthocerotaceae 02 03 39. Trachypodopsis 02 02 13. Notothylaceae 01 01 40. Pterobryaceae 01 01

Leafy liverworts(Fam. 09; Gen. 13; Spp. 20) 41. Leucobryaceae 02 03 14. Herbertaceae 02 02 42. Meteoriaceae 03 04 15. Lepidziaceae 02 02 43. Hedurigiaceae 01 01 16. Scapaniaceae 01 02 44. Neckeraceae 04 06 17. Lophocoleaceae 02 04 45. Hookeriaceae 01 01 18. Plagochilaceae 01 02 46. Flasroniaceae 01 01 19. Radulaceae 01 01 47. Leskeaceae 01 01 20. Porellaceae 01 03 48. Amblystegiaceae 03 06 21. Frullaniaceae 01 01 49. Brachytheaceae 07 10 22. Legenuniaceae 02 03 50. Entdontaceae 01 05

Mosses (Fam. 32; Gen. 89; Spp. 161) 51. Plagiotheaceae 01 02 23. Polytrichaceae 02 09 52. Hypnaceae 06 13 24. Ditrichaceae 02 03 53. Rhytidiaceae 01 01 25. Dicranaceae 05 11 54. Hylocomiaceae 02 03

Figure 6.7: Diversity of bryophytes in different altitude zones of landscape

55 6.4.2 Pteridophytes A total of 249 species (+4 sub species, 5varieties and 1 hybrid) of pteridohytes distributed over 35 families and 73 genera are known from the landscape. This group exhibits diversity in habitat conditions, which ranges from Terrestrial – 147; Epiphytes – 13; Lithophytes - 27; Terrestrial & Lithophytes – 37; Epiphytes and Lithophytes – 35 taxa. Considering their population sizes and frequency of occurrence a larger number of taxa (114) showed relatively rare occurrence, followed by commonly (90) and occasionally occurring taxa (55). Diversity in different altitude zones and commonness of species in two zones is depicted (Fig. 6.8). Diversity across families and genera is presented (Table 6.5).

Fig. 6.8: Diversity of pteridophytes in different altitude zones of landscape

Table 6.5: Diversity of pteridophytes in the target landscape Family Genu Species T E L T/L E/L R O C s Botrychiaceae 2 5 5 - - - - 4 - 1 Ophioglossaceae 1 2 2 - - - - 2 - - Angiopteridaceae 1 1 1 - - - - 1 - Osmundaceae 1 3 3 3 Plagiogyriaceae 1 1 1 1 Gleicheniaceae 1 1 (+ 3 Var.) 4 4 Grammitidaceae 1 1 1 1 Loxogrammacea 1 1 1 1 e Polypodiaceae 8 33 2 6 7 18 13 7 13 Lygodiaceae 1 2 2 2 Sinopteridaceae 3 12(+ 1 var.) 1 6 6 4 4 5 Cryptogrammace 2 6 4 2 2 2 2 ae Hypolepidaceae 1 1 1 1 Pteridaceae 2 10(+ 1 hyb) 10 1 5 1 5 Adiantaceae 1 6 3 1 2 1 5 Hemionitidaceae 2 6 4 1 1 4 1 1 Vittariaceae 1 2 1 1 1 1 Parkeriaceae 1 1 1(aq) 1 Hymenophyllace 3 5 1 4 2 3 ae Cyatheaceae 1 1 1 1 Monachosoracea 1 1 1 1 e Dennstedtiaceae 2 3 3 2 1 Lindsaeaceae 1 1 1 1 Aspleniaceae 1 21 (+ 3 ssp, 1 2 1 8 8 6 14 4 7 var.) Onocleaceae 1 5 3 2 3 2 Athyriaceae 6 38 32 6 15 10 13 Hypodematiacea 1 1 (+1 ssp) 2 2 e Thelypteridaceae 11 18 18 6 5 7 Drypteridaceae 4 46 41 1 4 21 16 9 Tectariaceae 1 2 2 1 1 Elaphoglossacea 1 2 1 1 1 1 e Nephrolepidacea 1 1 1 1 e Oleandraceae 1 1 1 1 Davalliaceae 4 7 3 4 2 1 4 Blechnaceae 2 2 2 1 1 Total 73 249 (+ 4 ssp + 147 13 27 37 35 114 55 90 5 var.+ 1 hyb) [T -Terrestrial; E - Epiphytes; L - Lithophytes; T/L -Terrestrial/Lithophytes; E/L -Epiphytes/Lithophytes; R - Rare; O - Occasionally; C – Common]

The uniqueness of the pteridophytic flora of the landscape is reflected (Table 6.6).

Table 6.6: Unique fern flora of the target landscape

SN Name of the taxa Family NT E R&T

Dicranopteris linearis var. 1 Gleicheniaceae + hirta Kaur et Punetha Lepisorus khullarii Pande et 2 Polypodiaceae + + Shing et Pande Lepisorus kashyapii (Mehra) 3 Polypodiaceae + Mehra Phymatopteris nakaikeanum P.C. Pande et H.C. 4 Polypodiaceae + + Pandeebenipes (Hook.) Pichi Sermolli Polypodiodes amoena (Wall. 5 Polypodiaceae + ex Mett.) Ching 6 Pyrrosia mannii (Gies) Ching Polypodiaceae + +

7 Pteris excelsa Gaud. Pteridaceae + + PterisX khullarii Pantey, 8 Pteridaceae + Samant & Verma 9 Pteris vittata L. Pteridaceae + Asplenium aitchisonii Fraser- 10 Aspleniaceae + Jenkins et Reichstein 11 Asplenium khullarii Viane Aspleniaceae + Asplenium ruta-muraria su sp 12 Aspleniaceae + rut-muraria L. 13 Asplenium tenuicaule Hayata Aspleniaceae +

14 Athyrium fimbriatum Moore Athyriaceae + Pseudophegopteris Thelypteridace 15 + + pyrrhorhachis (Kunze) Ching, ae Athyrium kumaonicum 16 Athyriaceae + Punetha Christella Dentata (Forsskal) Thelypteridace 17 + Brownsey and Jermy ae Total 04 14 04 Source: Pande and Pande 2003. Fern Flora of Kumaun Himalaya; (NT- New taxa;E- Endemic; R& T- Rare and Threatened)

6.4.3 Lichens: The wide altitudinal range of landscape (between 400m to 5000m) provides diverse habitats for growth of cryptogams including lichens. The landscape constitutes nearly 16% of the total lichen flora of Indian subcontinent (Dr. D. K. Upreti, pers. comm.).

A total of 391 lichen species (96 genera and 44 families) have been reported from the landscape. The family Parmeliaceae (19) and Physciaceae (11 genera) dominate the area. Verrucariaceae, Pyrenulaceae, Collemataceae, Acarosporaceae, Pertusariaceae and Thelotremataceae are the other common families represented by two or three genera of each. Among genera, Lecanora is most species rich (27 species) followed by Cladonia (25), Heterodermia (18), Pertusaria (17), Caloplaca (17), and Usnea (15).

The localities Chandak, Nainipatal, Thalkedar, Dhawj, Pagama and Barabey forest around the H.Q. Pithoragarh within an altitude range of up to 1500 m exhibit luxuriant growth of most of the Parmelioid genera Bulbothrix, Hypotrachyna, Everniastrum and Parmotrema. The cultivated trees of Pyrus, Prunus, Rubina, Populus and Celtis in and around villages harbour few members of Physciaceae and Parmeliaceae. The forest of Dhawj, Thalkedar, NainiPatal, Chandak exhibit rich diversity of lichens represented by 188 species.

The upper temperate areas of Munsyari such as, Khaliya Top, Lilam and Nain Singh Top situated between altitudes of 2000-2500 m exhibit maximum diversity of lichens in the district represented by 150 species followed by the Askote-Shandev ‘Botanical Hot Spot’ area of Pithoragarh district with 144 species. The area in and around Milam village and Milam Glacier also bear excellent growth of lichens represented by 105 species. The Vatan and Shobla localities in Dharchula area also exhibit good growth of lichens.

The dense forest sites of the district provide immense substratum for the growth of many bark or wood inhabiting (corticolous) lichens that are represented by 246 species. However, 132 and 42 species were reportedly growing over rock (saxicolous) and soil (terricolous) respectively. The alpine and higher temperate localities in Milam Glacier area show dominance of rocks and soil inhabiting lichens while lower to middle temperate areas have dominance of epiphytic lichens.

Among the different phorophytes Quercus semecarpifolia in temperate region (up to 3000 m) and Q. leucotrichophora (up to 2000 m) in lower temperate areas provide excellent substratum for many taxa of lichens to colonize. Bark preference is also one of the characteristic features of lichens. Many smooth barked trees such as Alnus nepalensis bear some Pyrenocarpous and Graphidacecous lichens while more than 30 lichen species have been recorded on Pinus roxburghii trees having rough bark. The Rhododendron campanulatum trees in higher temperate and bushy Rhododendron species in alpine regions also provide substrate for many lichens taxa to colonize. Mostly the species of Opegrapha, Pertusria and Lecanora prefers to grow on such bark. Phaeophyscia hispidula, Heterodermia diademata, Parmotrema reticulatum, Bulbothrix setschwanensis, Physcia dilatata, and Everniastrum cirrhatum are the most common and widely distributed lichen taxa found growing on various substrates both in tropical and temperate zone of the landscape.

6.4.4 Gymnosperms: The diversity of gymnosperms in the target landscape is depicted (Table 6.7). A total of 13 species (including one sub species) in 9 genera and 4 families are represented across the altitude range 500-4300 m asl. Of these, Pinus roxburghii (between 900-1800 m), P. wallichiana (between 2300-3500 m), and Abies pindrow (between 2300-3000 m) are common and frequently available. Presence of Tsuga dumosa in the landscape is unique as it forms exclusive representation for entire western Himalaya. While Cupressus torulosa, Abies spectabilis and Taxus baccata form occasional patches, the presence of Picea smithiana is very rare. Cedrus deodara is largely present in exclusive patches, mostly as sacred groves.

Table 6.7: Diversity of Gymnosperms in KSL part of India Family Genus/species Altitude range (m asl) Taxaceae Taxus baccata ssp. wallichiana 1800-3000 Pinaceae Pinus roxburghii 500-2300 Pinus wallichiana 1800-3700 Tsuga dumosa 1100-2800 Picea smithiana 2100-3300 Abeis pindrow 2100-3350 Abeis spectabilis 2800-4300 Cedrus deodara 1200-3300 Cupressasaceae Juniperus polycarpos 2500-4300 Juniperus communis 2500-4300 Juniperus semiglobosa 2500-4500 Cupressus torulosa 1700-2500 Ephedraceae Ephedra gerardiana 3000-4500

6.4.5 Angiosperms: Owing to its peculiar biogeographic position and diversity of habitat conditions across wide altitude range the landscape exhibits richness of angiosperms. Review of information and expert consultation (Dr. Y. P. S. Pangtey, pers comm.) reveals presence of 2306 taxa (2293 species, 4 sub-species and 9 varieties) of angiosperms [150 families - Dicots 139, Monocots 21; and 1043 genera - Dicots-738, Monocots -205]. The most species rich families in the landscape and comparison with diverse families in the region are presented (Table 6.9). Statistics of diversity of angiosperm flora in the target landscape is presented (Appendix. 6.1).

Table 6.9: Most diverse angiosperm families in the landscape as compared to reported dominant families of west Himalaya KSL- India part UTTARAKHAND WESTERN HIMALAYA (Present study) (Uniyal et al., 2007) (Singh & Hajra, 1996)

Poaceae (224) Asteraceae (376) Asteraceae (540) Asteraceae (188) Leguminosae (327) Poaceae (439) Orchidaceae (162) Rosaceae (183) Leguminosae (362) Leguminosae (141) Lamiaceae (141) Orchidaceae (255) Rosaceae (85) Scrophulariaceae (128) Cyperaceae (205) Lamiaceae (84) Ranunculaceae (102) Rosaceae (172) Cyperaceae (64) Brassicaceae (93) Lamiaceae (168) Ranunculaceae (62) Apiaceae (92) Scrophulariaceae (150) Brassicaceae (50) Euphorbiaceae (84) Brassicaceae (145) Polygonaceae (45) Caryophyllaceae (76) Ranunculaceae (126)

Diversity of angiosperms in different altitude zones of the landscape is depicted (Fig. 6.9). No. of species 1200 387 386 Common species 1000 276 800 107 600 Fig. 6.9: Diversity of No. of No. species 400 angiosperms in different 200 altitude zones of landscape

0 <1000 1001-2000 2001-3000 3001-4000 >4000

Altitude (m asl)

6.5 Faunal Diversity and Uniqueness: The diversity of habitat conditions along wide ranging three dimensional coverage of the landscape supports richness of faunal components. The baseline literature regarding the target landscape is very sparse and so far only sixteen faunal groups have been documented from the region. This statistics also reflects the inaccessibility and hostile terrain conditions of the area which generally prevents explorers, surveyors from conducting research expeditions/excursions.

Till now, the known invertebrates are represented by 157 species under 12 different groups. Among these, Lepidoptera (45 species) is the most species rich whereas Hemiptera is represented by just 01 species. Some new records to the region have been documented in the present venture including the Triodes sp. and Parnassius sp.

The KSL part of India supports a considerably large number of fish fauna (90 species). During rapid surveys of present investigation good catch of Asela and Mahasher were observed in Dharchula and Jauljibi market respectively. The catch composition of the Kali riverine system is as follows Schizothorax spp. (60%), Tor spp. (19%), Garra and Labeo spp. (5% each), Pseudoechinus spp. (2.5 %), Glypothorax and Barilius spp. (2% each) and Puntius spp. (1%). The wide altitude gradient of the Himalayan snow fed river, temperature and rocky substratum not only provide diverse niches for variety of fishes but also limits their distribution. For instance, occurrence of sisoridaes: such as Glyptothorax sp. and Pseudecheneis sp., fishes with special adhesive apparatus which evolved to suit the torrential condition of the Himalayan riverine system.

Avifauna is the most species rich faunal group in the landscape. So far it is represented by 193 species. The KSL in Indian part falls within the boundary of the 128 EBA (Western Himalaya, Priority-Critical) which supports a total of 11 restricted range species of different threat categories. So far no species of EBA-128 has been documented from Indian part of KSL However, as the range of western Himalaya (EBA-128) covers the entire part of Indian KSL, the possibility of their presence could not be ruled out.

The mammalian fauna of the KSL is quite diverse and represented by some good populations of the unique Himalayan endemics such as, Snow leopard, Himalayan musk deer, Himalayan tahr, Himalayan wolf, and Himalayan marmot.

A summary of known (based on existing records, expert consultations and the present rapid assessment surveys) faunal components from the target landscape is given (Table 6.10). Further details of diversity in faunal groups of the landscape are included (Appendix 6.2; 6.3; 6.4; 6.5; 6.6, 6.7).

Table 6.10: Known diversity of faunal groups in the target landscape. Faunal Groups

A. Invertebrates Species (no) 1. Annelida (Oligochaeta) 09 2. Mollusca 02 3. Arachnida 04 4. Myriapoda (Chilopoda) 09 5. Odonata 32 6. Dermaptera 08 7. Isoptera 16 8. Hemiptera 01 9. Trichoptera 10 10. Lepidoptera 45 11. Hymenoptera 15 12. Coleoptera 06

B. Vertebrates 6. Pisces 90 7. Amphibia 09 8. Reptilia 19 9. Aves 193 10. Mammalia (excluding chiropterans and some rodents) 38

(Details included in appendix)

6.6 Threatened and Sensitive Components Selected rare, endangered and threatened species of flora and fauna reported from Indian part of KSL along with their habitat preferences and priority areas for conservation are described. It is pertinent to note that in the absence of population estimation, micro-habitat specificity and geographical extent of habitats; especially in case of rare species it is difficult to ascertain the status of several species at a regional scale. Since several species of eastern Himalayan affinities reach this landscape showing their westernmost limit, such species appear to be very rare within Western Himalaya. Likewise, a few species which may be common in Western Himalaya are in extremely low in abundance in this landscape. Habitat specificity, taxonomic distinctness and persistence through ecological or evolutionary time are the additional variables which determine the rarity and sensitivity of most of the taxa. In the absence of latest population estimates for most of the species across their global distribution range, earlier definition of IUCN (1994) has been taken for ‘rare’ species i.e., ‘taxa with small world populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable but are at risk…these taxa are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range’. This definition was used by Nayar & Sastry (1987-90) to assess the threat categories of Indian plants. However, the ‘Rare’ category was subsequently dropped from the new IUCN threat categories.

6.6.1. Threatened and endangered flora Perusal of literature on the vascular flora of the region (Sahni & Raizada 1957; Rawat 1984; Samant & Pangtey, 1993; Dhar et al. 1997) reveals that Indian part of KSL is floristically under-explored. Several taxa are described based on a single collection without definite locality and information on population size remains ambiguous in terms of their status on rarity and endemism. Nevertheless, this region has a number of unique features. Most importantly, this landscape lies at the confluence of three distinct phytogeographic divisions, i.e., Western, Central (Nepal) and the Trans-Himalaya; it has diverse ecosystems ranging from subtropical humid to alpine arid types within a short distance and most of the region

has relatively intact or near natural habitats owing to remote and inaccessible terrain. Of the 16 species of endemic angiosperms recorded from the state of Uttarakhand (Anonymous 2002), eleven species are found within this landscape. These include Berberis lambertii (Berberidaceae), B. osmastonii (Berberidaceae), Eria occidentalis (Orchidaceae), Flickingeria hesperis (Orchidaceae), Itea nutans (Iteaceae), Trachycarpus takil (Arecaceae), Gentiana tetrasepala (Gentianaceae), and Silene kumaonensis (Caryophyllaceae). But for a rapid survey of an endemic palm Trachycarpus takil by Kholia (2009), and recent survey of orchids in different habitats by Jalal et al. (2008), there have been no attempts at population studies of threatened and endangered species of flora. Hence, it would be extremely difficult to ascertain the trends of population decline or recovery at this stage. A list of rare, endangered and threatened (RET) species of vascular plants recorded from the landscape is given in (Appendix – 6.8). Of these, select species which need to be given highest priority for in-situ conservation and population studies are mentioned below: • Psilotum nudum (Linn.) P. Beauv. (Psilotaceae): An interesting Pteridophyte, regarded as most primitive vascular plant. Widely but sparsely distributed in Eastern Himalaya, Central India and Western Ghats. It is extremely rare in the Western Himalaya and so far only one population has been located near Askot around 1500 m asl by Samant as epiphyte on Syzygium cumini (Pangtey & Samant 1987). • Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook. (Cyatheaceae): Tree fern, upto 2.5 m high. Extremely rare in Western Himalaya where only three populations have been reported so far i.e., two in Chamoli and one in Pithoragarh district. In Pithoragarh, a total of 27 individuals have been located near Pamtori (Sandev) area of Didihat block. This population is extremely vulnerable due to changes in habitat conditions, forest fire etc. • Juniperus semiglobosa Regel (Cupressaceae). This is the only tree juniper in this landscape, frequently referred as J. macropoda Boiss. in the earlier floras. This is regarded as one of the sacred species by the local communities. It’s leaves are used for making incense, to be used on special occasions. Only 4-5 individuals can be seen around Burphu, in Johar Valley. • Berberis osmastonii Dunn. (Berberidaceae): A dwarf shrub with erect or sub-erect stems up to 30 cm high. Flowers yellow, April – May. Endemic to Uttarakhand. So far only two populations have been located in the state. One population (around 1000 individuals) has been recently located by WII team around Kalamuni pass (2800 m asl) in Pithoragarh district. • Berberis lamberti Parker (Berberidaceae): Dwarf, spiny shrubs upto 80 cm high. Endemic to Uttarakhand, so far recorded only from Humdhura ridge between 2700 – 2900 m asl. It grows along edges of Kharsu forest especially on grassy slopes. • Cleyera japonica Thunb. (Theaceae): A rare tree found only along a few ravines in eastern Kumaon. It was said to be common around Chowkori and Berinag nearly a century ago (Osmaston). However, only 10 – 15 individuals were located during recent survey by WII near Chowkori (1600 m asl). • Pinguicula alpina Linn. (Lentibulariaceae): A rare, insectivorous herb, upto 3 cm. Leaves 3-4 radical, found in moist localities between 3300 – 4000 m asl. Only two populations have been located so far in Pithoragarh district – one near Sinpu Udiyar in Ralam Valley (3400 m) and other in Napalchu Nala, Byans (3300m). Flowers white, solitary. • Onosma pyramidale Hook .f. (Boraginaceae): A hispid herb, confined to a few pockets in Kali Valley. Leaves sessile. Flowers scarlet, drooping in terminal bunches. Extremely sparse. One population near Sosa (2600 m) and other population below Budhi (2800m) in Byans valley have been located. These need to be monitored further. • Trachycarpus takil Becc. (Arecaceae): Vern. Thakal. A medium sized palm upto 8 m high. Leaves fan shaped. It is endemic to Uttarkhand, having less than 500 individuals. In KSL part of India this species is confined to two localities viz., Thalkedar and Girgaon – Ratapani. Kholia (2009) has done detailed population analysis and gender variation in this species. • Lilium wallichianum Schultes (Liliaceae): A magnificent lily. Extremely sparse. Atkinson (1882) reported it to be abundant on the open slopes of Gangolihat. Flowering – August.

This population need to be relocated and monitored. • Dendrobium normale Falc. (Orchidaceae): Restricted range species. Largely reported from Uttarakhand, especially, epiphyte on banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) and Toona ciliata. Frequent around Lumti (Gori valley), Sandev, Maitli. Flowering: May-June. Threatened due to destruction of habitat. • Flickingeria hesperis Seidenf. & Arora. (Orchidaceae). A rare epiphyte. Endemic to Kumaon (Pithoragarh): A few individuals have been located near Ogla Road, Didihat and Tejam. Flowering: June. • Herminium kumaunensis Deva & Naithani (Orchidaceae): A rare ground orchid. Endemic to Kumaon (Pithoragarh): Chhiyalekh, Byans, 3300 – 3600m; Flowering: July-August. It has been collected only once. Further monitoring of the population is required. • Ponerorchis renzii Deva & Naithani (Orchidaceae): Extremely rare, ground orchid. Endemic to Pithoragarh (above Garbyang 3300m). Open grassy slope. Only a few individuals have been seen. Flowering: July-August.

Besides the species listed above a number of species in this landscape require in-situ conservation programmes. For example, Brahmakamal (Saussurea obvallata) i.e., state flower of Uttarakhand, Terminalia chebula, a high value medicinal tree at sub-tropical belt, Turpinia nepalensis (one of the rarest trees of Uttarakhand), confined to Ghandhura region need special mention. Among hill bamboos, Sinarundinaria anceps Vern. Jumar, is endemic to Uttarakhand. It forms important habitat for endangered Himalayan musk deer, serow, and several other birds. In most of its range there is an acute livestock grazing pressure on this species as a result it is declining rapidly. This species is recommended for long term monitoring.

The incidence of sensitivity is higher for lower plants. For example, out of the 391 species of lichens so far known from the area more than 200 species are known only from single localities. Many lichen families or genera comprise only of single species and many species of the same families or genera are confined to a particular locality. Six species from the landscape are known to be endemic to the area as they are identified only from their type locality and are designated as ‘rare elements’: (i) Lobaria himalayensis Upreti & Divakar; (ii) Myelochroa macrogalbinica Divakar, Upreti & Elix; (iii) Myelochroa upretii Divakar & Elix; (iv) Lithothelium himalayensis Upreti & Aptroot; (v) Caloplaca abuensis Y. Joshi & Upreti; (vi) Caloplaca himalayana Y. Joshi & Upreti

6.6.2 Threatened and endangered fauna

6.6.2.1 Status of mammals: Of the known mammals, 10 species are listed as either ‘endangered’ or ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN; under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; and in the Appendices of CITES (Table 6.10).

Table 6.10: Listed threatened faunal species of the target landscape No. Common Name Scientific Name IUCN IWPA CITES 1 Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis EN I II 2 Snow leopard Panthera uncia EN I I 3 Common leopard Panthera pardus VU I I 4 Himalayan wolf Canis himalayensis CR I I 5 Eurasian otter Lutra lutra NT I I 6 Blue sheep Pseudois nayaur LR I LR/nt 7 Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster EN I I 8 Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus VU I NL 9 Serow Nemorhaedus sumatraensis VU I I 10 Goral Naemorhaedus goral VU I LR/nt 11 Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak EN I III

[IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; IWPA – Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; CITES – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species; EN – Endangered; CR – Critically Endangered; VU- Vulnerable; LR- Low Risk]

Conservation of species such as the Snow leopard, Himalayan wolf, Himalayan marmot, Assamese macaque, and the Eurasian otter are of great concern as they are very rare in this landscape. This may due to their low populations as this landscape forms the extreme limits of their natural distribution and also due to lack of information on their current status and distribution.

The declining status of the endangered musk deer in this region is largely due to poaching for ‘musk’ as it is in great demand in the illegal trade to cater to the international markets (Sathyakumar 1993). Habitat degradation due to livestock grazing and anthropogenic pressures in musk deer habitat is another major cause. Due to cumulative impacts of these, the musk deer distribution is now restricted to a few isolated pockets in this landscape. The status of mountain ungulates such as the blue sheep, tahr and goral is also of serious concern as they not only form prey for large carnivores (snow & Common leopards) and other carnivores (wolf, marten, red fox), but also are indicators of changes in the habitats. Poaching for meat and competition with livestock are two major issues for conservation of these mountain ungulates (Sathyakumar et al. 1993; Sathyakumar & Bashir, in press).

6.6.2.2 Status of Birds Of the known avian fauna, conservation status of seven pheasants and two raptors is a matter of serious concern on account of these being considered either ‘endangered’ or ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN; under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; and in the Appendices of CITES (Table 6.11).

Table 6.11: List of Endangered Birds in the target Landscape No. Common Name Scientific Name IUCN IWPA CITES 1 Satyr Tragopan Tragopan satyra NT I III 2 Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus LR I I 3 Kalij Pheasant Lophura leucomelanos LR I LR/nt 4 Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii VU I I&II 5 Snow Partridge Lerwa lerwa VU IV LR/nt 6 Red-headed Vulture Sargogyps calvus CR I II 7 Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus EN I II [IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; IWPA – Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; CITES – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species; EN – Endangered; CR – Critically Endangered; VU- Vulnerable; LR- Low Risk]

Four species namely Satyr Tragopan (Tragopan satyra), Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii), Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) and Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) are listed as vulnerable and are in the Red Data Book (www.iucnredlist.org). From the 11 restricted range species of the Western Himalaya four species namely Cheer Pheasant, White-cheeked Tit (Aegithalos leucogenys), White-throated Tit (Aegithalos niveogularis) and Spectacled Finch (Callacanthis burtoni) have distributional records within the landscape of which only Cheer Pheasant has been reported. The vulnerability of Cheer Pheasant is due to its specialized habitat requirements and subjected to hunting. The species is presently known to occur as fragmented populations all through its distributional range. The main reason for this is loss of habitat due to increased developmental activities and increased agricultural practices that is modifying the landscape gradually (Birdlife International 2003). Other interesting records include presence of Ashy Bulbul (Hemixos flavala). A total of four birds were recorded at Pancheswar with an altitude of 400m. Though the species is reported

65 to occur from elevation of 700 to 1600m (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) there are few records of the species from Uttarakhand. Bhardwaj (unpublished) has recorded Desert Wheatear (Onenanthe deserti) at Khalia top near Munsiary (3400m).

Galliformes are often viewed as a source of protein by the local communities in most parts of the Himalaya and hence taken from the wild (Keane et al. 2005, Hillaludin & Kaul, 2007). This landscape forms the western most distribution for the Satyr tragopan and encompasses limited habitat range for the Cheer. The Himalayan monal is widely distributed and occur in good densities in some parts of this landscape (Rawat & Sathyakumar, 1998, unpublished; Sathyakumar & Kaul, 2007; Kandpal & Sathyakumar, in prep.). While poaching of kalij or monal by the local communities may appear to be at or below subsistence levels, the impacts of such extraction have not yet been quantified. Poaching for meat even at very low levels could be a major threat for Satyr Tragopan in this region. Similarly, the impacts of nest predation by sheep dogs, humans and other omnivores during breeding season (that coincides with movement of livestock or other NTFP collections) have not been quantified. The Red-headed and Egyptian Vultures are very rarely sighted in this landscape as like most parts of their distribution range in India.

6.6.2.3 Status of Lower Vertebrates and Invertebrates Of the various species of fishes, Deep bodied Mahseer (Tor tor) and Golden Mahseer (Tor putitora) are threatened and vulnerable due to intensive dynamiting and may get further endangered due to upcoming hydro-power projects unless adequate conservation measures are taken. List of reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates is still under preparation. Vasudevan (Unpublished) has identified the following species of amphibians from Gori and Kali valleys: Least concern: Duttaphrynus himalayanus, Duttaphrynus melanostictus, Xenophrys parva, Amolops formosus, Amolops marmoratus, Nanorana liebigi, Nanorana polunini; Near Threatened: Nanorana ercepeae; Vulnerable: Nanorana minica, Scutiger nepalensis; Data Deficient: Polypedates teraiensis, Chirxalus dudhwaensis. No detailed inventory of butterflies and other invertebrates is available from the landscape.

6.7 Plan of action for Conservation & Management • Species specific conservation plans: One of the most charismatic and major flagship species for conservation of alpine and sub-nival ecosystem in this landscape is endangered snow leopard (Uncia uncia). The Government of India has formulated Project Snow Leopard to conserve this species and its habitat in its entire range within the country. For the state of Uttarakhand, the northern parts of Askot Wildlife Sanctuary, that forms a part of KSL, has been identified as a priority area for implementation of this plan. This plan visualizes cooperation of pastoral communities in minimizing the conflicts due to livestock depredation, identification and restoration of critical habitats for prey base. Project snow leopard visualizes overall conservation of high altitude ecosystem at a landscape level and in the KSL; it would require trans-boundary cooperation from the regional partners. • For the conservation of aquatic ecosystem in the lower part of this landscape, a similar project may be required on Golden Mahseer. Other species to be taken up for the conservation and recovery include the Himalayan musk deer (state animal of Uttarakhand), Himalayan monal (state bird), Satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyra), Brahmkamal (Saussurea obvallata) i. e., state flower of Uttarakhand. • The threatened species of plants, as listed under 6.6.1 above, besides the in situ efforts for conservation of existing populations, it would require special ex situ back-up for multiplication of individuals and subsequent introduction in the natural habitats. • Conservation of riverine habitats: The riverine habitats in this landscape are most threatened and vulnerable due to increased anthropogenic pressures. These habitats harbour a large number of epiphytic orchids and also serve as important corridor for the movement of migratory birds. In this context, lower Gori valley has long been been recognized as one of the important orchid hotspots in Western Himalaya, that harbours as many as 121 species of orchid species i.e., 50 % orchids reported from the state of

Uttarakhand. Prominent genera of orchids in the valley include Bulbophyllum (14 species), Dendrobium (10 spp.), Habenaria and Eria (9 species each). Ascocentrum ampullaceum (Roxb.) Schltr, Pteroceras suveolens (Roxb.) Holtt. and Vandopsis undulata (Lindl.) Reichb. f. are endemic to this valley. Several species of orchids found in this valley have great potential to become ornamental species and have horticultural importance e.g., Dendrobium normale, Dendrobium chrysanthum, Coelogyne cristata and Dendrobium hookerianum. Most important host trees of orchids in this valley are Tun (Toona ciliata), Mawa (Engelhadrtia spicata), and Banj (Quercus leucotrichophora) which need protection. The lower Gori valley also supports a seemingly isolated population of the Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis). Recently, Himal Prakruti has recorded two rare species of snakes in this valley viz., King Cobra (Ophiophagus hanna) and the Greater Black Krait (Bungarus niger) from this area. The latter forms a new distribution record in this valley (Theophilus et al., 2008). • Conservation of other Biologically Important Areas: Botanical hotspots i.e., the sites which harbour rare, threatened and endemic plants, type localities and sacred sites that have been identified in the landscape need to be given highest priority for conservation. A few sites which deserve special mention as Biologically Important Areas include Chhipla-Kedar and adjacent Kanar basin, Ralam Valley, Humdhura ridge, Sandev and Thalkedar. The Kanar Basin, upstream of Ghosi gad up to Chhiplakot and adjacent forested tracts are extremely rich in floral and faunal diversity. This area continues to harbour sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), a species that has been almost extirpated from the entire landscape. This basin is also known to harbour a good population of Satyr tragopan. In the cold desert area, Lapthal and its adjoining has a special significance for its rich fossil deposits, which need to be declared as Biologically Important Area. Additional details on such areas have been included in other chapter dealing with Wildlife and Conservation Areas (Chapter 7). • Among others, the alpine region of landscape harbors a good growth of soil inhabiting (terricolous) lichens, which sometimes along with blue-green algae and mosses form physical entity- biological soil crusts (BSCs). These BSCs are highly vulnerable to change in climatic and topographic conditions which can be used for ecosystem monitoring studies. As the alpine habitats due to their stressed climatology are always in fragile conditions, the study of lichens in these habitats can give a significant overview of changing environments naturally or unnaturally. • Habitat Improvement: Control of alien invasive species, restoration of degraded habitats, stabilization of landslide and eroded slopes, soil and moisture conservation works, especially on either side of newly constructed motor roads, restoration of mining sites and sites of upcoming Hydropower Projects need to be undertaken on war footing in order to conserve native flora and fauna. In this context, recent guidelines issued by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India and G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development (Anonymous, 2010) could be used as best practices to be replicated in this landscape.

7. Wildlife Habitat Management and Conservation Areas

7.1 Major habitats and key wildlife species The Indian part of KSL is divisible into several distinct physiographic units, which can be designated as broad habitat types. Each habitat type comprises peculiar biophysical conditions to suit a group of species or communities adapted to such conditions, and each species within the community is evolved to use its habitat as per its fundamental or realized niche. For the purpose of landscape level conservation planning, following major habitats and characteristic faunal species have been identified: • Alpine and sub-nival habitats: The area between natural timberline (3500+ 200m) and perpetual snowline (5500+200m) in the landscape, characterized by treeless vegetation, specialized plants and animals adapted for harsh climatic conditions, short growing season and low biomass production, makes this habitat. The alpine zone occupies nearly 30% of the geographical area in this landscape and includes a diverse terrain features and environmental gradients (Rawat 2005). Most charismatic species of wildlife representing this habitat is the endangered snow leopard (Uncia uncia) that occupies the apex of food pyramid and regarded as flagship species for conservation in this zone. Common herbivores sharing alpine habitat include Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). A few species are restricted to lower alpine regions such as goral (Nemorhaedus goral), Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), Himalayan yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Based on the relief features, geology and general location, two distinct categories of alpine habitats are discernible in the region, i.e., moist alpine habitats of Greater Himalaya typically represented by the species mentioned above and the dry alpine habitats adjacent to the Tibetan plateau. In the latter zone, quite a few species of Tibetan origin are encountered e.g., Tibetan woolly hare (Lepus oiostolus), Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus), Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayana) and Tibetan snow cock (Tetraogallus tibetanus). In north-western part of the landscape, there are reports of Tibetan wild ass or kiang (Equus hemionus kiang) occasionally using the alpine arid pastures and moving back and forth across international boundaries of India and P.R. China. Likewise, wide ranging carnivores particularly snow leopard and Tibetan wolf are also known to have large home ranges and move between both the countries within the KSL. • Timberline Ecotone and Sub-alpine Forests: The timberline ecotone in the region represents important and ecologically sensitive habitat in the landscape. This zone is among the most sensitive climatically governed vegetation boundaries on earth. A small change in the temperature can lead to shift in the boundaries which may ultimately affect overall biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at these altitudes. Since ecotones represent a series of communities adapted to specific sets of environmental conditions juxtaposed in a short distance, such areas are considered appropriate for long term monitoring of changes due to climate change. The major physiognomic types along the timberline ecotone in this landscape include scattered forests of Betula utilis, Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus semecarpifolia, Abies spectabilis, Sorbus microphylla, Acer caesium and krummholz (stunted forest formations) dominated by Rhododendron campanulatum. The key mammalian fauna at and around timberline zone are red fox Vulpes vulpes, Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), yellow- throated marten (Martes flavigula), red giant flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista), Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). Among small mammals Royle's mountain vole (Alticola roylei) and Royle's pika (Ochotona roylei) are common. The krummholz formation is frequently used as cover by a large number of species including several pheasants and other avifauna, especially summer migrants. • Cool temperate grassy slopes: A significant proportion of the upper temperate belt in this landscape is characterized by steep, often rocky slopes dominated by grasses. These slopes have evolved as a result of frequent fires (anthropogenic). Common grasses on the slopes include Chrysopogon gryllus, Themeda anathera, T. tremula,

Adropogon munroi and Cymbopogon distans. Important species of wild ungulates on such habitats include Himalayan tahr and goral. Himalayan yellow-throated marten, red fox, common leopard and Asiatic black bear can be sighted occasionally. Such slopes are also rich in a variety of birds including partridges, pipits, vultures and a number of raptors. • Temperate Forests and scrub: The middle elevation (between 1200 – 3000 m) forests and secondary scrub in this landscape supports a large number of forest formations including dry as well as moist categories (both conifers and broadleaf). Numerous stages of secondary succession, both natural and man-made, exist throughout the region. It is difficult to single out a particular habitat in this belt owing to preponderance of human habitation and cultivation. Remote and inaccessible localities do support typical temperate faunal assemblages including Asiatic black bear, wild pig, sambar, barking deer, flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista) and Himalayan langur (Semnopithecus entellus himalayensis). A wide variety of resident and migratory avi-fauna use these forests extensively. • Sub-tropical Forests and Secondary Scrub: The low-lying, generally gentle and moist places in the landscape (below 1200 m) have long been transformed into human habitation or agriculture. However, a few dry a few rocky and inaccessible places away from sources of water support scattered broadleaf open forests and scrub vegetation. Prominent forest formations under these habitats include broadleaf – mixed forests Sal (Shorea robusta) and Sain (Terminalia tomentosa), Sub-tropical Euphorbia scrub, and occasionally Chir pine. Key faunal elements in such habitats are barking deer (Muntiacus muntjac), sambar (Cervus unicolor), Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica), wild pig (Sus scrofa), Himalayan langur, and rhesus macaque. Unlike the eastern region, this area is characterized by the low diversity of arboreal species such as primates and squirrels. Open grassy slopes and woodlands (common in the western region) have more grazing ungulates such as goral (Nemorhaedus goral), besides a wide variety of avi-fauna. • Riverine Habitat: The riverine areas represent the most important habitats in the landscape. These habitats form connecting link between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems both along vertical and horizontal planes. State of rivers and streams reflect the health of entire landscape that they link forming a critical aquatic corridor (Anonymous 2007). There are extensive variations in environmental gradients and the interactions of rivers within the landscape. Almost all human habitations in the landscape are either along the main rivers or their many tributaries, or next to springs that emerge from an impermeable layer, and eventually flow down to the river. As in all other such places, the lives of the people living here are deeply tied-in with the rivers in very many ways. A number of tree species form almost pure stands along riverine areas in this landscape e.g., Alnus nepalensis, Macaranga pustulata, Toona ciliata, Hippophae salicifolia, Debregeasia hypoleuca and Salix wallichiana. Several species of mammals, birds, lower vertebrates use these habitats throughout the year.

7.2 Habitats for migratory species and corridors In the absence of detailed studies on the long distance and local migration patterns among various faunal groups, crucial corridors and migratory routes have not been delineated in this landscape. However, based on the existing forest cover, extant habitats and local information collected by the survey team, a few areas have been identified as important corridors and migratory routes of mammals and birds. This would require further field verification and detailed studies in future: • Pindari – Namik – Khalia Alpine Corridor: The tract between upper reaches of Pindari (Bageshwar district) and Namik – Khalia ridge (Pithoragarh district) is linked through a narrow alpine belt. This stretch is home to a number of west Himalayan mammals and avi-fauna. Contiguity of this landscape would be extremely critical for the genetic exchange of various Himalayan fauna. • Khaliya – Humdhura Corridor: The Humdhura ridge is one of the most prominent ridges that runs in south – north direction linking lower parts of Didihat block with that of Munsiary. This ridge serves as an important corridor for the avi-fauna and a variety of lower animals.

• Barjikang – Burphu dhura- Rajrambha: The Barjikang – Bhurphu dhura ridge between Johar and Ralam valleys forms one of the most important corridor for the migration of flora and fauna between two valleys. This area also forms excellent habitat for blue sheep and snow leopard that may be critical for maintenance of genetic continuity between Johar and Ralam. Likewise, the Rajrambha and Naginidhura form an important corridor between Barjikang and Panch Chuli basin for the genetic continuity of flora and fauna. • Riverine corridors along Gori and Ramganga: Both Gori and Ramganga rivers support rich riverine vegetation on either banks. These forests serve as important corridors for the migratory birds as well as dispersal routes for a variety of orchids. Hence, the extant riverine stretches are of utmost conservation significance. • Riverine areas of Sarayu-Ramganga- Sharada Regions: At the lower reaches of GKSL within Indian territory, the riverine areas of Sarayu - Ramgang - Sharada corridors help in maintenance of travel and dispersal routes of flora and fauna. Detailed studies on the use of important species of avi-fauna especially kalij and red jungle fowl along these corridors would reveal several interesting facts about their biogeography.

7.3 Conservation Areas and their Management

The target landscape consists of one legally defined Protected Area (i.e., Askot Wildlife Sanctuary) and on its upper north-west extremes it includes parts of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), a globally recognized mountain Biosphere Reserve The contiguity of the landscape with NDBR provides it an additional benefit of forming a contiguous landform with exceptionally high conservation and socio-economic value.

7.3.1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary (AWLS): The preliminary notification of Askot wildlife sanctuary under Sec 18 of the WLPAct 1972 dated 1987 declared 600 km2 area of Askot Range in Pithoragarh Forest Division as WLS comprising 289 km2 Reserved Forests, 225 km2 Civil and Van Panchayats and 85 km2 of Agriculture lands. In this respect over 8.4% area KSL in Indian part is under legal PA coverage. However, since the details of civil and van panchayat areas and the area under agriculture are yet to be finalised after widespread consultation with the stakeholders and approvals from appropriate authorities. • Considering the larger consensus that the bigger reserve is a better option to protect variety of habitat types and withstand the external pressures, the size of AWLS is considerably large as compared to the regional mean size of protected areas (zone Himalaya -311.8 km2; province west Himalaya – 377.8 km2). The sanctuary qualifies as a representative large reserve in view of the fact that over 50% of Pas in the Himalayan Biogeographical zone are below 100 km2 and more than 85% below 500 km2 (Rawal & Dhar 2001). The sanctuary represents a wide range of elevational gradients and thereby contains diverse habitat conditions ranging from subtropical to high alpine and cold desert conditions. The unique biogeographic location, i.e., at the juncture of western and central (Nepal) Himalaya, and its proximity with Tibet through passes on the northern border, is unmatched. Some of the peculiarities of AWLS are summarized below: • AWLS, by virtue of its special position in east and west (longitudinal) transition of the Himalaya, shares biodiversity elements of both east and west (sensu lato) Himalaya. Among others, the salient features of habitat and community representation can be summarized as under: (1) the sanctuary, on one hand, shows dominance of typical west Himalayan forest communities (e.g, chir pine and west Himalayan oaks) and on the other, exhibits western-most limit for east Himalayan communities like Tansinh (Tsuga) and Ramal (Macaranga); (2) the wide horizontal and vertical expanse of reserve has resulted into exceptionally high habitat/community diversity. For example, (i) AWLS is probably the only PA in India to possess habitats ranging from subtropical sal (Shorea robusta) to alpine meadows; (ii) the reserve possesses adequate representation (.85%0 of reported forest communities (dominant types) of Kumaun-west Himalaya; (iii) Tsuga dumosa and Macaranga pustulata communities are exclusive for entire west Himalaya;

(iv) a considerable share (10-15%) of reserve area falls under alpine conditions characterized by both moist and dry alpine habitats thereby representing elements of both the conditions; (3) the forest communities of the reserve are representative of 7 (64%) forest formation types of Himalaya. (4) the sanctuary includes forests of both pioneer and climax stages and compositionally forests of reserve correspond well with comparable types of Kumaun, west Himalaya. • A detailed inventory of vascular plants suggests presence of over 1262 species (angiosperms -1112; gymnosperms 7; pteridophytes -143) which is over 50% representation of entire GKSL landscape in India part. • Among taxonomic groups, species richness in family Orchidaceae is revealing and represents 191 species of orchids out of 237 in Uttarakhand. • The preliminary information on reserves faunal species richness indicates presence of 29 mammals (28.4% of west Himalaya) and 120 birds of west Himalaya and nearly of Kumaun). • Of representative floristic elements in the reserve, native (Himalayan) species contribute 34% of total and over 60% of native elements are Himalayan endemics (24 endemic and 235 species near endemics). Number of Himalayan endemics are present in AWLS (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1: Himalayan endemics reported from the AWLS Taxa Altitude Range Restriction range (m) Aconitum falconerii Stapf. 3800-4500 WH Anemone rauii Goel & Bhattach. 2800-3200 WH Lychnis pilosa Edgew. 2800-3600 TNWH,WH Impatiens thomsonii Hk. 2800-3600 TNWH,WH Angelica glauca Edgew. 3300-3800 WH, CH Pimpinella acuminata (Edgew.) Cl. 2500-3200 TNWH, WH, CH Pleurospermum densiflorum Benth.ex Cl. 3800-4200 TNW, WH Lactuca macrorhiza (Royle) Hk. f. 3300-3800 TNWH,WH,CH Scrophularia himalensis Royle ex. Benth. 1500-2800 TNWH, WH Goldfusia dalhousana Nees 1500-2800 TNWH, WH Dendrobium normale Falc. 1800 WH Eria occidentalis Siedenf. 1400-1600 WH Nervilia mackinnonii (Duthiei) Schltr. Upto 1600 WH Oreorchis indica (Lindl.) Hk. f. 2000-2600 TNWH, WH Koberesia duthiei Cl. 3500-4000 WH Yushania anceps 2800-3200 WH Lepisorous amarolepidous (Sledge) Bir & Trikha 1500-2200 WH L. excavatus (Bory) Ching 1500-2200 TNWH, WH Phymatopteris stracheyi (Ching) Pichi Sermoli 2000-3400 TNWH, WH Onychium fragile Verma & Khullar 1000-1800 TNWH, WH Cyclogramma auriculata (Sm.) Ching 1600-1800 TNWH, WH Athyrium rubricule (Edgew.) Bir 2800-3200 TNWH, WH Athyrium duthiei (Bedd.) Bedd. 3000-3500 TNWH, WH, CH, EH Source: Samant et al., 1998. [TNWH-Trans North West Himalaya, WH- West Himalaya, CH- Central Himalaya, EH-East Himalaya]

• The reserve supports some critically important habitats/communities. For example, while considering cumulative biodiversity values the Timberline Zone (TLZ) of Panchachuli basin (within AWLS) and Ralam valley (neighbouring AWLS) have been identified among ten top-ranking priority sites in west Himalaya. On account of naturalness, endemicity and use value of biodiversity elements these sites, however, assume highest uniqueness score (Dhar 2000). • On a broader perspective among vulnerable eco-regions of the Himalaya, AWLS supports considerably large area of west Himalayan broadleaf forest (145 km2) and Himalayan subtropical pine forest (78 km2). The importance of protecting such large

tracts can be viewed for overall maintenance of biological integrity of the Himalaya (Rawal and Dhar 2001). • The ethnic identity of AWLS is unique and embedded into two culturally-distinct tribal groups- the Bhotiyas and the Rajees-in addition to Kumaonies and Nepalis, who are not designated as ‘tribes’)Lifestyle of both the groups is well knit with existing natural resource of the area. • The ethnic/cultural diversity prevailing in and around AWLS has strengthened optimal use of existing resources through traditional systems. While attempting a documentation, a total of 172 plant species (13.6%) were found to be utilized by the inhabitants (medicine 69, edible 72, fodder 57, fuel 31, house building 9, religious 7, and fiber 2) and a large proportion (69.2%) of these wild useful plants are Himalayan in origin. Among the two ethnic groups, the Rajees have better understanding of wild edible plants whereas the Bhotiyas exhibit knowledge on income-generating resources, e.g., medicinal plants. • The AWLS is also home some of the rare birds like the Satyr Tragopan and also has a good population of musk deers. (96 musk deers as per last census) • The alpine meadows of the sanctuary also are habitat for Yar-tsa Gam-bu, which is a main livelihood option for the surrounding population. The alpine meadows are also infested with Rumex nepalensis especially in camping sites of nomadic graziers with their flock.

7.3.2. Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve: The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve – NDBR (Total Area : 6,407.03 km2, Core Area: 712.12 km2, Buffer Area: 5,148.57 km2, Transition Area: 546.34 km2), the second Biosphere Reserve to be declared by Government of India, represents unique combination of mountain ecosystems including traditional agro-ecosystems, mixed temperate and sub alpine forests, alpine meadows and glaciers. In recognition of its uniqueness, the reserve has been included in World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR). Also, the Nanda Devi and the Valley of Flowers National Parks, forming core of NDBR, have been inscribed on the World Heritage List under Natural Criteria iii and iv. Of the total, a considerable part of NDBR buffer zone falls in the target Kailash landscape in India part.

The recorded floral elements of NDBR include: angiosperms 699 species; gymnosperms 11, pteridophytes 137; bryophytes 146; lichens 77, and fungi 128. Some plant rarities are: Allium stracheyi, Aconitum balfourii, A. heterophyllum, Angelica glauca, Arnebia benthamii, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Podophyllum hexandrum, Saussurea costus, S. obvallata, Taxus baccata; Picrorhiza kurrooa, Hedychium spicatum, Paeonia emodi,etc.

The known faunal diversity includes - mammals 29 species; birds 243; insects 229; molluscs 14; amphibian 8; annelids 6; reptiles 3; and pisces 1. Notable faunal rarities are: Uncia uncia, Moschus chrysogaster, Selenarctos thibetanus, Pseudois nayaur, Lophophorous impejanus, Pucrasia macrolopha, Tragopan melanocephalus, Tetragallus himalyensis, Gyps bengalensis, Sarcogyps calvus, Gypaetus barbatus, and Catreus wallichii.

Besides wildlife, the reserve supports a large number of traditional crops, fruits and vegetables. Among these, Fagopyrum esculentum (Ogal), F. tataricum (Phaphar) Phaseolus vulgaris (Rajma), Eleusine coracana (Manduwa), Amaranthus paniculatus (Chaulai), Hordeum himalayense (Uwa), H. vulgare (Jau), Glycine max (Bhat) and Panicum miliaceum (Chena) are important for sustenance of inhabitants. A large number of medicinal and wild edible plants in the reserve are being used both for sustenance and income generation.

Of the total 47 buffer zone villages of NDBR, the GKSL part of NDBR has following villages: Milam, Martoli, Sumdu, Mapa, Ganghar, Pachchu, Burfu, Bilju, Lwan, Khillanj and Tola, which are inhabited by the Johari Bhotiya community. All the villages are accessible after a tough hilly trek of at least 35 km and up to a maximum of 55 km.

The locations of AWLS and the NDBR (part) in the KSL are depicted in Fig. 7.1.

askotsec18 askotw lsproposed NDBR

0 10 20 30 40 50 km

Figure 7.1: Location of NDBR part and AWLS within Indian part of KSL

7.3.3. Potential Conservation Landscape- Linking PAs The target landscape has an opportunity for maintaining contiguity of existing PA (i.e., AWLS) with other conservation area (i.e., NDBR). The whole landscape from the Eastern boundary of NDBR in Munsyari Tehsil of Pithoragarh District down to Gori Ganga river and down along the river till its confluence with Kali at Jauljibi and then upwards along the Kali and along the Indo-Nepal boundary till the trijunction of India-Tibet-Nepal and then westwards along the Indo-Tibet border till it meets the boundary of the NDBR might form a larger conservation landscape (approximately 3500 sq. km.). Considering that a Biosphere Reserve is a voluntary, cooperative, conservation reserve created to protect the biological and cultural diversity of a region while promoting sustainable economic development the proposed landscape would most appropriately be considered as an extension of the existing NDBR. An initial attempt of proposing such an area as potential BR (to be called Panchachuli BR) or extension of existing BR has been made at the level of Deputy Conservator Forests (Working Plan), Pithoragarh Forest Division. The proposal includes provision of two National Parks as core zone, viz. Panchachuli National Park comprising the snowpeaks and glaciers around the Panchachuli massif between the Goriganga and Dhauliganga rivers with an approximate area of 547 km2 and the other the Byans-Darma National Park comprising the snowpeaks and glaciers between the Dhauliganga and Kuti Yankti rivers with an approximate area of 193 km2.

The buffer zone of the proposed conservation landscape (i.e., BR) would consist of Reserved Forests and Civil and Van Panchayats adjoining the proposed core zone and may include following Protected/Conservation Areas: • Chiplakedar Yartsa Gambu Conservation Reserve – For the sustainable harvest of Yartsa Gambu at the same time conserving the habitat and equitable benefit sharing of

the produce. This would comprise the alpine meadows of Chiplakedar in both Dharchula and Munsyari Tehsil and would exclude all wooded areas around it. The approximate area would be 62 km2 with potential to be extended in similar habitat close by. • Ralam Conservation Reserve – Also for the conservation of habitat and sustainable harvest of Yartsa Gambu and other medicinal plants and equitable benefit sharing of the produce. The area would comprise the whole valley of Ralam Gad from the snout of the Ralam Glacier till Jantri Udiyar. The approximate area would be 72 km2. • Daphia Orchid Community Reserve- For the conservation of the rich orchid flora (191 species of orchids out of 237 in Uttarakhand) in the area from Baram to Bangapani along the Gori Ganga till the boundary of Daphia compartment 12 and would consist of RF, Van Panchayats, Civil and Agriculture lands with an approximate area of 32 km2. The conservation activity would be voluntarily done by the community in collaboration with the forest department and the benefits thereof by means of tourism, research, trade, etc. would be shared by the community. The terms and conditions of management would be decided by the management committee. • Tansinh Conservation Reserve- The Reserved Forests of Rungling, Hiragomri, Juintigad, Sobala and Duk may form Tansinh Conservation Reserve with an approximate area of 156 km2 for the conservation of the rare species of Tansinh, the Himalayan Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), which is restricted in distribution to only this area in Western Himalayas and also found in small population in adjoining areas with none beyond the south of Gori Ganga. The objective would be to aim at the conservation, development and regeneration of this rare species of timber yielding tall tree and to identify the potential for sustainable utilization of the produce.

7.4 Conservation and Management Efforts and Gaps The wildlife management in target landscape is carried out by the Wildlife Wing of the Uttarakhand State Forest Department. Administratively, it is headed by the Additional Principal Chief Conservator of Forests who is designated as Chief Wildlife Warden (CWLW) under whose guidance the Chief Conservators, Divisional Forest Officers and Range Officers carry out the management activities as per the existing laws (Indian Wildlife [Protection] Act, Forest Conservation Act) and Policies (Mountaineering, Ecotourism, NWFP extraction). For Protected Areas (PA), the management is guided by the Wildlife Management Plans prepared by the PA managers for a period of 10 years. At the field level, the FROs with their teams of deputy rangers, wildlife guards and watchers execute the management activities. Some of the major activities at the field level include: patrolling and intelligence gathering to control poaching and illegal wildlife trade; wildlife monitoring; afforestation and habitat management activities for habitat improvement as prescribed in the wildlife management plans; and ecodevelopment activities. The territorial wing of the Forest Department also supports the wildlife wing in protection and wildlife monitoring activities.

However, with the exception of the NDBR (parts of which fall in target landscape) that has been managed well; the current levels of management in this landscape have remained unsatisfactory due to the poor manpower and infrastructure. Askot WLS has remained as low profile PA, despite its great conservation significance (Rawal and Dhar 2001). This sanctuary has suffered due to lack of adequately trained human resources, infrastructure and budget. However, entire district has often come to limelight owing to frequent reports of illegal trade in wildlife parts and occasional seizure of such commodities. Though the intentional notification of the park was done in 1980’s, it awaits final notification and revalidation of boundaries. The sanctuary status of erstwhile Askot range has, on the one hand, brought some awareness about the legal implications of poaching and collection of non-wood forest produce within the sanctuary, it’s long pending issue of dubious boundaries and lack of clarity regarding traditional rights and concessions have led to tremendous resentment among the local people. There is a need for adequate well trained, well equipped and motivated wildlife officers and frontline staff for management of this large and complex landscape keeping in view the needs, aspirations and problems of the local communities.

At the national level, through centrally sponsored schemes (Annual Plan of Operations for NPs and WSs) of the MoEF, funds are made available to the PA managers. Funds are also available through the recent initiative of the MoEF such as Project Snow Leopard (PSL) which the State Govt. proposes to utilise for managing some areas in this landscape. International projects such as UNESCO’s World Heritage Site (WHS) Programme has provided inputs and funds for enhancing park management and the welfare of local communities living in the buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Some of these include WHS scholarships, alternate livelihood and skill enhancement, wildlife monitoring and capacity building. The state provides directions, funds, capacity building of officers and staff, and welfare programmes for the local communities.

The scientific teams from Institutions like Wildlife Institute of India (WII), G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development (GBPIHED); Zoological survey of India (ZSI); Botanical survey of India (BSI); Kumaun University, Nainital; Aligarh Muslim University; Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), along with local NGOs like Himal Prakrthi, Munsiyari and ARPAN, Askot, have provided scientific information base for pursuing community development, conservation and management issues in the sanctuary area.

The NDBR (including part in KSL) is included in World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) of UNESCO. Also the existing core areas of the BR are natural world Heritage Sites. This recognition provides international access to conservation activities in the reserve. The management responsibility of NDBR is with state forest department, which is following a ten year landscape management plan (2003-04 to 2012-13) implemented in association with local inhabitants. The Ministry of Environment and forest Govt. of India provides financial assistance for the implementation of management action plan in the reserve. As such, following initiatives are being promoted: (i) Eco-Development activity; (ii) Value addition; (iii) Rehabilitation of; (iv) Ecotourism- Policy and infrastructure support; (v) Social welfare activity; (vi) Protection and communication system; (vii) Compensation for wild animal victims; (viii) Capacity building and awareness.

Towards maintaining an information base of NDBR and to synthesize the information for identification of gap areas as well as management priorities, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt of India, under its Man & Biosphere Reserve programme, has identified GBPIHED as Lead-Coordinating Institute.

Attempts at state and national level conservation efforts have been rather only at planning level. For example, a sub-state level biodiversity strategy and action plan was prepared for the Gori river basin by Foundation for Ecological Security (FES), a local NGO during 2002. This plan highlights the biodiversity values and conservation issues in the basin.

Second major attempt at landscape level conservation planning was done recently by PEACE – ELDF – Samrakshan – NRI International (Anonymous 2007). This document has been prepared on behalf of the Government of India under Biodiversity Conservation & Rural Livelihood Improvement Project (BCRLIP). This project visualizes conservation of Askot Cosnervation Landscape, which is likely to be aided by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) of the World Bank. Once implemented, BCRLIP hopes to secure new grounds for conservation of biodiversity in this area with multi-sector, socio-politically acceptable and mutually agreeable actions for sustainable landscapes which were not addressed before in a time bound project mode. The Askot Conservation Landscape under BCRLIP Project proposes to cover an area of 4,460 sq.kms. The major focus of the Landscape is the Munsiyari and Dharchula Tehsils of Pithoragarh District. The Landscape links the Nanda Devi National Park and Ascot Wildlife Sanctuary by a large and biodiverse territory contiguous to both these valuable protected areas where conservation action and livelihood enhancement can be attempted and prioritize for much larger benefits to the people in the landscape.

Though the final outcome of the decision of the competent authorities in this regard is awaited however, if implemented will definitely add on to the proposed initiative under the “Trans-boundary Sacred Kailash Landscape Project” in addressing issues related to: • Reduced alienation through enhanced participatory processes and practices involving local communities in conservation, • Integrate conservation and livelihood plans, • Develop collaborative survey of Biologically Significant Areas (BSAs) in the Landscape for future conservation action, • Build capacities of Community Based Organizations (CBOs) in the Landscape, • Developing integrated land use planning and practices for sustainable livelihoods and conservation outcomes, • Improving the overall improvement in the quality of life of the people through stakeholder participation, • Strengthen management of protected areas in the landscape including required research and monitoring.

At local level several Non Government Organizations and Community based organizations are involved in conservation activities as well as development of livelihood options for inhabitants. The active community based organization, particularly in NDBR part include, Malla Johar Vikas Samiti (Malla Johar Development Committee). The Samiti intends to promote activities for sustainable development of the region (focusing in the upper Gori Ganga Valley). Likewise, Rang Kalyan Samiti, Dahrchula is working for the cause of social development and maintenance of cultural integrity among Bhotia tribal communities of Darma (Dhauli valley), Chaudans and Byans (Kali valley). Among others, at local level the Van Panchayat institutions, which can be conceived as forest protection committees and, part of a wider Panchayati structure of local governance, are functional within the landscape at ground level. Similarly, the Mahila Mangal Dals (Women Welfare Group) and Yuvak Mangal Dal (Youth Welfare Groups) and several Self Help Groups (SHGs) are functional. They equally participate in environmental protection activities in and around the conservation areas.

7.5 Wildlife Management Strategies and Action Points Difficult terrain, remoteness and harsh climate are challenges for the forest officials. The long and porous international borders which difficult to patrol. Acute shortage of trained and motivated staff further without logistics and infrastructural support further intensifies the problem. Yong dedicated staff with high altitude gears, clothing and arms and ammunition should be posted in such areas. Additional incentives to such staff like hard duty or high altitude allowance on the lines ITBP or army should be given to increase the motivation. There is an urgent need of increasing vigilance and intelligence network along the Indo- Nepal border especially along the Ascot Wildlife Sanctuary to control illegal trade of wildlife articles. There is urgent need for the strengthening of the management of Askot WLS including immediate rationalization of its boundaries. The co-existence of human and wild life is possible only by regular monitoring of wildlife populations and their movement, habitat development, increase of prey base and protection of agriculture lands and residential areas by effective fencing and at the same time providing corridors for easy movement of these animals. To conclude, the following action points are suggested for the better management of wildlife in the landscape:

• The protection and management of the biological resources in this landscape requires strengthening by the development and implementation of scientific management plans at different levels (landscape, Protected Area, Reserved Forests and Van Panchayats) by the Forest Department with the participation of local communities. There is a need for well trained, well equipped and motivated manpower to manage this landscape at the field level. Coordination between different line departments is essential in ensuring long-term conservation goals in this landscape.

• Regular monitoring of endangered or indicator species/taxa and their habitats by the forest department, scientific institutions/universities and the local communities at different levels needs to be carried out in a coordinated manner. Maintenance of the use of natural resources below sustainable levels and ensuring the integrity of the core zones /PAs / critical wildlife habitats for biodiversity conservation is crucial. • Livestock grazing is a major management issue that needs to be addressed in this landscape level. The policy guidelines for sustainable livestock grazing in the Himalaya that has been developed could be adopted for this landscape after appropriate modifications in consultation with the local communities. • Management of wildlife-human conflicts will not only ensure local community support for conservation but also help in protecting endangered large carnivores that suffer due to retaliatory killings. Site specific measures with the support of local communities such as community level supervised grazing, rotational grazing; strengthening of night shelters for livestock, livestock insurance scheme, and strengthening indigenous crop-protection methods could be attempted. • Additional livelihood options, value addition to products/services, and economic development of local communities living in this landscape by various govt. agencies and NGOs would help in strengthening wildlife conservation by reducing natural resource dependency. • There is an urgent need to increase trans-boundary co-operation between India, Nepal and China to ensure habitat connectivity and protection of species populations from poaching due to illegal trade in wildlife.

8. Forests and Rangeland – Utilization & Management

8.1 Overview – forests, forestry and delineation of forest administrative categories The target landscape identified for the Kailas Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative (India component) falls almost completely in Pithoragarh Forest Division, with a small area falling under Bageshwar Forest Division. The forest area in the target landscape consists of all areas categorized as forests in the administrative records as well as all the areas which have taken the shape of forests as per the dictionary definition. It also includes alpine meadows, snow clad mountains, rivers and also grazing lands and barren areas. However, the forest and tree cover in the target landscape is much lesser than the total forest area.

The forest areas are broadly classified on administrative basis into Reserved Forests, Civil Forests and Van Panchayats. Reserved Forests are managed by the Forest Department, whereas the Civil forests are under the Revenue Department. The Van Panchayats are managed by the Village Forest Committees. These Van Panchayats were either formed from Civil forests or even from Reserved Forests. In addition to these, there are several forested areas previously owned by landlords and later got vested with the State Govt. after the abolition of Zamindari and also after the implementation of the Land Ceiling Act. These forests are proposed to be transferred to Forest Department or Van Panchayats and later on could be declared as Reserved Forests or otherwise as the Government wishes. There are also several areas which are not measured (Be-nap) in revenue records and all such areas were also declared as protected forests in 1893 under the Indian Forest Act. Large chunks of area (especially towards the international border and areas around snow clad mountains) in which no settlement or consolidation (Bandobast) has taken place are also treated as forest areas. A broad area statement is given (Table 8.1).

Table 8.1: Total area in the target landscape categorized as ‘Forests’ DIVISION Area in km2 Total Range RF VP CF VF Other PF

PITHORAGARH Pithoragarh 38.76 71.17 256.43 0.056 366.416

Didihat 94.99 110.17 180.4 0.26 385.82

Askot 136.24 80.48 23.89 240.61

Dharchula 154.68 143.22 249.78 2100 547.68

Munsyari (Part) 184.44 223.57 305.22 200 713.23

Berinag 79.37 48.21 0 7.57 135.15

Gangolihat (Part) 53.5 64.12 1.21 4.03 132.86

BAGESHWAR

Kapkot (part) 54 50 50 154.00

Total 795.98 790.94 1066.9 11.916 2300 4965.77 RF=Reserved Forests; VP=Van Panchayats; CF=Civil Forests; VF=Vested Forests; PF=Protected Forests

There are two subdivisions and seven ranges in Pithoragarh Forest Division and the part of the landscape in Bageshwar Forest Division is a part of Kapkot range. The ranges are divided into sections and further into beats, which are the primary administrative units. The northern part of Munsyari Range of Pithoragarh Forest Division also overlaps with the

boundary of NDBR. The Reserved Forest Blocks are divided into compartments, which are the primary management units. There are around 475 compartments in 64 Reserved Forest Blocks in the target landscape.

The forest divisions are headed by a Divisional Forest Officer and are assisted by Sub Divisional Forest officers. The ranges are headed by a Range Officer and assisted by Deputy Rangers. The different sections are in charge of Foresters and the beats are under the control of Forest Guards.

There are around 1675 Van Panchayats in the target landscape and considerably large chunk of civil forests are being converted to Van Panchayats. As aresult, the area under civil and van Panchayats is yet to be finalised. In addition, several civil areas have been declared as protected forests and a lot of such area is still to be demarcated and area calculated properly. Therefore, the area coverage presented in the table 8.1 is only tentative.

8.1.1. Forest cover and forest types The forest cover of Pithoragarh district (the major part of landscape), as per State of Forest Report 2009, is 2094 km2, which is approximately 29.53% of the geographical area.

The different forest vegetation types as per Champion and Seth Classification are as follows: Category Forest type

3 Tropical Moist Deciduous forests

5 Tropical Dry Deciduous forests 9 Subtropical Pine Forests 10 Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forests 12 Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests 13 Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests 14 Sub Alpine Forests 15 Moist Alpine Scrub 16 Dry Alpine Scrub

Sub category Forest type 3c/c2a(1) Montane Valley Sal forest (Outside the classification) 3c/c3 Moist Mixed deciduous forest 5b/c2 Northern Dry mixed deciduous 5b/1s2 Khair Sheesham forest 9cIb Himalayan Chir pine 9Ds1 Himalayan Sub tropical Scrub 10C1a Olea cuspidata forests 12c1a Banj oak forests 12c1b Moru Oak forests 12c1c Moist Deodar forests 12IS1 Alder forests 12c1e Moist temperate deciduous forest 12e1 Cupressus torulosa forests 12c1f Low level Blue pine forests 12c2a Khursu oak forests 12c2b West Himalayan Upper Oak Fir Forests 12c3a Western limit of Eastern Himalayan Mixed Coniferous forests 12DS1 Montane Bamboo brakes 12DS2 Himalayan Temperate Parkland 12DS3 Himalayan Temperate Pastures 13DS2 Dry Temperate Scrub 13C4 West Himalayan high-level dry blue pine forest

13Is1 Hippophae scrub 14c1a West Himalayan Sub alpine Fir forests 14c1b West Himalayan Birch Fir Forest 14ds1 Sub alpine pastures 15c1 Birch-Rhododendron scrub forests 15e1 Dwarf Rhododendron scrub 15c3 Alpine pastures 16C1 Dry Alpine scrub New type Riverine Macaranga pustulata forests New type Quercus lanata forests New type Lauraceae forests without Oaks

The different sub-classes within the above broad forest types are as follows:

The approximate area of different dominant species in Reserved Forests includes- Chir pine (234 km2), Oaks (114), Fir (02), Deodar (01), Sal (08), Blue pine (01), Cypress (13) and miscellaneous (218). The remaining areas in Reserved Forests are grasslands, rocky and barren areas.

8.1.2. Spatial delineation of forest areas by administrative categories The reserved forests have been mapped in Survey of India 1:50000 toposheets and old maps are also available on 1:31000 toposheets. The different working circles and growing stock are also mapped in the management maps prepared by working plan officers from time to time. The working plan of Pithoragarh Forest Division is under revision during which the maps would be updated using latest data and technology. However, summary maps of administrative boundaries of Divisions, ranges and boundaries of Reserved Forests are being provided in this report (Fig. 8.1; 8.2; and 8.3).

NDBR (overlapping)

BAGESHWAR PITHORAGARH FOREST DIVISON FOREST DIVISON

0 10 20 30 40 50 km

Figure 8.1: Forest Divisions of KSL- India part

DHARCHULA

MUNSYARI

KAPKOT

ASKOT

BERINAG

0 10 20 30 40 50 km DIDIHAT GANGOLIHAT

PITHORAGARH

Figure 8.2: Forest ranges of KSL- India part

0 10 20 30 40 50 km

Figure 8.3: Reserved forests of KSL- India part

0 10 20 30 40 50 km

Figure 8.4: Forest cover map of KSL- India part

8.1.3. Major production systems vis-à-vis forests The forests are managed following the prescriptions of 10-year working plans. The different areas are classified into Working circles based on the kind of activity proposed. The major classification of the Reserved Forest Area of Pithoragarh Forest Divison by different working circles in given (Table 8.2).

Table 8.3: Reserve forests by working circles in major part of landscape (i.e., Pithoragarh FD) S.N Working circle Area km2 Overlapping area Gross Net Gross Net 1 Chir 132.12 108.82 2 Deodar 0.28 0.27 3 Oak Improvement 37.41 31.1 4 Protection 582.98 582.98 5 Plantation 43.67 43.67 6 Resin tapping 113.33 96.03 7 NTFP Whole division Whole division 8 Soil and Moisture Conservation Whole division Whole division 9 Wildlife Management Whole division Whole division 10 Forest Fire management Whole division Whole division

The major produce from the forest area is timber. The major timber species is Pinus roxburghii or Chir pine. The timber was being harvested according to the conversion to uniform scheme by shelter wood system before 1980. The pine areas were classified into different periodic blocks according to the age and growing stock of the crop. The rotation period was kept at 120 years and the regeneration period was fixed at 25 years. Areas due for felling were kept in PB I and the fellings were undertaken in a phased manner, viz., Seeding felling, Secondary felling and Final felling. In seeding felling, the trees were removed leaving the mother trees for seeding and regeneration. Once regeneration starts coming up secondary felling is done in which a few mother trees are removed. Once the regeneration is fully established in about 25-30 years, the remaining trees are removed. This would ensure sustainable harvest for future and ensure proper regeneration of the forests. However, after 1980, due to the ban on green felling above 1000m, the prescribed felling were limited only to dead, dying and diseased trees or trees fallen in wind or other damage or trees which were required to be cut for development activities like road construction and other purposes. Trees could also be felled to meet the prescribed rights and concessions of local communities for their bona fide use. The present volume of rights due is 2307.07 cu.m of round timber per year. The details of trees felled during the last 10 years are given in (Table 8.3).

Table 8.3: Details of harvest of timber in the target landscape Year Volume of timber felled in Cubic Metres Royalty Rs.lakhs Timber 3D trees* Development Total Rights 2001-02 566.179 2305.14 1735.823 4607.1 66.26 2002-03 765.79 1541.7 379.84 2687.33 22.1 2003-04 1527.52 1625.66 415.342 3568.522 11.7 2004-05 278.484 1320.57 382.54 1981.594 45.2 2005-06 388.787 2450.8 265.874 3105.461 43.5 2006-07 142.194 1284.6 243.664 1670.458 31.3 2007-08 143.04 2497.65 214.253 2854.943 53.5 2008-09 840.746 1866.37 156.964 2864.08 48.7 2009-10 288.806 1279.82 13.255 1581.881 15.0

Total 4941.546 16172.31 3807.555 24921.411 342.04 *3D=Dead, Dying and Diseased trees (including uprooted trees)

Commensurate with felling, plantation activities are also taken up in suitable areas as prescribed in the working plans. This includes plantation of commercially important trees, trees of ecological importance as well as its associates including shrubs, grasses, bamboos and medicinal plants. The area of plantations done in the last decade is given (Table 8.4).

Table 8.4: Plantations done in Reserved Forests of landscape in the last decade Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Plantation (ha) 195 220 230 200 55 100 145 95 55

Apart from this, 896.7 ha have been planted in civil and Van Panchayats and other degraded forests during the last decade in the form of compensatory afforestation against forest land transferred for development activities.

8.1.3.1. Resin production Resin is one of the main products from the Chir pine forests. Trees above 40 cm diameter are selected for resin tapping. The tapping coupes are also prescribed in the working plan. Tapping is done by the Rill method. The production of resin in the last decade is presented (Table 8.5).

Table 8.5: Resin production from the landscape in the last decade Year Reserved Forests Van Panchayats No. of channels Yield in quintals No. of channels Yield in quintals 2001 308150 11606 2400 60 2002 306650 12834 2400 84 2003 294500 13372 2000 81 2004 325600 15097 6600 323 2005 312900 13144 31500 1272 2006 277600 12114 51850 2326 2007 266749 11464 68000 2767 2008 270221 10914 72400 2691 2009 244035 10345 87300 3565 2010 149300 5972 100200 3172 (expected) (expected)

8.1.3.2. Other NTFPs The minor forest produce extracted from the forests include Cinnamon, Moss, Lichens, Grass, medicinal plants like Bach, Asparagus, Amla, Kutki, Salampanja, Aconitum, Yar-tsa Gam-bu, Ringaal, Torchwood, etc. During the last decade 335 ha of forest area was planted with around 5 lakhs ringaal (montane bamboo). Of late, Pine needles are also being collected for commercial purposes like coal briquettes, fuel for gassifiers, etc.

For the sustainable harvest of medicinal plants, a CDH Plan (Conservation, Development and Harvest Plan) is adopted. In this approach, certain areas rich in rare medicinal plants are demarcated for conservation to enhance the gene pool; other areas are selected for successful plantation for future use; and some areas abundant in certain species of medicinal plants are selected for controlled harvest on a rotational basis. The quantities of NTFPs harvested during last one decade are given (Table 8.6). Details of NTFPs from the landscape are given separately in the report.

Table 8.6: Total quantities of NTFP harvested from reserved forests of landscape Year 00&01 01&02 02&03 03&04 04&05 05&06 06&07 07&08 08&09 Qty in 2503.68 1720.51 1551.70 674.93 191.115 1607.39 1501.10 1333.24 1425.725 quintals

8.1.4. Forests and biodiversity conservation Production systems cannot be fruitful unless the supporting environment and the biodiversity within are conserved. Several areas have been included in the Protection working circle and also in the Biodiversity and Wildlife management working circles. These are the areas where commercial production activities are not prescribed. Such areas along with the other production areas are also treated for soil and moisture conservation, habitat improvement by eradication of invasive species like Lantana, Ageratina, etc. Habitat improvement for wildlife is also done by development of water holes, planting of grass and other preferred food plants and by protection from poachers and other habitat destruction activities.

8.1.5. Research activities Different research plots have also been established for long term monitoring of growth and performance of different species and also for specific research experiments. Seed plots also have been identified for production of quality planting material. There are around 21 research plots and 39 seed plots and 20 plus trees identified in the division.

8.1.6. Wildlife census report The 2008 census data of major wildlife species indicate occurrence of 275 Leopards, 286 Black bears, 872 Barking deers, 872 Sambhar, 1005 Ghoral, 7265 Rhesus, 4059 Langur, 2002 Wild pigs, 130 Tahr, 96 Musk deer, 110 Monals and 583 Vultures. The census techniques are rather unscientific and have to be replaced with modern techniques of non- invasive counting throughout the year using camera traps and regular enumerations.

8.1.7. Revenue and expenditure The revenue and expenditure details of Pithoragarh Forest Division for the last decade are given (Table 8.7):

Table 8.7: Details of revenue and expenditure of the last decade Year Timber Resin Others Total Expenditure (Rs.lakhs) 2001-02 22 10.17 37.41 69.58 177.1 2002-03 47.03 41.41 35.14 123.58 140.4 2003-04 9.4 72.82 28.33 110.55 200.9 2004-05 12.92 59.01 172.28 244.21 174.2 2005-06 31.8 173.67 22.58 228.05 176.9 2006-07 35.2 215.47 40.99 291.66 197.7 2007-08 21.5 105.28 388.99 515.77 297.2 2008-09 26.53 169.86 382.17 578.56 299.1 2009-10 14.34 367.16 232.66 614.16 145.8

8.1.8. Role of communities in forest management The local communities are the real users as well as managers of forests in the landscape. They are very much dependent on forests for their daily bona fide uses and therefore most affected ones by any change in the ecosystem. The communities also have unwritten laws for managing the natural resources so that the forests can be sustainably utilized. Forest dependent communities were also granted timber, fuel wood and grazing rights during the process of creation of Reserved Forests. Several forest areas have been constituted into Van Panchayats where the Village Forest Committees (VFC) manage the forests according to micro plans approved by the Forest Department. The accounts of the Van Panchayat are

87 run jointly with the Secretary of the VFC, an ex-officio from the Forest Department. While community is responsible for protecting the forests, it has powers to implement the forest laws in their Van Panchayats. They also provide and are responsible to give information on illegal activities in the forest areas and also to prevent and put off forest fires in the area. Local communities also involve in collection of NTFPs like medicinal plants, resin, lichen, moss, Yar-tsa gam-bu, etc. They are registered by authorized collection agencies like Forest Department, Forest Development Corporation, Bheshag Sangh, Herbal Research and Development Institute (HRDI), etc. The different areas in which harvest of NTFP is to be done are decided by the prescriptions in the working plan as well as the micro plans in case of Van Panchayats.

The local communities also possess information of indigenous traditional knowledge of use of forest resources.

Several forestry activities in civil and Van Panchayats, at times in Reserved Forests also, are taken up by the local communities. There is a federation of the Van Panchayats at the division level called the Forest Development Agency (FDA), chaired by the Conservator and has the territorial DFO as the Secretary. This agency is responsible for preparation of projects and receives funds from various agencies and transfers to the Van Panchayats for forestry activities. This concept came after the completion of the Joint Forest Management project funded by the World Bank. The FDA is presently having projects funded by the National Afforestation and Eco-development Board under the National Afforestation Plan. The fund generated for compensatory afforestation and recovery of Net Present Value of forest land diverted for non forestry activities are recycled to the respective Van Panchayats through the CAMPA fund for different forestry activities.

The different activities taken up in these projects include protection works like fencing and security, soil and moisture conservation works, assisted natural regeneration activities, tree plantation activities, pasture development, medicinal plants cultivation, nursery, capacity building programmes, entry point activities, survey and demarcation, fodder development and fire fighting.

8.2 Rangelands and pastoral practices The temperate and alpine pastures in this landscape, which have traditionally been used for livestock grazing by the pastoral communities, are also termed as rangelands. Detailed survey of alpine rangelands in the region was conducted by Rawat (2005). The following excerpts and information in Table 8.8 are drawn from the said document: • Byans Valley in north-eastern corner of the landscape has quite extensive areas under alpine scrub and pastures. Most of the valley bottoms have a considerable area under abandoned cultivation owing to outmigration of the local inhabitants. The prominent pastures in Byans valley are listed (Table 8.8). Most of the alpine meadows except Palangar and Chhiyalekh lie in the partly rain shadow area and exhibit characteristics of dry alpine steppe. Hence, in terms of plant species richness and forage production Palangar and Chhiyalekh are considered the best. However, in terms of pasture size and ease of livestock grazing, pastures of Kalapani and Jeolingkong areas are highly preferred by the pastoral communities. Of these, important site for conservation concern is Chhiyalekh (3325 m asl; 30o 06’ 31.7” N latitude and 80o 50’ 04.7” E longitude). Despite heavy livestock grazing (over 300 cattle and horses throughout summer and all the transient sheep and goats during migration) and human pressure, Chhiyalekh has retained its species richness and moderate vegetation cover. The south facing slopes above the plateau is dominated by Fiji grass (Danthonia cachemyriana) along with several herbaceous species and medicinal and aromatic plants such as Dhoop (Jurinea dolomiaea, Iris kumaonensis, Potentilla atrisanguinea, P. argyrophylla, Anemone rivularis, A. polyanthes, Morina longifolia, Allium stracheyii, Rheum australe, Fritillaria stracheyii, Roscoea alpina and Carum carvii. The upper Bugyals of Chhiyalekh are contiguous with adjacent slopes of Garbyang. The lower broken slopes have several

grazing resistant shrubs e.g., Berberis jaeshkeana, Berberis kumaonensis, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Spiraea canescens, scattered Hippophae salicifolia, Buxus wallichiana var. microphylla and Stellera chamaejesme. Chhiyalekh also happens to be the Type Locality for two rare endemic ground orchids viz., Herminium kumaunensis and Ponerorchis renzii. At present there are three temporary Dhabas, one temple and several livestock camps on the plateau. It is feared that future developmental works and construction of more buildings may affect the natural vegetation and aesthetics of Chhiyalekh. • The ridge that separates the waters of Kali and Dhauli Ganga beyond Hiragomri and Rungling Reserved Forests connects the lower areas with that of Chhota Kailash. This area is extremely rugged yet supports quite a few sizable alpine meadows which are used by the shepherds of Chaudans and a few other villages in Dharchula. The important meadows include Gangthin, Shekuakhan, in upper parts of Dharchula. • The upper basin of eastern Dhauli Ganga (a tributary of river Kali) beyond Bongling is popularly known as Malla (upper) Darma. This valley has 14 summer villages which are occupied during May - October. At present only 30 – 40 % families from lower Darma migrate to these villages. More than two third of upper Darma valley is occupied by dense scrub, agricultural fallow and sub-alpine forest (fir-blue pine and birch). Sizeable and best alpine meadows are located towards Bedang and Dawe plains (headwaters of Dhauli) or along Lisser Yangti. There are smaller pastures above few villages viz., Baun, Dugtu and Sipu, where a few shepherds from lower Darma bring their sheep and goats and feral cattle of the villagers graze. The Dawe plains of Darma (>4000 m asl; 27 km long and 1-2 km wide) exhibit characteristics of Tibetan plateau. The north facing rocky slopes on the south western flank of Dawe have extensive patches of Juniperus indica, Cassiope fastigiata, and Rhododendron anthopogon. Species frequently seen in the meadows include Potentilla bifurca, Dracocephalum heterophyllum, Sibbaldia cuneata, Taraxacum officinale, Leontopodium himalayanum, Carex obscura, Kobresia spp, Lancea tibetica and Polygonum sibiricum. At present, 4-5 Gaddis and 3 local shepherds take their sheep and goats to Dawe for summer grazing. Total number of sheep and goats is estimated to be 9500-10,000. There is already a completion between the local shepherds and Gaddi herders for the better pastures. • One of the most sacred and ecologically interesting alpine sites in this landscape is Chhipla-Kedar, located between the Kali and Gori basins. In this range, highest point is at Najurikund (4425m) - the seat of Chhipla Kedar. This area has great religious and cultural significance. The local communities from all the sides organize Chhipla-Jaat every third year and journey to the seat of Lord Chhipla has to be performed bare-footed. The alpine meadows around Najurikot are lush green and laden with a variety of plant communities. Areas above 4200 m, especially among boulders have predominance of Primula stuartii, Meconopsis aculeata, Anemone polyanthes, Rhodiola spp., Rheum webbianum, Saussurea abvallata and S. graminifolia. Despite the sacred nature of this range, the alpine meadows are under heavy anthropogenic pressure. Up to 3600- 3800m elevation, there is excessive grazing pressure by sheep and goats. Beyond Chhipla-Kot (3600m) there is some restriction on grazing due to presence of certain poisonous plants. However, in recent years this area has become hotspot for collection of caterpillar mushroom (Cordyceps sinensis) that fetches rather easy and huge cash for the local communities. Every year, at least 1000 – 1500 tents (8-10,000 persons) can be seen around Chhipla-Kedar region during May – June. Thus, the sanctity of the sacred meadow is gradually declining due to gold rush in this landscape. The local communities not only collect Keeda-ghas (Cordyceps), but also other medicinal and aromatic plants such as Dactylorhiza, Picrorhiza, Nordostachys, Megacarpea polyandra, Angelica glauca, Swertia spp., Allium etc. People from 15-20 villages in the Munsiyari and Dharchula blocks use this area. The camps of the mushroom collectors are usually located above the treeline at and around 4000m asl and the collectors use fuelwood of R. campanulatum. Picrorhiza kurrooa is collected and used as a medicine for the cure of fever and stomach diseases and tuberous roots of Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Salampanja)used as a food supplement and tonic.

• The Panch Chuli basin in Munsiary block is extremely rugged and moist. It has quite extensive meadows but the shepherds do not prefer these pastures for summer grazing due to heavy rainfall and treacherous path. Snout of Pancha Chuli glacier is reported to be one of the lowest in the Western Himalaya (ca. 2900 m). The meadows adjacent to Dakhini Balati are reported to be very rich in Primula species. Based on the abundance of Primula species a Swedish botanist Charton Thomas named this area as Primula Valley in 1952. However, this area never received adequate attention of subsequent botanists. Some of the Bugyals in Panch Chuli basin are grazed by the local sheep and goats (numbering 750-800) for a short period i.e. during early summer (May) and autumn (October) when the weather is relatively dry. This may be one of the reasons why Panch Chuli basin is rich in the abundance of wild mammals and avifauna. • Ralam, located in the upper catchment of Pilthi river, a tributary of Gori that joins the latter at Lilam, is one of the picturesque and lush green upland valleys in the landscape. Presently there are nearly 35 families who visit this area during summer from Paton, largely to collect wild medicinal herbs especially the caterpillar mushroom or Yartsa Gombu (Cordyceps sinensis). The alpine meadows of Ralam appear to be lush green and more productive compared to adjacent Johar or Darma valleys largely due to higher rainfall and mild climate. It is estimated that around 16 flocks of sheep and goats (numbering a total of 4000 heads) graze in this valley during summer. In addition about 150-200 cattle and 8-10 recently introduced yaks graze around Ralam village. A bird’s eye view reveals that all flat areas and valley bottoms are dominated by an unpalatable herb Shyama (Rumex nepalensis) and Ginjari (Chaerophyllum villosum). The lower pastures are partly (5-10 %) covered by the unpalatable fern Osmunda claytoniana. Shady moist places especially north facing slopes opposite Ralam village and Bishan Thor below Barjikang pass has plenty of Mitha (Aconitum atrox), hence the shepherds avoid grazing in these areas. • The upper catchment of Gori river beyond Boudyar till Untadhura (30o 05’ to 30o 30’ N latitude and 80o 05’ to 80o 25’ E longitudes) is called Malla Johar or Juar that falls within Munsiary block. A large proportion of Johar falls in rain shadow area and exhibits characteristics of cold arid regions. Some of the prominent Bugyals in Malla Johar include Laspa – Poting, Sirti dhura, Lwan Gwar, Martoli, Burphu, Tola, Milam, Koalganga, Bilju, Pachhu and others (Rawat 2005). I most of the cases local communities regulate the use and number of sheep and goats in these pastures. Some of the best protected pastures in Johar Valley are around Martoli, Lwan and Koalganga. The upper slopes of Martoli and Lwan lead to a gentle and open pasture called Shallang Gwar. This area (approximately 40 -50 km2) has extensive Danthonia grassland at lower altitudes (below 3800m), extensive Rhododendron anthopogon scrub on rocky, moist slopes and mixed herbaceous meadows towards upper end of the valley. Characteristic species in these Bugyals are Potentilla argyrophylla, Poa alpina, Trachydium roylei, Oxytropis lapponica, Thalictrum alpinum, Kobresia nepalensis, Trisetum spicatum and Androsace globifera. At higher slopes (towards Traill’s pass) there are sparse patches of Brahmakamal (Saussurea obvallata), Saussurea graminifolia and Delphinium brunoniaum. Presently 6-7 flocks of sheep and goats (in total ca. 2500-3000) graze in the Martoli-Lwan and Shallang area besides about 100 cattle and horses. Four shepherds come from Shama Dhura and one from Liti village in Sarayu valley. While shepherds in other bugyals of Kumaon reported low grass production due to drought this year, the shepherds in this valley didn’t seem to notice any sign of drought for they stated that there are sufficiently large snow banks above these pastures and which provide sufficient moisture in the Shallang Gwar. • Northern flanks of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve adjacent to Tibetan plateau represents typically trans-Himalayan biogeographic zone. It is characterized by ancient Tethyan sea bed, rich in molluscan fossils such as Belamnites, Ammonites and Nautilus. The elevation of this area ranges from 4400 to 5500 m asl. It receives very scanty rainfall and exhibits all the characteristics of typically cold-arid conditions. A few places well known for their alpine arid pastures include Topidhunga, Chhyudhang, Sangcha Malla, Sangchu Talla, Lapthal and Tsojan. Topidhunga is a saucer shaped basin with

extensive meadows dominated by grasses, a few sedges and stunted herbs such as Waldhemia tomentosa, Leontopodium alpinum, Oxytropis lapponica, Arenaria bryophylla, Potentilla bifurca, Chesneya nubigena and Rheum moorcroftianum. Higher slopes have large hemispheric cushions of a curious herb Thylacospermum caespitosum, locally called `Fyang’. There are plenty of marmot colonies in the basin. Blue sheep are in good number (over 400) around Topidhunga. Since route to Topidhunga opens only towards end of June which may close any time in September, the shepherds stay in the area only for two months (July – August). This area is grazed by about 2500 sheep and goats (4-5 flocks) during 2004 summer. The tract between Chhyudhang (5 kms from Khingru Dhura) and Lapthal is quite different in terms of vegetation and landform. The dominant vegetation in the area is Caragana – Artemisia scrub with small grassy glades along the stream courses. Floristically this area is similar to Tibetan plateau. Characteristic species of cold arid region around Lapthal (which are not found in moist alpine region of Uttaranchal) are Eurotia ceratoides, Biebersteinia odora, Viola kunawarensis, Leymus secalinus, Thermopsis inflata, Lindelofia anchusoides, Cousinia thomsonii, and Euphorbia tibetica.

Table 8.8 : Important alpine meadows (bugyals) in the Landscape Major Valley Drainage Important Bugiyal Sites Land Use (approx no (area under livestock) meadows Km2) Byans (365) Kutti, Kali, Palangar, Chhiyalekh, 8 villages, local shepherds Yangti Garbyang, Kalapani, (s/g- 15000; c/h – 250) Nabidhang, Lipuu Lekh, Nampha, Kuti, Sela Yangti, Jolingkong Darma (185) Dhauli (east) Dawe, Bedang, Sipu, Dhakar, 9-12 villages, Gaddis, local Dugtu, Nagling shepherds (s/g- 12500; c/h – 400) Pancha Chuli Madkani, Balchhi dhura, Chhiplakot, Local shepherds (s/g- 1500; (145) Zimba Shyama Gwar, Molepani, c/h – 100) Dhunkhan, Khaliya, Rurkhan Ralam (75) Ralam gar Dudu-Marjhali, Rajthour, 1 village, local shepherds (s/g- Yangchari, Kal-Billan, Galpari- 3500; c/h – 250) Sibu Gwar, Raj Ramba Johar (750) Gori with 7-8 Milam, Bilju, Mapa, ganghar, 14 villages, Gaddis, local tributaries Pachhoo, Burphu Gwar, Tola shepherds (s/g- 8000; c/h – Bhadel Gwar, Sumtu- 400) Khellanch, Martoli-Shallang, Lwan, Laspa, Poting Source: Rawat,G.S.(2005) “Alpine Meadows of Uttaranchal”, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun; [s/g – sheep & goats; c/h – cattle & horses]

Three distinct forms of pastoral practices are prevalent in the cool temperate and alpine areas of this landscape, viz., nuclear transhumance, trans-migratory and sedentary (resident). Many families in the Dharchula and Munsiary blocks practice nuclear transhumance (a part of the family moves to their summer settlements in inner alpine valleys along with surplus cattle. Presently only 20-30% of the original households and only few members in each family along migrate to these valleys. In addition, several non-migrant communities drive their scrub cattle to sub-alpine and alpine areas for free grazing during summer monsoon. This practice leads to faster degradation of rangelands that includes loss of soil and moisture.

A perusal of official records from Darma and Byans valleys reveals that in most of the villages local people have given up the sheep herding and populations of sheep and goats in these villages have declined drastically since last three decades. However, some of these pastures are now being used by a few gaddi herders from Himachal Pradesh have been bringing their livestock since last decade or so. Influx of large herds from livestock and summer season

congregation of scrub cattle around timberline and sub-alpine forests are causes for concern and need to be addressed urgently.

From the conservation point of view, four categories of rangelands can be visualized in the landscape: (a) Pristine meadows (climatic climax with least soil erosion caused due to anthropogenic activities), (b) Slightly degraded or intact meadows, (c) Moderately degraded meadows (gently undulating areas with short duration of grazing only by sheep and goats) (d) Heavily degraded areas characterized by heavy soil erosion and infested by spiny herbs (Cirsium falconeri, C. verutum and Morina longifolia), and unpalatable herbs (Rumex nepalensis, Phlomis bracteosa, Hackelia uncinata and Osmunda claytoniana), among others.

Majority of alpine meadows in the district are heavily degraded due to extensive grazing by livestock. 39% of the meadows were moderately degraded and only a few localities (8 %) sites represent pristine meadows.

8.3 Transhumance, nomadic herding vis-à-vis landscape The Trans-himalayan regions of the target landscape have extreme cold weather and hence people in these areas stay in the villages only during the summer months for cultivation and grazing of sheep. By the onset of winter, these families migrate to their winter abodes in the hotter valleys below. They graze their cattle in the forests down below and even go the Terai Bhabar areas during winter. They slowly start bringing their livestock back to the hills by the end of winter and return to their summer camps high above during the spring season. However, the number of cattle grazed has considerably reduced during the recent years due to large scale emigration of villagers to the cities either for education or jobs and have permanently settled there. Only the poor and unemployed persons still lead a nomadic life.

Though heavy grazing has degraded several alpine meadows, a controlled amount of grazing is also required to maintain the grasslands and to prevent ingression of woody communities into the grassland, especially with lower snow fall and higher temperature regimes due to climate change.

There is no official data available for the number of nomadic shepherds and the number of livestock grazed. Such data could be scientifically collected to know about the change in scenario and to calculate carrying capacities of the meadows and to evolve sustainable utilization and conservation strategies for the same.

The villagers on their return to the winter abodes also take along with them precious medicinal plants collected from the wild and a few of them cultivated too. These are then sold to middlemen, who have given them advance money during their upward migration.

The approximate areas of the important alpine meadows and the approximate number of livestock that graze in these areas are given (Table 8.8).

8.4 Priority identification The priorities identified for sustainable forest and rangeland management and its conservation strategy are as follows: • Survey and demarcation: Delineation of forest/rangeland areas and their digitized mapping with different layers like legal status, forest/rangeland type, dominant species, slopes, aspect, springs, lakes, streams and glaciers, administrative units, infrastructure, management units, working circles, plantations, etc. • Human-Animal conflict: This is one of the most burning issues which has to be addressed by multiple strategies like education and awareness, protection measures like fencing, development of corridors between isolated forest/rangeland areas, habitat improvement of prey base, regular monitoring of wild animals and their movement, etc. • Prevention of Diversion of Forest Area for non-forestry activities: A lot of forest areas are being diverted for rural development activities as well as for large scale

infrastructure development. Strategy has to be identified to delineate areas which can be spared for each of such activity in case of alternate non-forest land not being available. Forest land may be sacrificed only in such activities for which no other alternative is available. All such activities in forest areas should be followed up with restoration of the damaged ecosystem around the development area. Environment Impact Assessment should be done meticulously for every project and the clearances should not be conditional but rather should be specific on each case. Road construction should be allowed only on elevated pillars and no form of cutting of forest land should be entertained. The rivers of the landscape carry a lot of silt and are not suitable for hydro projects. Large dams should in no case be allowed in the landscape. Tunnelling of hills for diverting the water to turbines has multifaceted effects not only on the hydrology of the landscape, but also on the geological stability of the landscape. • Timber harvest: Scientific management of forests for timber harvest has not been taking place for the last few decades due to ban on green felling of trees. The impacts thereof have been large scale accumulation of fuel load, heavy and unhealthy regeneration of Pines, increased forest fires and scarcity of legal firewood. It has also left several forests unattended and has resulted in disuse of forest roads and paths and thus resulting in decreased surveillance for prevention of forest crimes. Several Forest Rest Houses have also been abandoned due to their disuse. Hence, the lift of ban on green felling and revival of scientific management is of utmost priority. • NTFP Harvest: There is no scientific and standard package of practices developed for harvest of NTFP. The collection of forest produce is undertaken in a traditional manner without even assessing the quantities available and calculating the sustainable harvestable yield. A forest produce collection policy also needs to be developed. Strategy for sustainable collection of Yar-tsa Gam-bu also needs to be developed as a special case, immediately. • Declaration of Protected Areas: The landscape at present contains only one protected area, viz., Askot Wildlife Sanctuary, that too only in its intentional notification stage. The boundaries have not yet been finally decided. It is necessary to identify the areas which have to be declared as protected areas of different types like National Park, Wildlife Sanctuary, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves (some details given in Chapter 7).

8.5 Gap Assessment There are several white spots on information regarding forests and their management. Some of the important areas where new information is needed to be generated are as follows: • Map and area statement of forest & rangeland types and management: The maps available with the forest department are very old and based on old surveyed toposheets of the Survey of India. Several changes have taken place since these maps were prepared with respect to administrative categories, boundaries, disforestation, change in management units, forest types, new plantations and several other factors. With improved survey and mapping techniques, these maps need to be revisited and revised in a GIS platform. The areas of forest and rangeland types and management units also need to be calculated. The areas of administrative units also need to be recalculated using modern techniques. • Mapping of civil and van Panchayats: The forest department maps only refer to Reserved Forests and do not show the areas of Van Panchayats and Civil Forests and their forest types. These areas have to be delineated on the ground and mapped for their boundaries and forest types and the areas need to be calculated afresh using the modern techniques on GIS platform. • Grazing and transhumance data: The total number of persons currently involved in annual migration and the number of livestock that are taken along with them are not monitored or recorded by any department. This data needs to be generated at least from now on. The grazing routes of different herds also need to be mapped. The carrying capacity of the grazing lands both in terms of number of cattle and number of days of grazing need to be evaluated before discussing on any grazing policy or strategy.

• Quantitative estimates of species of economic, ecologic, ethno botanic and other importance: Though several forestry species are regularly harvested, the quantitative estimates of the availability of these species is not known except for major timber species. Quantitative survey and mapping of important forest produce like medicinal plants, lichens, minor surface minerals, Yar-tsa gam-bu and other products needs to be done. Taxus baccata and Tsuga dumosa are two rare tree species of the landscape, whose quantification is of immediate necessity for evaluation of its threat status.

9. Bioresource – Traditional knowledge and practices

9.1 Review of ethno-biological knowledge The historical accounts of the natural resource use by the local communities in this region (Atkinson 1882) reveals that extraction of forest produce in earlier times was mostly for self sustenance or for barter in lieu of other commodities. This landscape is quite diverse in terms of ethnic groups, culture and traditions. More than 95% of the people in the region follow Hindu religion and they are divided into a number of groups, sub-groups and clans depending upon the caste and creed with considerable variation in their customs, dialect and patterns of natural resource use. However, very few studies are available on the ethnobotany of these communities. Some information on the use of wild edible and medicinal plants by Bhotiya community is available in Pangtey et al. (1989). Recent changes in lifestyles; outmigration to lower parts of the district and expansion of market-oriented economy has forced several people of these valleys to collect medicinal herbs for commercial purposes. Garbyal et al. (2005) studied the migration pattern and status of natural resources in the interior parts of Darma and Byans Valleys of Dharchula block. These authors concluded that owing to outmigration there is less pressure on natural resources and many species of medicinal plants e.g., Aconitum heterophyllum, Bergenia ciliata, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Picrorhiza kurrooa and Swertia chirayita have shown increased regeneration. Chowdhary et al. (2009) have conducted detailed ethnobotany of a single species, i.e., Bergenia ciliata in Dharchula block. According to these authors, this species is used locally in the treatment of a wide variety of ailments such as kidney and gall stone, wound, septic, cold and cough, cut, burns, diarrhoea, dysentery, fever, asthma, gastro-intestinal problems, eye ailments, chronic ulcers, inflammation, rheumatism, piles, tonsils, colitis and urinary problems.

The indigenous communities, especially the Bhotiyas, have good knowledge and follow practices of fermented food/beverages. Das and Pandey (2007) have described the fermentation of traditional beverages prepared by Bhotiya community. They provide preliminary understanding on the diversity of microflora associated with the wheat based starter culture – Balam, providing the microbial-based bioresources for selection of efficient fermentation causing organisms.

Samant et al. (2000) have given a detailed analysis of fuel wood consumption by the local people in and around Askot Wildlife Sanctuary. These authors found that in all, 26 tree and 5 shrub species are being used as fuel wood in this area and for the long term sustenance of fuel wood supply large scale plantation of highly preferred species has been recommended. Rawat and Sathyakumar (1998) have given some other uses of wild plant resources in Darma valley.

Considering the traditional uses of animal and animal products in medicine and rituals by inhabitants of the landscape, only limited information exists. Among these, most extensive is the study by Negi and Palyal (2007). They undertook a study on traditional use of animal and animal products in medicine and rituals by the Shoka (Bhotiya) tribes of the landscape and reported that a total of 38 species (mammals -20, birds-6, reptiles-4, fish-2, and a lone amphibian, were either being used by the common-folks in the treatment of different dises of were in possession of the knowledge base of the usage of the same. A total of 19 different diseases or disorders were being treated using the animal products. Details of the species and their medicinal use are given (Appendix- 9.1).

Among various ethnic groups in the landscape, the Rajis deserve special mention here. They are among the 72 primitive tribal groups of India. Till recently, they spoke a different dialect which belonged Tibeto-Burman family of languages. However, they communicate with other neighbouring community with Kumauni mixed Hindi. The Rajis are also considered as a living link between Kirats of somewhat Tibetan physique and the Khasas of equally pronounced Aryans (Atkinson, 1882). Raji, being the aboriginal tribes of this

landscape, have inherited a rich ethnobotanical knowledge. However, detailed studies on their indigenous knowledge system have not been carried out so far except a few observations by Atkinson (1882) and Pandey and Pandey (2010). These studies reveal that Rajis use as many as 20 species of plants and animals for the treatment of day to day ailments. Rajis are especially known for their traditional knowledge to make wooden vessels of Boehmeria rugulosa, Ougenia oojeinensis and Toona ciliata. Based on a rapid survey of three villages in the district it was found that these tribes have peculiar use of commonly available medicinal plants which are different from other inhabitants in the district. A few examples are given (Table 9.1).

Figure 9.1: Rajis and their settlement at Ghandhura , Pithoragarh District

Figure 9.2: Distribution of Raji villages in Dharchula block of Pithoragarh District.

Table 9.1: Ethnobotanical Practices by Rajis (After Pandey & Pandey, 2010 and Tiwari et al., Unpublished)

Scientific Name Local Name Parts Use Uses Solanum nigrum Khajima Root Juice is applied to cure body-ache and headache. Pinus roxburghii Syari Resin Applied on externally cuts Drymaria cordata Aagjala Whole The paste is rubbed on the burnt part plant Engelhardtia spicata Mauwa Fruits Beer prepared and applied over the body to get relief from pain Premna latifolia Agyum Young Paste of young shoots is applied with mustard shoots oil in various skin ailments Zanthoxylum alatum Timur Fruits Paste is given with salt in acute dysentery. Seed powder is consumed with warm water to cure fever Emblica officinalis Aonla Fruits and Eaten and seed powder along with warm seeds water given to get relief from fever. Boerhaavia diffusa Punarva Whole Vegetables, roots are used to get relief from plant stomachache. Eupatorium Kalbissa Leaves Juice is dropped over cut and wounds adenophorum Mallotus philippensis Uenar Fruits Juice is given to remove gastrointestinal worms Euphorbia hirta Dudhya Leaves Latex is applied externally to cure wounds Dioscorea belophylla Githya Bulbils and Tubers are cooked and eaten Tubers Oxalis corniculata Chalmora Whole Whole plant is eaten as an appetizer. Juice of plants leaves is applied over wounds for rapid healing. Anaphalis busua Jhulla Leaves Leaf extract is given to cure fever Valeriana jatamansi Saula Roots Decoction of roots is used in the treatment of cough, especially for the children.

9.2 Status of high value medicinal plants The sub-alpine and alpine regions in the landscape harbor most of the high value medicinal plants e.g., Picrorhiza kurrooa, Podophyllum hexandrum, Nardostachys grandiflora, Dactylorhiza hatagirea and Aconitum heterophyllum. Rawat (2005) conducted status survey of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in various alpine meadows of this landscape. Based on the distribution and collection pressure in the wild, the MAP species in this landscape can be categorized into following types (Rawat 2005): • Restricted distribution, heavy pressure: Species with sparse population in few areas and in high demand, e.g., Aconitum heterophyllum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Arnebia benthamii, Nardostachys grandiflora and Pleurospermum angelicoides. • Restricted distribution, low pressure: Species with sparse population but at present low demand, e.g., Rheum moorcroftianum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Meconopsis aculeata, Waldhemia tomentosa, Angelica archangelica, Biebersteinia odora. • Locally common, heavy pressure: Species with gregarious populations in several localities but having heavy demand, e.g., Jurinea macrocephala, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Trillidium govanianum, Chaerophyllum villosum and Rheum australe. • Locally common, low pressure: Species which can withstand disturbances such as trampling and grazing and having low demand at present, e.g., Ephedra gerardiana, Tanacetum dolichophyllum, and Bistorta macrophylla. • Wide distribution high pressure: Species widely distributed throughout the sub-alpine and alpine zone of Uttarakhand and also heavily exploited at present, e.g., Berginia ciliata and Juniperus indica.

• Wide distribution, low pressure: Widely occurring species and at present low or no demand, e.g., Taraxacum officinale, Bistorta vivipara, Polygonum amplexicaule, Arisaema jacquemontii and Berberis jaeschkeana. • Under cultivation, low pressure: Examples: Carum carvii, Saussurea costus, Allium auriculatum and Allium stracheyii.

The alpine sites of the landscape are most important in terms of richness of medicinal plants. The following table (Table 9.2) gives an indication of species richness of alpine medicinal plants.

Table 9.2: Species Richness (No. of species per site : 10 x 1 m2 plots) and number of medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) species at selected sites in KSL.

S. N Name of the Bugyal & Bugyal Altitude Species # MAP Approx. size (km2) Type (m) Richness Species 1 Chhiyalekh (2) MHF,DG 3300-3400 41 16 2 Nabedhang (20) ADS, CV 4000-4600 20 11 3 Napalchu Nala (2) MHF 3600-3700 33 7 4 Nampa / Karbi (10) DG 3900-4000 17 10 5 Kutti (10) MHF 3700-3900 21 10 6 Jeolingkong (35) CV 4000-4400 19 8 7 Bedang / Dawe (40) CV 4000-4400 20 10 8 Phatab / Dugtu (10) MHF 3700-3800 26 3 9 Mahadev Khola (6) MHF 3500-3600 34 13 10 Lissar Valley (60) DG 3700-3800 30 7 11 Nipchikang (5) MHF 4500-4800 22 7 12 Syankalpa (15) MHF 3500-3600 34 9 13 Rajthor (3) CV 4200-4500 24 4 14 Shallang (25) CV 4200-4400 26 4 15 Mapa (3) AMM 3400-3500 23 3 16 Burphu Gwar (40) MHF, ADS 3800-4000 24 4 17 Ganghar (20) DG 3400-3500 25 3 18 Milam (20) ADS 3400-3500 19 8 19 Dung, Kwalganga (30) SVS 3900-4000 19 3 20 Topidhunga (45) CV 4500-4700 24 4 21 Lapthal (80) ADS 4500-4700 13 3 Bugyal Types: MHF = Mixed Herbaceous Formation, DG= Danthonia grassland, KSM = Kobresia Sedge Meadows, CV = Cushionoid Vegetation and Fell Fields, SVS = Sparsely Vegetated Scree / Rocky Slopes, MM = Marsh meadow, AS= Alpine Scrub [Source Rawat 2005].

Preliminary analysis of the data collected on the populations of various woody and herbaceous MAPs reveals that among woody MAPs mainly Juniperus indica, Rhododendron anthopogon and Rhododendron campanulatum have uniform and harvestable populations in these areas. Other shrubby species have low densities and patchy distribution. Among the herbaceous MAPs only Bistorta vivipara, Origanum vulagre, Iris kumaonensis, Swertia ciliata, Taraxacum officinale and Thymus linearis have uniform and sizeable populations. Populations of Salam Panja (Dactylorhiza hatagirea) and Atees (Aconitum heterophyllum) are particularly restricted to selected habitats and their availability is at critical minimum. It is, therefore, recommended to initiate species recovery programme for these species taking local communities in confidence. Already, in some of these valleys local communities follow certain customary laws to regulate extraction of medicinal plants within Van Panchayats and have been effectively conserving such species. Intensive surveys and more organized Rapid Mapping Exercise (RME) would be required in various

alpine valleys to prepare Conservation, Development and Harvest (CDH) plans both for the community owned ‘Van Panchayats’ and other areas.

9.3 Diversity and status of wild edible plants The people in the landscape also possess good knowledge of wild edible plants, which constitute an important source as food supplement and substitute especially in times of scarcity. Considerably large number of plants with potential value as edible/food exists in the region including the target landscape. The information available on wild edibles of west Himalaya has been reviewed (Samant et al. 2001 a&b). Also, more recently Mehta et al (2010) provided information on 67 wild edible fruits and 27 wild edible vegetables which are traditionally used in Uttarakhand, and most of these find place in traditional food habits of indigenous communities of the target landscape. The wild edible plants, besides helping the rural populace in meeting nutritional requirements, have also emerged as a source of income generation. Among others, Allium humile (Pharan), Corylus jacquemontii (Bhotia badam), Hippophae salicifolia (Ameous), Morchella esculenta (Guchhi), Diplazium esculentum (Lingura), Myrica esculenta (Kaiphal), Rhododendron arboreum (Burans), Aegle marmelos (Bel), Aesandra butyracea (Cheura) etc., are the important wild edibles of the landscape which have attracted the attention of various stakeholders for their income generating potential. While a number of wild edible species are considered threatened on account of various pressures, Allium stracheyi and Dioscorea deltoidea are notable sensitive wild edibles of the landscape which are listed in the vulnerable category of RDB of Indian plants.

9.4 Status of other non-wood forest products In addition to MAP species collected and traded from the landscape, a few non-wood forest products (NTFPs) are extracted from different parts. Notable among these are Jhula (groups of foliose and fruticose lichens e.g., species of Usnea and Cladonia). Lichens are well known for their commercial values. They have been used for food, fodder, medicines and dyes. Many lichens e.g., Everniastrum cirrhatum (Fr.) Hale, E. nepalense (Taylor) Hale, Parmotrema tinctorum (Nyl.) Hale and Parmotrema reticulatum (Taylor) Choisy are used as flavoring agent for food. However, Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) Awasthi, Parmotrema sanctae-angelii (Lynge) Hale, Peltigera polydactyla (Neck.) Hoffm. and Usnea longissima Ach. are exploited by the ethnic groups for their medicinal importance.

Acarospora smaragdula (Wahlenb. In. Ach.) Massal., Candelariella vitellina (Hoffm.) Müll. Arg. Chrysothrix chlorina(Arch.) J. London , Lecanora muralis (Schreber) Rabenh, Letrouitia transgressa(Malme) Half. Bellem., Peltigera praetextata (Flörk) Zopf, Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca (Sm.) Leuck. & Poelt and Xanthoparmelia mexicana (Gyeln.) Hale are known to be used as dyestuffs.

The other economically important lichens of the landscape are Bulbothrix meizospora (Nyl.) Hale, Canomaculina subtinctoria (Zahlbr.) Elix, Canoparmelia texana (Tuck.) Elix & Hale, H. leucomela (L.) Poelt, Lobaria retigera (Bory) Trevisan, Myelochroa aurulenta (Tuck.) Elix & Hale, Nephromopsis pallescens (Schaer. In Moritzi) Park., Parmelaria subthomsonii Awasthi, Parmelinella wallichiana (Taylor) Elix & Hale, Ramalina conduplicans Vainio, R. sinensis Jatta, Usnea longissima Ach., U. orientalis Mot. and U. thomsonii Stirton.

Among others, hill bamboos - Ringal (Sinarundinaria falcata, S. anceps, Thamnocalamus falconerii, T. spathiflorus), fibre (Agave, Girardinia heterophylla, Eulaliopsis binata), resin of chir pine (Pinus roxburghii), and seeds of oil yielding species such as Diploknema butyracea, and Neolitsea umbrosa are important. Of these, pine resin is extracted in an organized manner through Forest Development Corporation. Other products are collected by the local people and traded through contractors. During 1970’s and 1980’s large quantities of rock salt (Shilajit) was extracted from different parts of the landscape. Likewise, there are reports of extraction of maple knots (Acer caesium and A. villosum) for making wooden bowls.

Collection of morel mushroom (Morchella esculenta) and honey from the temperate forests is yet another important produce.

Detailed analysis on the production of NTFPs and income generated from these products in this landscape is yet to be undertaken. Sand and boulder mining along river banks across the landscape is one of the prominent activities. These materials collected from the boundaries of reserved forests are categorized under NWFPs.

9.5 Livelihood options and extraction of MAPs From the analysis of socio-economics of NWFP collection in the landscape it is clear that there is an inverse relationship between the extent of agricultural cultivation (gainful and substantial livelihood options) and the extraction of wild medicinal plants. Wherever there is substantial production of food and cash crops (e.g., horticulture, spices, etc) giving adequate employment opportunities to the local communities, there is less dependence on the wild medicinal plants for cash income. Although, a few high value MAPs have been banned for trade (e.g., Aconitum heterophyllum, Picrorhiza kurrooa and Dactylorhiza hatagirea), such species continue to be extracted and traded from the wild because of a sustained market demand. The extensive extraction of lichens (Jhula) and Cordyceps sinensis (Keeda or Yartsa Gombu) which can be carried out legally except in the Askot Wildlife Sanctuary continues unabated.

Unlike several parts of the country, this landscape does not have its own formal system of medicine owing to heterogeneous assemblage of communities. While some species are extensively used for curing day to day ailments, most of them are sold to the middlemen and contractors to earn cash income.

9.6 Subsistence economy, diversified resources use The precariousness of agricultural practice and the low agricultural yield has entailed the distribution of production risks between subsistence techniques like agriculture, pastoralism, animal husbandry and trade of medicinal and edible plants. Taking an example of Bhotiya tribes of higher Himalaya, Farooquee et al. (2004) have reported that these people have evolved the utility of various resources, based on its availability, suitability, longevity and eco-feasibility. For instance it is interesting to note that their staple diet consists of a mixture of food grains grown at both the elevations. A considerably large number of lesser known and other domesticated plants form the diversified food base for this community (Table 9.3).

Table 9.3: Diversity of lesser known and other domesticated plants which form food base for Bhotiya tribes of the Landscape. Name Local name Utility Amaranthus paniculatus Chuwa Cereal Fagopyrum esculentum Ogal Cereal F. tataricum Phaphar Cereal Hordeum himalayens Uwa Cereal Panicum miliaceum Chenna Cereal Triticum aestivum Nappal Cereal Eleusine coracana Mandua Cereal Zea mays Makka Cereal Phaseolus vulgaris Rajma Pulses Macrotyloma uniflorum Gahat Pulses Glysine max Bhatt Pulses Pisum sativum Mattar Pulses Brassica campestris Sarsoon Oilseeds Solanum tuberosum Aloo Vegetable Chenopodium album Bathuwa Vegetable Raphanus sativus Moola Vegetable Vicia faba Bakla Vegetable Source: Farooquee et al., 2004

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Due to their periodic movement between their summer and winter settlements, Bhotiya required a livestock which could adapt itself in both the conditions (high altitude and lower valleys, could be used as pack animals, and which could be immune to lowland cattle diseases. As a result, they have developed their own indigenous breed of cattle through breeding of Yak and local cow. The new offspring locally called as Jhupu, Jumo, Garu, Garmo, Talbu, and Talbuni has the required characteristics. The level to which these people have perfected their sense of livestock husbandry is remarkable (Table 9.4).

Table 9.4: Indigenous breeding practice of Cow (Bos indicus) with Yak (Bos grunniens) by Bhotiya tribes in the landscape.

Male Female Offspring Female Offspring Male Yak Cow Jumo Jhupu (Sterile) Yak Jumo Garmo Garu (Sterile) Yak Garmo Yak Yak Local bull Yak cow Dumjo Dumju Local bull Jumo Talbuni Talbu Local bull Garmo Talbuni Talbu Yak Talbuni Garjo Garju Source: Farooquee et al., 2004

9.7 Strategies for sustainable use of wild plant resources Preceding sections clearly show that that the local communities in the Indian part of KSL use a wide variety of plant resources as subsidiary food, medicine, fibre, gums, resin, oil and fuel wood besides small and major timber. But for the last commodity, most of the resources are freely extracted from the government as well as community owned (Van Panchayat) forests. As else where in the world, this landscape has witnessed a rapid socio-economic transformation from subsistence economy to cash economy. Thus, poorer sections of the society, especially the marginal farmers in the remote areas who have had limited education and employment opportunities depend heavily on the wild medicinal plants and other NWFPs to earn cash income.

Extraction and sale of several high value plant products have increased considerably in the region during recent decades due to steady rise in the prices of these commodities in the global market. This, coupled with degradation of natural habitats and lack of adequate regeneration of high value MAPs as well as other NWFP species has raised serious concern among conservation agencies. Hence, there is a need to evolve long term strategies for sustainable use of these products for this area. Based on the distribution and availability of important plant resources, socio-economic conditions of local people and extraction pattern of high value plant products, several site specific strategies can be evolved. Best strategies are those which emanate from the local communities themselves. Some of the strategies based on wider consultation with partner institutions as well as representatives of local communities within the landscape are suggested below: • Establishment of Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs): MPCAs, if properly established, serve as in-situ conservation sites for native medicinal plants and samples of natural vegetation for a variety of purposes including research, monitoring and conservation education. The forest areas to qualify for selection for MPCA should be rich in medicinal plant species (preferably endemic species) and as little disturbed by biotic factors as possible, fairly large (about 200-500 ha), compact, and reasonably accessible. The MPCA network should not be viewed as a parallel system of protected areas, but a complementary system. Location of MPCAs on the ground may be decided only after detailed visits to different forest types in the field. After the selection of a particular forest patch as MPCA, appropriate executive order need to be issued by the competent authority in the state forest department in respect of each MPCA. Besides

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other things, this order may mention that MPCAs will be managed as per the prescriptions given in the working plans. It should be clearly specified that that no silvicultural or management practices will be carried out in MPCAs, except for those related to research work. Collection of seed or planting material will be permissible only for research purposes. The MPCA sites are selected based on the following criteria: (i) Relatively undisturbed, (ii) A region is generally located in a micro watershed, (iii) It should holding viable breeding populations of the medicinal plant species in focus. • Keeping above criteria in mind, at least one MPCA in each of the four eco-climatic zones of this landscape is recommended. The MPCAs are treated as “no harvest” sites. The Area is given complete protection from fire, grazing, harvesting and other disturbances. Conventional forest management operations such as planting, weeding, watering, produce collection etc. are not encouraged. • Herbal Gardens and NWFP Nurseries: The Uttarakhand Forest Department and Herbal Research and Development Institute (HRDI) are the well established Government Institutions responsible for the conservation and development of herbal sector in the state. As of now, the Forest Department has established a series of nurseries at various eco-climatic zones for the propagation of important timber and medicinally important species. This landscape requires at least 2-3 herbal gardens for the ex-situ conservation of high value medicinal plants. Both the agencies also need to collaborate and coordinate to strengthen the existing nurseries and include propagation of NWFP species. • Improvising trade on MAPs and bringing equitable benefit sharing mechanism: Currently most of the MAPs in the landscape are traded through middle men and the trade is largely dictated by the distant markets. The community institutions and Government agencies need to work out modalities for improved and sustainable harvest plans and equitable benefit sharing mechanisms. In this context for different forest ranges and Van Panchayats, Conservation, Development and Harvest (CDH) plans already visualized by the Uttarakhand Forest Department, in consultation with communities need to be developed on priority basis. • Promoting wild edibles as functional food and commercial produce: Considering that the wild edibles, on account of their nutritional and pharmaceutical potential, have emerged as potential resource for addressing issues of sustainable rural development in the region, there is a need to systematically harness the potential of wide resource base in the landscape. Large scale propagation of high value wild edibles and subsequent promotion of their plantation is essentially required to remove pressure from wild populations. Wild edible fruits, like the Berberis spp., have proven value for both nutrition and the medicine. Appropriate value addition is required to promote such species as source of functional food. Systematic investigations for developing various products and popularization of such products among the urban populace of nearby cities/towns and tourists through efficient use of publicity media is required.

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10. Settlements, Demography and Livelihoods

10.1 Settlements The target landscape predominantly represents rural settlements with only 0.38% of total area falling under urban centers supporting about 13% of the total population. The distribution pattern of settlement is uneven because of varying topography. The distribution, types and patterns of settlement are largely associated with historical events of the area. The rural settlements are of various types and stages located on different types of geographical background. It is one of the anciently settled region with various physical and cultural elements producing an interesting pattern of human of agglomerations in rural areas. Large proportion of the population in the area has been traditionally transhumant, wherein they perform activities like trade, livestock rearing and agriculture. This has resulted into numerous rural settlements of different types and patterns. Currently, following the emerging trends of modernization and innovations, the landscape is experiencing rapid changes in demographic profiles and has resulted into increasing migration of rural populace to urban centers. Moreover, a large number of people have switched over their occupation from primary to secondary as well as to tertiary activities.

10.1.1. Distribution of Settlements Katyuris were the first Aryans who introduced settled life and farming in this region and thus started a new vibration in the cultural scene. The spatial distribution of settlement is based on various ecological conditions of physico–naturo–cultural environment. There are various restrictive and attractive naturo–cultural factors which govern the distribution, types and patterns of rural settlements. Among the major natural factors relief, structures, geology, drainage, climate, etc., play a key role, while among cultural factors, transport routes, religious/historical events, commercial place, etc, are important. The rural settlement has two components, i, e. village and hamlet. The village has been considered as the revenue – cum – administrative unit. In the study region every village has one or more hamlets, which bears a different name. The hamlets are basically the part of the villages which have a small group of houses. In the target landscape following major zones of settlement distribution is marked. • Uninhabited zone: This zone can easily be seen in all over the area having steeper slope in all over the northern area. • Poorly inhabited zone: This settlement zone is well marked in the northern part where only 18.4% of the total settlement is distributed in about 76.3 % of the total area. • Moderately Inhabited zone: This settlement zone is found in the eastern part of the area. • Moderately to highly inhabited zone: This zone mostly occupies the southern area where fertile soil and gentle slopes are available.

10.1.2. Settlements size based on population The total number of villages in the landscape is 1672, including 93 uninhabited villages. Thus, the total rural population is distributed in 1579 villages of various sizes. On the basics of population the area has been divided in to six major settlement size groups (Table 10.1).

Table 10.1. Patterns of average village size in the landscape (values in percentage) Years Population Size < 200 200-500 500-1000 1000-1500 1500-2000 >2000 1981 63.89 27.55 7.13 0.83 0.37 0.23 1991 61.54 27.81 7.65 1.85 0.64 0.51 2001 58.90 28.94 8.99 2.03 0.57 0.57 Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh

Nearly 59% of the total villages are of small size (<200 persons) while the medium small villages are about 29 percent. The large size villages (>1500 persons) account for only 1.14% percent.

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Considering the altitudinal pattern of distribution, maximum concentration (66%) of the settlements is in 1000-2000m zone. In the higher Himalayan zone the settlements of nomad’s area in existence (summer dwellings). Also a few permanent settlements are found on historical trade routes.

10.2 Demographic profile Population is the most important aspect to be considered for the sustainable development & planning of any area. Therefore, before suggesting any development plan it is important to know the demographic profile of the area. Keeping this in view, an attempt has been made to analyze the population characteristics of the area.

10.2.1 Population growth trends According to the 2001 census, the total population of the landscape was around 5 lakh of which about 87% reside in rural areas. The population growth over the previous century has been shown in Fig. 10.1.

500000 450000 400000 350000 300000 250000 200000

Persons 150000 100000 50000 0

1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Years

Figure 10.1: Population growth patterns (from 1901 to 2001) [Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh]

The total population of the area has increased from 168477 (1901) to 462289 (2001), thereby recording increase of about 274.4%. The highest population growth (20.7%) was during the decade 1961-1971, while the lowest growth (-12.03%) recorded during the decade 1971-1981.

10.2.2 Population distribution As it is a general trend in the rural Himalaya, the valley areas and gentle slopes are more thickly population in comparison to middle and high hills. In this area too, the concentration of population is relatively high in the low altitude areas as these areas have more facilities in addition to fertile land. It was found that the population concentration is high (75.8 % of the total population is distributed only in 23.74 % area of the region) in the lower region in comparison to middle and higher altitudinal zones. The lower area has better soil and irrigation facilities, and moderate climatic conditions which have contributed significantly for development of denser population. It is observed that these areas have better electrification, drinking water supply facilities, road connectivity, etc., which may also be responsible for high population in the lower altitude.

10.2.3 Population density Population density gives a relative picture of the population distribution in a region, and provides a tool to signify real population pressure upon the resources. The density of

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population expresses the entire geographical phenomenon in a synthetic form. Density can be measured in various methods, for this study population pressure over the total area has been taken into consideration. This density means the average number of persons living on a unit of territory without any consideration to the quality of territory.

The population density of the area was 65 person/ km2 in 2001, as compared to 41 persons/km2 in 1981. The southern lower altitude areas were having higher (230 person/Km2) population density as compared to the higher northern part of the area (only 31 persons/ Km2).

10.2.4 Gender ratio Male and female ratio is one of the important aspects of the population composition. The number of female per thousand of male in the area was 1030 as per the 2001 census. Temporal variation in sex ration in three decades (1981-2001) has been depicted (Fig 10.2). Higher number of females is revealing in the target landscape. Probably the male migration from rural areas is one major contributing factor.

250000 male female 200000

150000

100000

50000 Persons

0 1981 1991 2001 Years

Figure 10. 2. Temporal patterns of sex ratio (1981 – 2001) [Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh]

10.2.5 Age profile Based on the District Census data, population under different age categories is presented (Fig.10.3). This figure reveals that in the target landscape, considerably large proportion of the total population (30.88% males & 35.0% females) falls under age group category of 20- 44 years. Less then 09 years age group is second important category, which constitutes 24.2% male & 21.61% female of the total population. Only a small portion (about 1.0% each) of population of the area falls under age group > 80 years. It is significant to note that the landscape contains nearly 43% male and 47% female population in the working age group of 20-60 years. In addition to that about 11.1 % male and 10.1 % of female are also under the category of working age group i.e. 15-19 year. It is worth mentioning that the female population below 19 years age groups is less than the male.

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30 male female 25

Persons (%) Persons 10

0 0-09 10 - 15-19 20-44 45-59 60-79 > 80 Age groups

Figure 10.3. Age profile in the landscape [Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh]

10.2.6 Literacy Success of a development programme, technological progress and quality improvement of life in an area is dependent on awareness and education of its inhabitants. Therefore, it is important to know the literacy rate of the targeted area. As such, level of literacy as a mark of social progress is low in India. However, the region exhibits more literacy as compared to the national average. Table 10.2 reveals literacy in the target area stands at 76.0% in 2001, as compared to 52.4% in 1981.

Table 10.2. Progression in literacy rate in the landscape (1981-2001) Sl. No. Year Literacy (%) Total Male Female 1. 1981 52.35 78.33 27.04 2. 1991 61.38 80.31 42.41 3. 2001 75.95 90.06 62.59 Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh

A rapid increase in female literacy has been recorded in the study area since 1951 to 2001 (Fig. 10.4). This development in literacy rates, particularly in women literacy, is due to establishment of greater number of educational institutions in the rural area. In the study area at present there are 1349 primary schools, 359 senior basic schools and 174 high school & intermediate collages, 6 degree colleges and 5 technical institutions. In general, at any given point the male literacy was higher than female (Fig. 10.4).

106 180000 Male 160000 Female 140000 120000 100000 80000

Population 60000 40000 20000 0 1981 1991 2001 Years

Figure 10.4. Progressive increase in number of literate and educated persons in the landscape [Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh]

10.3 Occupational structure

In general, agriculture and animals husbandry continues to be the principal occupation and source of livelihood for > 70% of the population in the landscape. Following the census of India norms, the total working population of the area can be divided into two categories (i.e., main workers and marginal workers). Further, the total main worker of the study area can be grouped under 4 sub-categories: (i) cultivators, (ii) agriculture labour, (iii) household industry, and (iv) other services (Fig. 10.5).

Figure. 10.5: Occupational structure (2001) in the landscape [Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh]

During the year, 2001 the percentage of main worker and marginal worker were 26.8 % and 16.3 % respectively (Fig. 10.6). It reveals that the agricultural (including livestock rearing and allied) activities are predominant occupation as 59.9% of the total main work force was engaged in this category followed by other workers (36.01%). Only few workers (about 3.6%

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of the total main workers) have been recorded to be engaged in household industries. A very small part of main workers only 0.32 percent was engaged in the other primary activities, such as in agriculture labor.

70 Main workers Marginal workers 60

20 workers (%)

0 1981 1991 2001 Years

Fig. 10. 6: Percent of working population to the total population. [Source: Sankhyiki Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh]

The share of the women in the employment is very poor as compared to their counter part, except in the agriculture. Agriculture is the only available occupation for the rural women which has engaged more than 90% of the total rural main working women. It was found that the proportion of main workers was decreasing continuously; it was 51.4% during the year 1981 which decreased to 26.8% in the year 2001. The share of marginal worker has however increased; it was 17% of the total population in 1981 and increased up to 37.6% in 2001 (Fig. 10.7).

90 Main workers 80 Marginal workers 70 60 50 40 30

workers (%) 20 10 0 1981 1991 2001

Years Fig.10.7: Percent of workers to the total working population 10.2.[Source: Out Sankhyiki-migration Patrika, 2007, Janpad Pithoragarh]

Though there is no Government record about out migration, but it is a fact that rate of out migration is high among the rural people in the landscape. The tendency of migration among the active work force from the hills to the areas/cities outside the hills is perhaps the biggest socio –economic problem of the region. The census of 2001 shows that the sex ratio of the district is 1031female per thousand male, but in case of age group 0-6 year, the ratio is just 901 per 1000 male (census 2001). This reflects in higher age groups males may be out of home. Out-migration can be analyzed based on the following facts:

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• During the last decade the population increase rate has come down in compared to previous decades. • Sex ratio is constantly increasing. In compared to female the male ratio is coming down. • During last decade the population density is just slightly increased since male are out, the families wish to stay at a flock. • In the state of Uttarakhand, the district Nainital & Dehradun witness increase of in- migration whereas all other showed trends of out migration.

A case study from the landscape, further elaborates the patterns of out-migration. In a study by HGVS, Gangolihat shows that 72% female headed as against 38% of male headed households. Nearly 50% of general cast (SC) households had nonresident members while only 33% scheduled cast (SC) households have nonresident members. While 6% of APL households had nonresident members and in case of BPL households’ percentage goes up to 37%.

10.3.1 Remittance Study reveals an overwhelming majority of nonresident members are engaged in income generating pursuits while being away from home. About 74 % of the non residents send many back home in the form of remittance. The average remittance per year was calculated at Rs. 30347 per household (Fig.10.8).

45000 39630 40000 35260 34313 35000 28747 30000 28135 25000 22218 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 APL BPL MALE FEMALE SC GENERAL HEADED HEADED

Figure 10.8. Average annual remittance (Indian Rupees) across different groups in the landscape (Facilitated by HGVS, Gangolihat).

The results on average remittance per year are as expected. The SC household receives a higher remittance than GC households, a finding contrary to expectations. However it should be noted here that both range and standard deviation are quite high for remittance in the case of SC household.

Men of Uttarakhand have been going out of their villages in search of work for a long time. They would work and at some point of time come back to their villages. A number of them also worked in the armed forces and after completing their tenure they come back to villages. Of late, recruitment in armed forces has declined, incidence of migration has increased, and migration has become permanent in nature. Most nonresident members are in the age group 20-50 years, in other wards, the most productive component of the workforce.

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• Trigger for migration: Limited employment opportunities – stagnant agriculture and non – existent industry –coupled with lack of amenities such as health and education facilities act as the main trigger for migration. a) Positive consequences: migration has given employment to individuals who have been able to send money home. This has sustained household and communities. Migration of adult males has also prevented the division and sub-division of already small plots of land. Some have brought new ideas with them and implemented upon for benefit of the community and region, in general. b) Negative consequences: the migration of able bodied males has increased the workload on women. In spite of the hard works put in by the hill women, agriculture is in a state of decline. One could see a vicious cycle operating here: - limited avenues in agriculture trigger migration, which leads to neglect of agriculture and further decline in productivity, thereby triggering more migration. - migration has also deprived the hills of socio-cultural leadership, entrepreneurs, and skilled workforce. - monetization of economy has led to problem of alcoholism, domestic violence and refusal to work. It has also increased the disparity between the rich and the poor and, in the process damaged the social structure of the hill communities. - a large part of remittance is used for building cement houses, which do not benefit the local communities. The material and labor come from the plains while traditional designs and materials, the use of which could have benefited local communities, have gradually disappeared.

10.4 Gender issues

In social science, however the concept of gender means much more than biological sex. It refers to socially constructed expectations regarding the ways in which one should think and behave, depending on sexual classification. These stereo typical expectations are commonly referred to as Gender role. Attitude towards gender roles are thought to result from complex interactions among societal, cultural, familial, religious, ethnic and political influences. Some of the common gender associated issues can be summarized as below: • As elsewhere in the region, women in the landscape are often expected to simultaneously occupy a number of roles, such as wife, mother, home maker, employee and more over caregiver to an elderly parent. Meeting the demands of so many roles together leads to stress full situations. Given the gender difference in responsibilities, if women (and their choice and priorities) are systematically under valued, the resulting stress is bound to reduce the resilience of the system, and makes its impact felts in both the productive and reproductive dimension. • In the landscape, with land being the primary and major sources of livelihood, supplemented by animal husbandry, activities center on these. Cattle provide manure, so there is a symbolic relation between land and animals and female folk. • The very hectic schedule of life, starting with rising early, while it was still dark out sides, women starts functioning for grinding the flour (where there are no power driven mills) and to fetch water from the spring which often means a long trek from house. Preparation of tea, milking of cattle, giving them fodder, cleaning the shed, etc, is the routine works. Food will than be cooked and served to all family members and last taken by her and thereafter begin the day in the fields. Evening shift include tending to the cattle, cooking, etc. So a normal rural women works for almost 12-14 hours a day, that too including hard physical work. • Although absence of man in the above account is not intentional, yet it reflects the difference that exists between the lifestyle of man and women living together. In the more remote areas men do contribute to such activities like fetching water, and animal husbandry. However, commercialization has resulted in a sharp separation of spaces, with men being largely confined to activity revolving around the earning of cash income. • One of the most basic determinants of well-being is the quality of nutrition, and in the landscape very simple food is cooked and eaten. The compositions of the diet is largely

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determined by what can be grown at home, including the cereal, vegetables, fruits and milk. The quality of food eaten thus varies according to the general economic situation of household, which partly determines the extent to which home produce can be supplemented with produce from the market. Nutrition depends on the diet, and the actual intake is influenced by the tradition that women eat last after serving to all family members. As a result, most often she is left with poor quality and quantity of food. A serious concern for women health.

10.5 Developmental trends

Various institutions which provide different facilities to its inhabitants are the appropriate indicators to understand the socio-economic status of the region. A number of amenities are available in the landscape and status of these amenities is summarized below:

10.5.1 Services and amenities • Transportation: Although, the need and significance of transportation and communication have been felt since times immemorial. However, the undulating topography/remoteness and unfavourable environmental conditions have restricted their development to a low profile. In the area (mainly lower altitudinal portion) the only available transportation system is road to serve the entire area. The length of metalled/kutchha roads are only 900 Km. The nearest railway stations include Tanakpur and Kathgodam. Only 44.89 percent of the total villages are connected with road. About 20.7% villages are listed 3-5 km distance from a road head whereas about 17.1% villages are at a distance of more than five kilometers from a motorable road. Transportation is poor in the higher altitudinal areas particularly in Munsiyari and Dharchula Tashils, where villagers have to travel long distance, some time >50 km, to access public transport. • Post and Communication: during the year 2006-07 a total of 318 post offices, 657 PCOs and 15712 telephone connection were available in the area. • Educational Facilities: education plays a pivotal role in the development process. Success of any development programme goes more or less with the development of educational status. Education is also the most important input for the improvement of the quality of manpower and a significant factor in achieving rapid economic development and technological progress. There are at present 1349 Junior Basic Schools, 359 Senior Basic School, 174 High schools and intermediated colleges, 4 degree colleges and 5 technical Institutions. • Medical Facilities: medical facilities in general are poor in the landscape. There is a large gap between the urban and rural area not only in the distribution and status of health facility but in every aspect of the infrastructural development/ facilities. The rural area is rather poor in providing health facilities to its dependent population. At present there are 18 Primary Health Centers, 8 M.C.W. and 56 settlements having Allopathic and Ayurvedic hospital and dispensary. • Electricity: Although, the area is very remote but as per the record the area has more than 90% villages electrified. • Veterinary facility: There are 27 veterinary hospitals, 55 animal development centers and 38 insemination centers in the study area. However, the veterinary facilities of the rural areas are not well equipped as in the urban areas. In fact the rural people depend on their traditional knowledge and experience for treatment of their livestock by the use of the local herbs.

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11. Sacred Values - Culture, Religion and Tourism Potential

11.1 Background

Humane urge to relate to all that we adore, respect and sometimes even fear (of losing) provides some basis of what we consider sacred. In fact sacredness goes beyond. Communities and cultures define sacredness symbols and indicators that grow with time. Sacredness is not simply seen as yet another feature of the landscape, it carries a whole set of rules and regulations regarding human behaviour/activities, and implies a set of beliefs connected with the non material world, most often in relation to the spirits of the ancestors and a belief in supernatural power. The collective memories, myths, legends and spiritual code of conduct evolve through time and sanctified with sanctions, materials as well as morals contribute to code certain crucial rules for respecting nature in cultural terms and define sacred values.

The human cultures have evolved around different elements of nature. From the earliest period of known history there has been a record of human interaction with nature and intervention in the surrounding environment. This interaction has evolved a special worldview of nature around communities. The interplay of nature and culture has been translated into the creation of ‘culture landscapes’ where the tangible meets the intangible. All over the world, traditional societies have always valued natural resources. While receiving all material benefits from nature, these societies, in turn, expressed their love and respect to nature in several forms and ways. In such societies various natural phenomena were worshiped for their affluence or because of their power of destruction. These supernatural powers were believed to play an important role in promoting or destroying activities of the living world. In traditional societies, however, as Durkheim (1915) hypothesizes, such social customs or prohibitions function to distinguish between sacred and profane entities in a culture. Interestingly such informal institutions do not depend on state or government for either promulgation or enforcement (Posner and Rasmusen 1999).

11.2 Geo-cultural context Various uniqueness feature of the landscape, with respect to geo-physical, biological and socio-economic terms, have been described in previous chapters. Here an attempt has been made to describe the uniqueness of the landscape in cultural context. Prevailing geographical conditions and inaccessibility of terrain were the prime cause for the variation in social development. It is evident that the initial society of the landscape was hunter- gatherers, which in course of time became nomad-pastoral, later pastoral-agrarian, pastoral trader and finally agrarian. These stages can be observed in vertical movement from valleys to high reaches.

11.2.1 The ethnic composition-contours of culture The landscape embraced various ethnic groups such as Aryans (such as-Armanoid, Alpanoid, Dinarics, Nordics), The Mongoloids (The Palaeo and Tibeto-Mongoloids) and Negroid (Negrito-Australoids, Paleo-Mediterranean). In fact the present day society of the region is an outcome of such long and complex process of assimilation and symbiosis from almost all the areas around. The oral, archaeological and historical sources scattered here and there in the region and also various cultural expressions and racial strains speak not only of such migration patterns but also of the socio-cultural diversity of the landscape.

The landscape occupies significant place in state of Uttarakhand as a rich eco-cultural zone. It is a unique repository of various micro-cultures living together which makes the landscape culturally as diverse as geo-ecologically. The landscape has been a centre of activities of ethnic, lingual and cultural groups which came from different directions at different times.

This cultural landscape is diverse and can be grouped in five distinct zones or valleys having distinct and unique social, economic, religious and linguistic features:

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• The Johar, Darma, Chaundas and Byans valleys: these highland areas are inhabited by Shauka, Rang-Shauka communities, commonly known as Bhotiya. Both the Shauka communities historically enjoy tribal mode of living. They are also the custodians of age old traditions trans-border trade with western Tibet (P.R China). • The Askot region: as often described in folklore, named after integration of Assi (eighty) Kots (local forts) is another culture area. Inhabited by both tribal and non tribal populations, this area was the seat of power for Pal-Rajwar feudal Chiefs who controlled and administered the reasonable parts of lower catchments of river Gori and Kali (Mahakali). The Pal-Rajwar royalty had close association with the kings of Doti and influence even in Ukku-Banku regions on the other side of the Kali River (i.e. Nepal). The presence of a primitive tribe known as ‘Van Raut’ or ‘Van Raji’ inhabiting in the upper reaches of the Askot region in Kali and Gori valley gives the region explicit identity and thus adds to the ethnic diversity. At present Kimkhola, Bhagtiruva, Ghandhura, Madanpuri, Chiphaltara, Kuta-Chaurani, Furkiya Jala, Khirdwari are some of the villages inhabited by this tribe. The Van Rajis also inhabit some of the villages on other side of river Kali in Nepal. • Seera: yet another sub culture area of landscape extends from Ramganga (E) in west to Askot in east and in north it shares boundary with Johar and in south with Sōr . In Medieval Kumaun, for a long time Seera has been the seat of Malla dynasty who ruled from Seerakot, located in a nearby hillock. The Malla of Seera had close affinity with the ruling Malla dynasty of Sinja valley in western Nepal. The medieval revenue records of Malla, knowns as ‘Sēēra kee Bahiyan’ prepared by the Bayals, the court writers of Malla, give vivid account of culture of Seera. The region has been popular for copper ore mining in pre-colonial Kumaun. This region includes the Barbisi, Aath Bisi, Maali and Didihat patties of British administration. • Sōr: is one of the prominent culture areas in a larger Kailas sacred landscape. It was an important pargana under British administration. The location of Sōr has given it an additional importance and recognition for three main reasons. One- it shares longer border with western Nepal as compared to Askot, in eastern flank. The most popular route to enter into western Nepal passes through Sōr facilitating east west social mobility in the area. It played significant role in shaping the cultural ethos of the target landscape. More importantly, for time immemorial Sōr has important place in Kailas-Mansarovar pilgrimage. People from Gangetic Plains on their sojourn to Kailas used to have leisure in Sōr for couple of days and prepare for their onward journey. The interaction between locals and pilgrims during their Himalayan sojourn had profound impact on socio-cultural life of the region. The architectural and archaeological religious sites of Dingas, Kasni, Hat-Tharkot, Ghunsyara villages of Sōr speak of such cross cultural influence. Another important factor which highlights the importance of Sōr was that, it evolved as major activity area of trans-boundary trade with Tibet and Nepal. The barter activities between local population and Shauka traders and between Hunyas (Tibetan) and the local inhabitants evolved into several forms of symbiotic relationship in the region. Furthermore, to avoid Siberian cold waves during winter, the Hunyas traders used to descend down to lower valleys in Pithoragarh for trade and some time for manual work. The inhabitants of the region are commonly named as Sōriyal. • Gangoli: form another significant culture zone of the landscape. River Ramganga (E) forms its eastern border while in west it is separated by river Saryu. In north it shares boundary with Danpur and in south with Chapmawat district. Being encircled by two rivers – Ramganga and Saryu this cultural area is also called Gangawali (Tripathi, 1997). The whole region dominates with a number of religious sites and deities varying from classical gods of Hindu pantheon to folk deities. The goddess Kalika is the presiding deity of Gangoli cultural region. The Naāg is one more prominent deity which makes the region peculiar from others, with a number of other folk deities occupying their specific spaces in the landscape.

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11.2.2. Linguistic diversity The cultural canvas of the landscape also reflects the linguistic diversity. In fact, traditionally the variation in dialect has been decisive in demarcating the territory of specific social group and also in giving them local identity. Structurally the dialects spoken in the region are put under Central Pahari, the language categorized under group of Indo-Aryan languages, which is separated with Eastern Pahari prevailing beyond river Kali.

However, the intermixing of two different language speaking groups (i.e Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman), particularly in the borders of Pithoragarh has given a new shape to the linguistic landscape. Johari, Rung, Sōryali, Askoti, Sirali, Gangoli are the common dialects, spoken in their respective regions. These variations grew with the passage of time assimilating various lingual influences in their fold.

It is worth mentioning that within this landscape, there are certain non-Aryan languages interacting with main stream. In a small area on the north eastern flank of the landscape, the Van Raut or Raji belonging to Austric family speak the Raji language. Similarly in the Johar, Darma, Byanns and Chaudas region the inhabitants speak language of Tibeto–Burman families, such as Rangkas, Darmiya, Chaudasi and Byansi. All these dialects have in one way or other shaped the whole persona of the target landscape.

11.3 The sacred pantheon The target landscape, although in general shows reverence to gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon, its real attachment manifests with tutelary god of masses who are considered most sacred and paid respect accordingly.

It is noteworthy that conceptual ascent of religion and of the associated divinity in the landscape is almost similar to that as noted among primitive people of many parts of the world. With regards to the religious faiths and worship of tutelary gods and goddesses in different terrains of the landscape, there is an amazing uniformity. Broadly, Oakley details the presence of various folks gods in the region and describes that-

The worship of village gods is the real religion of the Kumaon peasantry, that is, the immense majority of population- and it is a religion of fear, which regards the divine power as nearly all malevolent and requiring to be pacified by offerings. These gods are believed to be most exciting in their demands and always ready to punish those who commit any kind of papa (sin) or offence against their ritual or requirements. Some are believed to do all the harm and evil they can, and to be willing, if they had the power, to overwhelm the whole universe in ruin. (Oakley 1905).

Besides the divine Siva and Shakti or her manifestations associated with the Himalaya, the tutelary gods and goddesses who are widely revered and worshiped or propitiated by the people in different cultural areas of the landscape are- Gablāa, Sang-Syée, Ragā, Nāag Devta, Hurmal, Chhurmal, Huskar, Suskar, Balcchin, Kalchhin Kalua, Kshetrapal, Bhumiya, Golu, Goril, Haru-Sam, Ghantakaran, Balak, Bholanath, Malainath, Chaumu, Mostā, Siduā, Bidhuā, Garhdevi, Ghunsyāri, Kotgāri, Iri, Baudhān, and various local forms of Shiva and Bhakapati (Goddess Bhagvati) etc. Following illustrates the diverse canvas of deities in the landscape (Table 11.1).

Table 11.1: Canvas of deities in different cultural zones of the landscape S.N Cultural Major Deity Remark Zone/Areas 1.1 Byans Gablā, Sang-Tsyé, 1.2 Chaudans Gablā, Sang-Tsyé,Chhiplā or Chippal-Kedar Huskar, Chhurmal and Chiplā are worshiped by non tribal communities 1.3 Darma Gablā, Sang-Tshyé, Nārling, Hushkar,

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Chhurmal, 1.4 Johar Raga, Naāg Devta Goddesses- Nanda Devi, Bhagvati 2. Askot Mallikarjun,Chhurmal,Kakraula Hushkar, Sushkar, Baram-Huskar, Shudashan, Patod, Patoj, Naula, Shobhinath, Goddesses-Bhakpati, Kanār Devi, 3. Seera Mallénath, Bālak, Kaluā, Bālchin Goddesses- Kotgari, Jayanti, Hokarā Devi, Khudāi 4. Sōr Asur, Mosta, Chomu, Dyol-Samet, Dyopal, , Kalsin, Ghantakaran, Thal Kedar, Lataul Goddesses Jayanti, Igayaār Devi, Chandika, Ghunsyari Devi ,Tripura devi ,Ulka Devi 5. Gangoli Various forms of Shiva ie- Lamkeshwar,Patal- Kotgari is supposed to be Bhubneshwar Hatkeshwar,Pungeshwar, Naāg the goddesses of Justice; Devta (KaliNaāg, BeriNaāg, DhauliNaāg, its domain extends both in KarkotakNaāg ther are. Haru-Sam Seera, Gangoli and Danpur Goddesses-Kālika,Chāmund, Chandika, region of Kumaun. Most of Gardevi, Kotgari the sacred forests are dedicated to Kotgari. Haru- Sem has the territory along rivers Saryu

It is worth to mention that, the Naāg as divinity and as race has also played prominent role in painting a peculiar and Pan Himalayan colour to the regional sacred domain. It is said, after Kols, and Kirata, Naāg occupied prominent position in ancient, medieval and religious history of the region. Atkinson states that ‘there can be no doubt that a race called Naāg existed to whom the hood snake was a sacred’ (Atkinson 1882). There are number of historical, epigraphic, toponymic and folkloric evidences which are clear indicators of dominance of Naāg in this region. In Manaskhand (Ch. 11) of Skanda Puran, it has been stated that Naāg were assigned the country between Jivara and Darukavaan and whole landscape was named Naāg puri, after its inhabitants. The Jivara has been identified as with Johar Pargana of district Pithoragarh and in Darakukavaan as Darun patti in Almora and Naāgpuri as Nakuri patti in Bageshwar district. Even today the prominent deity of Ganghar-Paachu in Johar is Naāg and a huge village Forest is dedicated to Naāg Devta to protect the forest from abuse. The Naāg Devta is also esteemed as protector deity of animals. Sharma suggests that there was a time when the Pithoragarh region, which still is a seat of eight Naāg, was ruled by the rulers of Naāg dynasty and on account of their ideal rule they were given the status of divinities and are worshiped here as presiding deities of respective regions. The Jangpangies of Johar believe that they are descendents of Naāg (Pandey 1937; Sharma 2009). The family deity of Chandolas of Pithoragarh is Naāg Devta . In Beri Naāg, Pungaraon, and Athigaon patties of Gangoli region there are a number of temples dedicated to Naāg Devta. Some of them are BeniNaāg (BeriNaāg ), Kali Naāg (Pungraon), Dhauli Naāg (Khantoli), Pingal Naāg , Athguli Naāg, Kharhari Naāg , Dhumaria Naāg (Athigaon), Sundari Naāg ,Phisa Naāg ,Bila Naāg ,Vasuki Naāg (Kotmaniya), Pheni Naāg (Kamerdevi) etc. (Sharma 2009).

A more intensive study of Darma valley in higher Himalaya identifies association of various sacred sites with different deities (Table 11.2).

Table 11.2: Sacred sites and the associated local deity in Darma Valley of target landscape Village Resident deity Sacred site Sphere of influence

Bon Hya Gabla Rongling Tha Bon Philam Hya Ranchim Chayunkung Tha Philam Hula Hya Dumpho Yugwo Tha Dhakar, Hula, Goe Goe Hya Pukaang Malere Tha Dhakar, Hula, Goe Marchha Hya Maafr Tingkulti Tha Sipu, Marchha

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Sipu Hya Sipulzyu Kiban Tha Sipu, Marchha Tedang Hya Ranchim Shilekan Tha Tedang Dhakar Hya Laarong Paankhan Tha Goe, Hula, Dhakar Dantu Hya Gabla Nayunzyun Tha Dantu, Darma valley Dugtu Hya Saazir Athlaan Tha Dugtu, Son Son Hya Muzir Mithlau Tha Dugtu, Son Baling Hya Ranchim Paankhan Tha Baling Nangling Hya Mu-Daaru Paan Nangling Tha Nangling, Bouling Chal Hya Pou-Moshe Mappa Tha Chal Sela Hya Puktaang Paalkan Tha Sela Bouling Hya Mu-Daaru Bangar Tha Nangling, Bouling Dar Hya Hardyol Kilen Da Tha Dar [Source: C.S. Negi, GPGC Pithoragarh, un publ]

The target landscape also reflects the prominence of various goddesses with inter-regional and trans-boundary presence. In fact the cult of mother goddess was the characteristic feature of the landscape. Ninglashaini, Ranshaini, Mulpa Devi, Ghunsyari Devi etc., are worshiped both in India and Nepal. The process of brahamanisation has transformed the social perception for these deities and they now being treated as deities of classical pantheon.

11.3.1 Sacred pantheon and ecological insights in traditions Ever since their inception in the society, the folk deities have been playing prominent role in protection, conservation and equitable distribution of natural resources within their territories. A number of such examples may be seen in the form of sacred forests, lakes, alpine pastures and river confluences associated with such deities in the landscape. Examples of such type of conservation may be seen in the informal institution of Dev Van or sacred forest, Shingul & Syé Roa.

11.3.1.1 Dev Van: tradition of sacred forests Like many other parts of Kumaun or other parts of the Himalaya, a rich tradition of conservation of natural resources through customary methods prevails in target landscape. One such tradition of conservation is the culture of Sacred Forests. These sacred forests are commonly known as Dev Vans. The Dev Vans in the villages such as Hokara, Madigaon, Baram, Chudhiyar, Chitgul, Bhama, Ghimali, Pabhain, Bhandari Gaon, Lamkeshwar, Hatkeshwar, ThalKedar, Chaupakhia, etc. are the fabulous examples of deep ecological insight of the traditional societies and their conservational practices. In this region such sacred clumps are dedicated either to Goddess Nanda, Kotgai (Kokila), Iri, Kalika, Chamunda, Hunkra, Bhagavati or to some male deities like Haru Saim, Gangnath, Chaumu, etc. While offering the forest to these deities community first holds a meeting to decide, how much area has to be offered and what type of sanction to be imposed before dedicating their forest to the deity. Then the ritual related to the deity takes place. It is worth noticing why Dev Vans are offered to above mentioned deities! In fact such deities have significant place in the socio-religious life of the local people and the fear of these deities prevails in their minds. This mindset controls them from entering into the forest or misusing it. The untimely death, epidemic, attack of wild animal, etc. are considered as a curse of these deities if the sanction is disobeyed.

During more recent time, in the landscape, the need for sacred or religious element in conservation seems to be more than nature worshiping and is associated with resource crisis. Most often, where ever biotic pressure has gone beyond carrying capacity, the forest patches are offered to the deity. It appears that communities have adopted the institution of Dev Van. For them the Dev Van is of immense importance as far as nature conservation and resource utilization is concerned. These Dev Van perform important ecological functions; nutrient cycling, water recharging, conservation of biodiversity, prevention of soil erosion, and many times in mountain areas even prevent landslides. Most importantly, Dev Vans are not only adding to the green cover but also contributing in conservation of biodiversity

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without any financial burden on communities. A few examples of important Dev Vans are cited here. (i) Dev Van of Hokra Devi The Hokra Devi is located in the village Hokra, at a distance of more than 20 kms. from the nearest road head Tejam, enroute to Munsiari in the district Pithoragarh. The village itself derives its name from the goddess- Hokra or Hunkara, a very powerful deity and feared by all. The sacred forest covers an area of more than 2-3 sq. kms. having dense foliage dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora with 70 % canopy cover.

The forest is protected from all sides by a wall, which separates it from the surrounding agricultural fields. The principle structure dedicated to the goddess is the sacred rock, which is in a triangular shape. The rock measures around two and a half meters in height and little more than three meters at base and represents just a part of the large rock mass buried within. One of the conservation practices includes religious taboos against the taking of certain species from the area of the forest. (ii) Dev Van of Lateshwar Mahadev The sacred forest is located very near or rather adjoins the road head; very well protected. It has species such as Quercus- Q. leucotrichophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Rhododendron arboreum, Myrica esculenta, Prunus cerasoides etc. In recent years Deodar- Cedrus deodara and Utis- Alnus nepalensis, plantations have been carried out by the forest department. According to a popular folk story, there was one demon that used to terrorize the villagers. The demon was killed by lord Shiva by suffocating him with his Matt (cluster of hair) and hence the name Lateshwar was given to the deity. The villagers for the fear of Lateshwar Mahadev strictly adhere to rituals and associated taboos. Even though the common path for the villages goes through it, no one dares to pick up even dried twigs or branches. (iii) Dev Van of Satgarh Satghad lies at a distance of 25 kms. from the main town of Pithoragarh, enroute to Dharchula on Kailas Mansarovar pilgrimage route. It offers an interesting feature. The cluster of Satgarh Dev Van has ten (10) sacred forest patches existing in the vicinity of villages (revenue villages of Satgarh). The management of each grove is vested with the locals of each village. All these forest patches are situated in such a way that they encircle the Satgarh landscape. The Dev Vans of cluster are dedicated to deities such as Madmahesh, Boorkhasin, Khandelnath, Kalchhin, Chhurmal, Betaal, Asur, Kamarnath, Lataul. The most revered among them is Madmahesh, with others having marginal significance. (iv) Dev Van of Chamunda Devi in Chudhyar and Hat Kalika, Gangolihat The Dev Van of Chamunda Devi is located in the village Chudhyar, at a distance of 1 kms. from the township of Gangolihat. The Devi is referred by many names- Chamunda, Handika and Angriyal Devi according to the legends associated with her. No weapons are allowed to be taken inside the forest. It is commonly believed that the Goddess punishes to one who does not ascribe or follow the defined provision of the temple relating the use of the forest. Similarly a large patch of Devdar forest is dedicated to Kalika temple and none of the forest produce is used or can be taken away for personal use. Still there are number of folk stories relating to violation of norms and its consequences are existing in public psyche.

How the sacred elements works in people’s psyche may be understood from the following pattern of forest patches, particularly Van pnchayat and reserve forest compartments dedicated to deities in various parts of the landscape (Table 11.3). Further outcomes/interpretations with regard to characteristics of sacred forests drawn from in-depth study in Askot landscape, within the KSL in Indian part, are presented (Box 11.1).

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Table 11.3: Use of sacred values for protecting diverse forest patches in target landscape S.N Locality Name of the forest Forest category Duration of forest closer 1. BeriNaāg Bhattigaon Van Panchayat 2001-10 2. BeriNaāg Sangan Civil Forest 2001-10 3. BeriNaāg Kotmanya Van Panchayat 2001-10 4. BeriNaāg Kirauli Van Panchayat 2001-10 5. BeriNaāg Bahandari Gaon Van Panchayat Not known 6. Gangoli Hat Jalauli Naāg Van Panchayat 2002-07 7. Gangoli Hat Jogyura Van Panchayat 2002-07 8. Gangoli Hat Phutsil Van Panchayat 1999 on wards 9. Gangoli Hat Pathqura Van Panchayat 2002 on wards 10. Gangoli Hat Chuddhyar Van Panchayat 1999 on wards 11. Gangoli Hat Chitgal Van Panchayat 2001 on wards 12. Gangoli Hat Duni Van Panchayat 2003 on wards 13. Gangoli Hat Paudhar Reserve Forest 2002 on wards 14. Gangoli Hat Paudhar Reserve Forest 2004 on wards 15. Gangoli Hat Dhura Van Panchayat 2004 on wards 16. Gangoli Hat Jarmal Gaon Van Panchayat 2004 on wards 17. Didihat Kholi Mali Van Panchayat 2004 on wards 18. Didihat Dev Chula Reserve Forest 2003 on wards 19. Didihat Dev Chula Reserve Forest 2003 on wards 20. Didihat Dev Chula Reserve Forest 2004 on wards 21. Didihat Ghimali Van Panchayat 2003 on wards 22. Didihat Gaubali Van Panchayat 2004 on wards 23. Pithoragarh Thalkedar Reserve Forest 2004 on wards 24. Pithoragarh Bamandhaun Reserve Forest 2004 on wards 25. Pithoragarh Gurna Reserve Forest 2004 on wards 26. Pithoragarh Kalpanigad Reserve Forest 2004 on wards 27. Pithoragarh Saurlekh Reserve Forest 2004 on wards

[Source: Pandey, G, Kumaun University, Nainital, Pers. Comm.]

Box 11.1: Characteristic features of the sacred forests in Askot landscape of KSL (Source: C.S. Negi, GPGC Pithoragarh, un publ) • Sacred forests are most commonly the panchayat or civil soyam forests with no legal status; are usually located in the ridges of the hills or at their peaks, and in close vicinity of the village. • As per the habitat or climatic conditions, these sacred forests are usually dominated species like: Cupressus torulosa, Betula utilis, Rhododendron campanulatum or at greater altitudes, by Juniperus communis, J. indica. All these species, in turn are treated as sacred species. • Resource use in terms of lopping, felling of trees is strictly prohibited; dead wood or twigs may however, be removed from the forest floor, to be utilized only for the purposes of the resident deity of the forest, during specific occasions, viz., Aalam Sammo. • Usually, the ladies in their periods (MC) are restricted from entering the sacred zone, and are completely prohibited from entering the sanctum-sanctorum, which may extend from the precincts of the temple proper to the sacred zone, from where strict adherence to the norms and taboos are practiced, by each folk, irrespective of the gender. • Very often, a source of water marks the boundary or the start of the sacred zone. • Religious sanction to the use of the resources from the forest may be granted in times or needs through a shaman, which too is community-based.

11.3.1.2. Shingul & Syé Roa Unlike Dev Van in many parts of landscape, in the Shauka region, particularly in Johar, Darma, Chaudan and Byans valleys the tradition of sacred forest is different and known as Shingul and Se Roa. Shingul are permanently closed forests (open for rituals only) dedicated to village deity. Each Shauka village has the tradition of conserving Shingul or Se Roa. The

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Shingul at Martoli has an area of 60 ha. In Burphu it is 180 ha, in Biljyu 70 ha, in Tola 61 ha and in Milam, the last village on the frontier has 40 ha. The density of trees per hectare recorded (between 222 to 2889) in the Shingul is higher than those recorded for the tree density of Oak forests of this region (range 741 to1474). These forest areas are dedicated to particular folk deities i.e. Nandā, Rāgā, Nāg Devtā, Sang Sié or Gablā Se, depending upon, which is the principal deity of a particular village.

(i) The Sye Roa of Sosa The sacred forest of Sosa dedicated to Syng Sye, is the only sacred forest in Chaundas valley. The sacred forest is located at a height of around 2000 meters above the village Sosa, which falls reroute to Kailas Mansarover. The forest is dominated by Raga- Abies pindrow, and Quercus semecarpifolia with very dense under growth. The principle structure worshipped is an incomplete temple (according to the villagers, the lord himself didn’t allow them to built the temple and hence there is complete structure), dedicated to Sang Sye.

Interestingly unlike other parts of landscape where amid the plenty of forest the need for sacred forests is entwined with man’s want to regulate resources, in Shauka valleys the need for sacred element in conservation is associated with paucity of resource. The people inhabiting these areas are a pastoralist-trader society whose livelihood entirely depends on forest and pastures. In such areas the sustained supply of resource can only be ensured through conserving the resource. In our field work we observed that the forest patches are offered to the deity, where the biotic pressure might disturb the equilibrium or the geographical setting demands a protection shield. It appears; therefore they might have adopted the institution of Shingul. For example the strange relationship between inhabitants of Ganghar and Panchhu villages to have a control over nearby forest resource, and for that matter demarcation of larger forest area as Shingul, further explains the resource crisis and management dynamics of tribal communities. The low productivity of the land and risk reduction of the inhabitants in response to a harsh environment may also be seen as the reason to evolve such strategies. These villages are located in a zone where forests are in hinge and growth or regeneration is extremely slow and requires delicate care of the resource. Furthermore these habitations were always under continuous threat of avalanches due to their geographical locations. Study also indicates that such forest resources might had played significant role in influencing and raising the status of Shauka traders while negotiating with their counter parts in Tibet. Availability of, and access to, forest resource in such altitudes and tradition of erecting Alam (a pole made up of a tree trunk considered as sacred) in each house hold through religious ceremony can be linked to the added manifestation of wealth among the community.

Based on an extensive study of various sacred sites by C.S. Negi , GPGC Pithoragarh (un publ.) in Askot landscape, Table 11.4 represents conservation value including reported species diversity and medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) richness. Also the inferences drawn are given (Box 11.2).

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Table 11.4: Sacred natural sites of conservation value# in the Askot Conservation Landscape of KSL in Indian part Sacred Natural Nature Plant Dominant species Site (Approx area species ha) diversity (MAP diversity) Brijkang, Ralam Pasture 74 (11) Cyananthus lobatus, Bupleurum longicaule, (60) Potentilla atrisanguinea, Phleum alpinum, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Juniperus communis. Suraj Kund, Water body 78 (7) Polygonum viviparum, Agrostis pilosula, Picrorhiza Milam (40) kurrooa, Lomatogonium thomsonii, Rhododendron anthopogon, Danthonia sp. Bhujani, Martoli Forest (12) -* Betula utilis, Rhododendron campanulatum Dharmbun Sem, Pasture 73 (7) Potentilla cuneifolia, Potentilla atrisanguinea, Laspa (105) Erigeron multiradiatus, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Carum carvi Hya Roshey, Pasture 42 (5) Aster stracheyi, Euphrasia himalayica, Trigonella Napalchhu (40) emodi, Geranium wallichianum, Polygonum viviparum, Galium asperuloides, Cicerbita violoides, Polygonum viviparum, Bupleurum sp., Potentilla atrisanguinea, P. cuneifolia, P. atrisanguinea. Jyolingkong Water body 28 (2) Euphrasia himalayica, Polygonum viviparum, (6) Potentilla argyrophylla Dhan ki kheti, Pasture 34 (2) Carex setigera, Potentilla argyrophylla, P. cuneifolia, Jyolingkong (145) Euphrasia himalayica, Polygonum viviparum Nigalfu, Sipu Pasture 37 (4) Aster stracheyi, Euphrasia himalayica, Potentilla (120) cuneifolia, P. argyrophylla, Thalictrum alpinum, Geranium granilianum, Betula utilis, Juniperus communis. Bombasing, Forest (5) - Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, Pinus wallichiana. Tedang Sangfa Fu, Baun Pasture (20) 48 (5) Euphrasia himalayica, Trigonella emodi, Juniperus communis, Rhododendron anthopogon Putuk-tu, Kuti Pasture (20) 24 (2) Aster stracheyi, Trigonella emodi, Agrostis pilosula, Carex setigera, Bupleurum spp., Potentilla cuneifolia, Lomatogonium thomsonii Chiyalekh Pasture (20) 38 (4) Aster stracheyi, Carex setigera, Festuca spp. Kokila Devi, Forest 73 Betula alnoides, Cedrus deodara, Celtis australis, Kanaar (extensive) Lyonia ovalifolia, Myrica esculenta, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. semecarpiflora, Rhododendron arboreum, R. campanulatum, Taxus baccata # Conservational value- principally in terms of biodiversity content; providing the only refuge for the wild fauna, or remains the only source of water. * Diversity assessment has not been attempted.

120 Box 11.2: Lessons with wider applicability emerging from study of sacred forests/sites (Source: C.S. Negi, GPGC Pithoragarh, un publ) • Spiritual or religious values can motivate conservation of natural resources, as exemplified by the fact that the amount of forest cleared is dramatically less in forests that are now considered sacred, or were in the past connected to these sacred forests, than in forests that do not form part of the sacred zone. • Conservation policies that are motivated by traditional values and practices that support traditional institutions are thus more successful in conservation. • Strengthening knowledge of, and respect for, traditional sacred sites has significant potential for conserving forests and wildlife in cases, wherein significant faunal presence is located, e.g., in sacred forests located above the villages Martoli (in Johaar valley), Tedang (Darma valley) or of Tola (Johaar valley). Very often these sacred forests are the only refuge for the wild species of ungulates.

11.3.1.3. Sacred water bodies and the rivers Like mountains, the rivers in Pithoragarh region also have a special place in the life of local population. The rivers of the landscape have been playing significant role in shaping the cultural life of the landscape. Unlike river Ganga, these rivers did not receive much reverence in pan Indian context, however they are considered as sacred as Ganga by people living in their valleys. For them each tributary is synonym of Ganga and carries equal sacred notion. Confluences of these rivers are always considered holy and many rituals are performed there. These confluences are usually associated with Shiva and every year in Shivaratri and Makar Shankranti (Magh) and Vishuvat Shankranti people assemble in these sites to have holy bath, perform rituals. Tapovan (Dharchula), Taleshwar (Jhulaghat), Jauleshwar (Jauljibi), Rameshwar (Ghat), Pancheshwar and Thal are some of the important river confluences which manifest the sacredness of river flowing in this landscape.

The Pancheshwar, confluence of river Kali and Saryu is perceived with utmost veneration by people of both India and Nepal. The principal deity of Pancheshwar- Chaumu- (manifestation of Shiva), is equally revered by Nepalese and Indians. Every year several Jaat come to Pancheshwar to offer puja to the deity.

11.4 Other socio-cultural expressions

11.4.1. The Jaat Yatra The Jaat is the most vital socio-cultural, religious expression and sacred manifestation of the communities living in the target landscape. The elements of primitive societies, belief systems, rituals, motifs, patterns of nature worshiping can easily be seen in the Jaat. As a human phenomenon, the Jaat is not merely a religious ceremony, it is an important socio- economic and eco-cultural activity in which different phases of human progression - from primitive to modern - are easily traceable. These events are organised annually, biannually or some time in a period of ten to twelve years. Unlike pilgrimage to holy places in the mountains in which individual or some time families go for religious or spiritual attainments, in the Jaat whole community or villages of the valley participate. It is a unique example of interdependence and symbiotic relationship among human groups living in the mountains. There are two major forms of Jaat Yatra prevailing in this scared landscape. One form is confined to the lineage affinity, such as sacred procession of Chaitol. And the other form is pilgrimage to sacred destinations associated with local deities such as Kanar Devi, Chiplakedar etc.

11.4.1.1. The Chaitol. The Chaitol is peculiar phenomenon of Pithoragarh and it reflects the traces of matriarchal society and culture. It is interesting to note that in Sōr region it was customary for the deity of

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the Chaitol, which is the male deity, to visits the female deity. Such proviso suggests the traces of cult of mother goddess in the region. In the Chaitol, the holy umbrella of village deities is brought out of the temple in the month of Chaitra. The presiding deity (usually Bhumiya) visits each family of its territory and particularly to the families, in adjoining villages to which, the daughters from the villages of his permanent seat are married. The whole ritual takes place in the form of a procession. The procession is welcomed and worshiped by the family members and offered gifts. While departing the deity gives blessings for the prosperity of the family.

A small pilgrimage to some high mountain peaks, pastures, rivers or lakes which are regarded as sacred by the communities, is another form of Jaat Yatra popular in the pithoragarh region. For example the Jaat of Kanar Devi, Jaat of Mallikaurjan, Chhipla Jaat. In these Jaat Yatra, besides ritualistic provisions one may see the deep ecological insight of the communities. Chippla Jaat is one such type of Jaat Yatra which not only illustrates the form of sacred landscape, it also manifests folk wisdom towards nature conservation.

11.4.1.2. The Chhipla Jaat The landscape of Chhipla makes one of the catchments of Gori ganga and Kali ganga. Chhipla is the principal deity of the region and considered as divine and sacred space among inhabitants. The deity resides in Najurikote, the highest peak of the landscape. Although Chhipla is worshiped every year in the village but it is the Konai, organised once in three year. Inhabitants from Gori and Kali valleys participate in this Jaat. The sacred procession visits Najuri Kote and Kedar-Dyo the sacred destination of the landscape, crossing alpine pastures. Three main routes are usually followed by the pilgrims from different valleys. The devotees from Gori region begin their pilgrimage from the Kanar Devi in the western flank of the Chhipla ridge passing through Metali, Teejam, Paani-Gatguna and another Jaat from Khola village in the eastern side crosses Dhura, Brahmakund and reaches Najurikot. The villagers from Ranthi, Jumma, Syankuri, Khet, Jamku, Gagarva Ramtoli, Jara- Jibli also organise separate Jaat Yatra to Chipla Kedar.

The head priest of Chhipla Kedar decides the day, date and timing of the Jaat after consulting the almanac. The ceremony begins with the assembling of priests known as Dhami, Bhura and Bonio. Amidst vociferous sound of Naāgara (peculiar drums) and Bhonkar (the copper piper), the Dhami opens the way for the Jaat Yatra and leads the procession with Neja the holy flag collected from each family. Every pilgrim has to follow the predefined code of the Jaat. No shoes are allowed during Jaat to maintain the sanctity, particularly beyond Bunga, Barmaon, from where the sacred territory of Chhipla begins. The Jaat Yatra attains the elevation of 4000 m passing through Garapani, Mangthil Gwar, Ganbujdhura (the blooming bugyal) reaching the Brahmakund. From Brahmakund one can have spectacular view of Chaundas valley and western Nepal. The sacred sanskar of Yagyopaveet is also performed at Najurikot and Kedar Dyo by many families. The entire ares remains full of Bugi grass and Brahama Kamal (Saussurea obvallata). Brahamakamal, the dominant species of the area is treated as most sacred plant and the pilgrims keep it with profound respect. It is believed that Brahamakamal keeps evil spirits away. The Chhipla Jaat expresses different aspects of human faith. The bare foot journey, worship, holy bath, songs and dances and possession of the body of Bonia by the folk deity are some of the essential parts of the Jaat Yatra which reveal the folk understanding of dynamics of nature.

There are few more Jaat Yatra organised annually or biannually in Pithoragarh. The inhabitants of Johar, Darma Byan valleys go for pilgrimage to several high altitude lakes (the Kund) to perform rituals. Sandilya Kund, Surya Kund (in Milam glacier region) ,Pari Tal, Jyonglingkong also known as Parvati Tal (Kuti region), Aanchari Tal, Tapta Kund (Kalapani) are some of the high altitude lakes that are considered scared and visited by Shaukas.

In fact the tradition of Jaat is the core element of cultural life of the people of the landscape. It symbolises how the mountain societies conceive their life-world and how they express the

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internalised meanings through the periodic pilgrimage or yatras. The Jaat also gives a unique opportunity to understand the complex networks of interaction-through which hill societies regulate and sustain their existence.

11.4.2. Festivals of Agri–pastoral life The cultural diversity of the landscape also is seen in various folk festivities of the region. Village festival such as the Hill Jatra (Hill means mud & Jatra means procession) is the one such peculiar and the only mask festival of Pithoragarh.

(i) Hill Jatra The Hill Jatra is not only the remnant of the agri-pastoral life; it is also the symbols of shared heritage of the communities living in region. For instance the Hilljatra which is related to Ropai (plantation of paddy) and other agricultural and pastoral labour during the rainy season was introduced here from the Sōrar region of West Nepal. The folk story associated with the festival illustrates that Hill Jatra is connected with the victory of Champawat rulers. There is another folk story that explains that Kuru Mahar, the representative of Chand King, went to Sōrar (Nepal) to participate in the Hill Jatra was able to sacrifice a buffalo with horns covering the neck. The over joyous people wanted to offer Kuru some gifts. Fascinated with the festival Kuru thought of introducing it in Sōr and expressed his willingness to have four masks ie. Lakhia Bhoot, Haliya, Bullocks and Nepali plough. Which were gifted to him with honour. In some parts it is performed with another name Hiran Chittal. In the first part of the Jatra, worship, rituals, sacrifice of goat takes which is followed by enacting different agri pastoral activities in the form of folk theatre. At the end Khel (traditional songs) are organized.

(ii) Kangdali: The Rung festival The festival of Kangdali is the most significant cultural expression of Rung Shauka of Chaundas in Pithoragarh region. The festival of Kangdali is associated with flowering of a typical plant species called Strobilenthes wallichii. This plant species blooms once in 12 years during monsoon. In a weeklong festival of Kangdali all the Shaukas from the valley participate with enthusiasm in this activity. Like other festival there are some stories associated with this festival too which express the martial tradition of the Shauka.

It is said that by tasting the poisonous flower of Kangdali the only son of a widow died. Second tale suggests that the flower is the symbol of famine and poverty. The most popular story says that once the region was attacked when men folk away for trade. The Shauka women drove them back the enemy who were hiding behind the Kangdali bushes. The festival commemorates their bravery and women therefore destroy the plant holding Ril on their hands. Interestingly the festival starts with invocation of Sang Sye or Gabla which they associate with Shiva. The ritual is known as Tang-jang-Damo. Every house hold performs this ritual in ceremoniously decorated corner of the courtyard. Individual pujas are followed by community feast. The village folk assemble around a tree on a sacred place in the village. Strips of white clothes are tied to the tree and flag is raised. From this place procession starts and the female folk lead the procession. On approaching the blooming flower cluster battle like tunes are played on drums and women attack the plant. They uproot the bushes and take them as spoils of the struggle. Festivity continues through out the night with dance and music.

(iii) Holi Holi represents a distinctive case of diversity and ritual dynamics in the region. It illustrates how a cultural expression and associated ritual, articulated through various forms of performances, and become a powerful tool for expressing common aspirations. Holi in some parts of Pithoragarh celebrated for nearly three months in diverse ways. The Sōr and Gangoli, are the two regions with which the forms of Holi are associated. The main characteristic of Holi is its profoundly collective nature. Two distinct forms of Holi are popular in the region. While celebrations in rural areas becomes lively with Khari Holi (a specific

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form of performance in which everyone’s participation is ensured) Baithi Holi is usually more prevalent in urban areas, or rather amongst the elite section of society.

From Shivratri (an auspicious day associated with Lord Shiva) various musical instruments such as the Dhol, Naāgara, Manjeera are used in Khari Holi. The celebration enters another stage on Holikāshastami (the eighth day of Phalgun) in which a particular ritual is observed. In some places, members from every household, particularly the female folk, assemble near a sacred amwala (Emblica officinalis) tree to perform the ritual. Colourful ribbons are tied to the amwala or paiyya or padam (Prunus cerasoides) tree branches and wet colours are sprinkled on the white Holi clothes to be worn by the holyārs (by the participants). Earlier the colours were prepared at home with various vegetations. In some areas this ceremony is conducted either in the village square or in the courtyard of the village temple. This ritual is called Cheer Bandhan (the tying of colourful ribbons to a pole or a tree branch). Besides this, one more cheer of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus / Bambusa bamboos) is prepared for being carried with the Holi procession. The tradition of cheer is prevalent in several other parts of the Himalaya. In Nepal, during Holi a tall bamboo pole is set into the shape of a cheer. In Kathmandu town, the cheer is placed at the palace of the Kumari, 'the Living Goddess'. Offerings, consisting mainly of akshat (rice) and ingoor/ sindoor (also mentioned as ingoor) (vermillion) powder, are made at the base of the pole. In some villages, besides the cheer, a nishan is also carried in the Holi procession as it visits the different households. The singing, music and dance forms reveal a great aesthetic richness and a diversity of performances in Baithi and Khari Holi as well as in the associated thetar (theatre). All such public performances involve ‘performance’ in the full sense of the term: the public, reflexive ‘assumption of responsibility to an audience for a display of communicative competence’. These performances continue till Holikā Dahan on Purnimā (the full moon night), which is followed by playing (throwing) with water colours the following day called Chharari (Pande: 2010, OUP)

11.5 Pilgrimage and Trade: an econo-cultural symbiosis The landscape also manifests an exceptional phenomenon of symbiotic relations in terms of economic inter-dependence. For the centuries nomadism, trans-humance, and migration has been one of the characteristic feature of the economic life of the people living in this region. One may see various stages of local economies, from hunter gatherer to pastoral, agri- pastoral, agrarian and trans-border trade-economies, surviving in this landscape. Such economies worked for hundreds of years and later supplemented by agrarian and also by craft and trade economies. This in consequence initiated relationship of interdependence. The bounty of nature, despite the harsh living conditions, inaccessibility of the terrain and the splendid isolation in the past had not only helped evolving a system of interdependence which was sustainable in itself, but it also gave birth to a unique trans-border connectivity to the inhabitants of the regions.

This connectivity can be visualized in the north-south and the east-west flow of economy as well as the corresponding movements of the society in this part of Himalaya. The north south mobility on the one hand provided an opportunity for the interaction of the people from Western Tibet with the people from the Indian plains, whereas on the other hand it gave an opportunity to the local population to interact with outside culture. These movements with the passage of time developed close association between people evolving a new phenomenon of Trade and Pilgrimage. Several routes to Tibet from Indo-Gangetic plains passing through the target landscape are the testimony of this unique and complex process. The historical landscape of this region reflects an interesting picture of the life ways. The stone inscriptions engraved in various water structures and copper plates illustrate that to smoothen the pilgrimage to Kailas the local feudal chiefs constructed Naulas, Dharas, and Dharamshala enroute to Kailas Mansarovar. The construction of Janhavi Naula of Gangolihat, at Hat- Tharkot and Bharuri Naula of Pithoragarh are some of the examples of such perception.

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The pilgrimage to Kailas-Mansarovar is also the best example of north-south mobility and the changing historical landscape of the region. The traditional Kailas pilgrimage, starting from Baramdeo (Tanakpur) in foothills, passing through Senapani, Champawat, Rameshwar, Gangolihat, the pilgrims used to arrive at Pithoragarh. The land grant given by Chand and other local rulers to Rameshwar temple, and in several other places in Pithoragarh is the testimony of their concern and association to this great Himalayan sojourn.

Besides religious activity, this route also played significant role in strengthening the trade activity with Tibet. Trade traditionally has vital role in the economy of the communities specially-the Shaukas- living in the border lands. Shaukas were mainly pastoralist and trader who used to visit Tibet along with their sheep during the summer to get Salt, Borax, and Yak tails through barter with grains, sugar, textile etc. They had a trade relationship with the Tibetans and were the masters of Trans-Himalayan trade. To sustain themselves they began a system of barter trade, buying salt and wool borax, gold dust etc from Tibet in return for agriculture produce brought from the plains of India. During the trade the principal traders would remain in Tibet to superintend operations while the women would be in charge of the family in summer village homes.

In Byans and Chaudas, the Shaukas had a winter and summer residence. That served as a goods depot for the convenience of trade. Several levels of barter were seen at the different halting stages on the main trade routes. People from the lower hills bartered their excess grain at any of the trading depots of the Shaukas for salt and wool. They were not allowed to enter to the Tibet since that was the exclusive purview of the Shaukas people. Infect these traders jealously guarded their trade route and maintained their monopoly over the Trans Himalayan trade with Tibet. They designed a system of ceremonial friends to provide the traders with reliable business partner. Each Bhotiya trader had a fix-trading partner. In Tibet it was called a Mitra or ceremonial friend. This partnership was legally binding and both partners had to sign a trade agreement called Gamgya This contract often remained intact through generations of both families and became a tradition.

It is interesting that these ancient activities continued and flourished even in medieval period. The medieval travellers i.e. Ibn Batuta, Rahela mention of the trade activity with Tibet. There are many references of Chand King Baj Bahadur receiving revenue from this trade during his reign. Ain-i-Akbari gives vivid account of this trade activity from Kumaon (Habib, 1982).

The trade activities took new shape after the British occupied the region. They realized the importance of trade with Tibet since this would give them the direct access into Tibet. Unfortunately the above situation changed drastically with the Chinese assumption of control over Tibet in 1959, which further deteriorated with the Indo- China conflict in 1962. However in the early 90’s once again the Indo-Tibetan trade has resumed and the pilgrimage to Kailas–Mansarovar has restarted.

Besides Kailas pilgrimage and trade route, the landscape also provided east west connectivity to the trading as well religious activities. A popular route from Kumaun and Garhwal to western Nepal and to Muktinath was passing through Sōr region. It was entering into Nepal at Jhulaghat.

11.6 The landscape of wilderness and tourism potential

11.6.1. Underutilized potential The target landscape, with diverse manifestations of culture and nature, offers immense opportunity for diverse kind of tourism. Be it adventure tourism, religious tourism, heritage tourism, cultural tourism, nature or wilderness tourism. Owing to its remoteness and less popularization the landscape at presently does not attract tourists to its fullest potential. A study by Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations in 2008 indicated a total of 195083 tourist arrival in the Pithoragarh District during 2005-2006, which included

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1136 foreign tourists. Figures of visitors in three most popularly known tourism destinations/events (i.e., Narayan Ashram; Adi Kailash; Kailash Mansraovar Pilgrimage) of the landscape also indicate limited number of tourist flow (Table 11.5; 11.6. & 11.7). The major factors that contribute to poor marketing of the landscape as a tourism destination include lack of awareness on tourism potential of the landscape, ineffective branding, poor infrastructure facilities and restricted mobility towards inner areas for security reasons. However, awareness on immense potential of tourism in the landscape is increasing among various stakeholder groups.

Table 11.5: Flow of visitors to the Narayan Swami Ashram during last one decade Year Total Number of Tourists 2000 560 (28-5-2000) 2001 1370 2002 915 2003 1037 2004 1358 2005 946 2006 1008 2007 1190 2008 1157 2009 568 [Source- Narayan Ashram visitor register]

Table 11.6: Flow of visitors to the Adi Kailash during last 8 years Year Total Number of Tourists Number of groups

2002 92 4 2003 151 03 2004 151 06 2005 87 05 2006 260 09 2007 237 11 2008 271 14 2009 79 07 [Source- Kumaun Mandal Vikas Nigam, Nainital; Table 11.6 & Table 11.7]

Table 11.7: Flow of visitors to the Kailash Mansarovar during last three decades Year Total Number of Tourists Number of groups 2000 492 16 2001 464 16 2002 469 16 2003 316 10 2004 537 16 2005 529 16 2006 592 16 2007 674 15 2008 401 10 2009 607 16

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11.6.2. Potential hub for Adventure Tourism The landscape undoubtedly has great potential for promoting diverse forms of adventure tourism. The strategy for development of tourism at state level, while considering adoption of integrated product development and positioning strategy through a hub/cluster approach, has also recognized Pithoragarh (i.e., major part of the landscape) as ‘Adventure Hub’. The landscape offers several areas of adventure activities, which have potential to attract number of tourists. Some of the potential areas for different kind of adventure tourism are as follows: • Mountaineering: several snow peaks like Panchachuli, Seshnag, Omparvat, Adi Kailash, Burfudhura offer challenge to mountaineers. Such expeditions, beyond the personal skill of the individual and team, require involvement of local people at every step as porter, guide, helper, etc. The peaks of landscape are not explored extensively and therefore a strategic approach needs to be followed for harnessing this potential. • Trekking: passing through difficult terrain is a simple and effective way to check /improve one’s endurance. The landscape already does have some identified treks which could be developed by creating some in-route transits. Some of the famous alpine meadows could be developed for the same, such as Chaphua, Milam etc.

The landscape provides opportunity for trekking through following important routes: - Tanakpur- Kailas route - Pithoragarh, Chandak, Chandikaghat, Gangolihat route - Munsyari, Martoli, Milam, Ralam route - Kali, Kutti and Dhauli (E) valleys through Sin La route - Tawaghat, Ralam Munsyari route - Munsyari, Milam and Malari via Unta Dhura route - Heramani and Namik Glacier route - Bona Tomik route - Thal-Kalamuni Khaliya-Munsiyari route - Jhulaghat-Pithoragarh-Gangolihat-Seraghat route - Pancheshwar-Jhulaghat-Pithoragarh • Glacier Expeditions: There are several Glaciers which feed the major snow fed rivers of the region. Glacier expeditions and the few hardships associated with such expeditions test ones patience and help to improve leadership qualities. Namik, Heeramani, Ralam, Milam, Sankalp, Kalabaland are some of the Glaciers which need highlighted. A minimum level of infrastructural facility would attract large number of nature lovers to these destinations. • Rock climbing/Rapling/River Crossing: security forces, at certain identified sites, have been utilizing to know nitty-gritty of mountaineering. The same or some other potential sites could be used by the students/youth groups during their annual excursion with learning and thrill. • Canoeing/River rafting: Most of the sow fed rivers of the region have desirable gradient, water and velocity to become potential sites of canoeing and river rafting. The upper reaches could be for the canoeing while the lower ones with less boulders could be used for the rafting purpose. To some extent Kali and Gori are being explored/utilized for river rafting activities. • Snow-skiing: the alpine meadows in the early winters could serve the purpose but proper survey and feasibility need to be done prior to such ventures. Khaliya-kalamuni; Chiplakot; Panchchuli basin have been marked as potential sites. • Para gliding: the Chandak area in Pithoragarh has already been recognized for the same and proper survey of some other area need to be done. • Para sailing: it requires a long and open ground and in some instances the air-strip of Pithoragarh has already been utilized for the same in the past. Gunji could be the other potential site which requires proper evaluation. • Jungle Walk: an activity requires proper knowledge of route and management. School children/youth groups could be the potential target. The extensive diversity of forests in the landscape provides this opportunity. Ideal habitat and corridors need to be

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documented. At first glance, Askot-Ghandhura; Pithoragarh-Thalkedar; Bhuwneshwar- Gangolihat; Dharamghar-Chaukori; Didihat-Sandev, etc., may form potential jungle walk destinations. • Angling: while angling of Golden Mahasheer at Pancheshwar, confluence of Kali and Saryu, is picking up, Jauljibi, the confluence of Kali and Gori river is another ideal place for this activity due to abundance of Golden Mahasheer.

Among others, various Jaat Yatra, as illustrated earlier, provide a number of destinations in the landscape for nature/wilderness lovers. Also, the shrines along river valleys invite people to enjoy fairs and festivities. The unique folk festivals and archaeological sites such as temple of Kasnai, single rock cut temple of Thal series of sun temples in the region, etc., open window for cultural as well as heritage tourism.

11.6.3 Potential tourist circuits The diverse natural as well as cultural canvas offers potential tourist circuits in the landscape. • Pithoragarh–Chaukori complex: this complex offers various destinations such as- - Berinag, Nagsthan & Koteshwar, Jhaltola, Gangolihat, Chaukori, Patal Bhubneshwar circuit - Asurchula, Mostmanu, Dhawaj, Thelkedar, circuit. - Bin, Wdda, Chaupakhia, Jhulaghat, Taleshwar, Ranshaini (Nepal) circuit. - Pancheshwar, Jhulaghat, Jauljibi and Ukku Banku (Nepal), circuit - Askot,Jauljibi, Dharchula Marh-Mallikarjun (Nepal) circuit. - Dharchula, Narayan Ashram, Chiyalekh circuit. - Berinag, Thal, Munsiyari, Madkot, Baram, Jauljibi, Pithoragarh circuit

11.6.4. Towards- community based tourism Having said that the landscape offers great and unique opportunity for different kinds of tourism, especially the adventure oriented, the ground reality does not exhibit a happy state. The tourist activities, at present, seem highly centralized. The agency like Kumaun Mandal Vikas Nigam (KMVN) monopolizes the large chunk of existing tourism activities. The field consultations in yatra (pilgrimage) routes of Kailash Mansarovar, Adi Kailash reveal the benefits of such activities do not percolate to locals to the extent desired. Their involvement confines of being porter/guide or pony owner. Therefore, here exists the need to exploit provisions of Country’s National Tourism Policy (2002) through which the Ministry of Tourism (MoT) announced its plan of spreading tourism development in rural areas. Need of the hour is to showcase the unique indigenous cultural heritage of landscape and its rural life. The objective is to ensure benefits accruing to local communities both in terms of income and enriched knowledge sharing. However, skill/capacity building initiatives would be required to effectively promote community owned and operated ecotourism. As these projects/programmes would essentially form social and economic intervention, one needs to be cautious while implementing such programmes as it is quite likely that several challenges and conflicts may surface during this process. All this needs to be analyzed and properly handled. Once this is ensured, opportunities are immense for promoting community based tourism in the landscape.

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12. Community Perception

Two types of approaches were followed for assessment of stakeholders’ perception regarding (a) biodiversity and cultural values; soil, water conservation and watershed management, and best-suited livelihood options; and (b) in respect of existing policies and plans. The first one followed on-site discussions/interviews/meetings with inhabitants, officials, NGOs and experts during rapid assessment surveys by different teams. The second one was a consultation meeting with representatives of diverse stakeholder groups. The outcome included the following:

12.1. On-site consultations

12.1.1. Biodiversity and cultural values in the landscape Considerably large number of individuals/organizations was consulted during the rapid field surveys to have their perception on biodiversity, cultural values and livelihood options. Following was reflected through the assessment of information:

(i) Diversity of forests, bugyals (alpine meadows) and agriculture types. (ii) Richness of wild-edibles, medicinal plants and various other important plants/animals. Indigenous cropping systems and production systems. (iii) Traditional systems of conservation ranging from sacred species to sacred groves/sites. Respecting nature. Prevailing system of fairs and festivals to mark the celebrations of nature and its component. Worship of nature in different manifestations of goddess. (iv) Cordyceps sinensis (keera ghas) as emerging source of income. Impacting soci- economic scenario and ecology of higher Himalaya. Disturbances through encroachment even in highly sacred areas such as chipla kedar. (v) Degradation of oak-forests, expansion of chir-pine, invasion of Kuri (lantana), gajar ghas (parthenium) and kala bansa (eupatorium). (vi) Declining area under palatable grasses in bugyals. (vii) Declining interest in agriculture and pastoralism. Traditional systems of bee-keeping, multiple cropping, livestock rearing, etc., is also on the verge of rapid decline. (viii) Cultural values, community feelings, and cooperative activities have declined rapidly. (ix) Changing food habits and life style have caused significant loss of interest on natural systems and traditional good practices. (x) Changing climate/weather to impact wild and domesticated diversity. Declining agriculture production and increased uncertainty of weather.

12.1.2. Soil conservation and watershed management During the field survey about 20 different stakeholders were consulted and few common points emerged for watershed management in the study region. (i) Vegetative measures should be preferred over engineering measures for SWC as these also accrue other benefits such as biodiversity enhancement. (ii) Often the engineering measures do not withstand the extreme climatic events such as floods. Further, landslides in the catchment area also damage the engineering structures. Therefore, the structures should be strong enough to withstand such extremes. (iii) As soil and water conservation do not provide direct benefits to the watershed people some income generating activities are a must and need to be combined in such programmes for better participation. (iv) Keeping in view the heterogeneity of bio-physical landscape the microplans for watershed management should be location-specific and participatory in nature since the beginning of the project. (v) In the schemes like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Gurantee Scheme (MNREGA) some of the activities are not suitable and need location-specific

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modifications. Therefore, flexibility in work components and budget expenditure should rest with the GPs under the supervision of watershed management people.

12.1.3. Livelihood Options (i) Scope for tourism – at present mostly porters. Trained guides and diversification of income to villages through their involvement. At present tourist activities being organized by Kumaun Mandal Vikas Nigam (KMVN) and money do not flow towards villages. (ii) Medicinal plant cultivation – diversity of species and climatic conditions. (iii) Horticulture promotion – scope for promoting mango, banana, guava, citrus, apple, walnut, etc. Also, various kinds of vegetables can be promoted as offseason cultivation. (iv) Organic produce - various agricultural products may be promoted as organic produce. (v) Livestock and dairy – increasing demand for milk and other animal products. Need for promoting cattle of better breed. (vi) Small enterprises – including woolen, wooden and bamboo products. Other fiber based products. Value added products of wild edibles, medicinal herbs and indigenous crop produces. (vii) Apiculture, sericulture, fisheries, poultry as potential sectors. (viii) Developmental projects (road construction, hydropower projects, buildings, etc.) – increased employment opportunities as labourers/contractors.

12.1.4. Perception on existing policies and plans On account of the poor or even some time no exposure to major policies and plans, we could get very limited responses/perceptions with respect to policies/plans on biodiversity/cultural values and livelihood. Some of these are as follows:

(i) The opening of Indo-China trade route from Lipulekh (Byans valley) has raised hope to the people in Darma and Johar valley that the same may begin through historical routes in these valleys. (ii) Need for policies and plans to promote development/infrastructure in remote areas. In particular, to strengthen road network, health and educational infrastructure. The Forest Conservation Act and Wildlife Protection Acts have hampered the developmental activities. (iii) Existing reservation policy, which does not give benefits of reservation to general castes residing in similar landscape and even with poorer economic conditions, requires effective changes. (iv) Government to improve effectiveness of public transport system, the increasing number of smaller vehicles has affected movement of larger vehicles. Permits to public transport systems in new routes are desired. (v) Effective implementation of policies/plans for supply of drinking water and sanitation. SWAJAL scheme has been successful in certain parts. (vi) The existing PA (i.e., Askot Wildlife Sanctuary) in the landscape has been one amongst the most talked about policy interventions. Wide spread protests being raised by people of the area not only because of delay in their developmental works, but also due to prohibition of removal of forest produce of any kind for commercial and even for bonafide uses. The amended Wildlife Act 1991 prohibits removal of any forest produce from WLS except with State Goverment authorization for benefit of wildlife management. All rights being enjoyed in Reserved Forests and Civil Forests and Van Panchayats automatically got extinguished in these areas, thereby adding to public resentment. (vii) Small land holdings and low returns have caused substantial reduction in people’s interest on traditional agriculture. This has subsequently increased the intensity of migration, especially from remote villages. Effective policy interventions for land use planning are required.

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(viii) Policies and programmes for medicinal plant cultivation and harvesting have benefited a few people only. Lack of transparency in rules or their implementation procedure has affected participation of common people. Dual harvesting policy, w.r.t. collection of Keera-Ghas (Yartsa Gambu) in two blocks (i.e., Dharchula and Munsiyari) of landscape was revealing. (ix) General concern about the sanctity of the area, its cultural heritage and traditional fervor, which is being impacted by changing life style of new generation. New generation is not attached with or affectionate to cultural values. (x) People along valleys, particularly Kali Valley, expressed concern over plans of large dams (e.g., proposed Pancheshwar dam). Instead, they were interested in having proper transportation facility all along the valley and willing to support smaller hydropower projects (like proposed Cham-garh HEP on tributary of Saryu). (xi) Tourism policies/programmes promoting involvement of select agencies. Proper plans to ensure participation of inhabitants are needed. (xii) Livestock rearing and pastoralism being major livelihood options, the panning for proper development of these sectors is desired.

[Details of the consultations held during the surveys are given in Appendix 12.1]

12.2 Stakeholders consultation meeting

A stakeholder’s consultation meeting was organized on June 12, 2010 at Government Post Graduate College, Narayan Nagar (Didihat), District Pithoragarh. The meeting began with a briefing on the activities of the Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiatives. The need for consultation was highlighted. The consultation followed extensive group discussions and subsequent presentation of perceptions of each group.

Participants were categorized in four groups so as to receive maximum inputs. These groups included: Group 1 [50 participants] - People’s representatives (representatives of Forest Panchayats, Village Panchayats, Farmers group, etc.); Group 2 [32 participants] - Representatives from Government Departments/Academia/Educational Institutions; Group 3 [10 participants]- NGO’s/Community Organizations; and Group 4 [8 participants]- Senior Citizens, Advocates, social workers, etc. In addition representatives of partner/lead institutions were distributed among different groups to facilitate discussions. Details of participants included (Appendix 12.2).

Each group was requested to focus on four basic issues: (i) landscape biodiversity – peculiarities (uniqueness) and threats; (ii) livelihood options and development; (iii) adaptation to climate change; (iv) Cultural and Ecological integrity of landscape; and (v) possibilities for people participation in Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative. In each group one identified moderator facilitated discussions.

This report presents a summary of the outcomes of discussions in each group and subsequent deliberations during common session at the end of meeting:

Perceptions of Group 1- People’s representatives (Forest Panchayat, Village Panchayat, Farmers, etc.) [Dr. V.K. Malkani, Scientist, Wildlife Institute of India moderated the discussions.]

(i) The group identified following peculiarities and threats to landscape biodiversity.

Peculiarities Threats • Variety of forests • Deteriorating/declining traditional agriculture (agri- diversity) • Rich flora and fauna • Change in seasons is affecting the floral and faunal components

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• Large number of alpine meadows, • Increasing demands and changing lifestyle which are source of variety of medicinal • Forest fire, poaching, illegal trade and plants exploitation of medicinal plants, etc.

• Prevalence of organic farming

(ii) During the discussions on livelihood and development issues; and subsequently followed by adaptations to changing climate, following major points emerged: • Improve transportation facility. Need to accord priority to pony tracks/bridle paths over roads so as to disturb lesser terrain. • Develop provisions for proper disposal of excavated muck/over load during road construction and other developmental sites. • Monitory compensations to van-panchayats in-lieu of damaged forests and water resources by the companies/departments involved in road construction/ developmental activities. • Strict quality check measures and vigilance should be in place at every step of any construction/ infrastructural activities in the geologically sensitive area of zone five. • People participation ‘locals only’ in each and every developmental activity and its associated livelihood options in the region should be ensured. • Encouragement to local youth for vocational education and training for self- employment and to reduce youth migration. • Make the tourism activities decentralized. One agency driven tourism does not benefit locals except as porter or pony owner. (iii) While discussing cultural and ecological integrity and co-ordination, following points emerged: • The historic relations with the neighboring countries, which have deteriorated /eroded in recent past, must be restored. For instance, in Johar valley ‘Kungri- Bingri pass’ needs to be opened for trade with China in same lines as for Lipulekh (1992). This will ensure that the old cultural legacy is restored. • Capacity of local panchayats, van-panchayats and local institutions should be increased for conservation of cultural heritage at the community and local level. Also, effort are needed to maintain effective co-ordination between young and old generation. This can be achieved through preservation of local dialects/ language. • Young minds must be encouraged to follow the traditional/ religious rituals at their ancestral/worship places. (iv) For increasing the level of public participation on Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiatives, following were highlighted: • Promote awareness campaigns so as to enable people to understand/perceive benefits at short and long time frame. • Ensure involvement of local people in various activities of Van-panchayats, Gram panchayat and programmes run by NGOs. • Local institutions (van-panchayats) should be involved since the beginning of any work plan. Also, these institutions should be provided/compensated with necessary fund at appropriate time.

Group -2: Representatives from Government Departments/Educational Institute [Moderation by Dr. Girija Pande, Associate Professor, Kumaun University Nainital] (i) While considering peculiarities and threats following was highlighted by the group: Peculiarities Threats

• Rich Biodiversity • Abandoning and forgetting Himalaya • Unique cultural setup • Migration of people continues • Varying climatic conditions • Substantial decline in agriculture production • Deteriorating educational system • Declining interest in culture and environment • Increasing negligence of forest department

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• Lack of provisions for fixing responsibility • Carrying capacity of mega projects • Questions on adoption of changes due to impact • Climatic changes and its impacts • Illicit trade of natural resources (i.e. yarsa-gambu)

(ii) The group expressed the following with respect to livelihood and development issues; and questions of adaptation to changing climate: • Possible bioresource based livelihood options need to be identified, adopted and commercialized. For example, various techniques of vegetable cultivation, floriculture, etc. • Promotion of medicinal plants cultivation • Proper dissemination of scientific and technical knowhow for implementation of any programme/plan.

(iii) Towards cultural and ecological integrity of landscape, the group agreed on the following: • There is a declining interest on cultural values, which need to be preserved. • Environment is deteriorating at a fast pace therefore, duty of forest department and other stakeholders need to be fixed for preserving our environment. • Migration of the people from the region continues, effective plan/programmes need to design so as to retain the local youth.

(iv) The group further discussed on the mutual co-operation and increasing people participation, and highlighted the following: • In spite of the fact that several schemes/plans are in place most of these working in absolute isolation. Lack of coordination in administrative development. • Inappropriate dissemination of scientific & technical know-how. • Follow a pragmatic approach for addressing issue of lack of communication • Issues of conflicting policies. • Review of policies is urgently required for developing mutual cooperation • Policies for proper marketing of yarsa-gambu- to check the illicit trade is required

Group – 3: NGO’s/Community Organization [Shri manoj Chandran, DCF (Working Plan), Pithoragarh moderated the discussion] (i) The group identified following peculiarities and threat of the landscape biodiversity. Peculiarities Threats

• Vegetation and medicinal wealth • Invasion of unwanted species i.e. Chir pine, • Traditional agriculture Parthenium, Kalabansha, Lantana (Indigenous / • Mining and Construction of Large size Dams local/domesticated) i.e. Lal (Hydro-projects) Dhan, Madua, Jamali Dhan • Migration from the region • Diversity of livestock, birds and • Unplanned building construction wild animals • Alpine meadows, Glaciers • Pastures, Reservoirs (Kund), • Unplanned and non-scientific muck disposal Small streams (Gadhere), river, generated during road construction Naule, Fisheries • Lack of entrepreneurship • Eco-tourism potential • Rise in temperature • Lack of planning for medicinal plants cultivation, fruit processing, water purification, etc.

(ii) The group discussed on the severity of climate changes and potential measures for adaptation. The following major points emerged:

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• Climate change is affecting the agriculture production, the farmers need to change crop calendar for better production. Research institutions to support them in developing a new calendar and adapting to it. • Keeping in view of uncertainties of the climate in mountain region more research and analysis on weather trends in required • Towards increased awareness and building capacity of farmers implement awareness programmes. • Put greater focus on plantation of broadleaved trees to increase the forest cover and soil fertility. • Make attempts to increase water conservation/storage using the rain water harvesting • Considering the chir pine needles is major cause of forest fire, there utilization on commercial scale need to be attempted. • Proper attention required to check/stop forest fire • For better conservation and management of forests in the region participation of local in forest should be increased. Awakening of Van-panchayats is must for conservation of forests

(iii) While discussing on cultural integrity of landscape, the group came up with following: • Local festivals are the mirror of mountain culture sprit of which is declining at fast pace, make efforts to preserve them. For example, Harela is celebrated for more agriculture production and is traditional way of testing germinability of grains. • Promote local arts. • Ensure proper management for water supply and its distribution to the agricultural field • Traditions of faith, practices need to be recognized and promoted • Traditional medicine & mantra need to be promoted for better healthcare

(iv) Towards improving mutual co-operation and people participation, following was highlighted: • Meetings, Rallies, Art groups/gatherings, Seminars should be organized at regular interval for strengthening mutual co-operation • Educational system at primary schools level need to be strengthened • Take initiatives and change the paradigm for people’s participation by encouraging participation from all sectors. • Focus on establishing enterprises from local produce (Medicinal plants, furniture, resin, Khariya), fruit processing, water, colour, natural fibers, fisheries, apiculture, Bamboo, Ringal. • Promote micro-hydro, renewable energy for fulfilling energy demand of people. • Discourage large dams. Ensure transportation facilities in village ecosystems.

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Group 4: Senior Citizens, Advocates and Social Workers [Dr. C.S. Negi, Govt. P.G. College Pithoragarh moderated the discussion].

(i) The group identified following peculiarities and threats to the biodiversity of the landscape Peculiarities Threats • Diversity of vegetation, forests • Forest fire • Wildlife and Natural resources • Large dams; improper roads • Water resources • Total mess in the name of beautification

(ii) The group discussed on the livelihood options and development issues. Following were the major points highlighted by the group: • Need to promote fruit species, considering the suitability of climatic conditions. • To cope with changing climate, promote traditional agriculture as it is a results of long experience of the local people and has ability to survive in adverse condition. • Establish linkages of farmers with scientific institutions so as to improve agriculture or other production systems. • Need for developing appropriate rules to address issue of fragmented lands-land ceiling. • Policy interventions required for minimizing change of agriculture land under other land-use category. Promote waste land development programmes. • Studies and initiatives required for promotion of non- conventional power generation (Solar energy, wind energy). • Awareness to local people is required for any developmental programme in the region. • Proper inventorization of water resources is very much needed. • Low cost technologies for rain water harvesting need to be disseminated. • Attention is required for water dependent and drought resistant species need to be promoted • Regular awareness campaigns about hazards.

(ii) Considering cultural and ecological integrity, group came-up with following points: • Adi Shankaracharya’s or Swami Narayan’s philosophy for maintaining culture integrity and ecology of the area needs to be propagated. • Tradition of local therapist (Vadhya) need to be promoted • Tradition of sacred groves/forests/areas needs to be promoted. Offering of forests to local god/deities helps in conservation. • Cultural values need to be imbedded in education packages. • Incentives to folk arts for maintaining the culture should be given. • Development should be done without damaging the environment.

(iv) For improving people’s participation on the various issues of Kailsh Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiatives, following points emerged during the discussion: • Enough potential for small hydro-power development, discourage large dams. • Cultural/ traditional sentiments for local resource. Harness these sentiments for improving community based conservation.

12.3 Analysis of community perceptions

Considering the inputs of group discussion and inputs received during the field surveys following major points emanate: • The landscape has a historical tradition of cultural harmony and resource conservation which can easily be harnessed for conservation of ecology of the region. Revival of historical trade/pilgrimage routes and cultural ties with neighboring countries will benefit people and ecology of the landscape.

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• The landscape is rich in high altitude flora and fauna and human interference has been minimal, therefore it offers an opportunity of creating a quality high Himalayan and tribal reserve in the landscape where healthy co-existence of nature and man is demonstrated for entire world. • The landscape offers a virtually virgin area for adventure activities especially mountaineering, trekking and ecotourism. However, benefits of increased tourism activities need to accrue to local communities. This is possible through building their capacities and skills. • Landscape provides opportunity for cultivation of precious live saving medicinal plants, valuable aromatic herbs, and wild edible plants. Scientific and technical knowhow for cultivation, post harvest technology and proper value addition is needed. • The inhabitants of the landscape are traditionally animal husbandry people, and there is ample scope for improving-upon this tradition to harness benefits. • The waters of Torrential River of the landscape (i.e., Dhaulianga, Goriganga, Ramganga, and Saryu and their tributaries, have great potential for power generation through hydro- electric projects. However, the impact assessment of such developmental activities needs to be done on urgent basis. Also, the issues of existing bad practices need to be addressed on priority basis. People, at large, are not in favour of large dams. • Transport facilities, road network, are on high priority of people. However, this needs to take into account the ecology. Proper disposal of muck/overload must be made essential component of all such activities. Water, health, sanitation and education issues also need to be tackled on urgent basis. • Out migration from remote villages is a big concern. Skill development and employment generation activities for youth require priority consideration. • Agriculture requires due changes under changing climate scenario. Scientific/research inputs for determining changed crop calendar are needed. Proper awareness on other technological interventions for promotion/diversification of agriculture/horticulture is essentially required. • Forest fires are among major threat to biodiversity. Garnering public support for addressing this issue is major challenge for Forest Department. • Preservation/Promotion of local dialects/language, art, belief systems and traditions will help in conservation and sustainable development of landscape. This can be ensured through wide ranging campaigns and embedding these in education system.

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13. Status of Environmental Degradation, Cultural Integrity and Action Imperatives

13.1 Background The target landscape represents one of the unique cultural sites, which has historically evolved as an amphitheatre for several cultures and micro cultures, blending with each other, forming a rainbow of cultural commonality. It is a site of ethnic intermixing and cultural assimilation not only from the mainland of India but also across the borders. Evidences reveal that the passes across the Himalaya have seen people moving in and settling down in this region in historical times. The landscape has been a centre of activities of ethnic, lingual and cultural groups which came from different directions at different times. Here, one can experience simultaneously ongoing process of struggle and assimilation. In fact the intermixing of various cultures as well as upward mobility of social groups had played important role in evolving the divine diversity of the region. Irrespective of diversity, the most unique and common feature of human civilization in this landscape is to have a rich tradition of conservation of natural resources through customary methods. Throughout the landscape, the common practice in folk wisdom is not to misuse, degrade or destroy common properties. The natural resources (i.e, trees, forests, rivers, springs, many faunal components and most often mountain peaks and hill sites) are revered with sacred value. Thus, the prevalent folk belief system of the landscape has broadly helped in conservation of natural resources.

In spite of the above, the landscape could not escape from the on-going developmental activities pertaining to transport, communication and other infra-structure leading to environmental problems. While detailed documentation and appropriate quantification of environmental degradation in the landscape is beyond the scope of this report, it however attempts to provide some of the trends of deterioration/degradation in different sectors of environment.

13.2 Trends of degradation

13.2.1 Degradation trends in land, water and human environment • As elsewhere in the Himalaya, the glaciers of the landscape are showing trends of retreat. For instance, the area covered by glaciers in Dhauliganga valley in 1962 and 2005 have been reported as 428.84 km2 and 362.44 km2, respectively, which shows a decline of 66.44 km2 (GBPIHED, 2009). The reduction in the area under glaciers has been calculated using Survey of India toposheets (1962-63) and satellite data of 2005. The interpretation of maps shows 15.48 % net loss in glaciated area in Dhauliganga basin. The observations made in this investigation suggest that small glaciers, which are plenty in the landscape [of the reported 382, maximum 214 fall in below 1 km2 category and minimum (14) in 4-5 km2 Category], and ice fields may be more affected due to global warming. In addition, larger glaciers are being fragmented into smaller glaciers. In future, if additional warming takes place, the processes of glacial fragmentation and retreat may increase, this will have a profound effect on downstream availability of water resources in the target landscape and beyond. However, this interpretation has a disadvantage of using data generated from different sources having diverse methodologies. • The landscape experience severe shortage of water (drinking and irrigation). How far this shortage of water in the landscape can be attributed to as a consequence of extensive deforestation, land use change and forest fires and climate change has to be extensively studied. Most of the natural springs have dried up due to interference in their natural recharge zone caused mainly by land development activities, road constructions, etc., which causes diversion of the underground channels. Reduction in precipitation has added to the problem. In spite of the fact that the significant information in this respect is not available, the information received from Pithoragarh forest division shows that the

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discharge of the springs which are primary source of drinking water in rural areas is decreasing and by general perception some have even disappeared or become seasonal [of the investigated ones, springs showing >50% reduction of discharge: Kanalichhina Block – 100%; Munakot -67%; Bin – 45%]. • Hill irrigation involves collective action by the users (in case of farmer managed schemes), in the evolution, maintenance and operation of systems, and in conformance with agreed rules and procedures for sharing water (scheduling). However, in case of State scheme the state department takes up these tasks. More appropriately problems related to irrigation systems (both operational and institutional) have gained immense importance in the mountain agro-ecosystems of study area, where the irrigation facilities are poorly developed with less than 15 per cent of cropped area under irrigation (Kumar and Joshi 2001). In the region where a large part of area is facing severe water scarcity, proper management of irrigation water becomes more serious issue (Satyal 2001). Agriculture cannot be profitable unless adequate irrigation facilities are available in the region. The studies have revealed that the performance of farmer managed system are better than state managed schemes, mainly due to proper and need based institutional arrangements. The farmer schemes are small in size, but they are sound in terms of land and water utilization (higher irrigation intensity and conveyance efficiencies) and their management is dynamic in nature. This has been the main reason for their sustainability in the long run. The state managed schemes, however, seems to be less effective due to their static nature, poor scientific planning and absence of location specific technology. • With respect to farming systems in the area following trends of degradation are apparent (i) Decreasing net sown area; (ii) Predominance of wasteland ; (iii) declining agriculture production; (iv) Declining soil fertility due to high erosion and nutrient leaching through run-off; (v) increasing scattered and small land holdings; (vi) crop damage by wild animals; (vii) declining number of land races and traditional varieties; (viii) change in land use of agriculture land, particularly to residential areas, and (ix) abandoning of agriculture fields by out-migrated farmers . For the livestock diversity, the landscape shows following trends of degradation: (i) Growing number of less productive livestock; (ii) increasing demand of fodder and consequent shortage of green fodder during winter and summer season, (iii) declining number of land race/breeds and unscientific introduction of exotic breeds, and (iv) decrease in available grazing lands.. • Mining (especially for soap stone); haphazard construction of roads, unscientific disposal of debris, development of hydropower projects and poor environmental impact assessment and implementation of environmental management plans; overcrowding of houses in towns and cities have contributed to degradation of land environment in the landscape. Among associated problems, increasing issue of safe disposal of garbage (particularly non-biodegradable), sewerage systems and safe drinking water are notable. • While migration of higher Himalayan villages has been a problem for last 4-5 decades, in recent years the landscape has experienced migration of people even from valley areas with good agriculture to smaller towns, particularly for education of children. This trend is in one hand contributing to a decline in agriculture in valleys, while on the other increasing pressure on small towns which were never planned to accommodate large populations. • Over time, the landscape has experienced decline in socio-cultural values. Changing lifestyles and priorities of younger generation have resulted in their declining interest in traditional value systems. Reduction in emotional attachment with traditions and its value system is contributing towards increasing alienation from natural resources.

13.2.2 Degradation of natural vegetation and habitats

13.2.2.1. Conversion of forest land for development activities There is a great pressure on forest land for development activities like rural infrastructure (roads, electricity, water supply, hospitals, schools, etc.) and also for heavy development activities like hydro power projects, mining and irrigation projects. These projects, though required for the development of the community, are taking a heavy toll on forest areas and

138 the biodiversity and fragmenting the contiguous forests areas. Even though these activities are followed up by compensatory afforestation in non forested or degraded areas, these activities cannot replace the damage done to the existing forests. The intentional notification of the Askot Wildlife Sanctuary has also created concern for the villagers thinking that their development activities would be affected due to the sanctuary, where procedures are more stringent for land transfers. Conversion of forest areas for hydro power projects not only damages the ecosystem, but also causes interference to the natural flow of waters in the rivers thus affecting aquatic fauna and especially becomes a hindrance to upstream migrating fish like Mahaseer and Trout. The recent trend has been to replace large dams causing large areas to be submerged by small weirs to divert water into tunnels leading to the turbines. Though this technology reduces submergence of upstream area, the building of tunnels cause heavy vibration disturbing the whole geological formation resulting in diversion of springs and increased landslides. Rehabilitation and resettlement of villagers is restricted to submergence areas and not extended to higher areas, which are also equally threatened by landslides.

13.2.2.2. Human–wildlife conflicts This is one of the most important issues in forest management. Increasing forest cover and emigration of villagers to cities resulting in conversion of agriculture land to forest areas has led the remaining agriculture lands to be more frequented by wild herbivores, wild pigs and also black bears which otherwise would have been distributed in a wider area. This results in severe crop damage and also is followed by higher incidences of carnivores entering villages. Invasion by alien species like Lantana and Ageratina have also resulted in less fodder in forest areas and also have reduced hunting grounds for carnivores like the leopard. Increased lopping has resulted in no production of oak fruits which form major food for several herbivores, pigs, monkeys and also bear. This, in addition to fragmentation of wild areas due to fencing, road construction and other development activities, has resulted in leopards frequenting villages and increasing incidences of dog and cattle lifting, at times injury and killing of humans, and occasionally human-eating incidences too. These together have made villagers think of eliminating these animals rather than conserving them. There is always demand from villagers to trap leopards and wild pigs roaming in their premises. The co-existence of human and wildlife can be ensured only by deeper understanding of anthropogenic pressures on the habitat and changes in behavior of wild animals. This requires regular monitoring of wildlife populations, status of their habitats, and prey base. Mitigation of conflicts would include effective protection of crops, appropriate changes in cropping pattern in case of high conflict zones and at times providing corridors for the movement and dispersal of these animals.

13.2.2.3. Forest Fires Forest fires are a regular phenomenon especially in Chir pine forests and take place due to accidental or deliberate setting of fire. Several fires are set to eliminate slippery needle litter and to induce new sprout of grass during the lean season, whereas several fires are spread from neighbouring wheat fields which are fired after harvest. However, these fires do not cause any serious damage to the forests other than burning of ground flora and regeneration. The forest department along with the local community try to bring all fires to control not allowing them to take serious shape. However, forest fires in oak areas, though not very common, cause serious damage to the whole forest due to the slow spread and smouldering nature of fire on slow burning leaf litter and humus. Fire reporting is done on a daily basis during the fire season, however due to fear of legal and disciplinary action; often these are much under-reported. It is necessary to have honest and scientific reporting of forest fires to actually assess the positive and negative role of forest fires and to develop management strategies. The summary of reported fires of the last decade in Pithoragarh Forest Division is given below.

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Year Reserved Forests Civil and Panchayat Forests Event (No) Area in ha Event (No) Area in ha 2001 5 25.00 - - 2002 9 29.00 11 34.00 2003 31 154.00 18 74.75 2004 15 45.50 14 40.50 2005 26 67.25 18 66.00 2006 - - 1 3.00 2007 3 11.0 4 7.00 2008 24 47.0 4 9.00 2009 22 41.0 11 30.00

13.2.2.4 Encroachment of Chir Pine in Oak areas The absence of green felling in the landscape for commercial activities has resulted in improper unhealthy recruitment of Chir pine and also causes reduced availability of free firewood to the rural people. In turns this has promoted over exploitation of Oaks for firewood resulting in the degradation of Oak forests and also the invasion of Chir Pine in Oak forest types. The pole crops which could be thinned out are not available to villagers for their vegetable props and cattle sheds and often have to be illegally cut from the forests. The unworked Chir pine forests also have a heavy fuel and litter load and hence are more vulnerable to forest fires.

13.2.2.5 Timber Rights and concessions Though Timber Rights exist in most of the forest areas, the quantities have not been revised since its inception. Due to the increased population, the meagre quantities of rights are not sufficient to meet the demands of the people. In addition, people have shifted to cement and steel for building construction and hence the demand for timber has also reduced. It should be noted that cement and steel are also products of conversion of forest areas elsewhere doing more permanent damage than use of timber for construction, which is only a temporary damage and is actually a sustainable use of a renewable natural resource.

13.2.2.6 Collection of Non-Timber Forest Produce The different non-timber Forest Produce of importance like Lichens and medicinal plants are not collected scientifically and actual data of its trade is not known. Though several areas are allocated for legal harvest of these products, the harvest is not scientific and sustainable. The availability of such produce has not been quantified scientifically. The collection of Yar- tsa Gam-bu has recently become a main economic activity of the local community and the high value of the produce has also resulted in conflicts among communities for areas rich in this produce. The large scale collection activity and high density of collectors in the alpine meadows result in heavy demand for fuel wood in addition to destruction of habitat. Sustainable harvest protocol needs to be developed for every forest produce.

13.2.3 Problems due to illegal trade and over exploitation of natural resources • Alpine and subalpine zones of the landscape, as elsewhere in the mountains, constitute an important site for several important indigenous biodiversity components. However, these areas have traditionally been used for pastoral activities by transhumance communities. Over the time, it has been observed that the grazing lands in alpine and subalpine zones are being increasingly infested with non palatable invading type species which is causing greater pressure on available land area. Also, many non-migrant communities drive their scrub cattle to sub-alpine and alpine areas for free grazing during summer monsoon. All this has contributed to rapid deterioration of rangelands that includes loss of soil and moisture. While in recent decades the intensity of sheep herding and populations of sheep and goats in local high altitude villages have declined considerably, a new trend of use of some of

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these pastures by a gaddi herders from Himachal Pradesh have emerged. This Influx of large herds of livestock and summer season congregation of scrub cattle around timberline and sub-alpine forests are causing immense disturbance to the sensitive native/endemic species and their assemblages. . • Emergence of Yartsa Gambu (Keera- Ghas) as one of the most lucrative wild resource from alpine areas of the landscape has contributed to the disturbance to the pristine habitats. Large scale camping and subsequent all sorts of human activities during early growth season are negatively impacting the alpine ecology. On a long run this practice may emerge as most deleterious for alpine environment. However, this activity is of short term nature, it provides opportunity for development of sustainable harvest protocol. • The landscape supports richness of lower plant groups including lichens which are poikilohydric in nature and a slight change in their immediate surroundings may result in their disappearance from the area. Increasing urbanization in the landscape leads to the depletion of the forests that ultimately influence the bark inhabiting lichens. Many lichens try to avoid straight light thus prefer to grow in shade of boulders and trees. Thinning of forest changes their ecological regimes thereby threatening their existence. Forest fire and grazing have profound effect on soil inhabiting lichens. Rapid loss of lichens due to fire or animal grazing devoid the forest from lichens for many years as lichens are slow growing and requires a minimum of 5 to 10 years for their proper development. It has been worked out from the studies that the localities situated in and around Pithoragarh HQ, Munsyari proper and other populated areas exhibit poor to scarce growth of lichens due to heavy anthropogenic activities. The lichens in areas of heavy anthropogenic activities showed adaptation to colonize on cultivated trees of Populus, Robinia, Grewia, Pyrus, and Prunus. • Poaching of wild life and forest products has been quite common in the landscape. Hunting of musk deer for its musk pod, Himalayan bear for its bile and to some extent that of leopard for smuggling its organs to China via Nepal has been a regular menace. Even after stringent regulation by the government, things are not under full control. This can be attributed to vastness and ruggedness of the area, very sparse human habitations in higher Himalaya, week regulatory mechanism and proximity to international markets, etc. • Some of the important sensitive faunal components, such as Himalayan musk deer, are exhibiting declining status in this region. Illegal poaching and trade of ‘musk’ to cater the need of international markets is one of the evident bad practices in the landscape. Further, livestock grazing and anthropogenic pressures in natural habitats has resulted in depletion in numbers of this species. As a result of cumulative effects, the musk deer distribution is now restricted to a few isolated pockets in this landscape. The status of mountain ungulates such as the Blue Sheep, Himalayan Tahar and Goral is also of serious concern in the landscape. • Prevalence of illegal methods of capture/poaching of fishes has resulted into depletion of fish fauna. Common practices of illegal poaching include use of bleaching powder, poisoning by agave, blasting using gelatin sticks and use of electric current. These activities are quite dangerous as they not only kill large fishes but also damage entire aquatic life (i.e, small fishes and other aquatic animals). Of the various species of fishes Deep bodied Mahseer Tor tor and Golden Mahseer Tor putitora are threatened and vulnerable due to intensive dynamiting and may get further endangered due to upcoming hydro-power projects unless adequate conservation measures are taken. • The landscape encompasses remote and physically challenging areas surrounded by dense human population. The local communities have traditionally been using alpine areas and high altitude forests for livestock grazing and collection of non-wood forest produce. In terms of management and protection the sanctuary and other reserved forests have received very little inputs largely due to poor infra-structure, lack of adequate human resources and coordination among various line agencies. Ever increasing demand of certain wildlife products in the illegal markets coupled with proximity to the porous international border with Nepal has made this landscape all the

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more vulnerable to poaching and other illegal activities. In recent decades several consignments of bear galls, musk pods, shahtoosh, bones and skins of tiger and leopards have been seized within this landscape. Poaching is reported to be particularly high in case of Himalayan musk deer, Asiatic black bear, snow leopard and medicinal plants such as Yartsa Gombu (Cordyceps sinensis), Salampanja (Dactylorhiza hatagirea), and Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum). As there are very few alternate livelihood opportunities for the economically backward people in the society they resort to wildlife trade and play in the hands of money lenders and rich traders who can pay huge amount of cash in advance for valuable wildlife products.

13.2.4 Status of cultural integrity • Although, in most part of the landscape, the cultural values still prevail and act as guiding force for environmental protection, it would not be out of place to state that this system is fast deteriorating particularly in areas/communities having access to modern infrastructure and life style. The traditional beliefs and rituals, which were very much intimately related to the management of the ecosystems, are now prevalent in remote villages only. The institutions of sacred groves, forests, pastures or even sacred water bodies, along with the strict norms and taboos that relates to resource utilization and to the sustainable resource management concepts, are rapidly losing ground. • Historically, the local communities residing on either side of Mahakali river (that forms international boundary between India and Nepal) have been exchanging several commodities including butter, honey, wool and other NWFPs. Some more examples of existing trans-boundary cooperation between the two countries are: (i) District Pithoragarh and adjacent parts of Kumaon have contributed significantly towards imparting higher education to people in remote areas of Western Nepal, especially Byans Valley; (ii) People of Byans (both India and Nepal) speak same dialect and they share culture, marital relations and worship the same deities; (iii) People in Budhi and Garbyang share pastures and several NWFPs amicably; (iv) Several tributaries of Mahakali flow from either countries and bring enormous ecosystem services to the lower parts of landscape. The waters of Mahakali, aquatic fauna and other ecosystem services are shared by the people on either side. However, in recent years the fast changing political and economic environment has severely impacted upon the cross border cultural integrity.

13.3 Priority actions for the target landscape

Different chapters in this report have identified priorities for different sectors. However, a more comprehensive assessment of issues identified through stakeholder consultation as well as based on the observations and analysis of rapid assessment surveys conducted in the landscape, following priorities deserve special mention.

13.3.1. Preservation and revival of socio-cultural value system • Considering that the ecological life support systems in the landscape were preserved because different forms of land use were very often governed by religious beliefs, customary rules and imbedded sacred values that made it sustainable, there is a need to protect and/or revive such systems. • Sacred values have contributed to the maintenance of naturalness and representativeness of biodiversity elements at different levels, therefore certain guidelines should be put in place to safeguard the sacred areas, groves and elements, and promote traditional knowledge and practices of their conservation. • In view of the fast depleting knowledge base, documentation of traditional systems of conservation and sustainable use should get an immediate priority. 13.3.2. Strengthening of indigenous farming practices • The traditional agriculture system, which is by default largely organic, is currently facing multiple problems and indigenous communities are no more interested in continuing with it. However, considering the gene pool conservation value, and the proven adaptive capacity and low risk factor of traditional agriculture, this system needs to be

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strengthened so as to help poor farming communities to adapt to changing climate patterns and related ecological consequences. Farmers should be motivated to cultivate landraces of crops and to pure breed landraces of livestock. • The transhumance pastoralism has been a way of life for larger section of community in the landscape. These types of pastoralists are supposed to be amongst those at risk to climate change, yet are amongst those having greatest potential to adapt to such changes. Under changing climate and economic scenario, there is a need to work with this community to enable them to employ their adaptive strategies and help them in investing their capabilities for harnessing benefits of conditions.

13.3.3. Minimizing out-migration • The historical migration from higher hills and recent trends of migration even from agriculture rich valleys, both has long lasting negative socio-cultural and environmental consequences. This issue needs to be addressed at the earliest. Improved educational facilities, skill building vocational education and employment opportunities within the landscape would help curbing the trend. • Technological interventions for providing alternate livelihoods and income opportunities (i.e., off season vegetable cultivation, fish farming, MAP cultivation, bee keeping, mushroom culture, bio briquetting, etc.) would help in retaining the able bodied youth in the landscape.

13.3.4. Blending eco and pilgrimage tourism • The landscape provides opportunities for both religion and ecosystem based tourism. However, under changing scenario there is a need to blend both together. While the potential of religious places need to be harnessed for emotional attraction of tourists, inputs of ecological ingredients such as nature guide, bird watching and many other forms would improve their appreciation value. • Landscape offers opportunity for adventure activities especially mountaineering, trekking, gliding and river-rafting etc. However, there is a need to work-out plans and programmes in such a way that the benefits of such increased tourism activities benefit local communities. This would require building their capacities and skills to realize and exploit opportunities offered by the ecosystem.

13.3.5. Providing additional livelihood options • Opportunities provided by rich heritage of traditional farming systems, diversity of high value medicinal plants and wild edibles need to be harnessed for optimal benefits. The possibilities of geographical indicators, premier organic produce, value addition to products, and cultivation and marketing strategies required to be worked out for overall development of landscape.

13.3.6. Improving infrastructure support • Road network, educational infrastructure and health services are on priority agenda of indigenous communities. However, there is a need to keep the ecological and aesthetic considerations on top while framing such developments in the landscape. The landscape, provides opportunity of becoming a prototype for such ecologically sound infrastructure development initiative in the Himalaya or elsewhere in mountains.

13.3.7. Strengthening information base • As outlined under various sectors, the landscape possesses representative and unique biodiversity and socio-cultural elements/systems. Many of these are vulnerable to anthropogenic and/or climatic perturbations. Therefore, there is a need to develop a system of authentic information base which could help in predicting future scenarios of such elements/systems. • The landscape represents a wide altitude transects, which can ideally be considered as long term monitoring transect towards generating authentic and compatible datasets on critical systems such as riverine forests, timber line ecotone, alpine rangelands, high

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altitude wet lands and glaciers. Besides, various sites identified as biodiversity rich may be considered for long-term ecosystem monitoring sites. • Relatively poor information availability on populations of threatened species/communities requires immediate attention in the form of systematic investigations. The lower groups of flora and fauna need special attention. • A geo referenced database for the biodiversity elements of the landscape would help in facilitating management and developing sustainable use options. Also, glacier inventories and their trends of retreat/fragmentation would provide datasets for understanding response patterns and scenario building.

13.3.8. Recognizing role of ecosystem services • Realizing that the landscape provides a plethora of hitherto unaccounted ecosystem services, there is an urgent need to incorporate values of these services in development and conservation plans and programmes. • Role of natural ecosystem in mitigating natural disasters is well recognized, therefore, researches in the landscape may focus on working-out the scale of natural disasters for which natural ecosystem can help effective mitigation. Use of advance techniques and tools is required to help the planners/managers to identify most valuable sites/areas where natural ecosystem needs to be protected and/or restored to provide disaster mitigation services. • The existing or proposed PA plans in the landscape urgently require revising their conservation objectives and management plans to better reflect and conserve the contribution of these PAs in providing ecosystem services, including disaster mitigation.

13.3.9. Improving resilience and adaptive capacity of forests and rangelands • Considering the intricate linkage of forests and rangelands with indigenous communities in the landscape, and the role forests play in ensuring environmental security, indiscriminate loss of forests due to various reasons is cause of great concern. Therefore, increasing forest ecosystem resilience to different kinds of perturbations (anthropogenic and natural) is a major priority. Planning and effective implementation of programmes to increase diversity at all levels, appropriate changes in silvicultural practices, and incorporating effective soil and water management practices is essentially required. • Carrying capacity assessment, economic valuation and sustainable harvesting strategies for goods and services emanating from the forests and rangelands would help reducing pressure on natural ecosystems and improving the quality of life of dependent communities. • Development of a culture of continuous training and capacity building, experience sharing, and effective use of modern tools and techniques for increased participation of skilled manpower (including the inhabitants) in vulnerability reduction is important. Encouraging landscape level forest and rangeland restoration programmes would contribute in maintaining natural ecosystem processes and biodiversity values.

Finally it is worth mentioning that despite a general loss of cryosphere, degradation of rangelands and forests, a significant portion of this landscape is intact. So is the case with socio cultural harmony. Therefore, with careful planning following an integrated landscape approach it seems quite feasible to restore the degraded ecosystems and revive the disintegrating Traditional Knowledge System, promote trans-boundary cooperation and generate awareness among local communities for pre-adaptation to future climatic regimes.

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Appendix 6.1: Diversity of angiosperms in Pithoragarh district

A. Dicotyledons Family Genus Species Herb Climber Shrub Tree Acanthaceae 21 28 (1 var.) 8 1 19 Aceraceae 1 6 6 Actinidiaceae 1 1 1 Aizoaceae 1 1 1 Alangiaceae 1 1 1 Amaranthaceae 9 17 17 Anacardiaceae 7 11 5 6 Annonaceae 1 1 1 Apiaceae 24 44 44 Apocynaceae 10 11 3 6 2 Aquifolliaceae 1 4 4 Araliaceae 5 5 5 Aristolochiaceae 1 3 3 Asclepiadaceae 9 11 1 7 3 Asteraceae 78 188 188 (1 sub sp.& 1var.) Balsaminaceae 1 7 7 Bambacaceae 1 1 1 Begoniaceae 1 3 3 Berberidaceae 2 7 7 Betulaceae 4 6 6 Bignoniaceae 8 9 3 3 3 Boraginaceae 20 34 30 4 Brassicaceae 2 50 50 Buxaceae 2 3 1 2 Callitrichaceae 1 1 1 Campanulaceae 6 17 17 Cannabaceae 2 2 2 Capparaceae 2 4 (1 var.) 2 2 Caprifoliaceae 6 20 1 19 Caricaceae 1 1 1 Caryophyllaceae 13 44 44 Celastraceae 3 8 3 5 Ceratophyllaceae 1 1 1 Chenopodiaceae 5 8 8 Clusiaceae 1 1 1 Combretaceae 3 5 5 Convolvulaceae 5 16 3 12 1 Coriariaceae 1 1 1 Cornaceae 2 3 3 Crassulaceae 5 21 21 Cucurbitaceae 12 15 15 Cuscutaceae 1 1 1 Datiscaceae 1 1 1 Dipsacaceae 4 6 6 Dipterocarpaceae 1 1 1 Droseraceae 1 1 1 Ebenaceae 1 2 2 Elaeagnaceae 2 4 (1 sub sp.) 4 Ericaceae 4 10 4 6 Euphorbiaceae 18 42 16 12 14 Fabaceae 52 141 92 7 35 7 Fagaceae 3 9 9 Flacourtiaceae 3 5 5 Fumariaceae 3 16 16 Gentianaceae 6 33 33 Geraniaceae 2 9 9 Gesneriaceae 7 9 9 Grossulariaceae 3 6 6 Hippocastanaceae 1 1 1

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Hippuridaceae 1 1 1 Holoragidaceae 1 1 1 Hydrangeaceae 3 5 5 Hypericaceae 1 6 3 3 Juglandaceae 2 2 2 Laminaceae 37 84 (2 var.) 74 10 Lardizablaceae 1 1 (1 var.) 1 Lauraceae 7 10 1 9 Leeaceae 1 1 1 Lentibulariaceae 2 5 5 Linaceae 3 3 2 1 Loganiaceae 1 3 3 Loranthaceae 8 9 1 8 Lythraceae 5 10 9 1 Magnoliaceae 2 3 3 Malpighiaceae 2 2 2 Malvaceae 10 21 10 10 1 Martyniaceae 1 1 1 Melastomaceae 1 3 2 1 Meliaceae 4 5 5 Menispermaceae 4 6 5 1 Monotropaceae 2 2 2 Moraceae 4 19 2 1 16 Myricaceae 1 1 1 Myrsinaceae 4 7 7 Myrtaceae 5 7 7 Nyctaginaceae 3 3 3 Oleaceae 7 12 6 6 Onagraceae 4 18 (1 sub sp.) 18 Orobanchaceae 2 4 4 Oxalidaceae 3 6 6 Papaveraceae 4 5 5 Passifloraceae 1 1 1 Pedaliaceae 1 1 1 Phrymaceae 1 1 (1 var.) 1 Phytolaccaceae 1 1 1 Piperaceae 2 4 3 1 Pittosporaceae 1 1 1 Plantaginaceae 1 3 3 Plantanaceae 1 1 1 Plumbaginaceae 1 2 2 Podophyllaceae 1 1 1 Polemoniaceae 1 1 (1 sub sp.) 1 Polygalaceae 1 6 6 Polygonaceae 5 45 45 Portulacaceae 1 1 1 Primulaceae 5 31 31 Proteaceae 1 1 1 Punicaceae 1 1 1 Ranunculaceae 16 62 50 12 Rhamnaceae 6 11 2 8 1 Rosaceae 24 85 37 2 33 13 Rubiaceae 22 37 23 1 10 3 Rutaceae 7 12 1 1 4 6 Sabiaceae 2 3 2 1 Salicaceae 2 11 6 5 Santalaceae 2 2 1 1 Sapindaceae 4 4 1 1 2 Sapotaceae 2 2 2 Saurauiaceae 1 1 1 Saxifragaceae 5 34 34 Schizandraceae 1 2 2 Scrophulariaceae 23 66 66 Selaginaceae 1 1 1 Solanaceae 13 24 14 1 9

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Staphylaceae 2 2 2 Sterculiaceae 4 4 4 Symplocaceae 1 4 4 Tamaricaceae 1 2 2 Theaceae 3 3 3 Thymelaeaceae 3 4 1 3 Tiliaceae 3 8 6 2 Toricelliaceae 1 1 1 Ulmaceae 4 5 5 Urticaceae 11 23 12 11 Valerianaceae 2 5 5 Verbenaceae 11 18 3 1 10 4 Violaceae 1 4 4 Vitaceae 5 13 13 Total 738 1731 1131 99 305 203 (4 sub sp. & 8 var.)

B. Monocotyledons Family Genus Species Herb Climber Shrub Agavaceae 2 2 2 Amaryllidaceae 1 1 1 Araceae 8 16 14 2 Arecaceae 1 1 1 Commelinaceae 3 9 9 Cyperaceae 9 64 64 Dioscoreaceae 1 5 5 Eriocaulaceae 1 2 2 Hydrocharitaceae 3 3 3 Hypoxidaceae 2 2 2 Iridaceae 1 2 2 Juncaceae 2 15 15 Juncaginaceae 1 2 2 Lemnaceae 2 2 2 Liliaceae 21 32 (1 var.) 32 Orchidaceae 54 162 162 Poaceae 82 224 224 Pontederiaceae 1 1 1 Potomogetonaceae 1 3 3 Smilacaceae 1 3 3 Zingiberaceae 8 11 11 Total 205 562 (1 var.) 559 2 1

150 Appendix 6.2: Details of the reported invertebrate fauna in the Indian part of Kailash Sacred Landscape S. N. Name of the representative faunal groups and species spectrum

Phylum ANNELIDA MOLLUSCA ARTHROPODA Class Oligochaeta Arachnida Myriapoda (Chilopoda) Insecta Order Hemiptera Coleoptera 1. Eutyphoeus nainianus Pupoides coenopictus Mesobuthus tumulus Scolopendra morsitans Teleonema Pheropsophus Michaelsen (Hutton) gangeticus (Pocock) Linn. scrupulosa Stal catoiree (Dej.) 2. Eutyphoeus Pisidium (Afropisidium) Lycas (Distrotrichus) Cormocephalus dentipes Pheropsophus hilaris pharpingianus Carkeanum G. & H. migristernis (Pocock) Pocock (Fab.) Michaelsen Nevill 3. Amynthas corticis Chearilius granosus Cormocephalus Amara batesi Csiki (Kinberg) Pocock pygmaeus Pocock 4. Metaphire houlleti Scorpiops (S.) montanus Rhysida monalii Khanna Chaenius laetiusulcus (Perrier) Karsch & Kumar Chal. 5. Perionyx bainii Rhysida afra cupres Chaenius Stephenson Kraepelin punctastriatus 6. Perionyx excavates Rhysida crassispina Chaenius pulcher Perrier Kraepelin, 1903 Neetn. 7. Perionyx nainianus Otostigmus amballae Michaelsen Chamberlin, 1913 8. Allolobophora parva Otostigmus morsitans (Eisen) Pocock, 1890 9. Aporrectodea trapezoids Ethmostigmus species -group, Gates pygomegas (Kohlrausch) Total 9 2 4 9 1 6

Continued…

151

S. N. Phylym: Arthropoda; Class Insecta Order Odonata Dermaptera Isoptera Trichoptera Lepidoptera Hymenoptera 1. Calicnemia maheshi Sahni Euborellia annulipes Heterotermes gertrudae Rhyacophila bidens Pachliopta aristolochiae Polistes (Lucas) Roonwal Kimins (Fabr.) (Megapolistes) maculipennis Saussure 2. Himalagrion pithoragarhicus Euborellia askotensis Heterotermes indicola Chimarra oberrans Papilio polyctor polyctor Vespa (Vespa) Sahni Gangola (Wasmann) Martynov (Boisduval) basalis Smith 3. Ischnura forcipata Nala lividipes (Dufor) Microcerotermes beesoni Chimarra digitata Papilio machacon Ammophila Snyder Martynov punjabensis Eimer atripes Smith 4. Ischnura aurora aurora Labidura dharchulensis Speculitermes triangularis Chimarra Parnassius hardwickei Ammophila Brauer Gangola Roonwal & Sen Sarma kumaonensis Gray punctata Smith Martynov 5. Aciagrion palladium Selys Forcipula quadispinosa Pericapritermes dunensis Dolophilodes indicus Appias lalage (Doubleday) Podalonia sp. Dohrn Roonwal & Sen Sarma Martynov 6. Agriocnemis nainitalensis Chaetospanis Odontotermes boveni Ganonema salsum Artogeia canidia indica Osmia adae Sahni lakhanmdicnsis Kapoor, Thakur Betten (Evans) Bingham Bharadwaj and Banerjee 7. Megalestes major Selys Eparchus insignis (Hann) Odontotermes dehraduni Dinarthrodes Catopsilia crocale Bombus sp. Snyder inequalis Martynov (Cramer) 8. Rhinocypha unimaculata Anechura filchneri (Burr) Odontotermes feae Agapetus Catopsilia pyranthe (Linn.) Bombus sp. Selys (Wasmann) triangularis Martynov 9. Rhinocypha trifasciata Odontotermes giriensis Mystacides indica Gonepteryx rhamni Sphecodes sp. trifasciata Selys Roonwal & Chhotani Martynov nepalensis Doubleday 10. Anisopleura comes Selys Odontotermes guptai Apatania charadija Eurema hecabe fimbrata Ceratina sp. Roonwal & Bose Schmid (Wallace) 11. Neurobasis chiensis Odontotermes Colias electo fieldi Ceratina sp. chinensis (Linn.) gurdaspurensis Holmgren Menetries & Holmgren 12. Anisogomphus occipitalis Odontotermes Delias belladonna Ceratina sp. (Selys) microdentatus Roonwal & Horsfieldi (Gray) Sen Sarma 13. Anisogomphus bivittatus Odontotermes obesus Paridis aidoneus Andrena sp. (Selys) (Rambur) Doubleday 14. Onychogomphus M. flavum Odontotermes parvidens Danaus chrysippus (Linn.) Andrena sp. Selys Holmgren & Holmgren 15. Onychogomphus cuadalis Odontotermes redemanni Danaus sita (Kollar) Andrena sp. Fraser (Wasmann) 16. Nepogomphus modestus Nasutitermes guptai Sen Tirumala hamata (Selys) Sarma & Thakur septentrionis (Butler) 17. Anax nigrofasciatus Euploea core (Cramer) nigrolineatnus Fraser 18. Anotogaster basalis basalis Mycalesis francisca Selys sanatana Moore 19. Macromia moorei Selys Rhaphicera moorei moorei

152

Butler 20. Orthretrum taeniolatum Melanitis leda ismene (Schn.) (Cramer) 21. Orthretrum chrysostigma Callerebia scanda scanda luzonicum (Br.) (Kollar) 22. Orthretrum pruinosum Libythea myrrha Godart neglectum (Rmb.) 23. Orthretrum gangi Sahni Zemeros flegyas Cramer 24. Orthretrum triangilare Dodona durga (Kollar) triangulare (Selys) 25. Orthetrum japonicum Libythea lepita Moore internum Mac Lachlan 26. Paplopleura sexmaculata Athyma opalina (Kollar) sexmaculata (Fb.) 27. Crocothemis servilia servilia Cyrestis thyodamas (Drury) Boisduval 28. Sympetrum commixtum Hypolimnas bolina (Linn.) (Selys) 29. Trithemis aurora (Burm.) Precis hierta (Fabr.) 30. Trithemis festiva Rmb. Precis orithya swinhoei (Butler) 31. Pantala flavescens (Fb.) Precis lemonias persicaria Furhstorfer 32. Allogaster parvistigma Selys Precis iphita siccata Stichel 33. Cynthia cardui (Linn.) 34. Vanessa indica (Herbst) 35. Kaniska canace himalaya Evans 36. Phalanta phalantha Drury 37. Ariadne merione tapestrina Moorre 38. Neptis hylas astola Moore 39. Neptis soma Moore 40. Argynnis lathonia issoea Doubleday 41. Issoria lathonia (Linneaus) 42. Symbrenthia hippoelus deN. 43. Lycaena pavana (Kollar) 44. Heliophorus sena (Kollar) 45. Celaenorrhinus leucocera (Kollar) Total 32 08 16 10 45 15 Source: ZSI 1995; Anonymous 1998; Joshi R. K., GBPIHED (Personal Communication)

153 Appendix 6.3: List of Pisces reported from the Indian part in the Kailash Sacred Landscape

S. Name of the species 50. Nemachelius monatus (McClelland) 1. Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (Gray) 51. Nemacheilus rupecola (McClelland)) 2. Gudusia chapra (Hamilton-Buchanan) 52. Lepidocephalus guntea (Hamilton-Buchanan) 3. Notopterus chitala (Hamilton-Buchanan) 53. Somileptes gongota (Hamilton-Buchanan) 4. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) 54. Botia almorhae (Gray) 5. Barilius barna Hamilton-Buchanan 55. Botia lohachata (Chaudhuri) 6. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton) 56. Aorichthys seenghala (Sykes) 7. Barilius vagra Hamilton-Buchanan 57. Mystus cavasius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 8. Barilius barila 58. Mystus vittatus (Bloch) 9. Labeo dero (Hamilton-Buchanan) 59. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) 10. Labeo dyocheilus (McClelland) 60. Wallagu attu (Schneider) 11. Labeo boga (Hamilton-Buchanan) 61. Ailia coila (Hamilton-Buchanan) 12. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton-Buchanan) 62. Clupisoma garua (Hamilton-Buchanan) 13. Labeo rohita (Hamilton-Buchanan) 63. Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton-Buchanan) 14. Puntius conchonius Hamilton-Buchanan 64. Pseudeutropius atherinoides (Bloch) 15. Puntius ticto Hamilton-Buchanan 65. Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton-Buchanan) 16. Puntius sarana sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan) 66. Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 17. Catla catla (Hamilton-Buchanan) 67. Bagarius yarrelli Sykes 18. Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton-Buchanan) 68. Euchiloglanis hodgarti (Hora) 19. Cirrhinus mrigala mrigala (Hamilton-Buchanan) 69. Gagata cenia (Hamilton-Buchanan) 20. Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton-Buchanan) 70. Glyposternum maculatum (Regan) 21. Cyprinon semiplotum (McClelland) 71. Glyptothorax pectinopterus (McClelland) 22. Neolissochilus hexagonolepis (McClelland) 72. Glyptothorax cavia [Hamilton-Buchanan] 23. Tor- chelynoides (McClelland) 73. Pseudecheneis sulcatus (McClelland) 24. Tor-putitora (Hamilton-Buchanan) 74. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) 25. Tor-tor (Hamilton-Buchanan) 75. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) 26. Chela labuca (Hamilton-Buchanan) 76. Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton-Buchanan) 27. Salmostoma acinaces (Valenciennes) 77. Monopterus (Amphipnous) cuchia (Hamilton- 28. Securicula gora (Hamilton-Buchanan) Buchanan) 29. Amblyphryngodon mola (Hamilton-Buchanan) 78. Chanda nama (Hamilton-Buchanan) 30. Aspidoparia morar (Hamilton-Buchanan) 79. Nandus nandus (Hamilton-Buchanan) 31. Danio devario (Hamilton-Buchanan) 80. Badis badis (Hamilton-Buchanan) 32. Esomus danricus (Hamilton-Buchanan) 81. Sicamugil cascasia (Hamilton-Buchanan) 33. Parluciosoma daniconius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 82. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton-Buchanan) 34. Raiamus bola (Hamilton-Buchanan) 83. Anabas testudineus (Bloch) 35. Crossocheilus latius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 84. Colisa faciatus (Schneider) 36. Garra gotyla gotyla (Gray) 85. Ophiocephalus gachua Hamilton-Buchanan 37. Garra lamta Hamilton-Buchanan 86. Channa marulius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 38. Gara annandalei (Hora) 87. Channa punctatus (Bloch) 39. Psilorhynchus sucatio (Hamilton-Buchanan) 88. Macrognathus aral (Bloch & Schneider) 40. Schizothoraichthys progatus (McClelland) 89. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) 41. Schizothoraichthys labiatus (McClelland) 90. Tetradon cutcutia (Hamilton-Buchanan) 42. Schizothorax kumaonensis Menon Source: Shreshta, T.K. 1995; Theophilus 43. Schizothorax richardosonii (Gray) (Unpublished); Khan, A.U. et al. (Unpublished); 44. Schixothorax plagiostomus (Heckel) Hussain, A. 1995 and Shah, K. (Unpublished, pers 45. Balitora brucei (Gray) comm.). 46. Homaloptera bilineata (Blyth) 47. Nemachelius beavani Gunther 48. Nemachelius botia (Hamilton-Buchanan) 49. Nemachelius doonensis (Tilak &Hussain)

154

Appendix 6.4: List of Amphibia reported from the Indian part in the Kailash Sacred Landscape

S.N. Name of the species

1. Rana blandordii Boulenger 2. Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider 3. Rana leibigii Gunther 4. Tomopterna breviceps (Schneider) 5. Amolops afghanus (Gunther) 6. Bufo himalayanus Gunther 7. Bufo melanostictus Schneider 8. Bufo stomaticus Lutken 9. Rana leibigii (Gunther)

Source: Ray P. 1995; Anonymous 1998

155

Appendix 6.5: List of Reptilians reported from the Indian part in the Kailash Sacred Landscape

S.N. Name of the species 1. Hemidactylus brooki Gray 2. Hemidactylus flaviviridis Rupell 3. Agama tuberculata Hardwicke & Gray 4. Calotes versicolor (Daudin) 5. Japalura kumaonensis (Annandale) 6. Varanus bengalensis (Daudin) 7. Scincella himalayanum (Gunther) 8. Sibynophis sagittarius (Cantor) 9. Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus) 10. Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider) 11. Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus) 12. Boiga multifasciata (Blyth) 13. Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider) 14. B. niger Wall 15. Naja naja (Linnaeus) 16. Ophiophagus Hannah (Cantor) 17. Vipera russelli (Shaw) 18. Cryptelytrops septentrionalis Kramer 19. Agkistrodon himalayanus (Gunther) Source: Hussain A. & Ray, P. 1995; Anonymous 1998; Theophilus 2008

156

Appendix 6.6: List of Birds in Indian part of the Kailash Sacred Landscape

S.No. Scientific Name Common Name Habitat Altitude (m) 1. Milvus m. govinda Black Kite 2. M. migrans Black Kite 9 < 1500 3. Accipiter. nisus nisosimilis Eurasian Sparrowhawk 8,9 2000 - 2400 4. Hieraaetus pinnatus Booted Eagle 5 2400 5. Aquila chrysaetos daphanea Golden Eagle 1,2 3000 - 4500 6. Ictinaetus malayensis perniger Black Eagle 4 3200 7. Ichthyophaga nana plumbea Himalayan Grey Headed Fishing Eagle 8. Saracogyps calvus Red-headed Vulture 4,5,7 500 - 3000 9. Gyps fulvus fulvescens Indian Griffon Vulture 10. G. himalayensis Himalayan Griffon 3,4,7 2000 - 4000 11. G.i. tenuirostris Himalayan Longbilled Vulture 12. Neophron percnopterus ginginianus Egyptian Vulture 9 1800 13. Gypaetus barbatus ayreus Lammergeier 1,2,5 2000 - 4000 14. Spilornis c. cheela Crested Serpent Eagle 6,7 2350 15. Falco peregrines peregrinator Shaheen Falcon 16. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Eurasian Kestrel 5 2000 17. Buteo hemilasius Upland Buzzard 3 2500 18. Lerwa lerwa Snow Partridge 1 3800 19. Tetragallus h. himalayensis Himalayan Snowcock 1 < 4000 20. Arborophila t. torqueola Hill Partridge 3 2500 -3500 21. Tragopan satyra Satyr Tragopan 3,4 3000 -3500 22. Alectoris c. chukar Chukar 1 3000-4000 23. Francolinus francolinus asiae Black Francolin 5,7,9 1500 -2500 24. Lophophorus impejanus Himalayan Monal 1,2 3000 -3500 25. Lophura leucomelana hamiltonii Kalij pheasant 3,7 1800 -2400 26. Gallus gallus murghi Indian Reed Jungle Fowl 27. Pucrasia m. macrolopha Koklas Pheasant 2,4 3000 -4000 28. Carteus wallichii Cheer pheasant 5 2600 29. Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl 30. Vanellus i. indicus Red-wattled Lapwing 8,9 2000 31. Columba l. leuconota Snow Pigeon 1 > 3200 32. C. rupestris turkestanica Hill Pigeon 5,7 3200 33. C. livia neglecta Rock Pigeon 9 < 2500 34. C. pulchricollis Ashy Wood Pigeon 3 2200 35. Streptopelia o. oreintalis Oriental Turtle Dove 3,7,9 1400 - 2500 36. S.d. decaocto Eurasian Collared Dove 7,9 > 2200 37. S. chinensis suratensis Spotted Dove 3,7,9 > 2200 38. Treron sphenura Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon 2,3,7 1500 - 3500 39. Psittacula krameri manillensis Rose-ringed Parakeet 3,6,7,8,9 3000 40. P. cyanocephala bengalensis Northern Blossomheaded Parakeet 41. P. himalayana Slaty headed parakeet 3,6,7,8,9 2800 42. Cuculus canorus canorus Eurasian Cuckoo 3,6,7,8,9 2000 43. C. micropterus Indian Cuckoo 3,6,7,8,9 3000 44. Hierococcyx varius Common Hawk Cuckoo 3,6,7,8,9 2400 45. H. sparveroides Large Hawk Cuckoo 3,6,7,8,9 2400 46. Eudynamys scolopacea Asian Koel 3,6,7,8,9 2500 47. Otus spilocephalus huttoni Mountain Scops Owl 3,4,7,8,9 2000 48. Bubo bubo bengalensis Eurasian Eagle Owl 3,4,7,8,9 2000 -2600 49. Glaucidium c. cuculoides Asian Barred Owlet 3,4,7,8,9 1800 -3000 50. Chaetura sylvatica Whiterumped Spinetail Swift

51. Apus m. melba Alpine Swift 2200 52. A. pacificus leuconyx Fork-tailed Swift 7,9 > 2000 53. Ceryle lugubris continentalis West Himalayan Pied

157

Kingfisher 54. Halcyon smyrnensis White-throated Kingfisher 3,7,8 3000 55. Merops o. oreintalis Indian Small Green Bee-eater 56. M. leschenaulti Chestnut-headed Bee-eater 8,9 3000 57. Coracias b. bengalensis Northern Rollar or Blue Jay 58. Upupa e. epops Common Hoopoe 3,9 2000 -2500 59. Megalaima virens marshallorum Great Barbet 3,4 2000 -3000 60. M. zeylanica caniceps Northern Green Barbet 61. M. haemacephala indica Crimson-breasted Barbet or Coppersmith 62. Picus myrmecophoneus Little Scally-bellied Green Woodpecker 63. P. canus sanguiniceps Grey-headed Woodpecker 6,7 upto 2600 64. Dinopium b. benghalense Northern Goldenbacked Woodpecker 65. Hypopicus hyperythrus marshalli Western Rufousbellied Woodpecker 66. Picoides h. himalayensis Garhwal Pied Woodpecker 67. P. canicapillus mitchellii West Himalayan Greycrowned Pygmy Woodpecker 68. Dendrocopos canicapilus Grey-capped Pygmy Woodpecker 3,7,8 upto 2000 69. D. hyperythrus Rufous-bellied Woodpecker 3 2200 -2800 70. D. himalayensis Himalayan Woodpecker 3,4 1800 -2400 71. Calandrella cinera dukhunnensis Rufous Short-toed Lark 72. Alauda gulgula lhamarum Kashmir Small Skylark 73. Hirundo concolor Dusky Craig Martin 8,9 < 1500 74. H. rustica Barn Swallow 8.9 < 3000 75. H. daurica Red-rumped Swallow 8,9 < 3300 76. Lanius t. tephronotus Grey-backed Shrike 3,4,7 2000 -2800 77. L. schach erythronotus Long-tailed Shrike 8,9 3500 78. Dicrurus adimilis albirictus Black Drongo 6,7,8,9 < 1500 79. D. leucophaeus longicaudatus Ashy drongo 9 < 3000 80. D. remifer tectirostris Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo 81. D. hottentottus Sprangled Drongo 3,4,6,7 < 2000 82. Aeridotheres t. tristis Common Myna 9 < 3000 83. A.f. fuscus Jungle Myna 3,4,7,8 < 2200 84. Garrulus glandarius bispecularis Eurasian Jay 3,4 1200 - 2500 85. G. lanceolatus Black-headed Jay 3,4,6 1000 - 2500 86. Cissa flavirostris cucullata Western Yellowbilled Blue Magpie 87. Cissa erythrorhyncha occipitalis Himalayan Redbilled Blue Magpie 88. Dendrocitta formosae occidentalis Grey Treepie 4,6,7 < 2100 89. D. v. vagabunda Rufous Treepie 6,7,8,9 < 2000 90. Nucifraga caryocataetes hemispila Spotted Nutcracker 4 1000 - 4000 91. Pyrrhocorax graculus digitus Yellow-billed Chough 1 3500 - 8600 92. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax Red-billed Chough 1,5 2500 - 6000 93. Hemipus picatus Bar-winged Flycatcher Shrike 6,7,8 < 2500 94. Corvus s. splendens House Crow 8,9 < 2100 95. C. macrorhynchos intermedius Jungle Crow 3,4,6,7,9 < 2300 96. Pericrocutus flammeus speciosus Scarlet Minivet 3,7 < 2800 97. P. ethologus favilaceus Long-tailed Minivet 3,4 < 3200 98. Pycnonotus leucogenys leucogenys Himalayan Bulbul 8,9 < 2400 99. P. cafer intermedius Red-vented Bulbul 8,9 < 3000 100. Hypsipetes madagascariensis Himalayan Black Bulbul psaroides 101. H. leucocephalus 102. Turdoides striatus striatus Bengal Jungle Babbler 103. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys Rusty-cheeked Scimitar 6,7 305 - 2200

158

Babbler 104. Stachyris pyrrhops Blackchinned Babbler 105. Garrulax albogularis whistleri Western Whitethroated Laughing Thrush 106. G.s. striatus Striated Laughing thrush 3 2000 - 3000 107. G. l. leucolophus White-crested Laughingthrush 6,7 <1800 108. G. variegatus similis Varigated Laughing thrush 3 1800 - 2600 109. G. l. lineatus Streaked Laughingthrush 3,7 < 3000 110. G. affinis Black-faced Laughingthrush 3,4 > 2500 111. G. erythrocephalus Chestnut-crowned Laughingthrush 1200 - 3500 112. Minla strigula simlaensis Chestnut-tailed Minla 3,4 > 2500 113. Yuhina flavicollis Whiskered Yuhina 2,3,4 1700 - 3000 114. Heterophasia c. capistrata Rufous Sibia 3,4 1800 - 3500 115. Ficedula strophiata Rufous-gorgeted Flycatcher 2,3 < 3400 116. Musicapa strophila strophita 117. M. S. Superciliaris Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher 118. M.l. leucomelanura Western Slaty Blue Flycatcher 119. M.m. macgrigoriae Western Small Niltava 120. M. sundara whistleri Western Rufousbellied Niltava 121. M.t. thalassina Swainson Verditer Flycatcher 122. M. sibirica Dark-sided Flycatcher 3,4,6,7 1500 - 3900 123. Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysea Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher 3,4,6,7,8 2000 - 3500 124. Rhipidura hypoxantha Yellow-bellied Fantail 6,7,8 < 2500 125. R. albicollis canescens White-throated Fantail 6,7,8 < 2500 126. R. aureola White-browed Fantail 6,7,8 < 2500 127. Terpsiphone paradisi leucogaster Asian Paradise-Flycatcher 3,7 < 2500 128. Prinia c. criniger Striated Prinia 5 1200 - 3200 129. P. hodgsonii Grey-breasted Prinia 8,9 < 2000 130. P. socialis Ashy Prinia 8,9 2000 131. Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus Greenish Warbler 3,4 < 4300 132. P. o. ociipitalis Western Crowned Warbler 3,4,5 < 3200 133. P. griseolus Sulphur-bellied Warbler 1,2 < 3500 134. Seicercus xanthoschistos albosuperciliaris Grey-hooded Warbler 3,4,6,7 < 2700 135. S. burrkii whistleri Ticehurst Golden-spectacled Warbler 3 <2000 136. Erithacus p. pectoralis Northern Bluethroat 137. E. cyanurus pallidior Kashmir Red-Flanked Bush Robin 138. Tarsiger chrysaeus Golden Bush Robin 3,4, 1400 – 3000 139. Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie Robin 8,9 < 2000 140. Phoenicurus ochruros phoenicuroides Black Redstart 3,4,7,9 2500 -4000 141. Rhyacornis f. fuliginosus Plumbeous Redstart 8 < 4000 142. Hogsonius p. phoenicuroides Hodgson’s Shortwing or Whitebelleid Redstart 143. Enicurusm macul vatus Spotted Forktail 8 < 2500 144. Saxicola torquata przevalskii Common Stonechat 5,6 1800 - 2500 145. S. caprata bicolor Pied Bushchat 9 <1500 146. S. ferrea Grey Bushchat 5,9 < 2500 147. Chaimarrornis leucocephalus White-capped Water Redstart 8 < 4000 148. Monticola cinclorhynchus Blue-capped Rock Thrush 3,4,8 1000 - 3000 149. Myiophonus caeruleus temminckii Blue Whistling Thrush 3,4,6,7 < 4000 150. Zoothera mollissima whiteheadi Plain-backed Thrush 3,4 < 4500 151 Z. wardii Pied Thrush 3,4 < 2400 152. Turdus albocinctus White-collared blackbird 3,4 > 2200 153. T. boulboul Greywinged Blackbird 3,4 1500 - 2000 154. Cinclus pallasii tenuirostris Brown Dipper 8 > 2000 155. Prunella collaris whymperi Upland Pipit 1,2 2000 156. P. rubeculoides Robin Accentor 1 3000

159

157. Parus major nipalensis Great Tit 3,4,6,7,9 < 2400 158. P.m. monticolus Green-backed Tit 3,4 1500 - 3000 159. P. melanocephalus Spot-winged Tit 1,2 1800 - 4000 160. P. rufonuchalis Rufous-naped Tit 2 2400 - 4000 161. P. rubidiventris rufonuchalis Simla Black Tit 162. P.x. xanthogenys Northern Yellow-cheeked Tit 163. P.s. spilonotus Himalayan Black spotted Yellow Tit 164. Sitta europaea Himalayan Whitetailed Nuthatch 165. Tichodroma muraria nepalensis Wall Creeper 166. Certhia familiaris hodgsoni Eurasian Treecreeper 3,4 2400 - 3600 167. C. h. himalayana Bar-tailed Treecreeper 3,4 1800 - 3600 168. Anthus novaeseelandiae waitei Northwestern Paddyfield Pipit 169. A. sylvanus Upland Pipit 1,2 2000 170. A. roseatus Rosy Pipit 1 3500 171. Motacilia caspica caspica Grey Wagtail 172. M. alba dukhunensis Indian White Wagtail 173. M. cinerea White Wagtail 8 3500 174. Dicaeum ignipectus Fire-breasted Flowerpecker 3,4 1400 - 3000 175. Nectarinia asaitica Purple Sunbird 3,4,6,7,8 <1700 176. Aethopyga siparaja seheriae Crimson Sunbird 3,4,6,7,8 <2000 177. Aegithalos concinnus Black-throated Tit 1400 - 2700 178. Zosterops p. Zpalpebrosa Indian White-eye 179. Passer domesticus indicus House Sparrow 9 <3000 180. P. montanus tibetanus Tibetain Tree Sparrow 181. P. rutilans Russet Sparrow 8,9 1200 - 2700 182. Lonchura punctulata punctulata Scaly-breasted Munia 9 < 2500 183. Mycerobas melanozanthos Spot-winged Grosbeak 2,4 1700 - 3600 184. Carduelis s. spinoides Yellow-breasted Greenfinch 3,4 1100 - 4400 185. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus Indian Rosefinch 186. Carpodacus erythrinus erythrinus Common Rosefinch 187. Carpodacus rhodochrous Pink-browed Rosefinch 1,7 2800 - 4200 188. Haematospiza sipahi Scarlet Finch 2 2100 - 3100 189. Emberiza l. leucocephala Pine Bunting 190. Emberiza cia stracheyi Rock Bunting 1,2 2600 – 4300 191. E. brumiceps 192. Melophus lathami Crested Bunting 9 < 2400 193. Petronia xanthocollis Chestnut-shouldered Petronia 8,9 < 1200

160 Appendix-6.7: List of Mammals* reported from the Indian Region of the Kailash Sacred Landscape (After Rawat & Sathyakumar 1998, unpublished; Sathyakumar & Bashir in press; ZSI, 1995)

No. Common Name Scientific Name Local Name(s) Altitude (m) Status 1 Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta Bandro, Lal Bandar < 2,500 Fairly Common 2 Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis Bandar < 2,500 Rare 3 Nepal Gray langur Semnopithecus schistaceus Kholi, Guni < 3,000 Common 4 Snow leopard Panthera uncia Tharru 3,600-5,000 Very rare 5 Common leopard Panthera pardus Wah, Kukri baag < 3,300 Fairly common 6 Jungle cat Felis chaus Se villa, Bandharu Rare 7 Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis Baag villa < 3,300 Rare 8 Jackal Canis aureus Syal <,2400 Rare 9 Red fox Vulpes vulpes Gonu, lal lomri 3,000-5,000 Fairly common 10 Tibetan wolf Canis lupus chanko Chanko, veriya 3,000-5,000 unknown 11 Himalayan wolf Canis himalayensis Veriya 3,000-5,000 unknown 12 Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus Wom, bhalu < 3,300 Rare 13 Eurasian otter Lutra lutra Koto, Pan oud < 2,000 Very rare 14 Himalayan yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula Joganchu, chitraul < 3,600 Fairly common 15 Beech marten Martes foina Chitraul < 3,600 rare 16 Siberian weasel Mustela sibirica Kokro 2,000-4,000 rare 17 Mountain weasel Mustela altaica Kokro 2,000-4,000 rare 18 Yellow-bellied weasel Mustela kathiah Kokro 2,000-4,000 rare 19 Himalayan palm civet Paguma lavata Garh oud <3,300 unknown 20 Large Indian civet Viverra zivetha - < 2,000 unknown 21 Small Indian civet Viverricula indica - < 2,000 unknown 22 Blue sheep Pseudois nayaur Var (m), Namo (f), barar 3,500-5,000 Fairly Common 23 Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster Fassi (m), Yala (f), bin, kasturi 2,500-3,500 Rare 24 Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus Vyuh (m), Gefu (f), Jhalar, thar 2,000-3,500 Very rare 25 Serow Nemorhaedus sumatraensis Yakfu, sareo, thar 2,500-3,300 unknown 26 Goral Naemorhaedus goral Khosar, ghoorar < 3,300 Fairly common 27 Sambar Cervus unicolor jarao < 3,300 Fairly common 28 Barking deer Muntiacus muntjak Khisya, kakar < 2,500 Fairly common 29 Wild pig Sus scrofa suwar < 3,000 Fairly common 30 Indian porcupine Hystrix indica Bo, Soula < 2,800 unknown 31 Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak himalayana Fea > 4,000 Rare 32 Red giant flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista Paina, Quairal kartu 2,500-3,300 Rare 33 Parti-coloured flying squirrel Hylopetes alboniger Paina, Quairal 2,500-3,300 unknown 34 Royle’s pika Ochotona roylei Rongzo, dullimus 3,000– 4,500 Fairly common 35 Large-eared pika Ochotona macrotis Rongzo, dullimis 3,000-4,500 unknown 36 Royle’s vole Alticola roylei - 3,400-5,000 Fairly common 37 House rat Ratus ratus Pyuh, mus < 2,500 unknown 38 House shrew Suncus murinus Chunru mus ? unknown * excluding chiropterans and some rodents; also Brown bear Ursus arctos (past distribution unknown or possibly extinct in the recent past)

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Appendix 6.8: Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species of Vascular Plants recorded from Indian part of KSL \ [Including the species listed in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants – Nayar & Sastry 1988-90]: En = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable: DD = Data Deficient; R = Rare; I = Indeterminate.

S. Plant Species Family Threat Status* Locality & Altitude N. 1. Berberis lambertii Parker Berberidaceae Endemic to Kumaun - Humdhura, 2600m VU 2. Berberis osmastonii Dunn Berberidaceae Endemic to UA - R Kalamuni, 2700m 3. Cleyera japonica Thunb. Theaceae DD Chowkori, 1600m 4. Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Cyatheaceae VU Sandev (Didihat), 1300 Hooker m 5. Dendrobium normale Falc. Orchidaceae Endemic to UA - I Ghandhura, Gori Valley 1400 m 6. Eria occidentalis Seid. Orchidaceae Endemic to UA - R Between Chowpta and Maitli, Dafia Dhura 2200 m 7. Flickingeria hesperis Seid. Orchidaceae Endemic to Kumaon - R Ogla Road (Askot) 1400 m 8. Herminium kumaunensis Deva Orchidaceae Endemic to Kumaon - I Chhiyalekh, Byans & Naithani 3400m. 9. Itea nutans Royle Iteaceae Endemic to UA - I Lower Gori Valley, 1000m 10. Juniperus semiglobosa Regel Cupressaceae DD Burphu, 3400m 11. Lactuca filicina Duthie ex Asteraceae EN Kali Valley, 2400 m Stebbins. 12. Lilium wallichianum Schult. Liliaceae Rare - I Gangolihat, 1600 m. 13. Onosma pyramidale Hook.f. Boraginaceae Endemic to Kali Valley, Sosa, Budhi (Byans DD Valley, 2800m) 14. Pinguicula alpina Linn. Lentibulariaceae Extremely Rare - DD Napalchu, Ralam 3300m 15. Ponerorchis renzii Deva & Orchidaceae Endemic to Kumaon - R Garbyang, 3300m Naithani 16. Psilotum nudum (Linn.) Beauv. Psilotaceae Extremely Rare - DD Ogla, Askot 1400 m 17. Saussurea bracteata Decne Asteraceae EN Bedang, Dhauli Valley 4500 m 18. Silene kumaonensis Will. Caryophyllaceae Endemic to UA - R Darma and Byans Valleys, 3300 m 19. Trachycarpus takil Becc. Arecaceae Endemic to UA - VU Thalkedar, Girigaon 2400m 20. Viola kuawarensis Royle Violaceae Extremely Rare - I Topidhunga, 4500m * The following high value medicinal plants have been listed under various threat categories as per the assessment at CAMP workshop from Uttarakhand (=UA): (Ved et al., 2003): Aconitum heterophyllum Wall., Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo, Ephedra gerardiana Wall., Nardostachys grandiflora DC., Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth., Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten and Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

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Appendix 9.1: Medicinal uses of wild animals of Bhotiya tribesmen of Darma and Johaar Valley of KSL

S. Species Common Medicinal use along with the mode of intake No name 1. Lepus nigricollis Hare Blood of rabbit is used in asthma. Interestingly, killing of the same (hare syn. Fiya) is a taboo. 2. Rana tigrina Frog Frog boiled in oil is used for healing wounds due to burn. 3. Palamnaeus spp. Scorpion The whole animal is boiled in edible oil on an auspicious day (usually -Saturday) and the oil is then applied on the pile-infected areas. It is believed that if a scorpion stings on bullock yokagall, it will heal within 2-3 days. Ash produced after the burning off the scorpion is commonly applied on wounds. 4. Hemidactylus spp. Geckos The whole animal is boiled in sesamum oil and the oil is then used to heal eczema. 5. Calotis versicolor Garden lizard The whole animal is boiled in oil and the oil is the used to heal wounds on cattle’s body. 6-7. Tor putitora Fish Blood off cut fish is used in foot and mouth disease; it is also Schizothorax applied on sore wound of legs too. richardsoni 8. Spirobolus spp. Millipede Dry millipede smoke is used in the treatment of piles. 9. Cimex rotundatus Bedbugs Bedbugs crushed in holy basil-Ocimum sanctum is applied on ringworm. 10- Vipera russelli Snakes The meat is believed to promote eyesight and facilitates the 12. elimination of urine, stool and flatus. The skin is often fed to cattle Ptyas mucosus in foot and mouth disease. The very act of seeing a snake Ancistrodon swallowing a frog symbolizes the death of the near kin or a relative in near future. himalayans 13. Pseudois nayaur Bharal Antlers are rubbed to produce a paste, which is either drunk or applied on the stomach to get relived of stomach pain or fever. 14. Equus cabalus Horse The meat is believed to be a promoter of corpulence, strength and eyesight. 15. Equus spp. Ass The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength and virility. 16. Panthera pardus Leopard The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength and virility, while the bones are supposed to be an aphrodisiac. Wherever possible the burnt hairs applied in the treatment of foot and mouth disease. In addition the fat is used as massaging oil in the treatment of body pain. 17. Bubalus spp. Buffalo The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength and virility of the physique. 18. Muntiacus muntjak Barking deer The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength and virility and is good cardiac tonic. 19. Sus scrofa cristatus Wild Boar The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength, corpulence and virility, is a good appetizer and alleviator of fatigue 20. Rattus rattus Rat The meat is believed to be a promoter of semen 21. Macaca mulatta Monkey The meat is believed to cure rheumatism, asthma, adiposity, anemia and parasitic infestation. 22. Capra falconeri Goat The meat is believed to be stimulating digestion and cures rhinitis. 23. Hemitragus Himalayan The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength and virility jemlahicus Thar (usually that of the tail). The soup of the bones (of the limbs) is principally given to the womenfolk immediately after giving birth to a child, and usually during the parturition and lactating months. In addition horns are kept atop the homes to ward off the evil. It has been observed by the villagers that the thar usually eat up the snakes found in the temperate zone, and thus the usual belief that eating its meat results in miraculous benefits. 24. Paratalphusa Spp. Crab The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength and semen 25. Catreus wallichii. Chir pheasant The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength, corpulence and is a good remedy for the disease of the blood. 26. Strix aluco nivicola Owl The meat is believed to be a promoter of strength, and virility. 27. Bos indicus Cattle Gorocana or solidified cattle bile is cold in potency, carminative and is the promoter of auspiciousness. It cures poisoning, eye

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diseases and afflictions by evil 28. Columba livia Pigeon Patients often suffering from paralysis are given the meat of a black pigeon. 29. Oryctolagus Hare The meat is believed to cure menstrual disorders. Quiniculus 30. Canis aureus indicus Jackal The meat is believed to cure paralysis and arthritis while the blood is given to the patients suffering from asthma. 31. Hystrix indica Porcupine Stomach and intestinal parts are dried (along with the fecal matter), is given to the children suffering from the stomach disorders: in the treatment of asthma. 32. Bos grunniens Yak The rope prepared from yak’s hairs is placed in all the four corner of room where sick person is residing. This is believed to keep away unholy sprits from entering in the room. 33. Felis domesticus Cat The whole animal is stripped off and boiled and the resultant juice is said to cure arthritis. The very sight of placenta (which is also very rare) is said to bring good luck. 34. Moschus m. Musk deer Musk is used in the treatment of malaria, high fever and heart moschiferous aliments. The lactating mother are given a pinch of ‘Kasturi’- the musk with the belief that the children receiving thy milk become immune to diseases i.e. the musk is believed to bolster the immune system in children. 35. Martes flavigula Martens A paste prepared from the bones of this bird is said to cure wounds. 36. Cypselus affinis Swift bird Its nest, made out of clay/soil is treated auspicious while its folk signify the incoming rains. 37. Vanellus indicus Red-wattled The yolk when applied on head is said to cure typhoid. Often the Lapwing local practitioners preserve the eggs within the cow dung for future use. 38. Selenarctos Himalayan The animal is mainly killed for its gall bladder, which is used for thibetanus Ursidae black bear curing myriad diseases, malaria being often one of them. The fresh gall bladder is filled with rice grains and then is left to dry out. After few days a yellowish power is formed, which is used as medicine. The dried powder can be kept for relatively longer period of time. Source: Negi & Palyal 2007

164

Appendix 12.1: Summary of the consultations during rapid surveys in the landscape

Name Village / Date Remark organization Saraswati Devi Chal 2.5.10 Explicitly advocates the need for road and other infrastructural developments Kusahal Singh Sipu 2.5.10 Hopeful that trade relations and a new route to Kailash pilgrimage will open (e.g., from Bedang) Sher Singh Bogling 2.5.10 Quite concerned about the developmental changes and the increasing gap among community members due to drastic change in their life style particularly due to granted reservation status Gyan Singh Dugtal Dugtu 2.5.10 Problem of Water supply; Ration and material loading; Rising prices Dharam Singh Nagling 2.5.10 Hopeful of development in near future Nar Singh Bora Ranua (Way on 2.5.10 Difficulty in water supply, landslides, school and road Jaulgibe to Jhoolaghat) Pushkar Giri Madkot, Johar 2.5.10 Sheep rearing has become difficult, lack of medicine and other facilities, difficulty in stay in alpines; requests for Insurance facilities Basant Singh Kathayat -do- 2.5.10 Problem of drinking Water supply, landslide, school and road, hospital; Concern about increasing migration, declining interest on agriculture Narayan Singh Bora -do- 2.5.10 Concern about increasing migration, declining interest on agriculture Sher Singh Thapa Amtyari (Way 2.5.10 Problem of, road, hospital and school; Migration of on Jaulgibe to youth to townships Jhoolaghat) G.S. Patyal Pangu (SSB 2.5.10 Poor transportation/communication is problem; micro- Rtd) hydle has potential; revival of old route from N Ashram for Kailash needed Lokendra Singh Rnua 2.5.10 Road, education, hospital needed; agriculture has potential; MENEREGA payment system not good Ram Singh Thapa Amtari 2.5.10 Migration of youth is main problem; Declining interest on Agriculture District Agriculture officer Pithoragarh 3.5.10 Consulted for departmental information District Statistical officer Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- District Livestock officer Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- District Educational office Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- District Hoticulture officer Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- District Educational officer Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- District Tribal Welfare officer Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- District Irrigation Officer Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- Distric soil conservator Pithoragarh 3.5.10 -do- Mr Pramod Kumar (Project UREDA 3.5.10 -do- Officer) Pithoragarh Dr Chandra Singh Negi PG College 3.5.10 Consulted for landscape information (Honorary Wildlife warden) Pithoragarh Dr Pankaj Bahuguna PG College 3.5.10 -do- (Reader) Pithoragarh Dr Kumkum Shah (Reader) PG College 3.5.10 -do- Pithoragarh Shyam Singh Sale (Near 3.5.10 Hopeful of development in near future; Problem of, Pancheshwar) road, hospital Prem Singh Savant Sale (Near 4.5.10 Problem of, road, hospital Pancheshwar) Laximan Singh Bisht Pancheshwar 4.5.10 Road link is must; Pancheshwar dam is not needed; (Bridge) Schemes of HEP like Chamgarh be promoted

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Sher Singh Rajwar Churani 8.5.10 Distance from road head and high rate of unemployment and poor awareness among community members

Tara Singh Rautela Dhari Gogina 19.5.10 Small land holdings, land not enough for sustenance Situation often worsen due to erratic weather Kushal Singh Namik 19.5.10 High rate of youth migration due to remoteness & inaccessibility; Advocates need of Primary Hospital Shyam Singh Malkha- 21.5.10 A large settled village; Demands an Intermediate Dugarcha school;Up to 80% are Joint family; Likely to be connected with the road soon ITBP (SM, Mr. Raina) Nabhidang 1.6.10 Facilitating Kailash Mansarovar Yatra; Elections VIP duties; Solving internal disturbances; Medical camps; Search & rescue;Horticulture & medicinal plant plantation; Receptive for the initiative Sattu Gunjyal Gunji 2.6.10 Highly concerned about the sanctity of the valley, its cultural heritage and traditional fervour of the valley Hopeful that his village will become a tehsil and facilities will not distract people from their traditional way of living Bhajan Singh Napachyal Naplchu 2.6.10 Emotional attachment with their tradition and life style Ten Singh Napachyal Naplchu 2.6.10 -do-

166

Appendix 12.2: List of participants during Stakeholders Consultation Meeting - June, 12, 2010 on “Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiatives” at Govt. Post Graduate College Narayannagar, Pithoragarh

Group 1- People’s representatives (Forest Panchayat, Village Panchayat, Farmers, etc.)

Moderator: V.K. Malkani, Wildlife Institute of India S.No. Name Address 1 B.S. Rawat Van Panchayat, Narki Dobri, Pitoragarh 2 B.S. Bisht Kshetra Panchayat, Bans Bagar, Pithoragarh 3 B.S. Koranga Bhainskhal, Nachni, Pithoragarh 4 Bhagat Singh Raigar, Pithoragarh 5 B. D. Joshi Sarpanch, Ghimali, Didihat, Pithoragarh 6 Bhim S. Gurkhal Sarpanch, Vil. Gurkhola, Dharchula 7 Chanchal Singh Sarpanch, Shama, Pithoragarh 8 Chandan Singh President, C.C. Sukaliyadi 9 D.D. Singh Van Panchayat, Golpha, Munsiyari 10 Dhani Ram Arya Van Panchayat, Raingu, Munsiyari 11 Dhan Singh Dhami Khala, Van Panchayat, Dharchula 12 Dharmendra Dolma, Munsiyari 13 Digar Dhami Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Madkot, Pithoragarh 14 Durga Singh Martolia Jari Buti Krashak, Munsiyari 15 Gopal Singh Waiga Madkot, Munsiyari 16 Harish Ram Dami Phalyat, Nachni, Pithoragarh 17 Himmat Singh Jarajibli, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 18 Hukum Singh Van Panchayat, Gram Sabha Chilkot, Munsiyari 19 Hukum Singh Kanar, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 20 Jagmohan Dhami Van Panchayat, Dharchula 21 Jaspal Singh Banga Pani, Dharchula 22 Jhakun Singh Van Panchayat, Gaila, Pithoragarh 23 K.B. Pal Didihat, Pithoragarh 24 Kamlesh Upreti Narayan Nagar, Didihat, Pithoragarh 25 Kharak Singh Koutura Mupali, Pithoragarh 26 Khayendra Baram, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 27 Kundan Singh Sarpanch, Phapa Badani, Munsiyari 28 Kunwar Singh Baram Dharchula, Pithoragarh 29 Laxman Singh Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Dolma, Minsiyari 30 Lok Bahadur Malla Johar Vikas Samiti, Munsiyari 31 M.S. Dasuni Talla Bhaiskot, Pithoragarh 32 Nain Singh Lumpti, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 33 Pappu Kohli Ksetra Panchayat, Deul Askot, Pithoragarh 34 Pradeep Kandpal Kary Gogna Van Pradhan, Pitoragarh 35 Prem Singh Malla Madkot, Pithoragarh 36 Puran Singh Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Burthitharali, Munsiyari 37 Puskar Singh Muwani, Dabani, Pithoragarh 38 Puskar Singh Opuli, Didihat, Pithoragarh 39 Radheshyam Joshi Dhura Toli, Munsiyari, Pithoragarh 40 Rakesh Dasila Kande, Didihat, Pithoragarh 41 Ram Singh Van Panchayat, Ghoruri, Lumti, Pithoragarh 42 Ram Singh Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Nacni, Pithoragarh 43 Ramesh Singh Sarpanch, Golma Kotal, Munsiyari 44 Rohit Joshi Stringer, Didihat, Pithoragarh 45 S.S. Dhami Jarajibli, Dharchula 46 Smt Bhagirathi Baram Dharchula, Pithoragarh 47 Smt Kamla Baram Dharchula, Pithoragarh 48 Suder Singh Didihat, Pithoragarh 49 Tara Singh Gram Van Panchayat, Koli Kanali, Pithoragarh 50 Trilok Singh Maitali, Dharchula

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Group -2: Representatives from Government Departments/Educational Institute Moderator: Dr. Girija Pande, Kumaun University Nainital S.No. Name Address 1 Dr. A. P. Pandey Department of Chemistry, P. G. College, Pithoragarh 2 A. P. S. Nambadia Commandant, 7th Battlian, ITBP Mirthi, Didihat, Pithoragarh 3 A. S. Bisht Deputy Commandant, 7th Battlian, ITBP Mirthi, Didihat, Pithoragarh 4 B. D. Bhatt Jal Sansthan Didihat, Pithoragarh 5 B. S. Dalmiya Range Officer, Pithoragarh 6 B. S. Samant Paratrooper, 130 TA Kumaon, Pithoragarh 7 C.S. Kothyari Forest Guard, Kary Gogna, Pithoragarh 8 D. Joshi Range Officer, Pithoragarh 9 D. S. Pariahar Asst. Teacher, Baram, Pithoragarh 10 Dr. Mrigesh Pandey Principal, P. G. College Narayan Nagar, Pithoragarh 11 Dr. C. S. Negi Department of Zoology, Govt. P. G. College, Pithoragarh 12 Dr. C. S. Pathak Principal G.I.C. Jabuka Jhal Berinag, Pithoragarh 13 Dr. J. N. Pant Department of Botany, Mahavidyalaya Berinag, Pithoragarh 14 Dr. Kumkum Sah Department of Zoology, P.G. College, Pithoragarh 15 G. S. Chauhan Assistant Professor, P. G. Narayan Nagar, Pithoragarh 16 H.S. Tolia Range Officer, Pithoragarh 17 Jeevan Singh Senior Horticulture Inspector, Didihat, Pithoragarh 18 Jeevan Singh Dhami Damodar Agriculture firm School, Nachani, Pithoragarh 19 Jhakur Sing Bisht P. G. College Narayan Nagar, Pithoragarh 20 K. S. Dhami Live Stock Extension Officer Dharchula, Pithoragarh 21 Kailash Singh Forest Guard Askot, Pithoragarh 22 Kundan Singh Khati Range Officer, Didihatt Pithoragarh 23 M. S. Sirohi S. D. O. Forest Pithoragrah 24 Major A.P. Singh 130 Eco TA B Kumaon Pintouragharh Cant C/o 56 Apo., Pithoragarh 25 Manmohan Singh S. D. O. Forest Pithoragarh 26 N.S. Mehra Horticulture Department Didihat, Pithoragarh 27 Navnit Panday Sub District Magistrate Pitoragarh 28 Prof. C. S. Dhami P.G. College Narayan Nagar, Pithoragarh 29 Shakti Kumar Singh IARI New Delhi 30 Thakur Singh Bisht P.G. College Narayan Nagar, Pithoragarh 31 Vidya Prasad Pant Rajkiya Uchttar Madhyamik Vidhyalaya, Patal Bhubneshwar, Pithoragarh 32 Y. D. Yadav Inspector, 7th Battlian, ITBP Mirthi, Pithoragarh

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Group – 3: NGO’s/Community Organization Moderator: Mr. Manoj Chandran, UKFD Pithoragarh S.No. Name Address

1 Bhuwan Pant Himalaya Study Circle, GIC Road Pithoragarh 2 D.C. Pandey Manager, SNA Trust, Narayan Nagar, Didihat, Pithoragarh 3 Dhirendra Joshi Himalaya Sewa Samiti Chandak, Pithoragarh 4 Jagat Dausani HGVS Gangolihat, Pithoragarh 5 Karan Singh ARPAN, NGO Askot, Pithoragarh 6 Laxmi Dutt Bhatt HGVS Gangolihat, Pithoragarh 7 Laxman Singh HGVS Gangolihat, Pithoragarh 8 Mahesh Pandey Himalaya Study Circle, Pithoragarh 9 Mamta Adhikari Himalaya Sewa Samiti Chandak, Pithoragarh 10 Rajendra Singh Bisht HGVS Gangolihat, Pithoragarh

Group 4: Senior Citizens Moderator: Dr. C.S. Negi, Govt. P.G. College, Pithoragarh S.No. Name Address 1 B.S. Negi Bhartiya Baristh Nagrik evam Yuva Sambhag, Gangolihat, Pithoragarh 2 B.B. Pant Member, Medical Management Samiti, Pithoragarh 3 Bheem Singh Hukra Khoyam, Munsiyari 4 Dev S. Karki Retired Teacher, gangolihat 5 Ghanshyam Joshi Advocate Didihat, Pithoragarh 6 K.S. Bisht Advocate Didihat, Pithoragarh 7 Pankaj Pant Social Worker, Didihat 8 V.P. Pathak Retired Principal, Gangolihat

Participation from Partner Organizations S.No. Name Address 1. Dr. V.K. Malkani Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun 2 Dr. V.P. Uniyal Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun 3 Dr B.S. Adhikari Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun 4 D. N. Semwal Conservator North Kumaon Almora 5 Nishant Verma DFO, Pithoragarh 6 Manoj Chandran DCF (Working Plan), Pithoragarh

Participation from Lead Institute S.No. Name Address 1. Dr. L.M.S. Palni Director, GBPIHED Kosi-Katarmal, Almora 2 Dr. R.S. Rawal Scientist, GBPIHED Kosi-Katarmal, Almora 3 Dr. I.D. Bhatt Scientist, GBPIHED Kosi-Katarmal, Almora 4 Dr. Subodh Airi Technician, GBPIHED Kosi-Katarmal, Almora 5 Dr. Ravindra Joshi Project Site manager, GBPIHED Kosi-Katarmal, Almora

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Group 1- People’s representatives (Forest Panchayat, Village Panchayat, Farmers, etc.) Moderator: V.K. Malkani, Wildlife Institute of India S.No. Name Address 1 B.S. Rawat Van Panchayat, Narki Dobri, Pitoragarh 2 B.S. Bisht Kshetra Panchayat, Bans Bagar, Pithoragarh 3 B.S. Koranga Bhainskhal, Nachni, Pithoragarh 4 Bhagat Singh Raigar, Pithoragarh 5 B. D. Joshi Sarpanch, Ghimali, Didihat, Pithoragarh 6 Bhim S. Gurkhal Sarpanch, Vil. Gurkhola, Dharchula 7 Chanchal Singh Sarpanch, Shama, Pithoragarh 8 Chandan Singh President, C.C. Sukaliyadi 9 D.D. Singh Van Panchayat, Golpha, Munsiyari 10 Dhani Ram Arya Van Panchayat, Raingu, Munsiyari 11 Dhan Singh Dhami Khala, Van Panchayat, Dharchula 12 Dharmendra Dolma, Munsiyari 13 Digar Dhami Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Madkot, Pithoragarh 14 Durga Singh Martolia Jari Buti Krashak, Munsiyari 15 Gopal Singh Waiga Madkot, Munsiyari 16 Harish Ram Dami Phalyat, Nachni, Pithoragarh 17 Himmat Singh Jarajibli, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 18 Hukum Singh Van Panchayat, Gram Sabha Chilkot, Munsiyari 19 Hukum Singh Kanar, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 20 Jagmohan Dhami Van Panchayat, Dharchula 21 Jaspal Singh Banga Pani, Dharchula 22 Jhakun Singh Van Panchayat, Gaila, Pithoragarh 23 K.B. Pal Didihat, Pithoragarh 24 Kamlesh Upreti Narayan Nagar, Didihat, Pithoragarh 25 Kharak Singh Koutura Mupali, Pithoragarh 26 Khayendra Baram, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 27 Kundan Singh Sarpanch, Phapa Badani, Munsiyari 28 Kunwar Singh Baram Dharchula, Pithoragarh 29 Laxman Singh Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Dolma, Minsiyari 30 Lok Bahadur Malla Johar Vikas Samiti, Munsiyari 31 M.S. Dasuni Talla Bhaiskot, Pithoragarh 32 Nain Singh Lumpti, Dharchula, Pithoragarh 33 Pappu Kohli Ksetra Panchayat, Deul Askot, Pithoragarh 34 Pradeep Kandpal Kary Gogna Van Pradhan, Pitoragarh 35 Prem Singh Malla Madkot, Pithoragarh 36 Puran Singh Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Burthitharali, Munsiyari 37 Puskar Singh Muwani, Dabani, Pithoragarh 38 Puskar Singh Opuli, Didihat, Pithoragarh 39 Radheshyam Joshi Dhura Toli, Munsiyari, Pithoragarh 40 Rakesh Dasila Kande, Didihat, Pithoragarh 41 Ram Singh Van Panchayat, Ghoruri, Lumti, Pithoragarh 42 Ram Singh Sarpanch, Van Panchayat, Nacni, Pithoragarh 43 Ramesh Singh Sarpanch, Golma Kotal, Munsiyari 44 Rohit Joshi Stringer, Didihat, Pithoragarh 45 S.S. Dhami Jarajibli, Dharchula 46 Smt Bhagirathi Baram Dharchula, Pithoragarh 47 Smt Kamla Baram Dharchula, Pithoragarh 48 Suder Singh Didihat, Pithoragarh 49 Tara Singh Gram Van Panchayat, Koli Kanali, Pithoragarh 50 Trilok Singh Maitali, Dharchula

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Group – 3: NGO’s/Community Organization Moderator: Mr. Manoj Chandran, UKFD Pithoragarh S.No. Name Address

171

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