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Education Reform in Japan: a Case of Immobilist Politics (The Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series) 1

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Education Reform in Japan: a Case of Immobilist Politics (The Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series) 1 Education Reform in Japan The Japanese education system is widely praised in western countries as a model to be emulated. In Japan, however, the system is criticized for its strict uniformity and for its supposed failure to train the creative minds that are needed for the next stage of economic advance. Since 1967 the Japanese government has twice embarked on major reform initiatives, but despite these high-profile attempts it has failed to achieve significant reform. Education Reform in Japan explains this failure in terms of an inability to reach consensus. The author argues that the prolonged one-party dominance by the Liberal Democratic Party has led to an internal diversity that has obstructed political change. He describes the paralysis that develops in the Japanese policy-making process when rifts occur between bureaucrats, party leaders and politicians specializing in education. He argues, moreover, that this ‘immobilism’ is not confined to education reform, but afflicts other areas of Japanese policy making as well. Leonard Schoppa is an Assistant Professor in the Woodrow Wilson Department of Government and Foreign Affairs, University of Virginia. He was first exposed to the Japanese education system as an elementary school child living in Japan, and became interested in the Japanese education reform debate after working as a junior high school teacher in the city of Kumamoto. His subsequent research took him back to Japan for numerous interviews with leading politicians, government officials and teachers’ union leaders. THE NISSAN INSTITUTE/ ROUTLEDGE JAPANESE STUDIES SERIES Editorial Board: J.A.A.Stockwin, Nissan Professor of Modern Japanese Studies, University of Oxford and Director, Nissan Institute of Japanese Studies Teigo Yoshida, formerly Professor of the University of Tokyo, and now Professor, The University of the Sacred Heart, Tokyo Frank Langdon, Professor, Institute of International Relations, University of British Columbia, Canada Alan Rix, Professor of Japanese, The University of Queensland Junji Banno, Professor, Institute of Social Science, University of Tokyo Titles in the series: The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness, Peter N.Dale The Emperor’s Adviser: Saionji Kinmochi and Pre-war Japanese Politics, Lesley Connors Understanding Japanese Society, Joy Hendry Japanese Religions, Brian Bocking Japan in World Politics, Reinhard Drifte A History of Japanese Economic Thought, Tessa Morris-Suzuki The Establishment of Constitutional Government in Japan, Junji Banno, translated by J.A.A.Stockwin Japan’s First Parliaments 1890–1910, R.H.P.Mason, Andrew Fraser, and Philip Mitchell Industrial Relations in Japan: The Peripheral Workforce, Norma J.Chalmers Banking Policy in Japan: American Efforts at Reform during the Occupation, William M.Tsutsui How the Japanese Learn to Work, Ronald Dore and Mari Sako Militarization in Contemporary Japan, Glenn Hook Japanese Economic Development in Theory and Practice, Penny Francks The Modernization of Written Japanese, Nanette Twine Japanese Science Fiction, Robert Matthew Japan and Protection, Javed Maswood The Soil, by Nagatsuka Takashi: A Portrait of Rural Life in Meiji Japan, translated and with an introduction by Ann Waswo Biotechnology in Japan, Malcolm Brock Britain’s Educational Reform: A Comparison with Japan, Michael Howarth Education Reform in Japan A Case of Immobilist Politics Leonard J.Schoppa London and New York First published 1991 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002. © 1991 Leonard J.Schoppa All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Schoppa, Leonard James, 1962– Education reform in Japan: a case of immobilist politics (The Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese studies series) 1. Japan. Education policies. Formulation I. Title 379.52 ISBN 0-415-02062-X (Hbk) ISBN 0-415-09600-6 (Pbk) Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Schoppa, Leonard James, 1962– Education reform in Japan: a case of immobilist politics/ Leonard James Schoppa. p. cm.—(Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese studies series) Originally submitted as the author’s thesis (Oxford, 1988). Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-415-02062-X (Hbk) ISBN 0-415-09600-6 (Pbk) 1. Education—Japan—History—1945– 2. Politics and education—Japan—History. 3. Education and state—Japan— History. I. Title. II. Series. LA1311.82.S33 1990 90–43470 370'.952–dc20 CIP ISBN 0-203-03460-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-20452-2 (Glassbook Format) To my father Contents List of figures and tables viii Acknowledgements ix Glossary of abbreviations xi Glossary of Japanese terms xiii 1 Introduction and theoretical background 1 2 Background to the recent debate 22 3 Internal actors: the Liberal Democratic Party 53 4 Internal actors: the bureaucracy 92 5 External actors: incorporated interests 120 6 External actors: opposition groups 149 7 Education reform in the 1970s 171 8 Education reform under Nakasone 211 9 Final conclusions 251 Notes 262 References 300 Index 312 vii Figures and tables FIGURES 2.1 The Japanese school system in 1937 28 2.2 The Japanese school system in 1983 35 4.1 Organizational chart of the Ministry of Education 97 5.1 National associations of local educational administrators 137 7.1 Results of the CCE initiative 207 8.1 Results of the Nakasone initiative 247 TABLES 3.1 The education zoku (after the 1986 election) 58 3.2 The careers of education zoku giin 84 7.1 The membership of the Central Council on Education (1971) 176 8.1 Membership of the Ad Hoc Council on Education 220 9.1 Education reform and the Pempel-Campbell model 259 viii Acknowledgements In the years I spent working on this book (originally a thesis submitted in 1988), I have become indebted to many individuals who have helped me at every stage of the research and writing-up process. Above all, I must thank my academic supervisor, Professor Arthur Stockwin, who introduced me to the workings of the Japanese political system and provided immeasurable assistance and encouragement throughout my time in Oxford. Professor Ronald Dore of London Imperial College and Dr Vincent Wright of Oxford also provided insights through their service as examiners for the thesis. Dr Roger Goodman, the Nissan Institute’s resident expert on Japanese education, was also always there to help me put my ideas together—as were the rest of the Nissan staff. David Finegold, through our discussions comparing education reform in Britain with that in Japan, provided numerous insights. I owe a special debt to Cecil Rhodes and the Rhodes Trust for funding my studies at Oxford and providing further financial assistance to make possible two research trips to Japan. The entire staff of Rhodes House and especially the Warden, Dr Robin Fletcher, were always friendly and helpful. I must also thank Pembroke College and the Sasakawa Fund for providing further assistance toward those research trips. In Japan special thanks goes to Munakata Miyo, the staff of the compulsory education division of the Kumamoto-ken school board and the many teachers I worked with during my year teaching in the lower secondary schools of that city. It was through them that I first became acquainted with the Japanese education system. In Tokyo my research would not have been possible without the assistance of Yasudu Izumi of Bunka kaigi, Takeda Michiyo and Nawashiro Aoi of the Diet Library, Yamanaka Shinichi of the Ministry of Education, Soejima Takeyoshi of Nikkyoso and Masuzoe Yoichi of Tokyo University. I must thank all of those who gave generously of their time for interviews, but especially Nakajima Akio, Kuroha Ryoichi and Watase Noriyuki, who were particularly helpful at the time when I was just beginning my research and maintained an interest in its progress. David Morris deserves special mention for all of his help in introducing me to the art of connection-building in Tokyo. ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Finally, a special note of thanks to Roger Goodman again and Bonnie Saint John for their assistance in proofreading the original thesis under the time pressure of an approaching sub-mission date. x Glossary of abbreviations AHCE Ad Hoc Council on Education (Rinji kyoku shingikai or Rinkyoshin) —supra-cabinet advisory council under Prime Minister Nakasone’s office, established by law in 1984 and functioning until 1987 ANUP Association of National University Presidents (Kokuritsu daigaku kyokai or Kokudaikyo) ASAsahi shimbun, daily newspaper AVM Administrative vice-minister (jimujikan) —the senior career post in most Japanese ministries, including the MOE CCE Central Council on Education (Chuo kyoiku shingikai or Chukyoshin) —permanent advisory council set up to advise the minister of education in 1952 DSP Democratic Socialist Party (Minshu shakaito or Minshato) DY Daily Yomiuri ERC Education Reform Committee—Occupation period committee composed primarily of Japanese educators ESRC Education System Research Council (Bunkyo seido chosakai) —one of the two primary education committees of the LDP’s Policy Affairs Research Council FLE Fundamental Law of Education (Kyoiku kihon-ho) — law passed by the
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