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LESSONS FROM THE CITY OF

How to Accommodate Growth and Create a More Sustainable Transportation System at the Same Time

Thanks to the staff at the City of Vancouver for their assistance and support of this project:

Jerry Dobrovolny, Director of Transportation Lon LaClaire, Manager, Strategic Transportation Planning Mike Anderson, Transportation Planning Don Klimchuk, Transportation Planning

Photos courtesy of Kira Baker, and the Gordon Price photo collection at the University of .

©Her Majesty the Queen in Right of (2012)

1 Executive Summary 3 Introduction 5 Methodology 6 Policy & Performance Timeline 10 Policy & Project Milestones 11 Investment 15 Transportation Performance 16 Case Study: Vancouver Greenways Program 22 Conclusion 27 Appendix A: Bibliography 29

This study was prepared for Infrastructure Canada and is distributed for information purposes only. The opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the consultant and do not necessarily represent the views of the Government of Canada.

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Introduction use policy represented a clear shift, as it formally This study uses the City of Vancouver as a case study to articulated a new set of priorities and working explore how prioritizing walking, bicycling, and transit relationships. in policy and funding can result in shifts in travel patterns. Although Vancouver has a strong history of While population, employment, and number of trips supporting urban livability, these efforts ramped up with by all modes continue to increase, the number of the advent of the City’s 1997 Transportation Plan. In vehicles coming into Vancouver has decreased. response to quality of life concerns from residents about While Vancouver’s population has increased by 18 noise, , congestion and air pollution, the 1997 percent between 1996 and 20111, and jobs have Plan formally prioritized non-auto transportation. This increased by 16 percent2, the number of vehicles study investigates the changes in policy, infrastructure, entering the City has actually decreased by over 6 and transportation performance that followed the percent since 19963. These changes have been especially adoption of the 1997 Plan, in order to document the dramatic Downtown, where vehicle volumes have effectiveness of these strategies Table 1. City of Vancouver Transportation Plan Mode Share – 2021 Targets and 2008 Mode Shares. and articulate lessons learned to Blue cells are those where 2021 mode share goals have already been met or exceeded. The map in Figure 1 on other cities and towns with similar the following page shows the locations of the three subareas. Data from the City of Vancouver and University concerns, or interests in similar of British Columbia (UBC). policies. Central Citywide Downtown UBC Findings Mode Target (2021) 2008 Target 2008 Target 2008 Target 2008 The trends clearly support the Bike / Walk At or above… conclusion that focusing policy 18% 19% 18% 25% 10% 3% 15% 19% and investment to non-auto Transit At or above… 23% 22% 34% 33% 33% 44% 25% 21% modes has made a real Auto At or below… 59% 58% 48% 40% 56% 53% 60% 58% difference in mode shares. Vancouver offers a practical example for policymakers 1 and municipalities struggling to accommodate growing Metro Vancouver, Key Facts, 2011. “Population in Metro Vancouver, Census numbers of residents and employees, but perhaps the 1921-2011.” Accessed Nov. 14, 2012: http://www.metrovancouver.org/about/statistics/Pages/KeyFacts.aspx most useful lesson is that when cities make a 2 Metro Vancouver, Key Facts, 2011. “Employment Trends by Municipality.” substantive financial and policy commitment to non- Accessed Nov. 14, 2012: auto modes of transportation, that commitment http://www.metrovancouver.org/about/statistics/Pages/KeyFacts.aspx produces results. Although the City’s decision to forego City of Vancouver employment estimate used for 2011. Adjusted by the City of highway building in the 1960s laid the groundwork for Vancouver to estimate Vancouver workers who listed their workplace address as “no fixed place of work.” future transportation policy, the 1997 Transportation 3 City of Vancouver 24-hour inbound vehicle volume data, 1996-2011. Outbound Plan coupled with the “Living First” land volumes and changes are similar. 3 decreased by nearly 18 percent4, despite a 75 percent increase in population5 and a 26 percent increase in jobs6. As Table 1 shows, the 2021 mode share targets have largely already been met, and as of 2008, auto mode shares (including ) have dropped to well under 50 percent in Downtown Vancouver. Although the region has made a series of large investments in transit over the past few decades, more increases in transit capacity are still needed. As the City releases a new transportation plan and a new set of mode share targets that specifies one-third or less of trips by auto citywide, transit investment is a key strategy to make the next shift forward.7 Figure 1. Vancouver and the Metro Vancouver region. Subareas with mode share targets in the 1997 Transportation Plan are outlined in red.

4 City of Vancouver 24-hour inbound vehicle volume data for Downtown, 1996- 2011. Outbound volumes and changes are similar. 5 City of Vancouver Downtown population data, 1996-2011. 2011 population is estimated. 6 City of Vancouver employment estimates for downtown for 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011. Adjusted by the City of Vancouver to estimate Vancouver workers who listed their workplace address as “no fixed place of work.” 7 City of Vancouver, 2012. Transportation 2040 Plan, “Rising to the Challenges: Demand for Transit”, p. 7. http://vancouver.ca/streets-transportation/transportation-2040.aspx Accessed 27 Nov, 2012. 4 Transportation Plan, the City of Vancouver has a history Background of ambitious policy decisions that have focused on As of 2011, the Government of Canada committed to promoting walking, biking, and transit investment. In work with provinces, territories, the Federation of the 1960s, the City set a precedent for future policy by Canadian Municipalities and other stakeholders to foregoing the construction of freeways. The land use develop a long-term plan for public infrastructure that plan (CityPlan) developed in the 1990s laid out the extends beyond the expiry of the Building Canada plan direction for land use by directing growth into in 2014. To fulfill this commitment, Infrastructure neighbourhood centres, as did the Central Area Plan for Canada (INFC) launched a three-phased, federally-led Downtown, which called for large increases in the engagement process through which it will work with key amount of housing Downtown (the “Living First” policy). partners and stakeholders to take stock of In 1997, with its 1997 Transportation Plan, the City accomplishments to date, identify gaps and strategic formally re-oriented policy, projects and funding away priorities, and confirm the principles of the next from autos and towards transit, bicycles and infrastructure agenda. As part of that process, INFC is pedestrians. Rather than trying to accommodate more sponsoring a series of research projects to provide on its streets, the City instead chose to serve the support for long term policy and decision making among growth in trips by investing in transit and non- a range of stakeholders, including governments, sectoral motorized infrastructure. As a result, where most other groups and other members of the infrastructure North American cities prioritize roadway infrastructure community. and have consistently failed to improve congestion or manage demand, Vancouver's city policies have Study Purpose and Context achieved better balance between modes while The purpose of this study is to examine the City of accommodating growing travel demand, particularly Vancouver’s policy response to travel demand and within the Downtown core. transportation infrastructure investment, starting with its 1997 Transportation Plan. Vancouver’s experience in This study examines how the City of Vancouver’s increasing non-auto transportation mode share and transportation policy has affected infrastructure meeting travel demand through investments in transit, investment decisions, related costs and travel behaviour bicycle and pedestrian modes offers an important lesson across all modes. By doing so, we hope to identify in transportation policy and investment practices. While lessons for other cities as they consider how to deal with transportation demand is expected to continue to the dual (and often competing) demands to increase throughout the country, identifying best accommodate growth and environmental sustainability practices and cost effective strategies to maximize in their transportation infrastructure planning and mobility will help to inform infrastructure investment investments. decisions and contribute to long term sustainability planning. Although our analysis begins with the 1997

5 For this investigation, it was necessary to discern trends out investments by transportation mode and were and relationships between modes over time, starting in unable to do so without a major effort. This was largely 1997 (the year that the City formally re-prioritized travel because transportation projects are typically multi- modes in the Transportation Plan) up through the modal – for example, a street redesign may make present. We reviewed available information and data on improvements to sidewalks, add a bike , and the three major topics: policy, investment and reconfigure the parking. Further, since transit transportation performance. operations within the City of Vancouver are administered by a regional transit body (TransLink), Transportation Policy Review estimating transit investment for only the City of The 1997 Transportation Plan provided the foundation Vancouver is difficult (since bus routes often cross for the policy review, as it was the key decision point for jurisdictional boundaries). Discussions with City of changes in the City’s policy direction. Subsequent Vancouver staff helped to characterize changes in documents provided information on progress toward the investment and modal emphasis over time to the degree vision laid out in the plan: that it was possible to do so.  1999 Regional Travel Study (GVRD) Transportation Performance Review  2002 Downtown Transportation Plan  2006 Transportation Plan Progress Report In order to document changes in travel patterns across  2006 Downtown Transportation Plan Progress modes over time, we reviewed transportation Report performance measures collected by the City of Vancouver, TransLink and Metro Vancouver since 1997. The policy documents also provided a summary of major In some cases, data prior to 1997 is used to give a better projects and initiatives and their timing. To provide before and after comparison. This included City of additional perspective on the City’s plans and policies, Vancouver mode share statistics (including those within we conducted interviews with key staff at the City. the Downtown), changes in auto, cycling and walking These interviews help to give an “insider perspective” volumes, as well as transit ridership statistics. To frame and communicate some of the lessons learned for other the transportation performance measures, we also cities and urban regions interested in implementing looked at trends in residential development, population similar policy shifts. and employment, as well as regional trends in travel behaviour. Investment Review The investment review relied on City of Vancouver From these reviews, we were able to identify broad budget reports and project lists; however, it was not trends and relationships between policy, investment, possible to separate out costs for different and mode shift and other transportation performance transportation modes. City of Vancouver budgeting staff measures. We also considered the historical and confirmed that they had previously attempted to break regional context and the ways in which other policy and economic factors may have helped to precipitate, 6 support, or undermine such policies. Discussions with Large differences in costs by mode. Actual project City of Vancouver staff helped to identify these factors costs may not be an accurate reflection of priorities, and put the changes in transportation performance in because of the vast differences in costs between non- the proper perspective. motorized infrastructure and roads. Transportation projects also frequently address multiple modes as part Case Study of a single project – for example, a corridor redesign The City of Vancouver’s Greenways program was used could include a new alignment to improve traffic flow for as a case study to look more closely at the dynamics of vehicles, a bicycle lane, wider sidewalks, and improved transportation policy, spending and performance. bus service.

Limitations Causality. It is important to remember that while this This study has a number of limitations that should be review can set forth an argument for the relationship considered in order to put the findings in proper between policy, investment and performance, it is context. While we set forth what we believe is a strong descriptive in nature and cannot determine causation. argument for the relationship between policy, funding Conducting a quantitative statistical analysis was prioritization, infrastructure provision, and beyond the scope of the study, impossible given the data transportation performance, the following limitations available, and inappropriate from a research and confounding factors should be considered. perspective. Additionally, this “real world experiment” lacks the controlled environment necessary to Time lags between policy, planning funding, definitively prove cause and effect. construction and transportation performance. Long time lags can elapse between policy development and Other influencing factors. Of course, transportation eventual changes in transportation performance. It is policy and funding are not the only factors influencing further likely that changes in transportation behavior in transportation behavior. A number of other factors may response to changes in the built environment may not have helped or hindered Vancouver’s policy goals. The be smooth and steady, as it may be necessary to reach economy, the housing market, gas prices, parking certain thresholds in order for a major shift in behavior availability and pricing, changes in demographics, as to take place. For example, simply widening a sidewalk well as people’s preferences and attitudes, are all likely along a street may not spur much of a change in to have played a role in shaping transportation transportation behavior, but if that sidewalk is behaviour. A few of these points are worthy of accompanied by mixed-use development, a separated additional discussion. bike lane, and a street redesign that prioritizes pedestrian movement, visible changes may start to In reviewing these shifts in transportation behaviour occur. over time, it is important to understand the potential role of self-selection, where people “self-sort” into different types of urban environments based on their

7 lifestyle preferences, and their transportation improvements to streets and transit (such as audible behaviours manifest themselves according to those pedestrian signals, curb cuts and low-floor buses). preferences. For example, someone who prefers bicycling, walking or transit may move to Vancouver’s Another demographic trend that is relevant for urban core for the opportunity to do so. Our recent Vancouver as well as the rest of the region is the large research has documented a strong preference for and growing immigrant population, largely from Asia. walkable, transit-friendly neighbourhoods across the Nationally, Metro Vancouver is the second most entire Metro Vancouver region. In a large survey of common destination for new immigrants, after the Metro Vancouver residents, about 28 percent of metro area. In the City of Vancouver, 46 percent respondents would prefer to live in a neighbourhood of the population was foreign-born as of 2006.9 This that is more walkable than the neighbourhood they are shift in population could mean residents whose living in now (compared to 9 percent who would rather preferences for housing, transportation and accessibility be in a less walkable neighbourhood).8 If this demand are influenced by their place of origin – often places could be accommodated through the development of where auto use is less common (for example, Hong more walkable places across the region – or more Kong, India, and China). However, immigrants have affordable housing in already-walkable places – settled in large numbers across the region – over 40 transportation behaviour could continue to shift. percent of residents in the Metro Vancouver region were Residents who wanted to walk, bicycle and take transit foreign-born in 200610 – and at the regional level, the would be able to live in places where they could more vast majority of trips are made by auto (see Figure 2, on easily do so. page 1).

Demographic trends can also change travel behaviour While demographics may shape travel behaviour, the patterns over time. One major demographic shift available evidence suggests that in this case, the happening in Vancouver, as well as most of North influence of urban form and transit service is stronger. America, is the aging baby boom population. An aging Further analysis would be necessary to explore the population could mean more complex, dispersed trip relative influence of these different factors. patterns as residents retire and no longer are “driven” by the need to get to and from work. For older residents Finally, land use policy – beginning with the 1991 no longer able to drive, neighbourhoods designed for CityPlan and its “Living First” policy – was a critical walking, bicycling and transit can offer mobility and a factor in changing travel behaviour, as it created a connection to their community. Older residents are also network of mixed use neighbourhood centres and zoned likely to be more responsive to “barrier-free” for a large amount of housing in the Downtown core.

8 Frank, Chapman, Kershaw and Kavage, Urban Design 4 Health (2012). City and 9 Metro Vancouver, January 2008. 2006 Census Bulletin #6: Immigration and Regional Residential Preferences Survey Results for Toronto and Cultural Diversity. Vancouver: A CLASP Final Report. March 2012, p. 30-32. 10 Metro Vancouver, January 2008. 2006 Census Bulletin #6: Immigration and http://www.toronto.ca/health/hphe/pdf/clasp.pdf Cultural Diversity. 8 Land use policy that creates compact and densely lower-density development patterns. The Metro populated urban areas will increase the effectiveness of Vancouver region is much lower in density overall – with transit, bicycle and pedestrian investments, as it puts 802 people per square kilometre, it ranks third in the people close enough to everyday destinations to make country behind the Toronto (945 people / sq km) and walking and cycling time-efficient, with transit serving (898 people / sq km) regions.13 Therefore, regional trips. Because CityPlan and the Living First there is a uniquely high level of variation in urban form policy were key factors in meeting the City’s goals for across the region and travel patterns reflect this transportation, they are discussed throughout the variation. report. In addition, the Liveable Region Strategic Plan, adopted by Metro Vancouver in 1995, laid out a supportive framework focused on compact growth, mixed use development, protection of open space, and non-auto transportation.

At around 5,200 people per square kilometre, the City of Vancouver’s population density is now the highest in the country, and has increased by 24 percent since the time of CityPlan’s adoption.11 However, that citywide average is pulled up by very high densities Downtown – the population density of the downtown peninsula has increased 75 percent since CityPlan was adopted, from 10,200 people per square kilometre in 1991 to 17,900 in 201112 – a population density midway between that of and the island of Manhattan. Many other parts of Vancouver are a different story, as they retain

11 Statistics Canada, 2012. Vancouver Census Profiles, 2011 Census. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 98-316-XWE. Ottawa. Released October 24, 2012. Statistics Canada, 1996 Vancouver Census Profile, Statistics Canada catalogue no. 95F0181XDB96001 (Vancouver, C Code5915022; 1996 Census Profile includes 1991 population). 12 City of Vancouver Downtown population data, 1996-2011. 2011 population is estimated. City of Vancouver employment estimates for downtown for 1996, 2001, 2006, 13 Statistics Canada, 2012. , Vancouver, Greater Toronto, 2011. Adjusted by the City of Vancouver to estimate Vancouver workers who listed Toronto, Greater Montreal, and Montreal Census Profiles, 2011 Census. Statistics their workplace address as “no fixed place of work.” Canada Catalogue no. 98-316-XWE. Ottawa. Released October 24, 2012. The area of the downtown peninsula (5.7 square kilometers) was calculated using http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp- ArcGIS and does not include Stanley Park. pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E (accessed November 14, 2012). 9

Figure 2: City of Vancouver Policy & Performance Timeline.

10 1997 of each other. The 1997 Transportation Plan contributed In 1997, the Transportation Plan was a major to this shift by prioritizing milestone that set in motion the next era of Vancouver’s upgrades to pedestrian transportation policy. The 1997 Transportation Plan set infrastructure – widening forth an ambitious paradigm shift for transportation, a sidewalks and crosswalks, set of 76 major actions14 and initiatives to achieve that removing barriers, creating shift, and a set of 2021 mode share targets for the city safer and more convenient as whole and three subareas (Downtown, UBC, and crossings, and implementing Central Broadway, shown on the map in Figure 1). The the Greenways program (see following sections detail some of the major policy case study) – improvements initiatives by mode. which were critical to accommodate the increase in Autos. One of the major policy shifts in the 1997 Plan pedestrian volumes. was to accommodate the growth in trips within the existing road network. In order to do so, the Plan Cycling. The 1997 Plan gave explicitly prioritized investment in non-auto modes, and cyclists a place in the contained a policy that curtailed further road expansion transportation network, (with the exception of the completion of one final something that they had not roadway link between the Port and Highway 1). The Plan had before. The Plan called for also allowed road space to be re-allocated for non-auto a major expansion of the City’s mode use, such as transit , bike lanes or sidewalk nascent bicycle network, expansion. The Plan also capped the amount of including bike routes and Downtown commuter parking and called for lowering of greenways, bike lanes on parking ratios citywide. arterial streets, and a network of bike lanes on the Downtown Walking. The Plan devoted substantial attention to peninsula. These broad increasing the comfort and efficiency of pedestrian concepts were followed by more travel. However, the City’s “Living First” land use policy, specific bicycle network established in 1991, probably contributed the most to proposals in the 1999 Bicycle changes in walking more so than the other modes, as Plan and the 2002 Downtown the dramatic increases in the number of residential Transportation Plan. dwellings in and around the Downtown core put homes, jobs and shops / services within easy walking distances Figure 3: Vancouver's Transit. During and after the Modal Hierarchy. The City 1997 Plan’s development, the gave pedestrians and cyclists top priority in design and 14 City and BC Transit (the transit The initial 1997 Plan identified 70 initiatives, with 6 others added in 2005. funding in the 1997 11 Transportation Plan. agency with jurisdiction over Vancouver at the time), the 1997 Plan, in addition to creating a supportive worked closely together to achieve a shared set of goals environment from the political leadership and residents. for transit service and ridership. Transit governance was The City Council was clear about wanting a plan that reformed in 1999 with the creation was visionary, but to create it, it was of TransLink – the only regional necessary to create a new working agency in North America with relationship between the planning and jurisdiction over both roads and engineering department. A single, multi- transit. The legislation establishing departmental “Transportation Plan” team TransLink also provided a built a spirit of cooperation during the guaranteed source of revenue for Plan’s creation that then carried forth transportation planning. into its implementation.

Despite its ambitious nature, the 2000 1997 Plan was more a continuation A few years later, a number of the major of, rather than a departure from, initiatives outlined in the plan were previous planning efforts. The underway. A number of arterial roads decision in the 1960s to reject had been changed to collector status, freeways within city limits served and a number of road and intersection as somewhat of a precedent, and redesigns were implemented to make meant that transit could be time- traffic flow more efficiently and improve competitive with auto travel, safety and accessibility for other modes. especially during off-peak periods. Those redesign strategies included new CityPlan, the land use plan, used a medians, left-turn bays, transit-only / network of mixed use transit priority lanes, and enhanced neighbourhood centres to pedestrian crossings. A public process accommodate growth in population for implementing traffic calming in and employment. In particular, neighbourhoods was established, and the the “Living First” policy in the 1991 Central Area Plan planning for specific bicycle and pedestrian for Downtown re-zoned a large swath of Downtown improvements had begun, with a focus on Downtown. from office to residential use, with the goal of creating a Joint planning was underway for a University of British 24-hour Downtown that contained housing, jobs and Columbia (UBC) transit pass (U-Pass) program, bike services within walking distances of each other. Then, racks on buses, and three new major rail lines serving in 1995, Metro Vancouver’s Liveable Region Strategic the City. Plan laid out a supportive framework that focused growth into already-developed neighbourhood centres. The success of these initiatives laid the groundwork for

12 2002 serving Vancouver, and the Vancouver/UBC Area Transit Plan was finalized. The Plan’s In 2002, a number of follow-up plans and studies were recommendations included improvements to service completed to give further direction as to the strategies, frequency, the addition of new trolley buses, new buses levels of investment, and specific design changes needed and community shuttle routes, and transit priority to achieve the targets set in the 1997 Plan. The measures to improve travel times and service reliability. Downtown Transportation Plan detailed the changes needed to the road, transit, bicycle and pedestrian 2006 networks Downtown, and contained an ambitious list of The Transportation Plan Progress Report found that 83 short term initiatives to be implemented over the the City had made major progress in achieving the goals following three years. The Pedestrian Study looked at put forth in the 1997 Plan. All of the Plan’s 76 pedestrian travel volumes and opinions on Downtown initiatives had been started, with about two-thirds fully streets and Business Improvement Areas, while the complete. The 2021 mode share targets for auto, Sidewalk Task Force recommended specific measures walking and cycling had already been achieved for to improve pedestrian safety, comfort and convenience. Downtown Vancouver, and transit targets had been The Vancouver Transit Strategy set out both short and achieved for UBC, thanks to the success of the U-Pass long term actions for transit service, in collaboration program. The length of the bicycle network had more with TransLink. The Pedestrian and Bike than doubled since the Plan was put in place, and so Crossing Study shaped recommendations for expanding had the number of bicycle trips. A similar progress pedestrian and cycling capacity and safety on all report on the Downtown Transportation Plan found that bridges, particularly the Burrard Bridge. Finally, a well over half of 83 initiatives identified in the plan were major regional milestone was reached with the complete, with another 18 underway. All in all, in the completion of the Millenium SkyTrain () first ten years of the 1997 Plan implementation, the City Line. had: 2003-2005  Constructed 68 km of City Greenways and 9 km of Neighborhood Greenways These years marked some major milestones for transit.  Constructed 90 km of bicycle facilities, for a total In 2003, TransLink began U-Pass programs for UBC and length of 170 km Simon Fraser University (SFU) students. The following  Installed pedestrian amenities (benches, trash cans) year, TransLink put in place one of the most important throughout the city initiatives for bicycles in the 1997 Plan – bikes were  Installed new bike racks and push buttons for allowed on the SkyTrain (with some restrictions during cyclists across the city peak travel times and directions). In 2005, SkyTrain  Changed traffic signal timing across the city to capacity increased to relieve crowding, a new entrance minimize waits for pedestrians to Granville Station at Granville and Dunsmuir Streets was constructed, bike racks were installed on all buses

13  Implemented traffic calming and other pedestrian attendees, and athletes on top of the daily commuter safety enhancements in neighbourhoods and around traffic. The Olympic Transportation Plan added a great schools deal of transit service, put parking restrictions in place,  Equipped all buses and trolleys in the city with bike and created dedicated bus lanes in critical corridors. racks (TransLink) The result was record numbers of people walking and  Redesigned Downtown to improve taking transit during the games, and a glimpse into a transit, bicycle and pedestrian efficiency and comfort potential future transportation system. 2008 2011 The City updated the 2002 Pedestrian Study as the The City began a major update to the Transportation 2008 Pedestrian Volume and Opinion Plan, with the goal of accommodating the growth in trips Survey. Besides expanding the number of locations through major investments in transit, bicycle and counted, the 2008 survey also included additional data pedestrian infrastructure, while maintaining current collection to support planning for the 2010 Vancouver auto traffic volumes. summer Olympics. 2012 2009 The updated Transportation Plan was adopted by the TransLink completed the Canada Line, another major City on October 31, 2012. It includes a new, ambitious expansion of the region’s rapid transit infrastructure, set of mode share targets for 2040: two-thirds of all and increased capacity on the Expo and Millenium lines trips served by transit, bicycling and walking, and an in preparation for the Vancouver Olympics. In addition, auto mode share of about 33 percent (compared to a new configuration of the Burrard Bridge was nearly 60 percent in 2008). The plan builds on efforts to implemented to give cyclists dedicated space on the increase pedestrian safety and comfort, a re-focusing of bridge crossing. the cycling facilities for “All Ages and Abilities” (the AAA network), and advocates for major investments in 2010 regional rapid transit, particularly along the Broadway In 2010, the City re-allocated two Downtown lanes corridor. It also focuses on public space, accessibility as separated cycling lanes. These separated bike lanes and safety – with a goal of zero fatalities. were installed on Hornby Street and Dunsmuir in the Downtown core, and were the first such separated bike Additionally, 2012 saw the Province and Translink begin lanes in the City of Vancouver. construction on the Evergreen Line, rapid transit with its eastern terminus at Commercial Drive and Broadway With the arrival of the summer Olympics, the City was – a major transit hub on the Central Broadway corridor. challenged with accommodating all of the visitors,

14 The 1997 Transportation Plan outlined new funding typically a simple design change, a result was a better priorities in order to match the Plan’s street, bicycle and pedestrian environment at little to no cost.15 The City pedestrian investment priorities (see text box at right). has continued to work on ensuring that new While it was not possible for the City to separate out development complements transportation goals. As part spending by mode, since 1997 funding and capital of street restoration after new buildings are constructed, project focus has generally shifted over time to align adjacent sidewalks are brought up to current standards with the Plan’s stated priorities. The absence of and amenities such as street trees are added. Bicycle freeways in Vancouver means less money dedicated to amenities such as bicycle lockers are also required as limited access facilities. Still, with an extensive arterial part of most new developments. system, Vancouver was spending millions for road redesign projects (such as dedicated left turn lanes) to Funding for transit streamline vehicle movement, safety and reliability. improvements was Although road redesign continued to be a major activity, dealt with through the emphasis has shifted from accommodating the a separate set of movement of vehicles to creating streets that policies and accommodate walking, cycling and transit movement. actions, as the majority of it flows The City also reviewed different approaches to financing from the federal the Plan. This led to an increase in the City’s and provincial Development Cost Charges (DCC), the fee paid by levels to developers, in 2003. A portion of the DCC (about 22 TransLink. In percent) was designated for the Plan’s transportation partnership with capital projects, such as bikeways, greenways, and TransLink, the arterial improvements. Although this is a relatively small City has increased pot (currently about $3-4M per year), it provides an cost-sharing with additional stream of funding that can be used for other funding partners including the Insurance smaller projects, or pooled over several years to fund Corporation of British Columbia and the Federal and larger projects. The City generates additional funding Provincial governments on large projects. The Canada from parking fees, which support a range of Line, for example, was developed as a public-private transportation improvements. partnership that included the City of Vancouver, the Government of Canada, the Government of British The City also changed the ways programs were managed Columbia, the Vancouver Airport Authority, and to streamline improvements. For example, the program TransLink, in addition to private partner InTransit for installing new curbs on residential streets was BC. modified so that pedestrian bulges were installed automatically as part of the project. Because this was 15 D. Kimchuk (City of Vancouver), personal communication, September 19, 2012. 15 Since the 1997 Transportation Plan, there has been a steady decrease in auto volumes and mode share in Vancouver, accompanied by an increase in walking, bicycling, and transit ridership.

As shown in Figure 4, auto mode shares have decreased from 69 percent in 1992 to 58 percent in 2008, while residential population has increased by 18 percent (nearly 100,000 new residents),16 and employment has increased by 23 percent (about 75,000 jobs).17 Together, these statistics provide strong evidence that the travel demands generated by the City’s residents and employees have been accommodated by non-auto modes. Although there are other factors that certainly have influenced this shift, the 1997 Plan played a significant role by Figure 4: Auto Mode Share Trends, 1992-2008. Data from Metro Vancouver, the City of prioritizing pedestrians, cyclists and transit in the Vancouver, and the University of British Columbia. street realm. Autos percent19. These trends are even more dramatic for the As Figure 4 shows, the share of auto trips to and within Downtown, where population and jobs increased by 75 Vancouver has decreased since the 1997 Plan’s percent20 and 25 percent21 respectively between 1996 adoption18, in the face of a relatively steady (and much and 2006, yet the number of cars entering the higher) auto mode share at the regional level. Despite Downtown core dropped by about 18 percent.22 Traffic the substantial increases in jobs and population seen volumes Downtown are at about the same level as they since the 1997 Plan (16 percent and 18 percent, respectively, since 1996), the number of vehicle trips entering the city has actually decreased by over 6 19 City of Vancouver 24-hour inbound vehicle volume data, 1996-2011. Outbound volumes and changes are similar. 20 City of Vancouver Downtown population data, 1996-2011. 2011 population is estimated. 16 Census data from Statistics Canada: Population in City of Vancouver and UBC, 21 Census data from Statistics Canada: Employment in City of Vancouver, 1996; City 1996-2011. of Vancouver employment estimate, 2011. Adjusted by the City of Vancouver to 17 Census data from Statistics Canada: Employment in City of Vancouver and UBC, estimate Downtown workers who listed their workplace address as “no fixed place 1996. City of Vancouver employment estimate for 2011. of work.” 18 The increase in auto mode share in 2004 is probably largely due to a transit strike 22 City of Vancouver 24-hour inbound vehicle volume data for Downtown, 1996- that was going on during the survey period. 2011. Outbound volumes and changes are similar. 16 were in 1965 (see Figure 5, below).23 A 2005 study by The region made the news recently as being one of the Statistics Canada on found that the most congested urban area in North America, second Vancouver area is the only urban area in Canada for only to .25 However, a closer look at the which commuting times were actually decreasing.24 numbers tells a different story. The analysis that determined the congestion ranking was based on the Despite all of this good news, congestion in the percentage difference between non-peak period travel Vancouver region can still be a real challenge for drivers. and peak period (rush hour) travel.26 Thus, regions with shorter overall travel times such as Vancouver are actually penalized more in the ranking than larger regions with longer travel times. With an average 25- minute auto commute to work in 2011, people in the Vancouver region actually spend less time driving to work than either Toronto (29 minutes) or Montreal (30 minutes).27

Additionally, the extent of congestion will vary depending on the geography examined. Commuting data shows that City of Vancouver residents spend an average of 27 minutes per day on their auto commutes, while drivers in the rest of the metro area spend 31 minutes daily.28

Figure 5: Downtown Traffic Volumes for 1960, 1976, and 2010. Green (outbound) and brown (inbound) lines representing 2010 traffic volumes are 25 Tiffany Crawford. “Vancouver second most traffic congested city in North superimposed by a City of Vancouver traffic engineer on this 1976 chart. Source: America: report.” Vancouver Sun, October 12, 2012. Price, Gordon. “2010 Downtown Traffic Volumes = 1965.” Price Tags blog, June http://www.vancouversun.com/Vancouver+second+most+traffic+congested+city+ 26 2012. Accessed 13 November 2012 North+America+report/7374883/story.html Accessed 14 November 2012. http://pricetags.wordpress.com/2012/06/25/extraordinary-facts-2010- 26 TomTom International BV, 2012. TomTom Congestion Index. Downtown-traffic-volumes-1965/ http://www.tomtom.com/lib/doc/congestionindex/2012-0704-TomTom- Congestion-index-2012Q1namerica-mi.pdf Accessed 14 November, 2012. 27 Statistics Canada, General Social Survey, 2010. Mode of transportation and 23 Price, Gordon. “2010 Downtown Traffic Volumes = 1965. Price Tags blog, June 26 average commuting time to get to work in Montréal, Toronto and Vancouver 2012. http://pricetags.wordpress.com/2012/06/25/extraordinary-facts-2010- census metropolitan areas. Accessed 14 November, 2012. 24 Turcotte, Martin. General Social Survey on Time Use: Cycle 19: The Time it 28 Statistics Canada, General Social Survey, 2010. Mode of transportation and Takes to Get to Work and Back. Statistics Canada, Catalogue no. 89-622-XIE. 2005 average commuting time to get to work in Montréal, Toronto and Vancouver Table 1, p. 15. Accessed 14 November, 2012. x/2011002/t/11531/tblbx-eng.htm> Accessed 14 November, 2012. 17 This is not to say congestion does not exist. The promoting urban containment and preservation of Vancouver region’s unique geography creates some agricultural land. With nearly half of the provincial particularly frustrating choke points (for example the budget devoted to health care already31, it will be , Oak Street, and Lions Gate bridges, as important to reduce chronic disease associated with well as construction on Highway 1, which has been sedentary living and one of the best ways to do that will ongoing for the past several years). A 2006 Transport be through the promotion of active forms of Canada study found that the Vancouver region loses transportation. between $402 and $628 million (2002 dollars) per year in the cost of delay, wasted fuel and the resultant GHG Walking emissions.29 However, the benefits of added auto Both the share and number of walking trips increased capacity must be weighed carefully against the social, dramatically in the period just after the inception of the health and environmental costs created in the process. 1997 Plan (and the City’s “Living First” policy, which While it is outside the scope of this report to examine was instituted a few years earlier). Between 1994 and these costs and benefits, there is a mounting body of 2004, the mode share of walking trips citywide evidence documenting the adverse impacts of the increased from 14 to 17 percent.32 These increases additional auto travel that occurs with capacity appear to have stabilized, and walking’s mode share has expansion. Longer commutes translate into more time even decreased somewhat in recent years33 – it is likely in cars, increased per-capita air pollution and that the addition of transit capacity has shifted some greenhouse gas emissions. Longer commutes have also walking trips to transit. been associated with higher rates of obesity and other related health outcomes.30 In effect, significant Downtown, the focus of the largest increases in expansion in highway capacity defies the very tenets of residential development, has seen dramatic increases in Metro Vancouver’s adopted Regional Growth Plan walking trips. In 2006, walking trips were found to make up nearly two-thirds (between 60 and 69 percent) of 29 Transport Canada Environmental Affairs, March 2006 (revised July 2007). The daily trips within Downtown – making walking by far the Cost of Urban Congestion in Canada. Table 5: Total Costs of Congestion. most common travel mode for getting around 30 Christine M. Hoehner, Carolyn E. Barlow, Peg Allen, Mario Schootman (2012). Downtown.34 On some of the busiest downtown streets, Commuting Distance, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Metabolic Risk. American pedestrians outnumber people in vehicles by a large Journal of Preventive Medecine 42(6):571-8. Lopez-Zetina J, Lee H, Friis R (2006). The link between obesity and the built environment. Evidence from an ecological analysis of obesity and vehicle miles of 31Bailey, Ian, 21 February 2012. “B.C. budget a 'turning point' on controlling health travel in California. Health Place 12:656 – 64. costs, says Finance Minister.” Victoria, BC: The Globe and Mail. Wen LM, Orr N, Millett C, Rissel C (2006). Driving to work and overweight and

48 City of Vancouver, 2012. Transportation 2040 Plan, section T1: “Policies and Actions in Detail: Transit Network”, p. 32. http://vancouver.ca/streets-transportation/transportation-2040.aspx Accessed 27 Nov, 2012. 21 The Vancouver Greenways program was initiated by the City of Vancouver in the mid 1990s, and the City is now in the process of implementing a network of pedestrian priority corridors around the city. The flavour of each particular Greenway is as unique as its surroundings – Greenways can connect parks and other open spaces, highlight cultural features, historic sites, heritage buildings and public art, provide an attractive environment for pedestrian-oriented retail and commercial development, for example. Although its stated focus is pedestrians, the Greenways program also supports bicycling and Figure 7: Map of completed and proposed City Greenway routes in Vancouver as of 2011. transit.49 trails and retrofitted streets. Neighbourhood Greenways are initiated by residents and are typically very short There are two types of greenways: City Greenways and local connections – essentially pedestrian shortcuts. The Neighbourhood Greenways. City Greenways are Vancouver Greenways Plan was approved by City corridors within and between neighbourhoods, using Council in 1995 and originally identified fourteen City Greenway projects to be constructed (three other 49City of Vancouver, “Transportation Plan: 1997 Report”, section 3-7. Former greenways were identified later). The 1997 Website of Engineering Services Transportation. City of Vancouver, Access date Transportation Plan brought additional funding and November 13, 2012. attention to the Greenways Plan, as it placed the highest http://former.vancouver.ca/engsvcs/transport/plan/1997report/index.htm 22 priority on pedestrian infrastructure and improving the major goal of the plan. Greenways also strengthen the walking and cycling share of trips.50 The Greenways pedestrian routes, facilities and environments explicitly program puts the 1997 Transportation Plan policies into called for in the 1997 Plan and the 2002 Downtown practice. The 1997 Plan advocates for expansion of Transportation Plan.52 pedestrian priority areas in commercial and neighbourhood centres, and notes greenways and Design bikeways as a key strategy.51 Greenways improve access Greenways along street right-of-ways comprise about for non-auto modes on street right-of-ways, another 50% (approximately 70 km) of the entire network, with the rest made up of trails not accessible to autos.53 Infrastructure improvements along streets have included traffic-calmed corridors with design features such as widened sidewalks, cyclist paths, raised crosswalks, infiltration bulges, re-oriented on-street parking, mid-block crossings, and pedestrian shortcuts. Additional amenities may include seating or resting areas, water fountains and bike racks as well as enhanced lighting, information kiosks, public plantings, trees and shrubs (shown as part of the Carrall Street Greenway in Figure 8). Greenways not along streets can be trails on waterfronts, through parks or natural areas or right-of-ways. Although they may connect with or include bikeways and often incorporate bicycle facilities, Greenways are first and foremost geared towards pedestrians. Figure 8: Street furniture along the Carrall Street Greenway. Photo by Kira Baker.

52 City of Vancouver, “Transportation Plan: 1997 Report”, section 3-7. Former Website of Engineering Services Transportation. City of Vancouver, Access date 50 City of Vancouver, “Transportation Plan: 1997 Report”, section 2-2. Former November 13, 2012. Website of Engineering Services Transportation. City of Vancouver, Access date http://former.vancouver.ca/engsvcs/transport/plan/1997report/index.htm; City of November 13, 2012. Vancouver, “ 2002 Downtown Transportation Plan”, Transport Canada. Access date http://former.vancouver.ca/engsvcs/transport/plan/1997report/index.htm November 13, 2012. http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/programs/environment-utsp- 51City of Vancouver, “Transportation Plan: 1997 Report”, section 3-7. Former Downtowntransportationplan-842.htm Website of Engineering Services Transportation. City of Vancouver, Access date 53 City of Vancouver, 1999. “Proposed Regional Context Statement Official November 13, 2012. Development Plan:, section D-6. Former website of City of Vancouver. Access date http://former.vancouver.ca/engsvcs/transport/plan/1997report/index.htm November 13, 2012. http://former.vancouver.ca/ctyclerk/cclerk/990323/ph4.htm 23 The Granville Street and Carrall Street Greenways were identified in the 2002 Downtown Transportation Plan as important north-south walking routes in the Downtown, and highlight two very different approaches to Greenway development.54 The Carrall Street Greenway is a short (1 km) but critical link in a downtown peninsula walking loop connecting False Creek with the Burrard Inlet and Stanley Park.55 Because Carrall Street straddles the historically and culturally significant neighbourhoods of Chinatown, the Downtown Eastside and Gastown, maintaining the street’s historic character was a priority in Greenway design, as was the accommodation of a potential streetcar route.56 Figure 9 shows the before and after configuration – the two parking / loading lanes were replaced with a “flex” parking scheme that allows auto to park on parts of the sidewalk-grade areas during non-peak pedestrian activity periods (see “flexible activity space” lane in the “after” drawing in Figure 9, and Figure 10) and wider travel lanes for pedestrians and bicycles, with two travel lanes maintained for transit and autos. The Carrall Street Greenway is nearly complete; the remaining tasks are retrofitting the north end of the route to construct a pedestrian railway overpass.57

54 City of Vancouver, 2002. 2001 -2002 Pedestrian Report. 55 City of Vancouver, 2005. Carrall Street Greenway Concept Design, p. 10. 56 Vancouver Heritage Foundation, 2009. Carral St. Greenway Historic Map Guide. 57 City of Vancouver, “Carrall Street Greenway – Progress Update”.Former Website of Carrall St. Greenway. City of Vancouver,2008. Access date November 13, 2012. Figure 9: Before (above) and After (below) configurations of the Carrall http://former.vancouver.ca/engsvcs/streets/greenways/city/carrall/greenway_pro Street Greenway in Gastown. Drawings from the City of Vancouver. gress.htm 24 Figure 7. Before (above) and After (below) configurations of the Carrall

As one of Vancouver’s major north-south arteries, Granville Street is an economically significant tourist, retail and entertainment centre, with a much wider right of way and higher development density than Carrall Street. Granville Street has some of the highest foot traffic in the City, with daily volumes of 2,000 - 20,000 pedestrians.58 Beginning in late 2008, the street was redesigned along nearly its entire length within the downtown peninsula. Maintaining two lanes of vehicle traffic in each direction, the greenway replaced one parking lane with a wider sidewalk and a “rolled curb” that allows for some vehicle parking on the sidewalk during periods of lighter pedestrian traffic, shown in Figure 10. Street furniture, signage and lighting were added, while retaining the Granville Mall, which is closed to general vehicle traffic. Although there are connecting bicycle routes running east and west, there is limited dedicated cyclist infrastructure besides bike racks along this route. The project was completed in late 2009 in preparation for the 2010 Winter Olympic Figure 10: The Granville St. Greenway. The wider sidewalk supports some auto Games; the $21 million cost was funded by the City of parking during off-peak pedestrian hours. Photo by Kira Baker. Vancouver and Translink. amenity by realtors and most residents.59 In most cities Generally, the Greenways program is seen as a benefit – especially in a downtown and in other major centres – by businesses and residents. In the early days of the businesses thrive on walk-by traffic, with major program, some neighbourhood residents thought that pedestrian corridors commanding high rents for prime bikeways and greenways would bring more crime into walk-by locations. This was also true for Vancouver. their neighbourhoods or decrease property values; after The City also documented that there was no apparent further study of these issues it became apparent that relationship to higher crime rates on greenway or greenways were a selling feature and considered an bikeway streets.60

58 City of Vancouver, 2008.2008 Pedestrian Volume and Opinion Survey – 59 City of Vancouver, 1999. 1999 Bicycle Plan, p. 82-90. Commercial Streets, p. 17, Appendix A. 60 City of Vancouver, 1999. 1999 Bicycle Plan, p. 70-82. 25 The City has used the Greenways program primarily as a way to reach beyond utilitarian transportation and meet quality of life objectives, focusing on the recreational, social and community benefits of walking and cycling over shifts in mode. Greenways are also used to increase access to greenspace and natural settings. Although the program encourages walking and cycling for any reason, the primary objective is to make people enjoy walking in their neighbourhood by creating safe, pleasant streets on which to walk.

26 Vancouver’s experience is potentially a useful template that included planners, engineers, and new staff from for other cities seeking to re-orient their transportation other disciplines and City departments prioritized an policies to better support quality of life and excellent end product over departmental “turf” and sustainability goals, while accommodating growth in encouraged big-picture thinking. transportation and jobs. Thanks to the decision in the 1960s to not build freeways in the city, and subsequent Create broad big-picture goals. The City of Vancouver investments in a rapid transit system in the 1980s, has always framed the dialogue around transportation Vancouver enjoyed a major head start when it began to and land use from a perspective of liveability. This investigate shifting the growing travel demand to non- allows a broader and more productive dialogue where auto modes, and shifting funding, policy and project issues of economic development, accommodating travel priorities towards those modes was less of an obstacle. demand, environmental sustainability, and safe streets However, Vancouver’s model still provides many useful can all play a part. During the development of the 1997 lessons in planning and building support for non- Plan, the impacts of traffic (noise, speeding, and motorized transportation. pollution) were a major quality of life complaint among residents. Give clear direction as to priorities. Part of the reason that the City was able to successfully implement Plans should support and build on each other. what might appear to be a radical plan was because it Transportation and land use planning should be clearly directed priorities for policy, projects, and oriented around a set of shared goals – for example, spending in a cohesive manner. All departments had liveability, travel choice, pedestrian friendly streets, or a clear direction about how they should support the Plan, 24-hour downtown. The 1991 Central Area (land use) and there was consistency between policy, funding and Plan, including the “Living First” policy to increase project prioritization. Good policy language can easily be residential development downtown, shaped undermined by funding and budget / project transportation policy on its own by creating a network of development and prioritization processes, as well as easily walkable mixed-use centers. The 1997 Plan re- parking requirements and engineering standards that oriented transportation priorities to support these goals support auto transportation at the expense of other with investments to meet the increase demand for modes. It is essential to evaluate and shift those transit, walking and cycling. Implementation and processes and standards to support policy goals. subsequent planning efforts are made much easier when it is possible to connect them back to the clear priorities Build multi-disciplinary and multi-departmental in the plan/s. relationships by creating teams that work towards a shared goal. For Vancouver, the Plan’s success Commit to real grassroots outreach. During the depended on building strong relationships between the development of the 1997 Plan, City staff offered “kitchen City’s planning and engineering divisions. An table” presentations on the Plan for any group of 10 or independently functioning Transportation Plan team

27 more friends or neighbours. These efforts built trust shares make up only about one-third of all trips in and solid support for the Plan and its goals. 2040. Vancouver used the 2010 Olympics – which required moving double the number of walking, During the construction of the Hornby and Dunsmuir bicycling and transit trips – as an opportunity to see (separated) bike lanes, the City saw some backlash from into the future of the transportation system under the businesses along the corridor. Not wanting to pit Plan, and test the possibility of reaching these new, businesses against bicycles, the Vancouver Board of ambitious goals. This effort was ultimately successful, Trade initiated the Bikes & Businesses Working Group both in moving people and in the response from which developed recommendations for future efforts – residents, which was overwhelmingly positive – giving the most important being that longer-range planning is the City confidence that further progress is not only important so that businesses can adapt ahead of time possible, but supported by the public. (relocate to or from the corridor). In this case, businesses need to know the broad vision for the future Conclusion street redesign, so they can take that into account Although Vancouver’s decision to forego freeway before they sign a long-term lease.61 The City is working building may have given it a head start, the 1997 closely with the business community to better address Transportation Plan represented a major shift. The Plan these concerns, and even though there is clear policy formally recognized that there was still a great deal that direction to prioritize cycling, taking away space from could be done to improve the pedestrian, bicycling and cars will inevitably get a strong reaction. Good working transit networks, and took serious steps to identify and relationships and dialogue will be necessary to address fund those improvements. The response to these concerns while accomplishing adopted policy. changes was noteworthy, and most of the Plan’s established 2021 mode share goals were met by 2008. Be Visionary. The 1997 Transportation Plan was not As bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure became a about taking small steps – it set ambitious goals, and priority for the City, the share modes grew rapidly, and made a serious effort to align plans, City departments, pedestrian safety increased, while auto mode share and funding, and project development towards reaching volumes decreased. Now, with a new transportation those goals. As the City begins working to implement plan and a new set of ambitious goals, the City is the latest (2012) Transportation Plan, accommodating focused on making another quantum leap into the the growth in trips using non-auto modes remains an future, the success of which will hinge on developing explicit focus. The updated mode share goal is to rapid transit and neighbourhoods outside of the maintain citywide auto traffic volumes at current levels, Downtown core. Although other cities will, of course, while increasing the number of trips served by transit, need to assess their own readiness and goals, most walking and cycling – to the extent that auto mode cities can considerably improve conditions for walking, cycling and transit – and those improvements will improve quality of life for all residents. 61 Personal conversation with Jerry Dobrovolny and Lon LaClaire, September 25, 2012. 28

This report has been informed by the following plans and documents:

City of Vancouver, 2012. Transportation 2040 Plan (draft and final versions). http://vancouver.ca/streets- transportation/transportation-2040.aspx City of Vancouver, 2012. 2012 Pedestrian Safety Study Summary report. City of Vancouver, 2011. City Greenways Plan. City of Vancouver, 2009. 2008/2009 Cycling Statistics Update. Vancouver Heritage Foundation, 2009. Carrall St. Greenway Historic Map Guide. City of Vancouver, 2008. 2008 Pedestrian Volume and Opinion Survey – Commercial Streets. City of Vancouver, 2007. 2007 Bicycle Plan Update. City of Vancouver, 2006. 2006 Transportation Plan Progress Report. Report RR-1(a). City of Vancouver, 2006. Downtown Transportation Plan Implementation Timetable Status Report. Report RR-1(b). City of Vancouver, 2005. Carrall Street Greenway Concept Design. City of Vancouver, 2002. 2002 Downtown Transportation Plan. http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/programs/environment-utsp- downtowntransportationplan-842.htm City of Vancouver, 2002. 2001 - 2002 Pedestrian Study. City of Vancouver, 2000. 2000 Transportation Plan Progress Report. City of Vancouver, 1999. Proposed Regional Context Statement Official Development Plan. http://former.vancouver.ca/ctyclerk/cclerk/990323/ph4.htm City of Vancouver, 1999. 1999 Bicycle Plan. City of Vancouver, 1997. 1997 Transportation Plan. http://former.vancouver.ca/engsvcs/transport/plan/1997report/index.htm Greater Vancouver Transit Authority, 2001. Recent Trends in Travel Behaviour: Analysis of the Greater Vancouver Trip Diary Survey. Greater Vancouver Transit Authority, 2005. Recent Trends in Travel Characteristics: Analysis of the 2004 Greater Vancouver Trip Diary Survey. Mustel Group and Halcrow, 2010. TransLink’s 2008 Regional Trip Diary Survey: Final Report.

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