eligious diversity, tolerance and intolerance, inclusion and
exclusion are phenomena that have prevailed throughout ofThe Shifting Boundaries Tolerance Rthe 2,000-year long history of Christianity. In this volume, five The Shifting Boundaries Nordic researchers with five different perspectives explore the shifting boundaries of religious tolerance in Finland, Sweden, of Tolerance and beyond. Their contributions deal with different scenarios Inclusion, Exclusion, and Religious Communities of Memory and a variety of themes; from religious conformity to openness, from misconduct to forgiveness and reconciliation, from Jewish cantonist soldiers to Sami Christians, from the Russian Em- pire to Ovamboland, and, last but not least, from past events to present remembrance among religious communities.
Studies on Religion and Memory is a book series affiliated with the Religion and Memory Network. It provides a platform for innovative research in the area of collective memory and Edited by Ingvar Dahlbacka, religious uses of history. Thus, it links cultural memory research Kim Groop, with research in theology and comparative religion. and Jakob Dahlbacka
ISBN 978-952-12-3389-0
9 789521 233890 Studies on Religion and Memory The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance
The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance Inclusion, Exclusion, and Religious Communities of Memory
Edited by Ingvar Dahlbacka, Kim Groop, and Jakob Dahlbacka
Studies on Religion and Memory : 2 Åbo 2016 Religion and Memory relmem.net Åbo
Cover image: Trial, Shutterstock.com.
Cover: Jakob Dahlbacka Typesetting: Maria Vasenkari
ISBN 978-952-12-3389-0 (print) ISSN 2342-7159 (print)
ISBN 978-952-12-3390-6 (online) ISSN 2343-211x (online) Table of Contents
Ingvar Dahlbacka The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance: a timely project 7
Jakob Dahlbacka Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 15
Kim Groop Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality: the Finnish Missionary Society and the emergence of the first Church Rules in the Ovambo mission field in South West Africa 42
André Swanström Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland: a chapter in the psychohistory of intolerance 81
Ulrika Wolf-Knuts Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 110
Carola Nordbäck Försoning, erkännande och inklusion: perspektiv på försoningsprocessen mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna 135
Contributors 198
5
Ingvar Dahlbacka
The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance A timely project
In the year 2011, the Department of Church History at Åbo Akademi University was awarded funding by the Academy of Finland for a research project entitled The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance: Inclusion and Exclusion in the Context of Nordic Church History, 1750–2000. The project ran for four years and ended in July 2015. The purpose of the project was to broaden and deepen the knowl- edge around religious diversity and the historical boundaries or limits of tolerance. It is a known fact that religious diversity, tolerance, and social exclusion are phenomena which have been present through- out the Church’s 2,000-year long history. The Lutheran Church is no exception. Religious conflicts have been a recurring theme in Nordic church history and that is why the church historical research has often taken its starting point from a conflict perspective. With this project, we have chosen another approach. Rather than focusing on conflicts, we have tried to highlight the shifting borders of religious tolerance and thus include both those processes that expand tolerance and those processes where the space for tolerance has diminished. In this way, the project has come to be about issues that are highly relevant in our contemporary society, and, by examining them, our intention has been to contribute to the current public debate and growth of knowl- edge concerning those questions and issues much discussed in today’s Europe.
7 8 Ingvar Dahlbacka lysed thesamephenomenon –changes ofreligiouslysed basedboundaries mission. the Christian faroutsideEurope thathasbeen in effect via andexclusion inclusion andSweden,Finland theproject hasalso aimedtomakevisiblethe context.church historical in Inadditionoftolerance toboundaries gious monopoly. theseprocesses ina The projectNordic hasanalysed church’s gradual acceptance ofaresolution regarding itsnational reli- own domains, inclusion, whileexternal example, for may concern the Churchsive ofgreater within its acceptance oftheLutheran diversity well asexternal. concerns, inclusion Internal instance, for the succes- uals professing otherfaiths. Similarly, mayas alsobeinternal inclusion For example, itmay beaboutthechurch’s conduct towards individ viduals andfactions thatare already, inone way oranother, outsiders. exclusion,External on theotherhand, concerns thetreatment ofindi- powers, ortherevivalmovement’s ofdissidentmembers. exclusion the treatment ofreligious nonconformistsby thechurchandpoli where themembersofagroup are excluded. Examplesofthisinclude complicity. Onecan, example, for in cases exclusion talkaboutinternal group andatothergroups thatclaim both atmembersoftheprimary increased emerges. andtolerance pluralism not useany sanctions asregards group. thedeviant Instead, astateof process, i.e. thatagroup accepts religious difference andthusdoes orwaylearning oflife. inclusion, With we have considered thereverse jected tosanctions duetosome kindofdifference regarding their be accommodated inareligious group identity, andare therefore sub- have considered aprocess through one which ormore peoplecannot culture andreligious minorities. theconcept ofexclusion, With we the relationships between waya religious of analysing a new majority andexclusion. inclusion nal andexternal These concepts have enabled The project has takenthe asconcepts its point of departure of inter- Theoretical perspectives The project consisted offive singlestudies. Thesestudies have ana- –have beenaimed two andexclusion The processes –inclusion tical tical The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance 9 ations and end result. The first of inquirylevel concerned dif- and end result. ations ance boundaries form an important part. Religious group iden- Religious group ance boundaries form an important part. The common task for all the single studies was to analyseThe common - the inter nal and external inclusive processes that have led to increased toler nal and external led to increased inclusive that have processes internal as the as well external and that have exclusiveprocesses ance, a from proceeded project The led to exclusion alienation. and religious the formationunderstood and socio-culturalreligious of perspective where relations, identities as characterisedby power or influenced toler – like other typestities have the through of identities – been defined become have various groups As a result, external relations. group’s often are these borders mere However, their borders. through apparent and what was constructions and their importance varied, have may that the It is in this context changed. have may the borders inside once Tolerance be understood. is to inclusion of concepts two and exclusion, which value based communities, boundariescreate to helped thus have This approach and markers. codes, oftenare rituals, manifested through with a historical been combined has in the project - theoretical perspec identities group the historic of the religious dimensions whereby tive relevant to analyse It has been considered the into focus. come have historicalchurch portraying the basis of issues of identity of the past on shaping of tolerance as in the as well boundaries.processes ferent societal discursive arenas. It is mainly the political church and arenas. societal discursive ferent the On been analysedwhich have regard. in this historical discourses, scrutinised exclusionproject the how inclusion and has level, second - been manifested reli between at a local level and in the relationships level dealt with the The third groups. as non-religious gious as well been analysed have these processes individual at the level where micro perspective, with an actor perspective a discursive combining By level. room has strived to make analysesthe project the individuals’ where transparent. been made have actions concrete for and manoeuvre between various groups – but on different social levels. These levels levels. social different on – but variousbetween groups interacted empiricallyhave been separated theory in but have in and integrated overall into the conceptualised, studied, to be order interpret 10 Ingvar Dahlbacka Furthermore, thishasalsobeenaway tobreakscientificground new society. our modern that characterise boundaries the tolerance lyse theevolution intoourown tofollow timeandtoana- opportunity century. ofthe twenty-first turn Thishasgiven the researchers the the second halfofthetwentieth century. apparent during particularly enlargement ofreligious became diversity or,trine who, reasons, various for thechurchorder. criticised The members oftheChurch, theenforced doc- butwhodidnotobserve there whowere were andreformist Lutherans some groups ofcritical resident the first half of the nineteenth century. during In addition, Catholics andJews. InFinland, there were already practicingMuslims expanded religious freedoms Empire. intheSwedish There were also asin1741,As early Protestants andReformed Anglicans received groups Empire. liveda numberofreligious intheSwedish minority Church’s withtheLutheran was permeated tury religious monopoly, and religious pluralism. However, though the eighteenth cen- even ofgovernment Church toasecularform andtheLutheran the State influenced by confessionalism and a symbiotic relationship between changedradically.and Sweden from Itwastransformed havingbeen period. theCzarist during try thecoun- characterised ofthereligious which because diversity partly trend towards religious freedom wasmuch more inFinland, rapid were freedom full zens not guaranteed of religion until in private matter.gious affiliationintoa beingturned Sweden, In citi- from beingseparated churchmembershipandreliin citizenship - thesuccessivefollows deconfessionalisationresult thatwould finally 1780s were given some measure offreedom. theprojectThereafter religionsand certain and faithcommunities at the beginningof Empiregious confessionalism intheSwedish beganto bechallenged The project’s ofinvestigation period beginsaround 1750whenreli- The investigatedperiod The project’s ofinvestigation period hastherefore lasteduntilthe 1750–2000, theperiod During thereligiousofFinland landscape 1951. The The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance 11 The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance: Tolerance: anthology The present – The Shifting Boundaries of An important objective for this project was to investigate how the how to investigate important was An for project this objective Inclusion, Exclusion, and Religious Communities of and Religious Memory – can Exclusion, be Inclusion, where articles, of five It consists viewed as somewhat of an end report. religious boundaries of tolerance have been drawn, have been main- have boundaries been drawn, religious of tolerance have church history2000. changed in Nordic 1750– and have from tained, reported been in The findings have articles in various scientific jour- been that have the monographs but also through nals and anthologies, written within the project. The research team and the articles The research began, When the project of six people. team consisted research The namely Ingvar Dahlbacka and professors, of these members were two namely (docents), professors adjunct were Two UlrikaWolf-Knuts. Kim Groop were The others Swanström. and André Nordbäck Carola DahlbackaJakob and - doc a was who universitya was who teacher, During Ulrikalasted has that the project fourthe years toral student. Carola has been appointed chancellor Akademi, of Åbo Wolf-Knuts Kim History Church of professor Nordbäck at Uppsala University, and History of Church professor adjunct Groop at Åbo Akademi, Jakob Dahlbackadoctorate History has obtained a in Church Åbo at Ingvar Dahlbacka served leader. as the project’s Akademi. as a framework covering such an extended period in of time is rare startingwas point The project’s historicalchurch of this kind. research that a framework- period covering favour of time provided a longer fornew able conditions observations to such tolerance slow relating pos- it has been Thus, otherwise not would that processes visible. be the shiftingsible to highlight boundaries of tolerance as a societal short term perspectives and long studies from By combining process. case analysesdiscursive and studies concrete has triedwith the project yet periodically the between relationship capture the exciting to fixed, boundaries of tolerance. constantly moving, 12 Ingvar Dahlbacka gious practices, and memories. fusion, traditions, resulting cultural inachurch withhybridised reli- that thiswork exchange wasafittingexampleofcultural andtrans by religionterised theimposition values, ofanew andnew butrather - charac was not simply in Africa undertaking tains that the Finnish discretion. Groop alsoexaminesissuesoftransculturality. Hemain- from from Church Law theoldSwedish 1686 , aswell astheirown of Church Law utilised the Finnish they afuturefoundations for churchoftheirown preference. Intheirwork, in Namibia. hadFinnish missionaries ambitions to layThe “proper” Church Church –today Lutheran theEvangelical Lutheran Ovambo anditscreationLaw intheemerging ofthefirstChurch Society Transculturality, Missionary theFinnish KimGroop scrutinises andexclusion. by inclusion what is more, history, the use of such ofthechurchbut, inthehistory are tobefound exclusion notonly anthology, and ofinclusion arguesthattheboundaries Dahlbacka force.a driving Finally, tangent tothethemeofthis andespecially and andon andguarantee theotherhandasawake-upcall imacy gious communities ofmemory, aslegit- on theone can handserve that religious uses of history, claims Dahlbacka whenusedwithin reli- newspapers, andalsorepresented thepeasantsinDietofFinland. Ostrobothnia, inSwedish-speaking school entary in wroteactively the first elem (1832–1889) – the man who founded Anders Svedberg gious Exclusion”, ofareli touncover some- generalcharacteristics tries Dahlbacka, and as Inclusion Uses“Religious ofHistory inhisarticle -perspective,perspective andfrom Memory theCultural Jakob oftolerance. ing boundaries intheproject,the participants intheirown ways,- approach theshift In thesecond article, Enforcement and Mission DivineLaw Adopting- acombination from oftheories the Uses ofHistory use ofhistory. of legacy theliterary Hedoesthis by analysing in itself, to work has the capacity 1869, a number of elements The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance 13 The fourth article, “Lived Forgiveness in a Forgiveness Finland-Swedish “Lived The fourth article, och inklusion” erkännande “Försoning, In the last article, In “Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland” “Nicholas Jewish I and the Soldiers Cantonist Finland” in In Laestadian community”, is written by Ulrika Wolf-Knuts. In this is written UlrikaWolf-Knuts. by Laestadian community”, Lutheranthe – movement religious a explores Wolf-Knuts study, case was a a few ago of paedophilia years which, Laestadians – in She in praxis functions or what forgiveness studies how exposed. a member of a how explicitly, more or, like, looks forgiveness lived and for- shame, his experience of guilt, Laestadian community relates victims themselves, informants were Wolf-Knuts of None giveness. and/or his family. the paedophile but they known had deals Nordbäck Carola and inclusion”), recognition (“Reconciliation, heritage colonial its of Swedenof the Church with its treatment and Nordbäck and in particular exclusion of the Sami the religious people. this church dealt with its responsibility for the histor- examines how In this article subjected to. that the Sami people were ical repression and the uses of history in a new combined are exclusion, inclusion, under which is at present process, the reconciliation to By relating way. Nordbäck of Sweden the Church between the Sami and way people, a historical from perspec- processes churchlyexplores reconciliation She and sheds light studies the including aspects of reconciliation tive. exclusion the societal whichon which the Sami and from faced have This article is written inSwedish. stillthey suffering. are André Swanström examines issues of tolerance as regards the Jews in issues of tolerance examines Swanström as regards André - auton or Finland during when Finland the time was a Grand Duchy, Czar I wanted to reform Nicholas partomous of the RussianEmpire. educationhis Jewish of and modernise lives the through subjects reach- far would have Nicholas I of reign The militaryand training. the Russian in for the Jewishing consequences Empire. communities policies the psychologicalSwanström studies causes of Czar Nicholas’ grasp to psychohistorical the He aspires ram- to the Jews. with regard the Jews mind over in troubled Finland. Nicholas’ ifications of 14 Ingvar Dahlbacka Religion andMemory. have beenpeer-reviewed. five All articles series couldbepublished inthepublication that thepresent anthology memory. aswell ascultural uses ofhistory Therefore, we are delighted ten withintheproject tothe have come todealwithissuespertaining For of reasons, a variety - that have been writ many of the articles Jakob Dahlbacka
Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion
Introduction The purpose of the project The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance: Inclusion and Exclusion in the Context of Nordic Church History, 1750– 2000, funded by the Academy of Finland, has been to investigate religious diversity and (in)tolerance in Finnish and Swedish Church History, and to highlight the historical processes and events that have given rise to the boundaries of inclusion and exclusion in the fields of church and religion. With respect to this, the present article takes a somewhat different approach. Adopting a combination of theories from the Uses of History-perspective on the one hand, and the Cultural Memory-perspective on the other, the aim is to uncover some char- acteristics of a religious use of history. It will be argued, among other things, that the boundaries of inclusion and exclusion are not only to be found in the history of the church but, what is more, the use of such history, in itself, has the capacity to work by inclusion and exclusion. As point of departure and as source material for this objective, I will turn to a person called Anders Svedberg. Anders Svedberg (1832–1889) was born and lived all of his life in Munsala (a village in Ostrobothnia, Finland). In addition to having founded the first elem entary school in Swedish-speaking Ostrobothnia, he wrote actively in newspapers and also represented the peasants in the Diet of Finland.1
1 See, for instance, Huldén, J. J. 1932 and Strömborg 1932.
15 16 Jakob Dahlbacka Dahlbacka 3 Dahlbacka itants. – theBibleremained mostinhab- for theuniversal guidingprinciple breeding ground movements both the Baptist and the Evangelical for by revival in the 1830s and the Pietistic speaking a language that the peasantry understood.speaking alanguage thatthepeasantry in thearea. events, makinguseofthesehistorical When was Svedberg movement thathad takenplace againstthePietistic and tothetrials Church,of theChristian totheReformation, revival tothePietistic of history. Hewasable to makereferences, instance, for tothehistory Anders Svedberg, inhis rhet have and normative narratives. constituted formative such This is why revival, tradition andthePietistic but alsotheLutheran besaidto can inthepast. events and on certain For thepeopleofMunsala, theBible, andself-image inacommongroups theiridentity narrative thatfound later in thetext. Briefly, is used todescribe a community ofmemory CommunityofMemory”“Religious –aconceptdiscussanduse Iwill why Isuggest thatMunsala, anditssurroundings, couldbelabeleda Hartikainen 2 Hartikainen thatfaced them. ity understood,through thepeasantry which verified, andvaluedthe real- faith provided afoundation, a “social cement” ora Universe”“Symbolic common people, thoselivinginOstrobothnia. especially The Christian ofOstrobothnia.peasantry on above all theSwedish-speaking thatfocused quality democratizing Consequently, of his work be all said to have and had can an educating At thistime, religion played role inthelives animportant ofthe om … Munsalaförsamling 1887. Provincial Archives of Turku, ÅboDomkapitels arkiv, E VI 127Berättelse instance byment inMunsalaisdocumented for Rev. Emeleus. See The Ostrobothnia, seeNäsman 1962. The progress move- oftheEvangelical 1970,14. Pleijel 3 Thus, ideologically,close to people one another.were Thisis 1987, 2005, 2 65; 1928, Smeds Even though Munsala had been highly influenced Even thoughMunsalahad beenhighly 17; Mikkola oric, wasableto make useof a religious use 2009, 2. For theBaptistmovement inSwedish 17, s – and later on became a 1840s – and later on became 44, 46–47, 236–238. also See Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 17 The 4 ation, ation, . It is stored in stored is It 1856. In this second book the Christian book undertone In this second has 6 . Zander refers to Tingsten 1969 and Sødring Zander to refers 104–105. This Christian undertone is played down in the second in the second This Christian down undertone is played
1997, 5 7 skrivning”. It is accepted for publication It is accepted in Finnish Journal of skrivning”. the Municipal Archives of Nykarleby, Anders Svedbergs Anders samling 2.5.1. of Nykarleby, the Municipal Archives was , Hemmet och för titled Finlands Folkskolan Historia This schoolbook, Manu University in Åbo Akademi Library, It is stored written in 1875. Huldéns samling 61. J. J. script Unit, See 1979, 85, 175. also Andersson Jensen 1978. The article on Svedberg’s history schoolbooks, written by Jakob Dahlbacka, by Jakob Dahlbacka, written historyThe articleon schoolbooks, Svedberg’s Religiöst historiebruk Svedbergs i Anders Gud och fosterland. “För is titled historie Theology 3/2016. för eller en kort Barn ur Finlands Historia titled Berättelser This schoolbook, - som kyrk Finland uti politiskt såväl förändringar redogörelse för de viktigaste frånligt afseende undergått utbredande till närwarande första kristendomens writtenwas in Sammanskrefne af i början år 1856, tid. In my opinion, the former book is used to point out God and God’s the former and God’s is used to point out God book In my opinion, actions in history, and also to show how the Christian how has to show Church and also in history, actions God steers history its final destin and developed: towards grown first of these books servedfirst of these books of assistance as a means for in Svedberg and is permeated with a Christian his ambulatory school in Munsala, vocabulary. 6 7 Zander 4 5 The religious uses of history uses of religious The - that in his commu use of made Svedberg and which serves material for as source nication peasantry, with the articles me in three by has been examined been that have this article, The first to be published. or accepted peer–reviewed and published, written case history quite different study focuses two on textbooks, Svedberg duringby half of the nineteenth century. second the Three Case Studies and more recent book, which constituted Svedberg’s competition competition Svedberg’s which constituted book, recent and more entry to write in an open contest textbook for a national elementary schoolsin Finland. given way to a focus on the national and patriotic. This of change and patriotic. the national to a focus way on given God to Countryfocus – from – can been typical be said to have of the period. 18 Jakob Dahlbacka he naturally wanted to include both Pietists andBaptists, bothPietists wantedtoinclude he naturally andto problems andquestions. position, liberal Inlinewithhisadmittedly narratives,of hishistorical and answer totackle these tried Svedberg posed athreat oraproblem tothepeasantsofOstrobothnia. Bymeans 8 gion. tocreateby awiderfreedom inhisstruggle Anders Svedberg ofreli- concrete level. narratives,The firststudyexaminesthehistorical used book, people. speakstotheFinnish whereasSvedberg speaks to Christians he,first book in the second people throughout history. The addressees are unmistakable: inhis whereas peoplefromGod hasguidedtheChristian thepasttopresent, One couldalsosay thatSvedberg, inhisfirstbook, that asserts hasgone handinwiththespreadingclaims ofChristianity. state, of the Finnish the rise used to illustrate Svedberg which a rise nation. God’s actions Church andthegrowth are oftheChristian this book, of the elementismore theChristian orlessatservice missinginthelatterbook isnotentirely either.tribution However, in by God, meansthatthetwo are one ultimately andthesame. which history. However, heiscarefultostress thefact thatbothare directed ofthis,In all ingeneraland to Church refers bothto history Svedberg therefore toshow thatGodisactive andtolead thechildren toheaven. aswell. education tory children to is ofteaching history The purpose i.e. heaven, at the same time becomesfor thewhich his- the final aim The two later case studies bring thediscussion downcase studiesbring toamoretwoThe later Despite the change of focus, mentioned above, con- the Christian and Research on Revivals and Revival Culture).and ResearchRevival on Revivals Copenhagen in2013by NORDVECK (Network ofNordic Researchers E. Larsen), aconference connected publication to aconference heldin (ed.frihet”. iväckelseforskningen ItispublishedinHistoriebruk Kurt vittne. somreligions argumentför avhistorien - bruk Anders Svedbergs This article, written by JakobDahlbacka, istitled som “Med historien 8 Iarguethatthequestion concerning thefreedom ofreligion the second book demonstrates God guiding the Finnish the second book demonstrates God guiding theFinnish
Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 19 - This, in This, He was 9 10 Supported by 11 , Anders Sved Anders 31.1.1889, Yearbook of Finnishthe of Society Yearbook 2012, 201–202, 217–220. , Lantdagsmannen: I kamp för kvinnors Lantdagsmannen: 10.3.1982, It has been published in the in published been has It ; Wiklund 1987, 92; Jakobstads Tidning Jakobstads , Posten Österbottniska och oliktänkandes rätt; This article, written by Jakob Dahlbacka, is titled “Inklusion genom exclugenom - “Inklusion is titled by Jakob Dahlbacka, written This article, på kollektivt Svedbergs exempel historie Anders antikatolicism som sion. medvetande”. berg; Huldén, A. 1932, 12. A. Huldén, berg; History 2014. Church - his contemporar Svedberg compared view, his point of express To What is indicated in the second case study, but further developed What is indicated case in the second study, more afraid of the schisms that would occur if the Baptists were not not were Baptists the afraidif occur schismsthe of would that more a as in doctrine that he, errors than the of religion, granted freedom obviously recognized communions. in other Lutheran, had during groups which religious ies with earlier periods in history, of to the Catholic persecution he refers instance, For been oppressed. Lutherans afterReformation the and to the trials against the Pietistic use of history”, where “critical Such a above. mentioned movement Svedbergto scrutinizes leads criticizesand historicalprevious events, in his historical loadings an attribution of negative narrative. 9 See provide these groups with the right to exercise their belief. their with the right exercise to these groups provide insights developed within Cultural Memory Studies I argue that, for insights developed within Cultural Memory Studies I argue that, - “cul anti-Catholicism was part of a so-called Svedberg’s instance, back as far as the Reformation. reaching with roots tural memory” This memorypart was pervasive of a his discourse or a collective able that most people were and thus something torical consciousness, its turn, motivates and legitimates a change of course in the present. of course in the present. motivates and legitimates a change its turn, Svedbergwhen audi- eventsof use makes target his that Furthermore, he is able to, able to relate and are with, familiar are ence recognizes, giving thus future; the and bringto present the with past the together events a continuity and helping his audience to present a context and see itself as part whole. of a greater of history use that Svedberg’s is the assumption has been in the third, earlier by and passed on generations. handed down 11 10 Rüsen 20 Jakob Dahlbacka terms “memory”,terms “continuity,”and “context”. ities, ordimen by are three expressed qual- –have tobecharacterized uses ofhistory narratives, –ormore historical precisely tory by the means ofwhich accentuates thefact Rüsen thatusesofhis- Jörn osopher ofhistory has tocorrelateculture. tothesurrounding historical phil German tory. consequently To auseofhistory successfully itspurpose serve cultures theshape oftheuseshis- determine fact thathistorical words, culture is the toahistorical whatconnects theusesofhistory that possessthesequalities are easy torelate to, bindtogether they form certain meaning making and orientating entireties”. meaningmakingandorientating certain form culture areprocesses ofthehistorical activated where inorder parts to Peterhistorian Aronsson, as bedescribed can “those usesofhistory comes itisused. intobeingandinwhich thewords ofSwedish With is rooted in and marked culture by it in which the specific historical istiedtoitscontext –how it an emphasis on how theuseofhistory thethreestudiesmentioned all above have case incommon is What andGuaranteeReligious asLegitimacy Uses History of andfunction.fest now Iwill move on toadiscussion on thisquestion. mani- thought isthequestion ofhow doesthereligious useofhistory phrases are examined. Through threecasestudies, all theconnecting In theselattercases, narratives andsinglewords and thehistorical third studiesare case confined toamore concrete anddetailedlevel. prehensive andtheoreticalmatters, ofthesecond thefocus and of the Uses of History. the first one deals with more com- Whereas tacts withtheCatholicChurch. to relate to, made con- had personally never themselves ifthey even Rüsen 13 Rüsen 12 Aronsson In one sense, upon thethreestudiestouch different levels case 1988, 25–26; 2009,53. Karlsson 2004, 17(mytranslation). sions, inorder tohave agood effect. Thesequalitieshe 13 Narratives or stories 12 Inother Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 21
16 In the follow- 14 In accordance with Jan Assmann’s with Jan Assmann’s In accordance 15 , Bilder ur folklifwet. Ljus och Bilder ur folklifwet. 26.8.1863, . Assmann, J. 2011, 38–39. J. Assmann, 2008, 112. J. Assmann, See for instance Folkwännen , Om religionsfriheten. Om , 28.2.1884 Posten Österbottniska skuggsidor; 2008, 109–111. J. Assmann, The three case studies dealing with Anders Svedberg’s uses of Anders with case studies dealing The three Svedberg’s Svedberg’s uses of history meet the demands of “memory” especi history uses of “memory” Svedberg’s of meet the demands 15 14 16 the past, the present, and the future, and they and help people to orientate the future, and the present, the past, Such subsequently narratives the have themselves context. larger in a to be identity-formingpotential and meaning-making. history the Christian was familiar with that he show peasantry in Thus, He knew and their history. audience his target Ostrobothnia. uses of historySvedberg’s ways Rüsen in many meet the demands that - this can prob extent, some To successful historicalmakes on narratives. up in that Svedberg grown the fact ably had himself be explained by and internalized adopted that he had and the local cus- these settings, to his esteemed local due status as a Furthermore, and practices. toms Svedberg reached had Parliament, and Member of journalist, teacher, can be said to of Jan Assmann, the words with he, where a position been parthave the capacityelite that had of the and the authority to interpret and mediate the local history and tradition. distinction between communicative and cultural memory, one could one cultural and memory, communicative between distinction at the time when Svedberg referred memory that the say of the trials, was for still many part memory. of the communicative to these trials, ing, I will use Rüsen’s terms “memory”, “continuity” and “context” to “context” and “continuity” “memory”, terms I will use Rüsen’s ing, writings. examine the uses of history in Svedberg’s appeared that have By doing so I will try what could possibly to distinguish be seen as characteristic uses of history. qualities of the religious ally lies near at hand and that his when it is founded a past that on example A good has witnessed and can audience target easily to. relate Svedberg makes to the trialsof this is the reference against the Pietistic onlytaken place which a few had decades in Nykarleby, movement in the 1830s and 1840s. earlier, 22 Jakob Dahlbacka Catholic. generation togeneration. meta even himselfhad hardly Svedberg according toAssmann, from hasbeenpassedon which andsurvived ings isagood exampleofthis. memory asacultural bedescribed Itcan Catholicism thatSvedberg, from timetotime,- expresses inhiswrit ity ofhisaudience.ity Itisprobable thattheanti-Catholicism, can which 17 ences aperson’s consciousness. individualhistorical consciousness that influ- also speak of a collective historical one can enced by asocial, dimension, acollective oracultural Iarguethat the sameway thataperson’s issaidtobeinflu- individualmemory ent on apastthattheaddressees of. have witnessedand beenpart In of that thequality “memory” narrative isnotdepend- ofahistorical them. peoplethathad experienced knew they In otherwords, theaddressees witnessedthetrials, had themselves or 19 18 Nordgren ual work notions”. ofthoughtbutitcontains inherited that by consciousness isanindivid- writing “the historical unerringly of experience. KennethNordgren historian Swedish this describes her individualmemory, and go farbeyond hisorherown horizon his or her own lifetime, that exceed events his but or also comprises son’s ofreference frame thattakeplace isnotlimitedtoevents during What is important tonotice, isimportant todemonstrate,What andwhatItry is definition.for instance:See 2014, Thorp Jeismannsoriginal researcher didactical Karl-Ernst history ing German understanding of the present, and perspectives on the future”, thus reflect theconnection between theinterpretationofpast,incorporates the A person’s definedasa consciousness isgenerally historical “concept that 21, Anders Svedberg’s Greta letterto Brita Pesonen May 13(1877). Library,Akademi University Unit, theManuscript J.J. Huldénssamling asodd. inHelsinkithathedescribes visited aCatholicservice Åbo See mented. Greta, Brita Inalettertohiswife reveals thathe has Svedberg andthe Catholic Church isdocu One encounter between Svedberg Jeismann 1979,42–44. 19 case withasolidmajor- alsothe This wasunquestionably 2006, 16(mytranslation). 20; 2010, Karlsson 17 Thus, aper- 18 56. also: See The anti- The Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 23 mates According to According 22 2000, 86–88, 97. This is often the case with religious groups, which This is often the religious groups, case with 21
20 Dahlbacka, J. 2014. J. Dahlbacka, 2011, 16. J. Assmann, In my opinion the quality of “memory” of historical narratives “memory” quality the In my opinion of Adherents of a tradition that is confident of its own validity of its that is confident are of a tradition Adherents to required when unlikelymemory:to appeal make an to instead, they characteristically to nonsubjective appeal defend the tradition, identity An structure. a set of institutional to – to a canon, factors thematized to appeal that solidly exists has little need for an explicit, it approxi When memoryto tradition, approximates memory. to weak tradition. In other words, an appeal to memory – that is, memoryto appeal an is, – that words, other In tradition. weak to is of particular interest when speaking of the religious uses of his- uses is of particular of the religious when speaking interest I claimthis quality that its fullwithin potential reach might just tory. group. use of historya religious a religious towards that is directed memory the collective is an essential part to Jan Assmann, According of the identity existence of practically and continued building every for which memory plays an especi Such groups, and group. collective “memory calls referring to Pierre Nora, Assmann, ally role, pivotal communities”. Canadian historian Canadian Allan Megill as he calls this canon – or tradition a certain and meaningful of persuasive for adherents more it – is much memories mind – subjective and – in Megill’s personal than tradition He writes: are. 21 22 Hervieu-Léger 20 be seen in Svedberg’s rhetoric, was an inheritance was of the seventeenth rhetoric, Svedberg’s be seen in or even the Reformation in the sixteenth century Lutheran orthodoxy, century. means that they construct identity their - with the help of a contin uously up of certain that is built narrative retold specific in events Danièle Hervieu-Léger of religion sociologist French states the past. attributedis legitimat- a with on, goes time as suchthat narrative, a it credibility which and substance. gives ing authority, 24 Jakob Dahlbacka text isdirected tothereader asacollective. aspart and foremost directed totheindividualreader, whereas thecultural texts”. textisfirst from whatAleidaAssmanncalls Aliterary “literary Erll 26 Erll 25 24 23 Megill act ofreading, ofamnemonic community”. part becomes, puts it, Erll asAstrid that orsheis, certain “he through the sess a particularly strongthegroup. valuefor symbolic sess aparticularly functiondo) andaformative (whoare we), pos- they andassuch have statusthey bothanormative functionwe (whatshall canonical writing, places, butalsoinclude persons andevents. Thanks totheir the word “cultural text”. limitedto textsare Cultural notexclusively munities buildtheiridentity, JanandAleidaAssmannhave coined historical consciousness.historical Ipropose thatthesekindsofuseshistory, were – of they a common or a collective canon memories cultural part to Svedberg’s argumentation. They were personal more thansimply texts. Secondly, andsubstance andtextsgave theevents legitimacy target audience, one for thing, and wasfamiliarwiththeseevents of gave adistinctquality Svedberg’s“memory”. useofhistory The shapingnarrative.text oridentity ortexts totheseevents Referring tradition, revival, aswell asthePietistic ofthiscultural were part all ting where lived andworked, Svedberg theBibleandLutheran powerful when appliedinauseofhistory. isespecially nity Intheset- As an umbrella term for thenarrative,As anumbrella for term com- around memory which are tobeinadequate. felt existingsupports when objectively only toarise an appealtowhatissubjective andpersonal –islikely This is also why the cultural text of a religious memory commu- This isalsowhy text ofa thecultural religious memory Assmann A. 1995,241. who refers toBurke 1950. from.whom shoulddissociatethemselves they 2011, Sakaranaho See about whom thegroup with, membersshouldidentifythemselves and Assmann, J. 2006, 2011, 162. 1998, 45. 104. This ismade concretefor instanceinquestions 26
25 The reader thus 24 They differ differ They 23
145 Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 25
28 The uses of history thus operate with 27 1988, 25–26. , Religionsfriheten i 16.12.1886, Posten Österbottniska for instance, See, kyrkan. Evangelisk-lutherska The historical references not onlyThe historical not references criticize situation the present-day they also blueprint a possible to the problem; an answer and suggest in his first history example is when Svedberg, Another scenario. future 27 Rüsen 28 Religious Uses of History as a Wake-up Call and Driving Call and Force Wake-up of History Uses as a Religious “contin Jörn Rusen talks about the “memory”, Beside the quality of He claimshistor- that of historical narratives. “context” and the uity” hand, the one on icalthey, as meaning-making if function narratives and on and the future, the present the past, together weave to manage in a wider historical their addressees placing by the other hand if they, to help these people to orientate manage themselves in the context, the future. and towards present where the cultural texts of a religious memory the culturaltexts of a religious where used are community of Use “Prophetical could be termed the argument, to strengthen History”. Such a use of history It not only servestwofold a purpose. the time and present statements about the and legitimizes predictions historyexamples from with future guarantees but it also them with Why call- I prophet it an authority cultural the text. on that is based to has thus implying events, future that it convincingly predicts ical, that these kinds of cultural texts of a religious do with the promises by to the fore brought and that are memory often community contain, to this in the next chapter. I will return the past. to references the three tenses: past tense, present tense, and future tense. References References tense. future and tense, present tense, past tenses: three the This and indicate ahead. a way guidance in the present to the past give atti- negative the when Svedberg compares forinstance, the case, is with church, which present-day the in sees he dissenters, towards tudes historicalsimilar negative events of such as the Catholic persecution the victimization or of the Pietists in Ostrobothnia. Martin Luther, 26 Jakob Dahlbacka visits them, have done. inhistory aspeopleearlier textbook, hispupilsaboutnotlisteningtoGod’s warns voice when He 29 ation”. golden age ofanearlier heimpliesisthatthememory What from thepast. Or, asJanAssmannputsit: “memory intoexpect turns thegroupoccasions receives thefuture itshopefor for fresh support perceived or when a group crisis is oppressed or wronged. On such current circumstances, a appearsduring butthelatterone especially be both foundational and contrapresent, can memory depending on later on gone wrong and whatis wrong with the present situation. A present. Bypointingatapreviousgolden age itisimplied what has “contrapresent memory” abreak however indicates between pastand tion thepresent for andthepresent asanextension ofthepast. A group atthemoment. islocated founda- asa The pastthusserves linefrom likeastraight thepasttowardsruns thepointwhere the andnecessary,ingful agodsend. even aimsahead and Here history functionagroup. for orientating have an can acollective memory inwhich similarways cepts describe “Pacifying Memories” and “Dangerous Memories”. ofthesecon All - Memory” theologianJohann Metz’s political andtheGerman terms Jan Assmann’s terms “Foundational Memory” and “Contra-Present background tomyreasoning, Iwanttoadvance acomparison between ofthereligioustures usesofhistory. thatmightbecharacteristic As of quality “continuity” shows some- ofSvedberg’s fea usesofhistory enting themtowards thefuture. places theaddressees- context ori inatemporal whilesimultaneously sure receive will thatthey God’s tocome. indays gifts rhetoric The to helpthemavoid God’s judgmentinthepresent, butalsotomake A “foundational memory” thepresent turns intosomething mean- of withthequality As wasthecase “memory”, Iarguethatalsothe Anders Svedberg’s first history textbook,Anders Svedberg’s firsthistory page 23 . The MunicipalArchives of Nykarleby,Svedbergs samling2.51 Anders 29 Svedberg’s aimis Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 27 30 31 2007, 105. ies originate from the Enlightenment and its evolutionary the Enlightenment ies originate from Assmann, J. 2011, 62–66. J. Assmann, Metz calls the second category of memories “dangerous memor Metz calls category the second “dangerous of memories [M]emories in which one does not take the relationship to the past to the past [M]emories does not take the relationship in which one memories in which the past turns into an untroubled very seriously, – the of the present the disillusionments an asylum from paradise, memory Here everything bathes in the old days.” “the good past as a filter The past passes through … conciliatory light. past in a mild, everything everything of harmlessness; and haunting, dangerous This future. any of robbed seems it it; challengingfrom vanished has an memoryis how easily of the past, turns into a false consciousness opium for the present. The distinction that Assmann makes between foundational and and makes between that Assmann foundational The distinction ies”. These memories are dangerous because they to draw dangerous memoriesThese attention our are ies”. our everyday from wake us and therefore human suffering in the past, time. This means a kind of tunnel vision directed at progression and at progression directed a kind of tunnel vision This means time. their Things have in tradition. that eradicatesdevelopment credence Historya as seen is questioned. not certainis quo status the and order seriesunimportant thus and past of events certainfillnot do that any memories are: Pacifying purpose. contrapresent memories, is very Metz that Johann similar to the one memories, contrapresent in memories” “dangerous and memories” “pacifying makes between pacifying to Metz, According in History. and Society Faith his book memor 30 31 Metz becomes subversive, making the group believe that the golden age can age believe that the golden the group making subversive, becomes turnedThe past is back again. to lifebe achieved once and brought one’s can which one direct social and political toward Utopia “a into what eth- with connected Assmann, by This theory is, life and work”. movements which are “millenniarism”, or “messianism” callnologists in the future. change that anticipate a total 28 Jakob Dahlbacka of memory have ashare. of memory reminder ofthehope, membersofthereligious inwhich community promises that God has given the future. for as a The promises serve those – thatactualizes memories up avision ofthefuture –forward images butalso conjures ofapastevent forth calls notonly brance communities of memory not only bindtheirmemberstothepast, notonly communities ofmemory but is a “communitycommunity of memory of hope”. In other words, ing to which thingsareing towhich going on justasusual. slumbering, time, evolutionary usinouringrained anddisturb accord- 35 Metz 34 Metz 33 Metz 32 Metz of the suffering, death, and resurrection of Jesus. –areligion basedupon thememory inChristianity especially is true environment. inapassive even andslumbering as awake-upcall This stances, whereas tofunction dangerous have thecapacity memories become subversivememories asaconsequencecircum ofexternal - ence between thetwo, seeit, asIcan thatcontrapresent israther memor As is the case with Assmann’sAs is the case contrapresent memories, the future content, sotospeak. thatone hastotakeintoaccount,memories thathave a memories like dangerous visitations from anduncalculable thepast. areThey subversive character.take on a virtually are of this sort Memories and structures break plausibility through oftheruling thecanon flare dangerous upandunleashnew for thepresent. insights … They ies thatchallenge. experi earlier These are inwhich memories But there isanotherway toremember: dangerous memories, memor ies that Metz calls dangerousies that Metz calls are also subversive. - The differ 2007, 88–89. 2007, 88–89107108. 2007, 105. 2007, 170. 35 thefact thata This alsoillustrates religious 33 32 34 Thus, the remem- ences Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 29 These examples 38
In this way, both the present situ both the present In this way, 37 36 2007, 89, 110–113. Bellah et. al. 1985, 153. al. Bellah et. Anders samling 2.5.1. Svedbergs Nykarleby, of The Municipal Archives 23. page first history Svedberg’s Anders textbook, What especially I find theories with the two described interesting above is that theyabove illustrate the past can how be transformed into a that might furthermore differ – a future possible and achievable future This is the case in particular- contra with drasticallypresent. the from the memory the theories how show of In addition, memories. present and future, of a previouslythe past can be used as a reminder promised This becomes this in its turn can to take action. how induce someone whichhope and deal with the memories, dangerous evident in Metz’s nuance that often includedthe prophetic are in the cultural texts of writings appears this In Svedberg’s of memory. communities religious to God’s attention to pay his pupils urges in his schoolbook, when he, to to make it in order His punishment and to avoid in order visits, history in groups warninga As proffers he example the in and heaven. cautions seriously. not taken God’s Bible that have ation and the current view on history may be challenged. The status The status view history on and the current ation be challenged. may not only which the personal has consequences on quo is questioned, the politicallevel but also on level. 37 Metz 38 36 also turn them towards the future. also turn them towards - prom at the same time bring the hope for a better future to the fore that the religious It is worth this shows noticing how God. ised by to the addition in uses of history a fourth also has tense at its disposal, not only- and present con are Past tenses previouslythree mentioned. - con real and is as “tense” This nected to the future but also to eternity. which use of history within a religious crete other tenses, as the three in you make The choices drivingforce. strong a possesses also it why is not onlyalso but consequences forfuture the have this lifetherefore can serve incentive. as a strong if anything, This, for eternity. 30 Jakob Dahlbacka He writes: course oftimes, butalsoinrelation toprevious andfuture generations. people’suses todescribe inrelation ofthemselves tothe experience This has todowithcreating identity”,Rüsen much a aterm “historical dimension of “orientation” narratives. tohistorical ascribes thatRüsen the religious usesofhistory. connected tothe This function istightly has displayedstudy of Anders Svedberg one additional function of thefuture,for goal. andspurthemtoaimatacertain However, the made. alsoarouse, Itcan intheaddressees oftheusehistory, ahope an argumentation, promises for andasaguarantee thathave been in aslegitimacy serve can texts ofareligious communityofmemory thatisbasedon thecultural howI have auseofhistory illustrated Religious asInclusionandExclusion Uses History of Stugu 40 Stugu 39 Rüsen it comes to the past’s ability to have an identity forming function. forming it comes tohave tothepast’s anidentity ability when evidence isnotofvitalimportance the question ofscientific no distinction between history, myth, ormemory. According tohim ally considered tobeanaxiomally among historians. that thepasthasadecisive impact on aperson’s identity, ispractic According to the Norwegian historian Ola Svein Stugu, Svein Ola historian According thefact totheNorwegian course oftime. perspective, continuity, furnishes which theideaofduration inthe ofitsmembersby adiachronic inthesubjectivity rooting asociety through oflife given thechange ofgenerations. forms of Itisaform combines different identity generations andstabilizes Historical life. History, inaway, gives menanideaoftheir own eternity. … and present ofone’s andgoing beyond thehorizon own timeof isacomprehensive past, identity ideasynthezising Historical future 2010, 3444. 1988, 27. 39
40 Stugu here makes Stugu Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 31 This is what Jan Assmann 43 42 Another Norwegian, the social anthropologist Thomas Thomas the social anthropologist Norwegian, Another 41 2007, 132–135. 2010, 39. , for instance veteran associations. However, he stresses that all he stresses However, for associations. instance veteran , Hylland Eriksen (my translation). 1996, 105 The past is a decisive identityThe past is a decisive well for individuals as shaping force sorts of groups are dependent on keeping the past alive. He lists three three lists He alive. past the keeping on dependent sortsare groups of First of main purposes memory that the collective serves in a group. to maintain in order is needed of the past, or knowledge memory, all, families following whether it is patterns activitythe core of the group, or companies of previous birthdays festivities, when planning future order in customers previous with contact maintaining on dependent memory for is pivotal Second of all, to carry with their business. on states that all Cubitt identity. establishing and maintaining a group folklore anecdotes, of legends, amass a number by, as time goes groups, does not This narrative form that together a complicated narrative. etc. servefirst and foremost the performing to facilitate activ- of the core members to realize and understand what it helps the group Rather, ity. and to be in be initiated, To members of. theykind of collective are and together is what keeps the group with this narrative, agreement its members a sense of belonging. gives as for collectives. American historian out that Cubitt points Geoffrey as for collectives. certainly memory for whom there groups are serves true as the raison d ’être Hylland Eriksen, follows the same line as Stugu. He is of the opinion He is of the opinion follows same line as Stugu. the Hylland Eriksen, a larger to an individual a sense of belonging “offer that myths can whole and a metaphorically the mythical eternal life through past he has a party to”. 43 Cubitt 41 Stugu 42 Rather, the crucial question is whether the past is believed or not. A the crucial the past is believed is whether or not. question Rather, scientific as any just as much can, historypast or a that is believed, and ideas beliefs, values, fundamental convey ally fact, demonstrated Such a past not. are also who we but that tell us not only are we who meaning and give questions to basic existential can us an answer give to our lives. 32 Jakob Dahlbacka remembering”. past withthepresent, butalsopeopletootherpeople, through “acts of or cultures have akindof “connective structure” thattiestogether the Culture” calls “Memory or “Erinnerungskultur”. Hestatesthatgroups 47 46 Cubitt 45 Assmann 44 Assmann identity hastodowithwhoandwhatwe are,identity butalsowithwhoand fromdiffer meintheabove-mentioned aspects. Thus, of forming the ideas andcharacteristics, asmuch by butequally looking atthosewho covered and understood by looking atthosewhoshare mythoughts, hension” and “self-interpretation”. I am is, Who tosome extent, dis- with.to beidentical Identity, therefore, hastodowith “self-compre - tity” origin events and inherited conceptions. andinherited events instance, ofCatholicismupon historical baseshisview whenSvedberg its perceptionpast affects of other groups. evident, This becomes for betrue,ite shouldquitelikely namely, thatagroup’s ofthe view affects itsmembersunderstandingofthepast. affects relation tothem. Hestatesthatagroup’s perception ofothergroups tain their relations withothergroups, in ortoposition themselves Thirdly, thatgroupswrites needthepastinorder Cubitttomain- laws andvalues, ofashared past. andsecond through thememory –firstthroughknowledge andcharacteristics adherence tothesame istheconnectivebinds himtothisplural ofcommon structure belonging, of identity, talk of sothat the individual can ”we”. What –create abasisof withstorytelling instructions of these– mixing andhistories.myths Boththenormative andthenarrative elements This connective istheaspectofculture structure thatunderlies Dahlbacka, J. 2014 . 2007, 135–136. ates from word theLatin idem 2011, 2–3. 2011, 216–17; 2011,33 . Erll 44 Hewrites: 47 Stugu writes thattheword writes - Stugu “iden which meansthesameof or which 46 Moreover, theoppos 45 Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 33
48 Further Further Swedish 50 49 52 2002, 293–294. 2010, 36. 2010, 36–39 (my translation).
51 - res research example that touches this issue is KristinaAn upon Öhman’s See 2014. Öhman pecting the portayal of Judas Iscariot in artistic works. 2006, 11. Assmann J. In the same way that the “I” needs an “Other” to understand itself, understand itself, to “Other” needs an “I” the that way In the same To conclude, the past has not only an identity-forming function, the past has not only an identity-forming function, conclude, To the “We” needs an “Other” that “does not have ‘our’ characteristics, characteristics, ‘our’ have not “does that “Other” needs an “We” the a to According Stugu, and against which it can fix the boundaries.” and evolution, memory collective – with its ideas of origin, group’s This identity a strong shaping potential. to possess past – has proven it is oftenis why used to fix the boundaries others. against research could elucidate whether the “Other” appearing in religious appearing in religious “Other” could elucidate whether the research typical historical for religious the certain have settings characteristics, culture. historian, Cecilia Trentner, points out that this kind of contrast think- points out that this Trentner, Cecilia historian, and that dichot- ing is a basic quality of all sorts of cultural thinking, also for but creating for as tools sorting work omies out knowledge, is not always personal She“Other” writes the that new knowledge. but that it is often stereotyped for the purpose of bringing the story stereotypesthese of source the past, the is her, to According life. to example. use of Catholicism is a good of which Svedberg’s 51 52 49 Stugu 50 Trentner 48 Stugu what we are not. Stugu writes of identity that the development is a pre not. are what we which do with has to socialization process, an individual’s of requisite – that is a community or a collective. “We” part becoming of a “I” but also a connecting function. This becomes This becomes English evident in the function. but also a connecting “the idea of which indicate “re-collecting”, and “re-membering” words back (re-membering and dis-membering) together ‘members’ putting been dispersed.” things that have ‘re-collecting’ and 34 Jakob Dahlbacka 55 Assmann 54 53 which can operate asasource operate ofconsensus. can which Italsocreates boundaries over others, withauthority continuity acommunity creates atradition religion Tuula of writes: Sakaranaho memory aparticular “Endowing texts. andcanonical inthecultural above all researcher on Finnish ofnationality”, any form precondition for maintainthatashared all past isanecessary generally tist Peter Verovšek that: writes “Paradigmatic works ofnationalism themselves.states andnations tolegitimatize have tried scien- Social against “Others”. when especially This hasbecome apparent inhistory upholding andstrengthening their own identity, by fixingboundaries its differentforms, isused by groups and theirleaders withtheaimof In religious communities of memory thecommonIn religiouspast appears communities ofmemory wishestobelong must share thegroup memory.Whoever past isadecisive resource theconsciousness for ofnational identity. its citizenship, ofthatcountry. hemust studythehistory … The andacquire If someone toaforeign wishestoemigrate country ofthisinmind, all With itiseasytounderstandwhy the past, in generations. thatspanseveral andapointofview tity acommon thatare iden- designedtostabilize ofmemory ing forms larger groups generateaconnective they semantics, thereby produc- possess a common point of view. people join together in Wherever together” andreintegrates theirindividualmemberssothatthey secure a unifying, “connective” semantics that them inwardly “holds a “connective” memory. collectives “remember”,When thereby they speakof J]ustaswe can “collective”[ memory, alsospeak of we can also: etal. Olick 2011,10–14. Verovšek refers toHayes 1926; Kohn 1946; 1953; Deutsch 2003.Se Smith Assmann, J. 2006 , 11. 2006, 87. 54 andJanAssmannconcludes: 53 55 Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 35
57 61, ; Åbo 23; The pupils feel 60
58 German literary scholar and cultural sci- 56 ”.
2011, 151. . Anders Svedberg’s first history textbook, page page first history Svedberg’s Anders textbook, 2.5.1. These individuals are portrayed serve and are individuals These good either as . Booth refers to Ugrešić’s book The Culture book of Lies. to Ugrešić’s Booth refers 2006, 51. 59 2011, 162. Akademi University Library, Manuscript Unit, J. J. Huldéns samling samling Huldéns J. J. ManuscriptUnit, University Akademi Library, 43–46, 51–52. pages Svedbergs historyAnders second textbook, Anders Svedbergs Nykarleby, of The Municipal Archives for instance, See, 18–19. page first history Svedberg’s Anders textbook, samling 2.5.1. See, for instance, The Municipal Archives of Nykarleby, Anders Svedbergs Nykarleby, of The Municipal Archives for instance, See, samling Anders Svedberg’s references to Christian such leaders as Martin references Svedberg’s Anders 60 Luther or Gustavus Adolphus the Great or his allusions to QueenLuther the Great or Gustavus Adolphus Kristina (of Sweden) or other Catholics carry them a normative with function. Referring to such texts and memories, therefore, not only legit- gives therefore, Referring to such and memories, texts communities larger to individuals ties also but imacyargument, an to American out. others keeps hand, other the on and, hand one the on to refers quite appropriately, James Booth therefore, W. philosopher Dubravka author Croatian the exclu“the writes who - Ugrešić about sivity memory”. of collective - A reli a certainty part that they community of memory. are of a larger memoryof use gious obviouslythus identificationsocial a both creates 58 Booth 56 Sakaranaho 57 Erll 59 between between ‘us’ and ‘them’ or warning examples for the addressees to follow or keep away from. to follow from. or keep away or warning examples for the addressees a formative mecha activate - simultaneously these references However, Martin namely are Luther part Gustavus the Great and Adolfus nism. far back in history with a life span reaching of a Christian community, hopes for instance, When Svedberg, in the future. but also far ahead in heaven, the Great that his pupils will to meet Gustavus get Adolfus he incorporates them into the community of which both Martin members. are Luther the Great and Gustav Adolfus entist Astrid Erll in her turn writes that a person reading, or by other or by entist Astrid Erll in her turn writes reading, that a person that he or “certainty a by is guided means acquiringthe cultural text, part community.” a mnemonic of of reading, the act through she is, 36 Jakob Dahlbacka larger community and context.” living, ofa inthepastandbepart inorder themselves toanchor thing thatislinkedto “people’s needto ‘remember’ beyond theirown both individualandcollective identities and memories” and as some - as related“closely theexistentialuseofhistory to describes Zander resembles the “existential Ulf historian Swedish useofhistory”. to larger communities. intra, extra,ad aswell asad isneededinorder which totieindividuals 62 Cubitt 61 Zander “imagined communities”,“imagined thatgroups, writes asarule: scientistBenedictAnderson’sto Irishpolitical of well-known theory uponCubitt touch inthequotations given above. Cubitt, referring community andcontext”, issomething thatRüsen, Assmannand need to “remember past their own living”, of a larger and to part “be that maintainsandcontrols man’s senseofbelonging toachain expresses thisbyMemory, defining religion system asanall-embracing tangible. DanièleHervieu-Leger, inherbook Religion asaChainof are not eachother’s contemporaries”, power becomes especially “cut[s] across separationofpeoplewho imaginatively theexperimental ence ofkinshipwithcontemporary, previousandfuture membersthat In this respect the function of the religious uses of history also In this respect the function of the religious uses of history For membersofreligious communities ofmemory, anexperi such and (by projection) theyet-to-be-born. communities not just of the living, but of the living with the dead each other’s contemporaries: thecommunities thatare imaginedare acrosstively separation of people who are the experimental not assumptions are applied, furthermore, cut imagina- which in ways through assumptionsandimaginedkinship. of shared identity These [A]re constituted lessthrough immediatepersonal connections than 2007, 138. Cubittrefers toAnderson 1991. 2001, 54. 61 What Zander describes as people’s describes Zander What 62 ful and Religious Uses of History as Inclusion and Exclusion 37 ism. ary fellow- : “an ideological, practical and symbolic system ideological, “an 82: 2006, 127 Munsalan emäseurakunta 1873–1908 2008, 14–15. Or, to put it in other words and exposing the consequences and exposing the consequences to put it in other words Or, In short, she means that members of a religion see themselves of a religion that members she means In short, 64 London/New York: Verso. Verso. London/New York: Imagined Nations: Reflections on the OriginsImagined Nations: and Spread ofNational Åbo Domkapitelsarkiv SvedbergsAnders samling Huldéns samling 21, 61 J. J. 63 through which consciousness, both individual and collective, of belonging of belonging both individual and collective, which consciousness, through developed and maintained, to a particular chain of belief is constituted, controlled”. 64 Kallioniemi 63 Hervieu-Leger Bibliography Benedict Anderson, 1991 E VI E Nykarleby Nykarleby, of The Municipal Archives Turku The Manuscript Unit, UniversityÅbo Akademi Library, The Provincial Archives of Turku, Turku Turku, of Archives Provincial The References Archives belief. believers, but also with departed and future ones. Religion, or the Religion, but also with departed ones. and future believers, - with the com what ties the individual together is chain memories, of munity. as part of a tradition, or as links in a chain of common memories, memories, as links in a chain or of common as part of a tradition, can be interpreted and the future the present, whichpast, the through beings human religion, a to adherence their Through understood. and not only contempor with kinship, and feel communion for of history: the uses a use of history that alludes to the communion and thereby fellow-believers, and future contemporary, with previous, boundaries. creates or dis-belonging, a sense of belonging strengthens inclusionby both and work fact, actual in history, of uses religious The exclusion. 38 Jakob Dahlbacka 1979 Andersson, Håkan 1953 Deutsch, WolfgangKarl 1996 Eriksen, Hylland Thomas 2014 Dahlbacka, Jakob 1987 Dahlbacka, Ingvar 2007 Cubitt, Geoffrey 1950 Burke, Kenneth 2006 Booth, W.James 1985 N., Robert Bellah etal. 2011 2008 2006 Assmann, Jan 1995 Assmann, Aleida 2004 Aronsson, Peter land Fin i målfrågor ihistorieundervisningens Studier omdetförflutna. 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Historiekulturer “Imötet med minnet. skrift. 2002:2, 289–307 ofPolitics Memory: Studyto the of A Conceptual The MemoryApproach Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality The Finnish Missionary Society and the emergence of the first Church Rules in the Ovambo mission field in South West Africa Introduction This article scrutinises the work of the Finnish Missionary Society as regards the creating of a Church Law in the emerging Ovambo Lutheran Church, in what is today the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia. The work resulted, in1924 , in the church’s first Church Rules. In this endeavour, the Finnish missionaries took as a model the Finnish Church Law of 1869, but also utilised elements from the old Swedish Church Law from 1686. The aim of the missionaries was to create a law that could establish proper foundations for a Lutheran Church of their own preference. In the two last chapters of the art icle, the issue of transculturality is discussed. It is suggested that the Finnish mission’s undertaking in Namibia was not simply character- ised by the imposition of a new religion and new rules, but rather that this work was a fitting example of cultural exchange and transfusion. In this cultural exchange, various hybridised groups and individuals interacted in what would eventually result in a Lutheran church built on different cultural traditions, religious practices, and memories. 42 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 43 ; “Stadgar 1–4; för 2 and Suomen Lähetysseura . As was the As was was founded1859. in ; Paunu 1909, Paunu 231–233; 1 218–221, 150, 84, 1908, , the Finnish Missionary Society1985, as the Finn has been known , when it gained independence, and the Russian Emperors and the Russian Emperors when it gained independence, 1917, atism. As a consequence of all this, some of the early some initiators of of all As a consequence this, atism. Since in The name Finnish and ish Evangelical Lutheran (FELM). Mission unchanged: remained has however, Swedish, Finska Missionssällskapet respectively. Finska Missionssällskapet ” in Paunu in Paunu Stadfästade den 6 Oktober 1863” Finska missionssällskapet. 2013, 292–295. Groop 2013, 145–153; Groop 1909; The coming into existence of the the of existence into coming The MissionaryFinnish Society was conflict-ridden. At the heart of the problem lay the question to “what the question At the heart lay of the problem conflict-ridden. of the nineteenth for much PietisticChristianity, Pietism?”. with do and the Pietists’ been at odds with the Lutheran had Church, century, the been effectivelyrestrained had through of movement freedom private outside the services meetings prohibiting Conventicle Act of - to its predomi threat viewedThe any church the Lutheran Church. oftenwas it as the Pietists propagated who and, suspicion with nance What is mistrusted. be to tended also movement mission the mission, Finland was a Grand Duchy 1809 in the Russian from Empire more, until activityviewedas potential seeds of the church religious outside separ had early-mid the in century, nineteenth societymission a Finland, in case with most Protestant mission societies, this societythis foundedwas societies, mission case most Protestant with of Pietismin the wake evangelical and the eighteenth and revivals of its founders numer- among and members It had nineteenth centuries. Lutheran Lutheran many them among – individuals prominent ous to various revival movements. people with connections pastors and lay The MissionaryFinnish at Protestantism revivalSociety with shared characteristic features other also but Christocentrica large theology, and tradition the bible above such as placing movements, of the revival sober lifestyle. a humble, to live urging its followers 1 Paunu 2 Paunu The Finnish Missionary Society The Backdrop 44 Kim Groop who, itsaw, failedtotaketheirfaithseriously. had little understanding of “name-Christians” or “culture-Christians” other Protestant mission societies, Society Missionary theFinnish way.behave in a certain and to its peers in revivalist circles Similar strictness.theological True were Christians and supposedtobelieve emphasised humbleness, degree by of acertain itwascharacterised its own standards. ing proper Church foundationsandcreating according aLutheran to afresh oftheworld; inforeignsibilities ofstarting parts establish- by was driven a fascination with the pos- Society Missionary Finnish this society, by itsown will, surrenderedFinland. thefightin The gospel tothe theChristian “pagans”,carry one couldalsoarguethat by Godto itselfsawthatitwascalled Society Missionary Finnish at home inorder tofindgreener pastures abroad. Thus, whereas the did quitetheopposite. from Itdeparted this “deprived” Christianity Society Missionary theFinnish engaging inmission work inFinland many bible-andtractsocieties attempted to change the situation by Murtorinne 3 Murtorinne re-located (somechaplains). ofthemappointedprison breakingeither been sentenced for Act the Conventicle or had been witness and to missionise non-Christians. tobea Christian ofevery theduty proclaimed Society Missionary Amboland asitwasreferred toby inSouth West themissionaries) 6 Groop 5 Groop 4 Hirn Like many otherProtestant societies, missionary theFinnish intended to forbid operationsinsideFinland. intended toforbid Empire” (Paunu 1908, that itsoperation “should notbeextendedtothearea ofthe [Russian] on one condition: Society Missionary ing thefoundation oftheFinnish by Paunu,written regard accepted the proposal Senate oftheGoverning - b, 288–289,293294. 2013b, 1901, 1–6. a, 145–147. 2013a, a, 2013a, 2000, 156, 6 It chose as its first mission field Ovamboland(or asitsfirstmission Itchose field 93–94, 168. ItcouldbenotedthatEmperor AlexanderII, as 221). Itisunlikely, however, thatthiscondition was 108–110, a, 116; Groop 2013a, 4 At the same time as it 5 Nonetheless, whereas 3 138–139; Groop Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 45 Due to the cri- 9 7 When - was publi the law proposal 8 . Schauman behind the of the forces was also one 158. 2000, ; Leino Suokunnas 2012, 67–69. 2011, 112; 2000, 160–161; 1909, 84, 97, 119. founding of the Finnish He Missionary Society and its first chairman. in dioceses of the three one in 1865 be elected Bishop of Porvoo, would Finland (Hirn, 9). 1901, 2–4 At the same time as the Finnish the same time At Missionary Society was founded, another set of events took place which importanceof was place eventsof set another took founded, Edvard Archbishop In 1854, to the Lutheran in Finland. Church Ludvig Schauman with the Frans entrustedBergenheim Professor task of writing for a new Law a proposal Church for the Evangelical the old replace This newwould law Lutheran in Finland. Church 1686. Swedish Law Church from tique, the text in the first paragraph was amended and given a more a more the text in the first paragraph was amended and given tique, para- the confession Apart from Lutheranconfessional character. suchOne raised. were issues other some regarding questions graph, - con undergone whichdiscipline church had on section the was issue will later in this article. and to which return we siderable changes, Law Church was ratified with Schauman’s however, On the whole, - fewrelatively it was to its prede changes considering different how after paragraph even amendments in the confession the and, cessor, cised it was met with considerable criticism, especially with regard to especially regard with criticism, considerable with met was it cised This was confession. the church’s which presented the first paragraph, the statement regarding “soften” because Schauman attempted to had Those criticising this paragraph saw Lutheran confession. the church’s posi- confessional that it was too liberal and undermined the church’s to vari several the critics- pastors with connections were Among tion. (such movements revival ous Evangelicalsthe as Pietists)the and who felt of the Lutheran that the confession in Finland Church be would Law Church be ratified. diluted should the proposed Paunu 7 Paunu 8 Murtorinne 9 Murtorinne Africa. The first missionaries and mission dispatched carpenters were Africa. to this new. field in 1868/1869 mission 46 Kim Groop 12 Peltola 11 10 Schmidt longer inwork experience inSouth West thantheFinns. Africa by ally, itsneighbouring theRheinische Missionsgesellschaft, had which were inspired thinkingandmore by missiological directly German Church inFinland. Thirdly, many missionaries, at leastbefore WWI, to andleanedon thetraditions Lutheran andlawsoftheEvangelical we have mentioned above. Secondly, adhered missionaries the Finnish degrees orrevivalisttheology, –thePietistic invarying naturally which stand outandshouldbementioned. Firstly, shared mostmissionaries – amples asthere were missionaries, thatthree Ibelieve characteristics brought toAfrica? Though there were atleastasmany probably ex theFinns which Christianity theLutheran thencharacterised What Pietism, Paganism, and theChurch Law stand behindtheChurch Law. pastorswere andPietistic Evangelical prepared critical to previously the stations. director himself, incharge of tothemissionaries wasofimportance Society, Missionary of theFinnish themission cases andinparticular ferences. Moreover, asMattiPeltola stresses, theadvice oftheboard con- orbebroughtmissionary missionaries with fellow tothelocal intheirwork.ibility problems arose, When thesecouldbediscussed astooproblematical.not view itgave themfreedom Rather andflex- grewaccustomedwas astatethatthemissionaries to, did andprobably orinstructions. rules the mission stations withoutany corporate This For decades, almostfour theirwork ran missionaries at theFinnish where Missionary Liljeblad decidednot toallowtobacco ortradingin where Missionary endnote 272). among in Amboland the missionaries (Peltolalenged authority 1958, Gustav Warneck’sGustav Peltola were missionaries strongly influenced notesthattheFinnish by 1958, 12 1948, 241; 2011,114. Suokunnas 213. for instanceinthetobaccocase struggle This wasthe Evangelische, Missionslehre - andunchal was a true which 10 11 303, Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 47 13 . I have had had I have 26–27. The missionaryThe guidelines 14 Guidelines for Missionaries ofthe Finnish Missionary were Society the opportunity of studying a few copies of these instructions different in in the comments notes and the many Based on and in Finland. Namibia margins it can of all be assumed that the missionaries did not approve rather seen but that the instructions were parts of the instruction manual, in Helsinki with- the leadership from above” ”from dictated as something and needs in Africa. of the situation out full knowledge 26–27; XVI, SuomenOhjeita Lähetysseuran lähettejä varten, 1906 för den evangelisk-lutherskaKyrkolag kyrkan i Finland 1870, 25–26. tobacco on his station, whereas most missionaries saw that it was unwise most missionariessaw that it was unwise whereas his station, on tobacco the relationship an issue which could endanger on position to take a strong 220–225). 1996, with the kings and chiefs (Peltola who wanted tobacco SuomenOhjeita Lähetysseuran lähettejä varten 1906, The first The first printed missionary instructions only in 1906. emerged These to serve forof rules as a set Finnish the regulations and - missionar Africa. West ies and missionary in German in their work workers page manual resembled the text in the the text in the manual resembled text in this 32 page of the Parts and of particular- inter Most striking, Finnish Law Church of 1869. in the 1869 Finnish As church discipline. on section is the est here, the 1906 missionary the issue of guidelines dealt with Law, Church discipline Church for a Christian who briefly. church discipline quite start been foundhad guilty a line of action followed - of wrongdoing fol- of the parish the head (the missionary), ing with a warning by then a witnesses, or three two of a warning in the company by lowed it intransigent cases, in Finally, of the congregation. warningin front and some Holyled to the exclusion Communion from of the person - it was empha As in the Finnish Law, Church rights. other church was Holysised that that the individual excluded Communion from He or she was furthermore to attend to be allowed for. to be prayed ordinary and he or she was to services church word to listen to God’s seemingly without fur- full rights, and returned church be forgiven after sins. her or his repenting due, ther describediscipline as follows: church 14 13 48 Kim Groop was, atleastintheory, pertaining withcrimes tobeconcernedonly exist withsome measure ofinterdependence, the1869Church Law citizens.and notall Althoughthe church andthestatecontinued to Church theLutheran able changeinthesensethatitconcerned only brought eachother–the1869Church Law consider - and supporting ofthechurch and stateintermingling the state–withlegalsystems Church of1686had with undertheChurch lived Law in symbiosis 16 15 ing aboutdisorderachurchservice. during dependantsfromor hindering attendingthesame,- aswell asbring §104: practicingheresy; §105: meetings failure to attend catechetical other dependants; disobediencetowards parents orirreconcilability; inmarriage,unity orharshness againstchildren, or domestic servants ants; §103: showing contemptGod’s for exercise; word andgodly dis - toone’s instruction or toprovide Christian children orotherdepend - the two, thelatterwaslessdetailedandrigid. singledoutin The offences offences,singled outcertain but, which wereforbidden tobe out of the andsubsequentregulations.Church Law Boththe1686and1869laws asregulated andSweden by the1686 with pre- inFinland 1869 praxis of1869,Church Law it wasmore itisapparent congruent thatinpart Though the paragraphs on church discipline followed the Finnish churchfollowedThough the paragraphs on discipline the Discipline. wise commits publicoffence, besubjecttoChurch heorsheshall exercises,and godly dissension and so on in marriage or other- ness, theft, adultery, fornication, paganism, contempt ofGod’s word intopublicsinandevil,If someone fallen iscaught - likedrunken Church Law were:1869 Church Law §102: refusal tohave one’s baptised child sevice and without the consent of the vicar [kyrkoherde] andwithouttheconsent of the vicar wasalsodeclined. sevice § 1870, iFinland kyrkan Kyrkolag denevangelisk-lutherska för lation.trans 1906, lähettejävarten Lähetysseuran Ohjeita Suomen XVI, 26. My 30 on page 15 9. the Sunday during of conventicles In §33 the arranging 16 Whereas the Lutheran theLutheran Whereas 26. also See Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 49 The 20 ; Sveriges 26; 19 Drunkenness, for Drunkenness, 17 Theft, adultery, and fornication adultery, Theft, 18 2000, 158–162. Kyrkolag för den evangelisk-lutherskaKyrkolag kyrkan i Finland 1870, kyrkolag107, 735–736. af år 1686, 106– för den evangelisk-lutherskaKyrkolag kyrkan i Finland 1870, 26. 11, 22. XVI, SuomenOhjeita Lähetysseuran lähettejä varten 1906, Instead of directly of applyingInstead the Finnish Law Church to the Ovambo mission work, the paragraphs on church discipline in the church discipline in the the paragraphs on Ovambo work, mission 1906 missionary the needs and to meet tailored guidelines were the hand, one On the of the Finnishdemands MissionarySociety. - be consid at that time in Finland, what would, beyond guidelines went churchly they as ered could be regarded domains touched what upon printed in 1906, when the guidelines were However, as secular laws. Ovamboland was an isolated part which of a German knew colony the guidelines why This explains very secular laws. little of European also dealt with ways of being and behaving outside of the church’s the missionary guidelines also touched On the other hand, domain. depar- of point a as theyas took pertainingissues upon culture, to in essence sinful. s were practice and pagan that paganism ture guidelines demonstrate the encounter between different cultures: put cultures: different the encounter between guidelines demonstrate simply the Pietistic between Finnish Missionary Society the one on The guidelines can hand and the Ovambo the other. on ethnic groups be viewed as an early of an encounter between display and sketchy little which had cultures a Pietistic cultures; with different mission Church Law. Yet, heresy was heresy Yet, Law. at all in the 1869 Church not mentioned were and subject to church discipline. listed as prohibited 18 17 Murtorinne to Christian life within the Lutheran Church. instance, was not forbidden been forbidden not it had (and in fact as instance, Rather in it was causing disorder such Law). even in the 1686 Church duringa church Sunday Service case (and in the Church of the 1686 “being drunk Law: in church during a Sunday Service”) which was subject to penalty. and prohibited 19 20 50 Kim Groop or sisters, buttoholdthemasworse thanapagan”. nottotreat brothersbe thoseunderdisciplineasChristian “instructed ofexcommunication were aboutcases andtheChristians informed to conference. at a missionary jointly thisdecision shouldbemadeted into the parish by themissionaries from throughbe excluded theparish excommunication orre-admit- icle. made three remarks Saari interest thatare thisart for ofparticular sionary instructions from instructions 1906. sionary work inOvamboland, wasnotmentioned butwhich inthemis- yearshad of Finnish been frompracticed as a last resort the early alsodealtwiththesensitive issueofexcommunication,briefing which from thefireforhim/herto and ofhell remaininChrist”. was the purpose “only … andexclusively ofthe humansoul salvation parishioners”.the “black and Christians Churchall disciplinewasfor the teachers”“white any shouldnotconsider betterthan themselves cipline. ahumblestance, highlightedtheneedfor Saari that warning meeting. church issuesof dis dealtwiththeological This briefing had prepared providedfordiscussion which abasisatthe abriefing in1918. annual conference inOvamboland HeikkiSaari Missionary onthe paragraphs church disciplineinsufficient. mented. Itwould found soonthatthemissionaries become evident West Africa, andwhere had yet nowestern legalsystem beenimple- in South of the Finns to the arrival prior exposure toChristianity Saari 23 Saari 22 Saari 21 Saari to Saari thosealready confirmedwho wereto Saari church subjecttodis The issue of church discipline was discussed at the missionary churchThe issueofdisciplinewasdiscussedatthemissionary ). mid-1880s (Varis 1988, 173). munication, inthe work wasintroduced inOvamboland intotheFinnish 1906.tejä varten Varis thatchurch discipline, believes excom- including he pointed out that in cases whereFirstly, hepointedoutthatincases atransgressor wasto 1917, 6. made references to1Cor. Saari 5:11and2John 1:10. 1917, 1–3. Mytranslation. 1917, 3–6; Peltola 1958, ; Ohjeita Suomen Lähetysseuran lähet- 112; Lähetysseuran Ohjeita Suomen 22 Towards theendofdocument, Secondly, were parishes all to be 23 Thirdly, according 21 Saari’s cipline Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 51 5). jointly nutrition or poverty According to Peltola, to Peltola, According 26 ). Liljeblad also had a more a more also had Liljeblad 221–223). It is probable that Liljeblad resisted resisted that Liljeblad It is probable 25 Emil Liljeblad had had In 1902 and 1903 Emil Liljeblad 308–309. Though various opinions were aired it seems aired were Though various opinions 27 5. 220–225, 24 1918, § 1996, 1917, 6. was, however, to end (Peltola 1996, (Peltola to end however, was, to the giving an ox i.e. ox, of the wedding the custom strict attitude towards Liljeblad Varis, Tuula to According than Rautanen. of the bride, parents for criticised“payment it harshly as pagan and immoral because it was a the considered for his part, Rautanen, whoring of virginity”. and removal already refused to give tobacco to Ondonga’s King Nehale and to the king and to the king King Nehale to Ondonga’s tobacco to give refused already made also had he and Natshilongo, Tsha Tshaanika Ongandjera, the of doers and did not go wrong were of the teachers believe smokers that one Liljeblad who was a smoker, When Rautanen, by confronted to heaven. in Helsinki the leadership despite instructions from in, to give refused was not forbidden of tobacco that payment with or the donating as such. to people suffering mal with tobacco from Payment One of Liljeblad’s arguments against the suggestion for a joint decision in fordecision joint a suggestion against the arguments of Liljeblad’s One that if such was that he feared a all cases touching excommunication upon parishes their teachers through “neighbouring materialisedcentralisation 1918, § (Pöytäkirja business” interfering come would in another parish’s Based on the minutes, it is difficult to discern how divided or to discern it is difficult the minutes, Based on Peltola 27 Peltola at the missionary conferences. united the missionaries were over these or other issues, because one these or other issues, over missionariesunited the were than more opinions his aired to have seems Emil Liljeblad, missionary, What to have appears Liljeblad all missionaries the other together. strict rules the mis- guiding how allopposed was above things: two that suggestion and Saari’s their judgements to make sionaries were with be dealt to were allexcommunication issues concerning the suggested policythe suggested the members not because he wanted to protect and flexibility but because to he wanted freedom of his congregation, parish. in his own course-of-action a decide on 24 Saari Pöytäkirja 25 Pöytäkirja 26 were to re-attend confirmation education before being admitted backadmitted being education before confirmation re-attend to were into the parish. Liljeblad had a stricter approach in various matters, such drinking as in various a stricter had matters, approach Liljeblad than local (the chewing and smoking and brew) omagongo tobacco, the other missionaries. 52 Kim Groop last sectionadirect lacks correspondence in the Church Law. constitutes a combination sections in the Church of several Law. The of1869, Church Law the Finnish whereas thesecond tolastsection sections intheRegulations correspond tosections 1to9, Church.the Amboland Evangelical-Lutheran The first11(outof13) would thenbeapproved astheRegulations of in1924andprinted basis, orframework, thedirectives, whenthecommittee drafted which 1906, of1869provided Church a Law thattheFinnish itisobvious Namibia. towards Church afuture innorthern for aChurch Lutheran Law 30 29 28 Lutheran Church. theAmboland Evangelical- underthetitleRegulations of instructions in1924released therevised Society Missionary Board oftheFinnish Ovamboland field, four years,Finnish after nearly in the effect and the usewithimmediate These directives were introducedfor temporary Directives theAmboland Evangelical-Lutheran for Church Society), Missionary Board andin1920the Governing oftheFinnish beapproved by would which eventually the (orthedraft church rules Society.Missionary Acommittee wasgiven thetaskofpreparingthese a Church Law, by would theFinnish asthey becalled orchurch rules makedecisions on would excommunication.the missionaries jointly where detailedrules behind theideaofcreating common andfairly that –withtheexception ofLiljeblad were –themissionaries united As had been the case with the missionary instructions emergingin instructions withthemissionary As had beenthecase would eventually lead to annualmeetingin1918would eventually The missionary för den evangelisk-lutherska kyrkan i Finland 1870. iFinland kyrkan denevangelisk-lutherska för 1924; kirkonAmbomaan järjestyssäännöt Kyrkolag evankelis-luterilaisen 213. kirkonAmbomaan järjestyssäännöt. evankelis-luterilaisen Peltola 1958, Toimintaohjeita kirkolle. Ambomaan Evankelis-Luterilaiselle 1988, 135). wedding ox custom, to be a folk involved which pagan elements (Varis 29 These regulations would provide thenextstep 11 and13in 28 emerged. 30 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 53 33 . It should also be noted that the major milestone in It should also be noted that the major milestone 214. 32 Further down in paragraph four under the section “Church “Church paragraph in four down under the section Further 31 the ordin the history of the Evangelical Lutheran in Namibia, Church indicates that Missionary Perheentupa easily. did not come in 1925, ation Finnishin the transformation slow a process undergone missionaries had missionaries would many notes, Perheentupa ago, long Not mind-set. their ideas of the Rheinisch missionaries the opinion in regarding shared have [kauhistavaa gullibility” “shocking of local pastors as of the ordination 1923, 6–7). (See Perheentupa hyväuskoisuutta] Ambomaan evankelis-luterilaisen kirkon järjestyssäännöt, § 1. evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt, Ambomaan kirkon My translation. evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt. Ambomaan kirkon 1958, See Peltola Whereas Council in 1924 still of the mis- consisted the Church [T]he by is managed Church of the Ambo administration topmost of the Finnishthe Board Missionary Society as this [Ambo] as long government of the The local executive church needs its support. body is the Council and the legislative is the Church Church Ambo General Synod. - head Though the title similarities as far as the go. however, This is, sionary the missionary as four in charge as well missionaries by elected - was to gradually the intention responsibil more over hand conference, as half of the parishes as soon notes that Peltola ity to the local church. and teachers (and evangelists, salariescould provide for their pastors, it should be noticed that the first in ordained were Ovambo pastors Ovambo1925) two Council be elected to the Church members would of the Finns. two to replace ings are similar, the Ovambo the sim- much are Regulations Church similar, ings are first paragraph in the title under the “The Church’s instance, For pler. of the actual confession of defining the instead the text, Confession” Evangelical Lutheran childthe is Church “Amboland’s reads, church, of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran- its confes and adopts Church sion.” 32 33 31 Administration” the text reads: the text reads: Administration” 54 Kim Groop graph consisted ofalong listofexampleson transgressions: asinappropriatetoaChristian. wasviewed thing which - The para Christian’smade every abrother towarn orsisterwhodidsome - duty by leader (i.e. theparish asafirstmeasure, missionary) in1924itwas 35 34 paragraphs to paragraphs predecessor. Nevertheless, ithad expandedconsiderably, from four Regulations introduced asits1906 thesamepattern in1924follows ments animals, greed, usury, assign- payment oneself takingfor during slandering, lying, fraud, pride, contentiousness, against ruthlessness bestiality, with awoman (okuhagela),, [itsesaastutus] masturbation … enjoying omagongo [brew], pilferage, andsleeping night running taking God’s nameandword invain. different teachingthanGod’s wordchurch’s andour confession, day holy, child-raising, helpingbrothers or sistersetc. spreading a neglecting churchservice, devotions, [neglecting]keepingtherest inthesame,practices andparticipating quacksalvers, utilisinglocal ohula etc. meat, eatingofsacrificial kindsofotherminormagic all older],against parents [alternatively intentional partici The section on church discipline in the Ovambo Church The section churchon disciplineinthe My translation. 47. 1924,§ kirkonAmbomaan järjestyssäännöt evankelis-luterilaisen Church Discipline” Church Law. intheFinnish [Omkyrkotukt] the Church Regulations andexpansion was amodification of§ emphasis on care. the church discipline aspects of pastoral The text in instead put Society Missionary church setting and the Finnish African initstone tofitina young found tooconciliatory The latterwasprobably in thiscontext, § of Women” Church Regulations altogether were § of theOvambo out wereLaw of1869which Finnish Church left twoThe sections inthe [maksatusretkillä itselleen anastamisesta][maksatusretkillä , laziness, dis 11. [Om barnaföderskors kyrkogång][Om barnaföderskors and, more perhaps importantly 34 Whereas wrongdoers been warned had previously Whereas 12: Care”“On IndividualSoul [Omenskildsjälavård]. 35 10:Churching “On obedience pation in 13: “On Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 55 39 such as: 36 37 38 My translation. evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännötAmbomaan kirkon 1924, § 49. My translation. evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännötAmbomaan kirkon 1924, § 50. . pahennusta julkista In Finnish: evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännötAmbomaan kirkon 1924, § 48. If the transgressor repented and mended his or her ways, and mended his or her ways, and repented If the transgressor … aggravated theft and robbery, demanding a wedding ox, seizing ox, a wedding demanding theft aggravated and robbery, … adultery and , fornication [salavuoteus] field, of [another individual’s] sleeping with a man. Should the transgressor fail to repent he or she was to be warnedShould fail to repent the transgressor … practicing magic, visiting a seer, assisting in or attending pagan assisting in or attending visiting a seer, magic, practicing … assault- allowing unchristianthe household, behaviour in weddings, spouse or other fellowmen and allowing or encouraginging ones fornication. [haureus] Christians who wronged and failed to mend their ways, despite their ways, failed to mend and Christians who wronged compensated any potential material damage, he or she would be would she or he material potential any damage, compensated a chance to confess publiclygiven - of the whole congrega in front full after rights. member be re-awarded which he or she would tion, publicly parish of the further and he or she should until in front notice participation instruction in confirmation or from be withheld from - com also applied to those who had step This third Holy Communion. mitted particular crimes offenses and such as: being warned by fellow Christians, should be reported should be to the parish fellow Christians, being warned by This warninga issue question. in the individual to would who leader Regulations the 1924 Church discipline in step in church second public sins committing also applywould to those who were Should the transgressor fail to repent, however, he or she would be he or she would however, Should fail to repent, the transgressor 38 39 36 37 56 Kim Groop brought churchdocument. tothefore inthenew to1924, prior in Ovamboland ithad, which thatitwas butrather field Society Missionary munication had notexistedintheFinnish 1924 introduced excommunication. This doesnotmeanthatexcom - not from church membership, Church Regulations of theOvambo ism” as such andtothosewhohadcrimes committed serious repented. However, italsoappliedtothose had intopagan- fallen “who been withheld from Communion Holy earlier but who had not still individual missionaries, butby the church council. thatexcommunicationdeclared would notbeanissuedealtwithby Society the version approved by Missionary theBoard oftheFinnish the work ofthecommitteethat makingpreparations theLaw) for excommunication, be noted (without much knowledge it can about regard to the discussion above, as to who should make the decision on excommunicated, i.e. from andchurch. excluded theparish With 40 Church Law of Church Law law text. (liketheFinnish instructions the1906missionary Whereas was initselftheintroducing ofexcommunicationcharacteristics inthe field. missionary Quite obviously,well ason theFinnish one ofthe as inFinland praxis Church Regulations incomparisonwithearlier This fourth step and last resort was reserved for thosewhohad was stepandlast reserved resort fourth This Let us for a while look at what was characteristic ofthese1924 awhilelook usfor atwhatwascharacteristic Let becoming aconcubine. ing [ones] spouse[i.e. divorce] withoutlegalreason, and polygamy pation inpaganwedding] andconducting paganweddings, leav- toanother[man],wife - through [partici tomarry right acquiring … murder, arson, removing[i.e. afetus abortion], lending[ones] My translation. 51. 1924,§ kirkonAmbomaan järjestyssäännöt evankelis-luterilaisen ) spoke of exclusion from1869) spoke of exclusion 40 Holy Communion but Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 57 In 43 Church Law1869 Church The The Ovambo Church The 44 42 , which was the prevailing law before which before law prevailing the was 1686, 1976, 22. 1985, 166–169. The larger ban, on the other hand, implied that an individual implied that an the other hand, on ban, larger The 41 Sveriges kyrkolag. af år 1686, 115–119 för den evangelisk-lutherskaKyrkolag kyrkan i Finland 1870, 3. Excommunication, in the sense of exclusion from the rightsexclusion in the sense of of from Excommunication, . the smaller both as and larger ban with excommunication dealt 1869, Holy the smaller member subject to A church from ban was withheld Should an other churchly possiblyand rights. from also Communion or for year one fail to attend Holy Communion however, individual, non-Chrisa as - “wasprosecuted and considered be to she or he more tian”. church membership, was no novelty in Finnish church history. The was no novelty Finnish in history. church membership, church SwedishLaw Church of fact, Frans Ludvig Schauman Law- the Church who was leading com Frans fact, - but due to resist also wanted to abolish the smaller ban, mittee had What this mode of punishment was retained. ance in the committee in cer- which had confession was the public was abolished though, for absolution. tain cases prerequisite been a were inspired by the Finnish by Rules Church inspired of of 1924 were Regulations the by – inspired – and perhaps also even more but they were 1869, What I am considering here previous Swedish Rules Church of 1686. of humiliation relative the also but ban, larger the of introducing the is Regulations of the 1924 Church the introduction Through “sinner”. the only readmitted would be transgressors the Finnishon field, mission in the case and, of the congregation, in front a public confession after 41 Halmesmaa 42 43 44 Pirinen was excluded from the church for a certain time. Should- the wrong for the church was excluded a certain from time. he or she year of excommunication within the first doer not repent Sweden (and Finland). be exiled from would had a much more conciliatory tone than its predecessor, and the only conciliatory more a much had than its predecessor, tone of parting the issue instance where mentioned was the church with was when individuals voluntarily left as dissenters. the church 58 Kim Groop had to sit in a particular location during the Sunday service. theSunday during location had tositinaparticular excommunication,of individualsreadmitted after theseindividuals 46 Tuupainen 45 was feared as a serious threatwas feared asaserious againstsalvation. life, inChristian important life ticularly immoral andlivingasexually Chastity, fidelity, marital in andmorals general were aspar- viewed missionaries’of theFinnish biaswithregard andsexuality. tomorals andtheFinns.Ovambo asa demonstration alsobeinterpreted Itcan differences asasign of persistentcultural between the be interpreted cases, inthedisciplinary on sexualmorality however,in particular can culture).nections tolocal focus onmorality,overwhelming The and cultureation (withorwithoutdirect between local andmorals con- customs, local for tolerance sionary oratleast enhanceddifferenti here.mentioned specifically This may suggest some measure ofmis- concerned adultery, divorce, andimmorality. treated cases by the administrative boards beforedisciplinary Väänänen, Maija Tuupainen thatsome 90percentofall writes in general. Nestori provided toinformation by Missionary Referring sexuality,dominantly procreation life, and family butalsoimmorality leadershipthe attentionappeartohave oftheparish concerned pre- b) sexuality, procreation, life. and married brought Also the cases to customs, a)local Regulations related tocategory directly andcategory notethatmosttransgressionswe can highlightedinthe1924Church byas crimes secular lawin Finland. of this division, In theapplication ingeneral,c) immorality and, d)transgressions were which considered customs,local life, b)transgressions andmarried related tosexuality begrouped categories;can intofour a)transgressions connected to andbyin theparishes thechurch leadership. These transgressions sinsshouldbetreated specificastohow certain was thatitvery inFinland pared andthe1869Church Law tothe1906instructions Another characteristic ofthe1924Church Regulations Another ascom characteristic - Ambomaan evankelis-luterilaisen kirkonAmbomaan järjestyssäännöt, evankelis-luterilaisen §50and53. 1970, 118. 46 Local practiceisnot Local 45 1939 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 59 49 , it cannot that the Finnish be denied the , 47 1970, 118. 2014, 85–89. Yet the rigidity of the rules met with been seems to have Yet 48 Quoted in Miettinen 2005, 120–121. Even if it has been argued, as for instance by Missionary Walde Missionary as forby instance Walde if it has been argued, Even s, that the Finnish that Missionary Society the late 1930s, Kivinen in did onlybut fought culturalthose which habits were culture, oppose not “surviv- on or ignorancesuperstition” heathen and “savagery, on based customs” ing superstitious Groop 48 Groop 49 Tuupainen 47 Church Regulations and Regulations of the 1924 Church In discussing the preparation the Finnish Missionary in northerntheir implementation Namibia, or blackwhite, and Society easily appears as a rather intolerant, I do not wish While be true, may impression this Pietistic movement. shortcomingsthe on Finnsthe of linger to Ovamboor the – – people of One way this perception. behind or beyond rather reach as I would The Transculturality of the Christian Mission Transculturality The s, in the 1960 her research who conducted Tuupainen, As resistance. Lutheran Ovambo and in the Ondonga “most ministers working says “lost had that the church discipline considered tribes” Uukwanyama Disciplinarycases handle to became numerous too and, meaning.” its disciplined. were ones “guilty” only of the a fraction of this, as a result As a justice was not served. Tuupainen, to according Consequently, strict of the church implementation of the missionaries’ consequence rules to discipline. church indifferent people grew many missionaries had a great struggle with Ovambo culture. With hind- struggle great missionaries a with Ovambo had culture. it can the Finnish be argued that what Missionary Societysight, tried to achieve in Ovamboland Regulations the 1924 Church through as I have was, This short a little appears to be a situation of utopia. of the Finnish a result - missionar discussed in my earlier research, - aspiration to found in Africa a church to their pref according ies’ erences. 60 Kim Groop fore,Samuel Huntington’s disqualifies of a theory of acclaimed “clash of the trad Welsch discusses the concept of transculturality. ent anddiverse cultures andtraditions. - differ consistedcrewrepresenting ofamotley surprisingly Ovambo mentation andliterature abouttheenterprise. Finns as asthe well The docu- was much more intheearly tothisencounterthanisobvious tifacetedness. suggesttwo chapters, AsIwill inthefollowing there tively dangeroustively anduntenable.” unserviceable,of culture descriptively isnotonly - but also norma – aculture ofone people. According to Welsch, this “classical model alimitedpopulation for givingmeaningtothewholeoflife entity tique attheway beenviewed; culture hastraditionally asasingle 50 around intothe20 theturn andOvambo Finns the mission endeavour. abouttheencounterbetween isstriking What of andhybridisation hybridity the cultural doing thisistoscrutinise itself, presuppose it.” conceptually still they because “almost asinappropriatethetraditional concept [ofsinglecultures] diverse natureally of human society. Both are, in Welsch’s opinion, diverse refers cultures–which tothecultur- –andmulticulturality refers –which tointeractionthe concepts between ofinterculturality ous cultures”. distinguished,from theexistenceofclearly homogen inthemselves ent cultures have livingtogether withinonesociety”, andit “proceeds asittakesuptheproblemsconcept ofinterculturality - differ “which multi 53 Welsch 52 Welsch 51 Welsch In an article publishedin1999,In anarticle philosopher theGerman Wolfgang turación converging todescribe cultures instanceJaidka 2010, (seefor by the Cuban Fernando Fernández Ortiz who coined the word Welsch culturality, according to Welsch, similartothe issurprisingly 1999, 196(emphasis inoriginal). 1999, 196. alsoUNESCO See 2006,17. 1999, 195. itional single entity cultureitional discourse. single entity Bergmann, there - 1999. wasalready usedinthe1940s The concept transculturality 53 Sigurd Bergmann elaborates on Bergmannelaborates Sigurd Welsch’s criticism 51 However, Welsch also criticises th 50 century isitsmul- century Welsch- aims cri 52 The concept of transcul- 2–3). Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 61 ization. … Also individu- Also … ization. - under to Erll’s According 57 54 According to Bergmann: According 55 fiable civilisations.” 2010, 142. 2010, 143–144. 56 (emphasis in original).1999, 197 (emphasis 2010, 306–309. Welsch’s idea of transculturality as culture of challenges notion this Welsch’s Astrid Erll discusses Welsch’s notion of transculturality notion a from Astrid ErllWelsch’s discusses als construe their cultural identity in processes of selective mixtures. als construe their cultural mixtures. identity of selective in processes This dimension cultural becoming hybrids. of us are and more More of hybridization iden- makes it extremely difficult to define national tity today. Cultures today are much more externally more much the single than connected are today Cultures The modernsociety and highly is complex dif- shows. concept culture Migration silent zones of the world. also in the economic ferentiated, to a single territory. belonging make you longer not any do processes are Cultures Mobility or less global or regional. more makes people modernityin late characterized hybrid by a single entity. Culture today, he argues, (and, as I will argue later, also willI as later, argue (and, argues, he today, Culture entity. single a inter- in the Finnish missionary characterised past) is pluralism, by ethnic social homogenisation, of by and hybridisation instead change, through“passes it words Welsch’s In and delimitation. consolidation, classical cultural boundaries.” memory studies perspective. She that the as far as suggesting goes memory studies perspective. transcultural can dimension of memory be viewed as a third phase stud- the 1920s from mémoire collective Erll views Maurice Halbwachs’s ies. as Jan and Aleida Assmann’s as well phase and Pierre Nora’s as the first such and religious nations as ”large formations, mnemonic studies on . a second phase as representing groups” standing, the third phase is a phase in which scholars, “increasingly in whichscholars, is a phase phase the third standing, 54 Bergmann Welsch 55 Welsch 57 Erll 56 Bergmann civilisations” as “controversial and untrue” as it is “founded on the idea on “founded it is as untrue” and “controversial as civilisations” of clearly identi 62 Kim Groop transcultural memory asa: memory transcultural more memory”. complex modelsoftranscultural substitute notions of national culture and national remembrance with 61 60 59 Erll 58 Erll – can and should be viewed through andshouldbeviewed thelensoftransculturality.– can the Danish-Halle Tranquebar untiltoday Mission inthe18thcentury and Pietism German theway movement –all from 17thcentury ary oftoday,ample theglobalisingworld thatthemission- Iwould claim asfollows: memory abouttranscultural write whointheirintroduction Rapson and Jessica toThe Transcultural Turn Though the discussion on transculturality often takesastheex often Though thediscussion on transculturality ders ascontainers ourunderstandingofthepast. for move beyond religious collectives; secondly, ofremembrance thataimto forums national, withinandbetween ofmemory the travelling ethnicand commemorative practice: incontemporary firstly, dynamics separate that Building upon Welsch’s definition oftransculturality, we suggest Bond elaborated on Lucy isalsosharedby This view andfurther and methodologies. studies’ by looking beyond establishedresearch assumptions, objects thebordersIt meanstranscending oftraditional ’cultural memory towards mnemonicandbeyond processes across unfolding … research perspective certain , ofattention, afocus isdirected which they they “… donotdeny inthenineteenth thatthere wasaprofound shift Welsch’s on focus today inhisdiscussion on transculturality, thatwhilst asregardsI thusshare Schöttli’s Antje Flüchter’s andJivanta analysis Bond 2014,19. andRapson mightbestberegardedtranscultural two asdescribing memory 2011, 9(emphasis inoriginal). 2010, 306. theideaofpolitical, ethnic, linguistic, orreligious bor- 59 58 She understands She 60 cultures. 61 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 63 62 ) For 3) For Missionaries in Contact century towards a more tightly connected world, we [they]- also under we century tightly world, a more connected towards shifta been have to this stand terms. rather than qualitative quantitative in occurs not only everywhere in our [their] understanding, Transculturality It is not bound and societies. but also at all in all times and human cultures structural element in all human a timeless, but represents to a certain time, (Flüchter & Schöttli, 2015 and institutions.” practices, societies, a recent study on German Pietism from a transcultural perspective, see a transcultural German Pietism study on perspective, from a recent 2015. Groop Remembering Africa: be mentioned; studies could here quite recent Two by The Rediscovering German Literature of in Contemporary Colonialism volume edited Göttsche Becker’s Judith and Dirk These World. in a (post-)Colonial through Interaction Transformation Zones: dealing with cultural encounters and perspectives, different from are, and colonialism. transformation mission in foreign An increased emphasis on the hybridity on emphasis increased missionary of the An movement this hybridised the memories as on as well and hybrid surrounding - the could open newising movement beyond perspectives theoretical and earlylate twentieth in the focus globalisation on twenty-first cen- turies scholarly and thus be of benefit to the on transculturality debate such shifta - per research of addition, In transculturaland memory. enable historians would scholars and other spective dealing with the (legacyof enduring sim- and beyond Christianthe ) reach to mission one of which being that – – or misconceptions plified conceptions misapprehension, This local culture. Christianthe destroyed mission a time upon that once an obsolete notion departs from claim, I would authentic but vul- arrival the were (before of the missionaries) there a in intolerantbut missionaries forceful the that were nerablecultures Much of the scholarly to destroy. and managed to, wanted to, position of slightlydebate has tended to be tied to two simplified perceptions of processes One side has emphasised the Christian in action. mission has been understood through endeavour the mission where including, the missionaries where – mission of missio Dei – as God’s the concept Very little attention has so far been paid to studyinghas so far been paid attention little history the of the Very Christian missionary a transcultural perspective. from movement 62 64 Kim Groop and gives handsineachdirection.” withfull –itstandsthere oftheChristians mildandwarm and [theworld] mission stands ofthepagans on theborder between the world “The and being a blessing to them all.as standing between different worlds it served. intolerant,dominantly disdainful, cultures thelocal for anddestructive processes ofexcluding, theagents ofthemission aspre- portraying mankind withGod’s grace. salvific aiming at embracing all have been seen as being within a divine effort Silén 65 Silén 64 63 posed to be. sup- according orwere comprehensions tovarious were ofwhothey instead beengrouped,have sooften insources aswell asinstudies, , were individualsandgroupsinfact nised asthetranscultural they and and cultures. However, thesecultures, failedtoberecog- have sooften changing traditions from constantly came oridentifiedwith various andmissionisedsionaries we find individuals andcommunities who Yet, andthisismypoint, inthenumerous encountersbetween mis- upon touched some ofthisrelationshipmyself inthepreviouschapter. ship between themission andthereceivers ofthemission, andIhave to go beyond amere stateofdisappointmentanddisapproval. latter, inmyopinion, ofmakingitselfirrelevantifitfails therisk runs direction,secular academiaiftakentoofarinachurch theological the as an example of transculturality than the Christian mission. than theChristian as anexampleof transculturality The very understanding, beany fitsbetter movement which therehardly can to cross bordersnamely of thepagans”. andenter the “world Inmy ofatleasttheProtestant characteristic mission:also pointstothevery words, standpointshe dualisticmissionary rather aPietistic describes In unequalandsometimes relation stormy I amaware- oftheoften See for instanceMiettinen2005. for See instanceImberg2008. for See , Elin Silén wrote very vividly about the Christian mission abouttheChristian 1917, vividly wrotevery ElinSilén 64 1917, 5. Whereas the former may struggle tomakeitself heard may in struggle theformer Whereas 63 focused The othersidehason 65 Silén,Though withher Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 65 He saw it as far 67 However, the Finnish Missionary However, 66 In line with this, the Finnish Missionary Society In line with this, Suomen Lähetys-Sanomia and the Swedish-language 68 century was not that it was a Finnish or a Lutheran th 2008, 179. the Finnishthe Missionary missionariesits and Society were cul- b, 2013 see Groop 287–296. this, For See for instance Bridges2008, 58. Firstly, Firstly, more important that the missionaries “[fulfil] their ‘holy duty’ of ‘holy“[fulfil] their duty’ importantmore that the missionaries than that they aligned with nationality and proclaiming the gospel” interests. national 67 68 Ballard 66 essence of the Christian mission was (and still is) to belong to, move move the Christianessence of to, (and still was is) to belong mission Scrutinising worlds different and cultures. beyond and reach between, and missionarythe mission of transcul the lens - through movement Let examples from three me give makes sense. my opinion, in turality, the Finnish Missionary Society. . What was most characteristic of this society the around hybrids. tural turn 20 of the Society to other Lutheran also related and non-Lutheran Protestant Britain – and Great Germany, – not least in Sweden, societies mission journals. two in the society’s and frequently reported about their work the German evangelicalWarneck theologian Gustav Furthermore, as both an authoritywas considered to the Finnish and an inspiration did not view Missionary SocietyWarneck and the Pietist minded as a crucial culture part of Christianity. Western society; rather, as much as it was a Finnish as much society mission was a it society; rather, as it was a Lutheran and as much one European society a reviv- it was - estab was it missionarythe Like large, at movement movement. alist of Germanlished in the wake Pietism and the evangelical revival and its supportit drew the bulk of various and supporters revivalist from Theologically, the Lutheran Church. or bordering, within, movements the Finnish Missionary Society to the Lutheran confession, adhered which Pietism inclinationan with but thinking, and revivalist towards is noticeable in the articles the journals: two published in the society’s Finnish-language Missions-Tidning för Finland. 66 Kim Groop a quite different curriculum to the school in Helsinki. totheschool a quitedifferent curriculum but inGermany, mission attheHermannsburg seminar, had which school missionary attheFinnish training received theirmissionary with time to consider himself more African thanFinnish. with timetoconsider himselfmore African Petersburg nearSt –wasborn Rautanen andcame Martti inRussia ies were whatone couldtoday call men”.“ordinary Finnish One– 74 Peltola 73 72 71 70 69 to build. were trying adent Christianity” would destroy thechurchheandhiscolleagues ities, outofOvamboland. Hefeared thattheinfluxofEuropean “dec- on keepingtheGerman, author African andlatertheBritish/South reasonsof thekey Rautanen wassokeen why thefieldleader Martti work, bothfrom andareligious apolitical perspective. This was one the colonial authorities, whomconsidered they dangerous totheir nial perspective. fromchose todistancethemselves The missionaries could have beenexpectedofthemfrom anational orEuropean colo- attimeswent beyond,in Ovamboland andsometimes against, what knowledge astowhere stoodwithregard missionaries theseseven missionaries demonstrates this. missionaries andreligioustural contexts.Finnish Justlooking atthefirstseven Namibiafrom came to whatistoday quitedifferent northern cul- families. To add tothis, two from were the missionaries orcame Swedish eitherSwedish-speaking Jurvelin andMalmström. Jurvelin Weikkolin andAlexanderMalmström. EmmanuelJurvelin,Karl BotolfBernhard Björklund, August Karl Finland, Ihave heaven andAmboland.” Mytranslation. in Finland: have two home“I countries, likeothers. You have heaven and Peltola (1996, (Peltolabeen unabletofulfilthetraining 1958,32). Africa. tobecomebuthad training missionaries twoThe latterhad started Heinonen, andErkki Juntunen were Antti Piirainen senttoSouth West JuhoNissinen, from carpenters four Apart missionaries theseseven Juho For this, seePeltola 1996,164–169253259. 1958, 32; Paunu 1909,50– 51, 575968. ) quotes Rautanen who in 5) quotes Rautanen 69 As for the missionaries, As for travelling the Finns 73 of the first seven missionaries had missionaries not ofthefirstseven 70 Only two of the seven missionar two oftheseven - Only told friends in 1903 toldfriends Tampere 74 71 Ihave no Four 72 of Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 67 The kings and 78 This cultural diversity 76 77 or by pious religiosity in general, and they and had pious religiosityin general, or by 75 1970, 42–45. the Ovambocul- the were hybrids therefore and cultural ty and support such as the slave against outside threats 1996, 220–225, 252, 309–310. Peltola 2014, 97; 1909, 27–28, 95–97. loyal In Finnish: Herännäisyys.In Finnish: Secondly, Secondly, other’s Added they and sometimes raided each other. trade and colonisation; Ovambo that many to this it should also be mentioned were customs One example worth mentioning constantly changing or transforming. which was widely else- practiced that male circumcision, is the fact the Ndonga from almost disappeared already had in Africa, where the missionaries arrived before in 1871. kingdom tural setting providing the context for the Finnish the context tural providing setting endeav- mission The the whom Ovambo among our was in itself highly pluralistic. Finns of tried in 1870/1871 consisted stations to establish mission tribes multi- nine different or sub tribes and a dialects with different These in iso- groups did not live Ovambo customs. tude of different - interde but rather interaction, other each in constant from lation essentially communicated and They shared friction. and pendence, they each depended on belief system traditions; a mutual and many was typical not only for the first group of missionaries, but the small was typical not only of missionaries, for the first group society to draw continued missionary candidates supporters and from age, diversityThis terms in personalities, of various culturaltraditions. naturally would theological and so on tradition background, language, conflicts to lead also times at but would enrichenterprise, the mission to relate should be developed and how issues such the work on as how to Ovambo cultural traditions. Paunu 76 Paunu 77 Groop 78 Tuupainen 75 to theological tradition, but they were described by Uuno Paunu as as Paunu Uuno described by but they were to theological tradition, either serious and devout Christians been influenced or as having by the “awakening” been recommended to the Finnish to been recommended Missionary Society influential by Lutherans society. to the connections with 68 Kim Groop to “understand what to “understand approval ofthemissionaries; Frans orasputby Missionary Hannula, how tolearn tolive andbehave inorder struggling verts towinthe on reports pupils,fusion isalsoseeninmissionary workers, andcon- not to, where tofindwater, andso on. buildingmaterial Thiscultural werethey indire needof, ashow such tofarm, whattoeatand alsoacquiredthey knowledge areas local inthemany practical that languages, thelocal tolearn tried dialects, andfolklore. Inaddition, pursue theirwork, andoutofpersonal interest. energetically They acquiredsionaries knowledge local inorder tosurvive, inorder to in Ovamboland. This isseeninthedocumentation on how themis- Finnish arrival instance the first contacts the werevery made after process. Infact, on atthe thisprocess anindividuallevel started hosts would lead to an unstoppable transculturation and Ovambo differences,tural Finnish missionaries the relationship between the isation. cul- unbridgeable andseemingly start Despiteaturbulent tion to new circumstances.tion tonew had walkedover thepastdecades, thatofchangeandadapta- namely menandwomen continuedonand fashions apaththatOvambo only and/orwhoadopted European Christians trends andbecame schools missionaries,to welcome theFinnish mission whowent toFinnish ing cultures. Nonetheless, men and women who chose those Ovambo - receivedmissionaries transform exposure sets of constantly to new spreadthe work tootherkingdoms alsoeventually andchieftains, the manyies for years concentratedtheirwork withtheNdonga. When tribes, totheotherOvambo missionar- ing Christianity theFinnish messengers. oftheFinnish to thearrival initialfailures- inbring After ethnicgroups reacted differently rather Ovambo ofthevarious chiefs 79 Hannula Thirdly, even toowilling,even for, notes, Löytty asOlli converted “pagans experienced men andwomen were tocross willing boundaries; the cultural sometimes implied hybrid andOvambo the encounterFinns between 1888, in Kirkollisia Sanomia (myemphasis).13 inKirkollisia Sanomia Many young isandwhatitisn’t.” Christianity true 79 Though Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 69 Needless 80 However, this transcultura- However, 81 There are numerous other examples of how other examples of how numerous are There 82 1958, 47, 66. 2014, 108–109. - pagan from “deriving Rules 1924 Church forbade ceremonies … Christianitywestern cultural in differently lived than people who had … consequently and this would trigger a fear missionaries among that circles” (Löytty Christianthe joined motives converts the wrong with the church 2006, 192–193). § 31. evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt, Ambomaan kirkon Finnish missionary- and Ovambo cultures grew together. There were were There Finnish missionary- and Ovambo together. grew cultures extraordinary missionaries some and kings or between relationships died and were and children missionaries and their wives Many chiefs. Ovambo and many Christians Finnish took buried African on soil, or midwives. teachers, these or other missionaries, names to honour the memoriesThis is a vivid example of how of the Finnish missionary It touches and Ovambo been cherished have in Namibia. connection the missionaries had their own quite specific understanding of what it understanding quite specific their own the missionaries had they also – reluctantly or voluntarily “true Christian” be a implied to – came Ovambo to accept own whichinto their did not fit customs dis- as I have In due time, Christianity. “true” of this understanding into be assimilated would customs many my earliercussed in research, Finnish mis- This was also trueversa: vice local Lutheran Christianity. sionaryLutheranism incorporatedbe would local into Ovambo cul- to Christianweddings. This was the regard case for instance with ture. The singing, night time includingox, of a wedding the demanding ism” celebrations with relatives. and extensive drinking sprees, 80 81 Groop 82 Peltola to say these customs would not disappear. With - time the church cer not disappear. would these customs to say to be only come a small itself would part tradi- emony of a wedding involving of old Ovambo a wide array tion of which most the customs eventually missionaries would accept. tion process went even further. Some Finnishthe of missionaries mar- even further. went process tion Their This was the case for Rautanen and Björklund. ried local women. and Katharina) to the grandmother belonged (the sisters Frieda wives’ ethnic group. Nama 70 Kim Groop 86 would celebrate African participation,would African celebrate encounters astheearly such individual mindsandsocialformations” kept in motion, in order to ‘stay alive’, to have an impact both on needsto in linewithErll’s“’travel’, notionmemory thatcultural be mobility ofmnemonic asshared practices such imagesmobility andprac , travelling calls memory Erll upon whatAstrid pointsatthe which Erll 85 Erll 84 Erll 83 Erll such asbooks,such magazinesandphotographs. site ofthefirstmission station inOmandongo –orthrough media old church, orthe graves atOlukonda mission houses andmissionary visible at, andhonoured through, national monuments asthe such Church inOvamboland.of theLutheran would be These memories “new memories” beginnings ofthevery memories would beOvambo church, connections. missionary albeitwithFinnish ofthese Some ofanAfrican andcommemorations thehistory celebrating memories ories. sentimentswould soon give local way tonew missionary Old mem- Mission Church could not end withthe Finnish the Finnish other, ortouseErll’s words, mediaandminds”. “between hand andwritten, painted, mnemonic interpretationson the orcrafted alsotravels between individualsor collectives on theone how memory ature, hymns, sacralimages, biblequotations andsoon. This shows lective were –which keptalive liter- andmaintainedby particular –individualas ascol- well memories carried Finnish missionaries The individuals and collectives across national boundaries. and cultural travels with andisolatedmemory thanbeingsomething local Rather Evangelical Lutheran Church inNambia. Lutheran Evangelical Nambala. Nambala has since2012beenthepresiding bishop inthe by Gerhard L. waswritten which and Shekutaamba Vaino Buys Vaino One influentialbook the Church in in Namibia of Namibia istheHistory tostaylike aswimmerkeepsmoving afloat. 2008,345. See Rigney isconstantly theworks”“in swimmer toshow how collective memory and 2011, 2011, 18–19. 2011, 18. 17. gives credit toAnnwhousesthe metaphor Rigney ofa Erll 85 , attachedto thememories 86 Other Other “new memories” 84 However, tices. 83 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 71 87 Finnish Lutheran 89 ; the Finnish- mission ; 88 2013, 279. Buys 2003, 162–163. and Nambala 2004, 345. see for instance Nordbäck of sin, conception the Pietist’s For , the Ovambo between an amalgamation Rules Church were First, aries tended to read Luther through the lenses of Pietism. This is seen This the lenses of Pietism. Lutheraries through tended to read dealing with baptism. section Rules’ for in the 1924 Church instance stressed is paganism than fourless renounce to need the times No This demonstrates the contrast between for baptism. as a prerequisite the other. on hand and baptism and grace the one paganism and sin on This thought structurereading Luther can be seen as an example of penance of sin versus the Pietistic conception Pietisticthrough glasses; and rebirth applied to paganism and baptism. is pastors had little experience in baptising adults and therefore the little experience and therefore pastors had in baptising adults with in common more in this respect, Lutheran missionaries had, it However, such Methodists. as Baptists and “heirs of Pietism” other transfusion of ideas is the baptism where is not only on in the section a number of other examples of hybridisation in the are as there seen, Rules. Church the Swedish Law of Church Law 1686 and the Finnish of Church 1869. of to assess the reception It is not within the scope of this research a Yet Finnishthe Law Church in revivalist circles 1869 of in Finland. 88 Shantz 89 87 Cultural Hybridity Rules 1924 Church and the Cultural The transcultural of the character Finnish Missionary Society endeav- Finnishmis- our in Ovamboland Rules. is also visible in the Church sionary theology was a hybridisationvarious of theological - perspec what but in line with It was thoroughly Lutheran in dogma, tives. Shantz writes about as the early of Luther PietistsDouglas H. reading radical Spiritualists” the lenses of … “through , and of and of baptism in 1883, the first with Finnish missionary Christianity, first seven of the the ordination 1925. Ovambo pastors in 72 Kim Groop is the child of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church andadopts Lutheran Evangelical oftheFinnish is thechild ChurchChurchLutheran –thetextreads Amboland Evangelical “The thisthought.supports – Inthefirstparagraph The Confession ofthe the other.Rules Alookdifferent intheChurch atfour paragraphs revivalmovements andfree churches,sions withinLutheran found on Church, Lutheran within theFinnish on theone hand, andtheexpres- Lutheranism andrevivalist thinking; orbetween thoseexpressions found adapted ittofitboththesendingandhostingcontext. best” of; it had of the two Church experience Laws simplified it and took Society “the its likinginOvamboland, Missionary theFinnish context.enough intheOvambo achurch of Initsattempttofound didnotdeemthislawstrict Society Missionary ous thattheFinnish on ofthisChurch themission- Law fielditseemsobvi applicability considered still alittletooliberal.they the1869Law Regarding the relieved,probably but not thrilled, and it is reasonable to assume that fession wasabolished. Consequently, therevivalistmovements were banwasretained,smaller butthelarger banaswell asthe public con- promise wasreached. The confession wasamendedandthe paragraph was alsovisibleinthediscussion. considerations andcritique andconservative astheliberal peasantry); estates(nobility, ofthefour the pointofview clergy, bourgeoisie, and discussed inthesenate, within, handled it was not only by, and from notionsmall may beofrelevance. Schauman’s When lawproposal was Pirinen 91 Pirinen 90 Pirinen ishment ofthepublicconfession. thelarger,to abolishnotonly ban, butalsothesmaller andtheabol- gates, by Pirinen, asreported Kauko resisted Schauman’s suggestion produced discussion inthelawcommittee. lively Asection ofthedele confession and the issue of church discipline both of which paragraph Second, were the Church Rules a 1985, 166–169. 1985, 217–220. 91 90 After this arm wrestling acom thisarm - After case This wastheregarding the result of hybridisation between between hybridisation of result Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 73 93 1924, § This 62. emphasises the emphasises 13 able that the Finnishable that These paragraphs show how the These paragraphs how show 95 can concionandi viewed be func- venia dual a having as venia concionandi was a written in venia introduced permission Given the controversy that the confession paragraph that the confession the controversy Given 92 Finally, in the last section and paragraph – Free Christian paragraphand Free – section last the in Finally, 94 custom had probably been inspired by the Lutheran in Finland by Churches probably been inspired had custom The and Sweden. centurylate 19th the chap the - grantedcould be by person which a lay by ter or bishop the right a Sunday to lead Service in a Lutheran or to preach The church context. revivalist the many derived from preachers lay that of acknowledging tion: them. whilst also controlling movements, evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännötAmbomaan kirkon 1924, § 69. Ambomaan evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännötAmbomaan kirkon , § 1924 1. evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännötAmbomaan kirkon 1924, §13. evankelis-luterilaisen järjestyssäännötAmbomaan kirkon had created in revivalist circles in revivalist in Finland created had for the proposal when the it is remark Law public, 1869 Church made was all embracing Lutheran movements, revivalist MissionarySociety, it is noteworthy Nonetheless, opted for simple statement. this quite AfricaFinnish to the that the society in SouthWest work tied the Evangelical Lutheran and not only Church the Finnish to Missionary paragraph Sunday on Service, section the In Society. role of lay people in the Church service stating that “As preacher may may preacher service in the Church people “As of lay role stating that Christians as sincere ”. known people who are also lay be employed This is also emphasised in the section on the spiritual the section and financial in This is also emphasised and pious” “mature that it is stressed of the parishmanagement where laymenshould be encouraged to serve as evangelists“take after they the Church before and perform demonstration” a degree a preaching Board. 95 93 94 92 its confession.” Activity – the Finnish Missionary Society importancethe emphasises youth-, “SundaySchool, such as Christian activity” free “diverse a of as activity as well in work and pagan mission diakonia-, temperance-, workers”. Ambo of residing favour Finnish Missionary Society stood between theological traditions, i.e. Finnish i.e. Missionary Society theological stood between traditions, and but at the same time expressing adhering to Lutheran theology, 74 Kim Groop customs ofsettlingconflicts. asanattemptatpreserving,also beviewed inwith, andtying Ovambo conservatism.sionary Ontheotherhand, thismodeofconfession can Mission Church couldtherefore asanexpression beviewed ofmis- Keeping orintroducing thismeansofchurch disciplineintheFinnish Law, while ithad disappeared from the succeeding1869 Church Law. hand, thepublicconfession had beenbrought from the1686Church for instancewiththepublic confession.case This isthe Onthe one customs. asattemptsatanadaptation alsobeviewed toOvambo can mixture inFinland, between thetwo Church Laws some paragraphs encounter.ful cultural beseenasa many can oftheparagraphs While visibledisplay ofaremarkable pain- andattimesrather dramatically habitsandcustomsdesirable inthesection on Church Disciplineisa ofhumans–inmind.complete transformation The long listofun were asthey wereChurch withtheendresult Rules written –the thinkingwere considered missionary asopposites.in Finnish The dualism between paganism and salvation,of the contemporary which . andEuropean cultures seeninlight clearly African most This ismaybe had itsroots. Society Missionary where theFinnish oftherevivalist movements, someencouraging ofthecharacteristics 96 coloured by had taken. some oftheroutes Christianity We take can ies” from were brought thisjourney toAfrica deeply from Finland limitedselection.a highly also the Naturally “memory” or “memor be only couldnaturally Society Missionary by theFinnish to Africa less routes, whatwas “remembered” from andbrought thisjourney count- hastravelled toOvamboland.Jerusalem Christianity While ofthegospel long from two millennium journey the extraordinary message itself theChristian .turality of here Iamconsidering is What ,Third are theChurch an encounter Rules demonstration a of between Fourth, andfinally,Rules makevisible theChurch thetranscul - , § 26. 1924,§ kirkonAmbomaan järjestyssäännöt evankelis-luterilaisen 96 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 75 and the stance on Christian on and the stance 97 For the transformation of the concept, see for instance Forward 2005, 8. see for instance Forward the transformation of the concept, For morals. While the notion of the pagans goes back to biblical times, the the While back goes to biblical of the pagans the notion times, morals. - Rules the 1924 Church and understood in it was embraced resem way th centurybled the 18 German Pietistic of the concept understanding morals to applies same The and mis- Finnish than anything else. more which Christian, sionary“true” what characterised as to opinions a by by been highly had Lutheran influenced thinking and more even cultural both how memoryThis demonstrates in Pietistic thinking. historythe and transformstravels - of the Church con it is and how It also demonstrates nected with theological and domicile. tradition is just a What“remembered” is of cultural memory. the limitations viewedthousand-year If two almost an as history. of selection tiny and paths before the Christian routes travelled many tradition journey, at the when looking Yet, it came northern to what is today Namibia. such Rules as the 1924 Church it is obvi- written sources, mission ous that the Finnish and for in the emerging missionaries working Ovambo Lutheran certain cherished Church tra- and remembered Clearly or than others. and events more historical stages, ditions, vaguely certain in this document are visible historical chapters such and the German Pietism, reformation, Luther’s as the early Church, count- whereas Swedish and Finnish Laws Church of 1686 and 1869, in the historyless other stages tended of the Christian have Church to be forgotten. 97 as an example the concept of paganism the concept as an example 76 Kim Groop 2004 Bergmann, Sigurd 2015 Becker, Judith 2008 Ballard, Martin Bibliography Kirkollisia Sanomia. 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Helsinki: Kuinka mustasta af Finlands föri Finland, kyrkan evangelisk-lutherska den Kyrkolag Majestät Kejserliga af Hans och år 1867 antagen vid landtdagen Ständer den Pirinen, Kauko Pirinen, 1985 Ann Rigney, 2008 Rydé, A. J. 1846 A. W. Schmidt, 1948 Douglas H. Shantz, 2013 Elin Silén, 1917 Seppo Suokunnas, 2011 Suomen Lähetysseura 1906 Maija Tuupainen, 1970 Educational ScientificUnited Nations and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2006 Nestori Väänänen, 1934 1935 M. G. Waenerberg, 1870 80 Kim Groop 1999 Welsch, Wolfgang London: SAGE Publications, 194–213. Culture. –Nation City – World. Ed. MikeFeatherstone Lash. &Scott “Transculturality. Puzzling The ofCulturesForm Today”. Spacesof André Swanström Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland A chapter in the psychohistory of intolerance During the reign of Alexander I encounters between Jews and Chris tians in Finland were rare and sporadic. Jews were prohibited from set- tling permanently in Finland, and the few Jews who came to Finland quickly converted to Christianity and assimilated into the surround- ing society. The enlightened Finnish establishment generally displayed a benevolent attitude towards the Jews, but there seemed to be no way of circumventing the anti-Jewish legislation. The cultural and intellec- tual milieu in Åbo and a few other important towns helped the con- verted Jews to integrate. The situation changed, however, when a new monarch ascended the throne in Russia. Finnish autonomy within the Russian empire was an ambiguous concept, and the policies of the ruler naturally had an enormous impact on the Grand Duchy of Finland. Nicholas I ascended to the throne in 1825 and his reign had serious consequences for the Jews in Finland and elsewhere in his vast empire. Czar Nicholas I did not share the enlightened opinions and values of his predecessor and the spirit of the Enlightenment was swept aside. In Finnish-Jewish collective memory, as well as in the collective memory of Eastern European Jewry in general, Nicholas I is remembered for his ruthless conscription of Jewish men into mili- tary service in cantonist units. For an individual cantonist1, the period 1 The term is derived from the German word Kanton, an enlistment dis- trict. See Petrovsky-Shtern 2009, 90. Originally the cantonist units had 81 82 André Swanström Stanislawski 2 Stanislawski everyday life in Russian society started toresemble astateofsiege. started society inRussian life everyday disciplineand orderintocamp the usualurban had beentransformed concepts,according tomilitary that found andthusforeign observers able problem insociety. hisentire Hewantedtostandardize empire solutionsany for conceiv- by faithinmilitary autocratic characterized and legislation dictatedfrom above. The thinkingof Iwas Nicholas training.military through decrees these initiatives All came imperial subjectsthrough thelives and ofhisJewish education and modernize communities empire.Jewish intheRussian wantedto The Czar reform reign ofNicholas Ihad tumultuous consequencesthetraditional for ent of the czar’s in respect in his empire. of the Jews general policy The in Finland. ofhistroubledfor theJews ramifications mind the psychohistorical ofNicholas’causes policieswithregard inorder to theJews grasp study.not beentheobjectofserious studythepsychological Iwill Jews, have reasons butthedeeperpsychological behindhiscruelty emperorNicholas asanevil andapersecutorofthe Iisportrayed family, hiscommunity andhisreligion. history Intraditional Jewish waslongmany enoughtouproot cases thepooryoungster from his was as long as service of military not served in the Russian army. intheRussian not served thereign ofAlexander I the During were service. nolonger exempted from had military traditionally Jews For thisprocess ofRussia ofstandardization meantthatthey theJews The dilemma of the Finnish Jews wasjustamicroscopicFinnish Jews compon The dilemmaofthe Petrovsky-Shtern 2009,90–93. these young boys, 125, oralmost7percent, converted toChristianity. See 1827, empire over the Russian fromall Irkutsk to St. Petersburg. of In the drafts their mother and the emperor their father”. Cantonist units were found “once arrived, they the… children acquired new ‘parents’: was thearmy Shtern, army, intheRussian on theJews theforemost expert that writes orphans’been establishedasmilitary detachments. Yohanan Petrovsky- 1828 and1829, joinedtheranks. cantonists some 1862 Jewish Of 1983, 14–15. 25 years, in of time which a period 2 Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 83 25 4 Even though Nicholas I shared these prejudices he prejudices these I shared though Nicholas Even 3 1983, 184. 1983, 14. In other European countriesIn other European the inclusion of the Jews in the draft . Each local Jewish- a cer deliver community was supposed to 1827. was an emancipatory concern. In France, Prussia and Austria Jews were Jews and Austria were Prussia In France, was an emancipatory concern. the opportunityThey had - of becom society. excludedno longer from the In Russia, their militarying equal citizens completing by service. totallyNicholaswas with concerned not was I situation as different the their duties towards he stressed Instead, the rights subjects. of his Jews The reward servingfor any obtain not did a as rights state. years in the czar’s army. The duration of military service was the same army. in the czar’s years A majority of the within the Russianfor all empire. ethnic groups but for the Jews the and did not protest, apathetic subjects were czar’s In the collective of the draftintroduction was a part drama. of a larger 3 Stanislawski 4 Stanislawaski czar the military and it clear made had establishment the Jews that on benevolent or not based judgment was This still exempted. were The Jewswere humanitarian prejudice. but rather on considerations whose loyalty seen as physically fanatics, religious or inferior cowards was questionable. nevertheless chose a different approach. He wanted to reform the Jews He wanted to nevertheless approach. chose a different The standardization. and stern discipline, military through training, calling decree for of Jews the conscription August on was published 26 the responsibility, was the of the kahal This tain number of recruits. to the kahal to choose It was up organ of the community. executive When be to recruitsof number the transpired drafted. be to was who that the local Jewish recruit I ordered smaller- expected Nicholas than be sent to disciplinarying officials should if they failed to battalions the to be ineffective czar proved When this measure fill their quota. the right should be given to stipulated that the local communities These unfortunate Jew any who was caughtarrest without a passport. - the community then sent to the army of those pro instead Jews were conscription. tected and wanted to shelter from 84 André Swanström Egyptian desert wasreplaced snow. desert by theSiberian Egyptian talentswhileinexile.extraordinary ofthecantonists, Inthecase the successthrough butalso toachieve his tosurvive was ablenotonly and religion. ofJoseph, story This wasalsoinlinewiththebiblical who culture andmaintaintheirJewish were theiridentity abletodefend ofnarrative where soldiers complemented theJewish by anothertype theirrights. todefend minimal chances This tradition wasgradually fromcame communities the lowest of the Jewish had strata and they army. totheRussian young recruits delivering Jewish These recruits so-called been lostforever. about This narrative tradition alsostories nurtured tonists represented theirson, mourning Jacob andRachel whohad brothers ofJoseph asthecruel portrayed andtheparents- ofthecan by hisbrothers. in Egypt ery communitiesThe traditional Jewish were Joseph, ofthebiblical tonists ascounterparts whowassoldintoslav- accounts in Russian,Historical Hebrew, and Yiddish,- the can portray prominent asone ofthemostterrible, by only thepogroms. rivaled people.the Jewish Among thesecalamities, is draft thecantonist European ofEastern Jewry,memory haunted upon calamity calamity 6 Yerushalmi 5 Petrovsky-Shtern but the scenarios remain fundamentally thesame. remainbut thescenarios fundamentally narratives. asmanifestationsofbiblical experiences The changeactors hasdisplayed toseecurrent atendency collective memory the Jewish inRussia. ofJews in thehistory According to Yosef Haim Yerushalmi, Exile (galut inHebrew andgolus traditions were history. intheacademic studyofJewish alsointegrated and these former cantonists establishedthecore cantonists ofthe nascentJewish and theseformer together withtheirfamilies, inFinland to settledown permanently years later, in1858, soldierswere thedischargedformer given theright role.a central was abolished in cantonist system The With regard to Finnish Jewish identity, regardJewish toFinnish With have thecantonists played khappers, theirlivingby peoplewhoearned kidnappingand 1982, 37; 2011,54. Erll 2009, 2–3. in Yiddish) became themajortheme became in Yiddish) 6 5 These narrative These 1856, and two Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 85 7 Thus the 8 Our Picture. 2012. ). Smolar writes about the history of the cantonists(3/2012). ; Smolar Seela 2012. 2005; 1951; Jacobsson e.g., See, Israeli members of the community were able to obtain glimpses of a members of the community were Israeli but whichimportantwas for the whichthey share, not did narrative, the Israelis in Hebrew was an inclusive- ges Addressing community. “Our but did it make them feel Picture” like being part? In of ture, we “OurPicture” of the cantonistto penetrate soldiers, behind order the system. which produced to study the man and the mind, have The Cantonists – The Cantonists in Hebrew under the heading The cantonists had maintained their faith in exile, and their descend and their exile, their faith in maintained The had cantonists poor The take prideants could achievement in the of their forefathers. forcefully their conscriptedand torn from away Jewish boys, young finally the system had and in found a safe haven overcome families, posi- and perseverance earned them a secure had work Hard Finland. Community life charac was - both spiritually and economically. tion, decadefinal the In - the of twen stability. and wealth terizedrelative by of newly groups arrived Jewish immigrants started to tieth century, Newly arrived descendants. of the cantonists’ challenge the hegemony to the cantonistsRussian connection and Israeli Jews no personal had and their story did not feel included therefore and in the narrative few attempts at bridgingwere the there Initially, of the community. descendants) and the cantonists’ (i.e. population the core gap between One significant step in this direction the newly arrived immigrants. article Smolar’s in the community magazine Rony by is represented Hakehila 7 8 Smolar community in Finland. During the following century, the vast major- During the followingcentury, in Finland. community ity of Jews Finland in their ancestry traced former to these cantonists, and the story identity. of the cantonists was a partcommunity’s of the 86 André Swanström day. nies removed from thecareofhismotherandhewas brought upby nan- details. andbiographical personality in theirpath, withNicholas’ thoughitdoesnotdealexhaustively even The most recent research by e.g. Richard S. (1995)follows Wortman (1969). twoThese biographiesare thestandard works on I.Nicholas Lincoln(1989)andNicholas by Riasanovsky Bruce raphies written oftheczar.the personality Inthistask, on thebiog - mainly Irely system,cantonist we have therefore to probe the factors that shaped connected withhispersonality. Inorderofthe tounderstand therise reflectedoutlook of system themilitaristic I,Nicholas anditwasdeeply wastheproductcantonist czar’s system ofanautocratic The will. The Nicholas I–apsychological portrait Theweleit 10 Theweleit 9 Lincoln ing MissJanedeLyon there were alsotwo noblewomen ofBaltic discipline wasalsoexercised by thenannies. Besides thedemand- stifling embrace. toleave anddoesnotallowthechild her inhergrip keeps thechild away, orpushesthe child the child aswell asthe “soft mother” who phase. a include mother” disturbances “hard Such who does not accept might leave unable to leavemother and child the child the symbiotic separation-individuation. intherelationship Disturbances between towards evolve phase fromsymbiotic would thechild gradually which child’s personality. Mahler’s thatthere findingsindicate shouldbea for thedevelopment ofthe isbeneficial between motherandchild researchthe psychological ofMargaret Mahler, asoundrelationship and Nicholas didnotreceive any tendercarefrom her. According to according etiquette. tocourt anddemandingmother wasastrict She Nicholas on wasborn June25 . minuteseach afew Hewasallowedfor to seehismother only 9 On these occasions hismotherinsistedthatheshouldbehave Ontheseoccasions 1989, 50. 1993, 207. 10 Nicholas’ motherwasone ofthehard kind. Strict 1796. AsaninfantNicholas was Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 87 - Under these circum 14 The childhood of Nicholas fullThe was of childhood of 15 12 gogical qualifications were dubious but he suc- dubious gogicalwere qualifications raphy Nicholas Riasanovskythe fear Nicholas mentions also raphy 1993, 412, 418. 1969, 24. 1969, 6. 1969, 6–8. 1989, 52–54. How did Nicholas manage to live with all these phobias with all these phobias live to manage Nicholas did How His peda 13 . He was afraid of officers, fireworks, thunder, and cannons. and cannons. thunder, fireworks, He was afraid of officers, . 11 . Cf. Theweleit Cf. stances Nicholas embarked on a psychological voyage where exter- where a psychological voyage on embarked stances Nicholas by teachers and later internalized first initiated and self- nal rigor, started his personality to give in the its physical contour imposed, form armor. of a mental phobias with the fire connected phobias Later this list was augmented by Nicholas After was terrified fire the . in 1837 Winterin the Palace great afrom fear of he suffered addition, In and smoke. flames by biog In his heights. of blood. 13 Riasanovsky 14 Riasanovsky 15 11 Lincoln 12 Riasanovsky teacher German military stock. Bruce Lincoln emphasizesGerman the military military back stock. - the Lincoln underscores biography, In his these women. of ground in which Nicholas importance for the atmosphere women of these Later the importanceraw of military discipline was was raised. Lamsdorf became Nicholas’ I. Count General when M. accentuated, ceeded in instilling a sense of discipline in the obstinate young ceeded in instillingin the obstinate young a sense of discipline Lamsdorf was a rigid and cruel aim was to whose person Nicholas. thus his methods of instruction included the will of his pupil, break corporal punishment. that haunted him? On the surface, he maintained a majestic and per- that haunted him? On the surface, but this was only a façade behind whichhe could fect calm exterior, to managed He anxiety. and sorrow, depression, feelingshide rage, of curtail maintaining punctu- the feelings of anxiety by and depression Under the supervi- and perfect regularity in his routines. order, ality, he grew up with the mentality of a drill instructor of Lamsdorf, sion with military interest. as his foremost exercise 88 André Swanström cists described by cists described Klaus Theweleit. fas- FreikorpsNicholas theGerman asitwasfor soldiers andearly together. for thesame wasapparently The function oftheuniform personal level. The mainissuebeingaboutkeeping one’s personality cavalier-guard’s uniform. bounds. Inhistwenties, dressed ina clumsily hiswife heportrayed to Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, Nicholas’ no knew love ofuniforms thing, uniforms, namely else. rose which above everything According there militarism wasone internalized shallowbutdeeply fessionally thoughtwereand strategic neglected. Intherealm of Nicholas’ pro- detailed maps, etc. and plans of fortresses whereas real combat skills as uniforms, such attribute emphasisled toanexternal on military Theweleit 18 Theweleit 17 Petrovsky-Shtern 16 Petrovsky-Shtern something holdinghimtogether. Discipline, pain, andtheuniform the belt and cross belt in particular. givefeeling of They thesoldiera in the shapeof the uniform, with himself aboundary dier carries and decided to write nothing. decided towrite sat andpondered theheadingone for andahalfhoursfinally man; there are othernolessuseful andhonorableoccupations”, he thenoble- justifying service isnot theonly arguing “the military ceed. anessay Nicholas wasgiven theassignmentofwriting When Nicholas’empress tocurtail tried mania, military butshedidnotsuc- soldiers,at drawing uniforms, maps, military andfortresses. The day and he As was a quite youngskilled boy Nicholas drew every cavalier-guard regiment St. aswell asseveral stars. Andrew Silver forms; atthe age offive oftheIzmailov he owned sixteenuniforms battlesandmaneuvers withthem.diers andorganized Heloved uni- As soon toplay ashewoke withhislead andporcelain hestarted sol- As a child NicholasAs achild preferred histoy hisothertoys. soldierstoall Wortman 1995,308–321 . 1989, 223. 2009, 30. 2009, 17 16 30. parades, OnNicholas Iandmilitary see alsohad implications on a The uniform Lmdr ’s Nicholas way ofeducating Lamsdorf 18 According to Theweleit, thesol- Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 89 21 Military him- enabled Nicholas surroundings 20 . Lincoln quotes Alexandra’s own words: “I could not words: own Lincoln quotes Alexandra’s 66–67. 1969, 9. 1989, De Custine 2002, 142. restrain a small cry of pleasure because they [the Semenovskii, Izmailovskii smalla cry restrain because they pleasure of Semenovskii, [the of Guards me of my beloved Regiments] reminded and Preobrazhenskii weeks “these three Alexandra stated further that the Berlin Regiment.” so pleasing did I find this military life”. passed far too quickly for me, The original of discipline and militarismNicholas function was for If we compare Klaus Theweleit’s analysis of the German Freikorps’ Freikorps’ analysisTheweleit’s the German of Klaus compare If we to keep together his fragile and undeveloped personality, but this was but this was his fragile to keep together and undeveloped personality, Empire Russian the entire empire. later extended to keeping together of a besieged integrated in the mental picture and personalitywere passion a special fortress had in mind that Nicholas (it is to be kept and military virtues discipline, severe Duty, for the engineer troops). becamethemselves. ends in 19 19 20 Lincoln soldiers with the personality of Nicholas I, we can we discern a common soldiers with the personality I, of Nicholas militar Prussian of adoration Nicholas’ militarism. Prussian variable: princess. a Prussian when he married Charlotte, ism was rewarded 1817 and the bride in place The marriage her name changed took for she foundconsolation Bruceto Lincoln, According Alexandra. to her homesickness when she spent a few with together summer weeks The military Selo watching in Krasnoye militaryNicholas exercises. the made discipline, Prussian which was permeated by environment, princess feel at home. bind him together and repel the threat of fragmentation. According According fragmentation. of the threat and repel together bind him so tightly himself I girded that Nicholas de Custine, to the Marquis thrust up into his chest was pushed his ribs and his stomach for were - After the undressing suspense. was thus set in person entire His ward. he was cast and relieved in a state of fatigue. were bowels emperor’s self to experience rare moments of happiness. Parades could make him Parades of happiness. self to experience moments rare to sometimes of enormous lead and inspections parades feel ecstatic, and even closereligious to orgastic moods. 21 Riasanovsky 90 André Swanström ritory, when nottomention attitudeoftheczar thealmostparanoid tolive rationalabout forcing withinalimitedter- anything theJews order,a conservative astowhetherthere butthequestion arises was agendas.and psychological Nicholas wasadamant aboutdefending ofthePaleto violatetheboundaries seemedtoconceal otherfears I ascendedthethrone in1825. However, theczar’s trying ofJews fear oftheempire,ernments ofthePale. wasnotpart butFinland real-life counterparts in a thoroughly corrupted reality. corrupted inathoroughly real-life counterparts where Gogol’slaws anddecrees inacountry had their Dead Souls bereplaced bycircumventing couldoften daily of and legaltheory conglomerate andsometimes ofcomplicated conflicting paragraphs, settlement inFinland. Russian empireThe legislation ofthewasa might have been an assumption Jewish of a minuscule permanent tootherdestinations.ling through Finland Inthebackground, there theczar’s whoweresequently toJews travel- mainly order pertained principle, toreside didnothave theright inFinland, Jews andcon- to Russia. who wantedto travel from to Jews Finland ing passports In - should be careful whengrant that they vincial governors inFinland the end of August Åbo. waspromulgated at service thedecree military on Jewish After in Finland. Sveaborg, They were in stationed mainly Tavastehus, and garrisons intheRussian soldiersarrived cantonist Jewish Gradually empire. oftheRussian andautonomous wasaperipheral part Finland cantonistsThe Finland and 23 22 empire. ofthe toreside had theright inalimitedpart only thatJews ernors St. Petersburg andMoscow, hereminded andconsequently thegov- citiesof tothecapital asagateway mightuseFinland thatJews afraid The Settlement had alreadyPale of beendefinedbefore Nicholas Samling af Kejserliga Bref 1836,221–222. afKejserliga Samling e.g.See 1983,160–161. Stanislawski 23 The Jewish the - Settlement comprised western gov Pale of 1827, told the pro little before the czar - it took very 22 was The czar Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 91 I would argue that in the case I would 25 Those who dream of living on the other side of a on living of who dream Those 24 . Falk connects his reasoning to the research of research the to reasoning his connects Falk 144–145. . “From a psychohistorical viewpoint, the diffuse borders the diffuse borders a psychohistorical viewpoint, “From 157. 1989a, 1989b, of ancient empires compare strikinglycompare with the generallyof ancient empires and well-defined that, It is possible states. nation strictly of present-day defined borders the whole become on have beings human civilizations, of advance the with so that a rigid system of compartmentali- and compulsive, obsessive more has been imposed on borders) with national maps zation (drawing precise of human behav- other field and any travel, diplomacy, politics, geography, Behind such rigidity lies the fear of loss ior which borders. has to do with Disputes that is the fear of loss of the self and non-being. of boundaries, arise parts borders in different over world of the to armed- and lead con country’s is It one’s of meaning emotional the that clear or flicts war. even give To boundaries. own one’s of that with fused is unconsciously, borders, - narcis a great is to some military occupied by however force, up territory, not only for needed are military Borders security:sistic loss and injury … to overcome unconsciouslythey needed for are the feeling of being there, the panic of the symbiotic boundaries.” loss of ego William G. Niederland and Paul Friedman: “They the that two suggest Friedman: NiederlandPaul and WilliamG. unconsciouslycountries symbolize sides of a border the two on early may for a man crossing an international border Thus, figures. parental also mean a search It may the incest barrier mean crossing into the mother. for a bounteous early mother who will unconditionally and embrace accept immigrants in of a new Migrants and a new in search place job, the child. for sky-jackers the hospitable land which heading of a newsearch country, will grant very them asylum fantasies which are have similar to the early the mother.” infantile wishes concerning Falk 24 Falk Falk 25 Falk he thought of allhe thought possible ways in which the Jews might try to cir- Falk has written about Avner The psychohistorian his orders. cumvent is an there to Falk, According of borders. the crossing and borders Falk writes enormous psychological significance to a border. attached to connected that strictly are borders national drawn and guarded behavior and a fear of loss of self and ones and compulsive obsessive boundaries. own border in a foreign country in a foreign border might actually be harboring an oedipal for and symbiosis in a state mother longing union with an accepting bliss. overflowing of incestuous and 92 André Swanström to Christianity who had been baptized asLutherans. whohad beenbaptized to Christianity Vyborg converts had numberofJewish welcomed asofarunsurpassed of theauthorities. these years, During of parish Lutheran theGerman when theconversions ofFinland were brought totheattentionDuchy relations in the Grand was inaugurated of Jewish-Christian era A new St.right of was to gain residence infinal goal of theseJews Petersburg. seemedtohave beenthatthe authorities oftheRussian the conclusion converted to Christianity. eventually Jews Even in the Vyborg case, presence establishedJewish in Vyborg,a gradually where many ofthe heartland. totheRussian Finland However, there about isinformation dissolution seemstohave inthebackground. loomed ominously borders shouldbeguardedintrusion. againstJewish fear ofegoThe atthesametime, panicking but nevertheless ordered theczar thatthe bordersgraphical withaniron fist. Majesticanddressed inuniform, one.geographical The emperor guarded and both psychological geo- wereSettlement thusasmuch conceptwere apsychological asthey a theruler, for unbearable was probably and theborders ofthePale of equated,symbolically presence thethoughtofaJewish incapitals himself.were of the czar symbols As the emperor and empire were citiesSt. inthecapital appearing Petersburg andMoscow. These cities outlook ofNicholas. ofJews afraid Heseemstohave beenespecially solution oftheself. Empire andego intheabsolutist were intertwined ofhisown weakof theboundaries self, would which lead tothedis- the border ofthePale connectedoftheloss wasapparently tohisfear oftheemperor. experiences childhood crossing oftheJews Hisfear connected problems withpsychological ably resulting from theearly guarded bordersof Nicholas wasprob Ithemaintainingofstrictly - 26 It is hard to determine the volume of Jewish transit traffic via traffic It ishard transit thevolume todetermine ofJewish tized on Augusttized 15th 1828 andrenamed AlexanderMartin Wulff; Marcus DavidArnhold, bap- Reneau;renamed Johann Carl Mayer Wulff, 22nd on January baptized The converts wereSalomo, Marcus on baptized November 1828 whileretaining hisname; Salomon Hermann 26 The converts The 11th 1827, Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 93 1829 and renamed Andreas Johann Johann Andreas 1830 and renamed and renamed Hermann Simon1828 and renamed Previous research has accused Nicholas I of trying Nicholas has accused research to Previous 27 and renamed Moritz; Ezechiel Nathan Luric, baptized 11th March on Ezechiel Luric, Nathan Moritz; and renamed baptized July on 18th Slegon Löwenstimm, Eduard; 1830 and renamed Wilhelm Schai and Julius Markuk 1830 and renamed Slegon; Johann 13th both baptized August on Kuie, German Vyborg See of archives church respectively. Andreas, Julius and parish. Samling af Kejserliga 1837, 300. Bref Fürst; Dawid Samuel Kohn, baptized and renamed in December 1828 SamuelDawid Kohn, Fürst; baptized 10th December on Garfunkel, Mur Kohn; Gottlieb David Fürst, baptized on November 4th baptized November on Fürst, enlightened ideas to the clergy in Åbo, where pastors around the around pastors where clergythe to ideas enlightened in Åbo, ). (1746–1830 Wahl Gottfried baptized August parish rector by were his doctorate in received was born and he had in Germany Wahl to baptizeready the Jews Wahl even was Why Theology Åbo. from purelythan other probablythey he that though suspected have might by simi been influenced He might have convert? to spiritual reasons lar turn century of the Jews society in bourgeois welcomed after having willingness baptize to the Wahl’s of The consequences baptized them. The diocesan chapters of noti- were Finland Jews materialized. soon Jews that the fact of 1830 that theyNovember should be aware fied in Christianityto converting social and economical gain to were order in advantages. forcibly convert Jews to Christianity. The warningthe dio issued to forcibly Jews convert to Christianity. Jewswere cesan chapters portrays the czar in a totally light. different be included not supposed to and they were Jews, supposed to remain a distinct they should remain Instead, in the Christian community. the czar wanted to On the other hand, group. ethnic and religious modernize but the education Jews the and military through service, separate As a Jews should nevertheless separate their status. retain they should be standardized as possible and be inte- as much group, this but empire, the within variousthe gratedamong groups ethnic form of inclusion in the duties imposed entailed merely an increase There their rights. in increase the Jewson corresponding and not any 27 94 André Swanström to Joseph Stalin enjoyedto Joseph Stalin expression. and exploited this paternalistic an increase inthepotentialpoints, where thelawcouldbebreached. them,for andanincrease inrestrictions meant imposedon theJews togaintheirway intodomains thatwere inaccessible trying stantly picious attitudetowards theJews: were heassumedthat they con- ereign’s thatNicholas Ihad sus anextremely andshows will clearly 31 30 Rancour-Laferriere 29 28 batiushka). (czar In Russia, referred father” peoplecommonly as totheczar “little asThe czar “Little Father” Senate about aukaseoftheGoverning legislation.Russian Finnish provincial governors were The informed empire, were authorities reminded shouldfollow thatthey theFinnish social andeconomicaladvantages. toexploit thesepossibilitiesinorder togain werethat theJews trying were possibilitiestoconvert toChristianity, wasafraid buttheczar “little father”. Naturally were“little father”? thechildren ofthis Who “little Nicholas Iwasnoexception on thispoint, andpeoplespoke ofhimas were only. non-Jews openfor guilds. intocertain Jews shouldnotbeadmitted toguilds, Jews which Even though Finland had an autonomousEven position though Finland in the Russian Laferriere 1995,153. Laferriere the Peoples”, Father”, “Wise Father”,“Beloved andsoforth”. Rancour- Union), (andtherestRussia oftheSoviet wascalled “Father”, “Father of Stalin, thetsarsindegree heenslaved whofaroutstripped towhich Peter theGreat was “Father oftheFatherland” Otechestva”). (“Otets Iosif father” as to by monarchistic“little thenaively peasantry (“Batiushka”). ample, referred been affectionately had century since the seventeenth According toDanielRancour-Laferriere, czars,“the Russian ex for Bref 1837,400–401. afKejserliga Samling the great, Senate. anditshouldnotbeconfused withtheFinnish founded Senate wastheexecutive by body oftheczar The Governing Peter 30 Autocratic Russian rulers from Autocraticrulers Peter Russian theGreat 1995, 152. 29 The ukaseisanexpression- ofthesov 28 regarding theadmission of 31 Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 95 . This 220. The laws and ukases, which limited ukases, and laws The 33 In Finland often people an repeated 32 1999, 154. ation to remain good and loyal subjects and their wish that “little subjects and their wish that and loyal good to remain ation Among his “real children” Nicholas favored the young officers in the Cadet officers in the the young favored Nicholas children” “real his Among the fol- he gave When Corps fell of the Novgorod ill, director the Corps. “My My feelings for children! beloved you speech to the cadets: lowing that I me children Forgive … you to part make it hard and my love from I will … to talk with you to thank you, to you, to come am in no condition as honorable, always good, as be my darlings … my friends, forpray you, always and the be useful to yourselves … to me were as dedicated as you 2012, Friedman ” and both with truth and dignity. fatherland … apocryphal quotation, according to which was supposed to Nicholas according apocryphal quotation, said that Finlandhave that had was the only in his empire province mainly thereflects This quotation Finns’ not caused worries. any him aspir then with it was How children. real as his them regard would father” - In a psychohistor as well? “little their father” Nicholas Was the Jews? Russian the and his children and “littleicalinterpretation of father” Finnish Jews can definitely in comparison with be seen as stepchildren Russian children. “real” czar’s the 33 32 Siltala all the ethnic Russians, but did the same apply to Nicholas’ subjects the same apply but did to Nicholas’ all the ethnic Russians, “LittleFinns Jews?or such Poles, as backgrounds ethnic other from some and fist, a father who ruled was with an iron his empire father” They certainly were of his subjects of stepchildren. in the position them as regard ”little in insecurity father” live to forced – did were him or even obtain from could they favor gain some children, his real they left of his or were at the mercies him, from and acceptance love to cruelwhims and subjected ukases? For and draconian legislation was a clear I and his RussianNicholas subjects there of a strict model sub- to the czar’s but with regard children, father and his beloved Many ambiguous. jects of other nationalitymore was the situation but a fatherly as Finns Nicholas they whom regarded feared, figure at the same time they with- to please him and appease him wanted his authority. out questioning 96 André Swanström not try tofindennoblementorpleasure intheirsuffering.not try Yohanan did notremain –theJews passive did andthey czar or theRussian ious oppressors exampletheRomans, –for Inquisition, theSpanish Jews, however, wassomething different. suffering Inthe face ofvar- 34 ennobling intheirmind, ofpleasure. form amasochistic father”, oftheir ted tothewill something “little became andsuffering people. asasuffering oftheRussians identity Russianssubmit - The children (i.e. theJews). aboutthe writes DanielRancour-Laferriere ukases,capricious ofthestep- theexperience butthisdidnot affect were andthey will hisstern atthemerciesalso supposedtoobey ofhis his “real” children (i.e. well, very theethnicRussians) either. They were to himself.have themtooclose father” Ofcourse “little didnottreat supposed torespect him, theirfatherandobey buthedidnotwantto in acolddraft, farfrom oftheinnerchambers. thewarmth They were the czar, totheouterdoor banishedsomewhere close beingmentally ordinate position inthefamily. hadThey agiven place inthehouseof father, beaware tobeconstantly oftheirsub- buthewantedtheJews theJews. for the case wastheirstep theczar level Onapsychological father’s” theirstatusas “little deserve real children, butthiswasnot wereand they toprove and offered theirqualifications opportunities distance. could advance to prominent Finns positions in the empire father’s”be seenas “little intention ofkeepinghisstepchildren at a constrained theirpossibilitiesofconverting toChristianity, clearly can oftheJews,the rights restrictedthemtothePale and ofSettlement Rancour-Laferriere 1995,47. Rancour-Laferriere whohasdone wrong,zen but a father who punishesadisobedientchild.” alientoRussians: utterly “For punishesaciti- usitisnot the lawwhich father tsar”to as “little (“tsar’ batiushka”) by Russians. rule of law is The come punishmentfrom figure thepaternal ofthetsar, referred traditionally Chaadaev. According toChaadaev, come toexpect,”Russians wel even - philosopher quotes the Russian Petr Rancour-Laferriere Iakovlevich jargon. sideoftheczar’swas adisplay andloving ofthebenevolent paternalistic 34 For the Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 97 - insinööri 37 In addition to this, there was always there for a way to this, In addition 35 2009, 43–44. - The Jewish alladults (in con soldiers in were Sveaborg 36 2000, 29-31. fied with living on the island. The garrison waslong period for a on the island. fied with living National Archives of Finland, Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat, Sotilas sotilasasiakirjat, Venäläiset Finland, of Archives National - ordinary ingenu through situation their own Jews to actively improve ity work. and hard Petrovsky-Shtern 35 Petrovsky-Shtern 36 Halén 37 The ofexpulsion Jews from Sveaborg One example of Jews actively trying was conditions their to improve the struggle of Finnish Jews for the fortress the right on island to live undergoing at least 42 Jewish soldiers were 1830’s, In the of Sveaborg. to the compared can be This figure their military service in Sveaborg. which soldiers during was 4000-5000 of the garrison, total strength that period. Petrovsky-Shtern writes that even though sufferingPetrovsky-Shtern by many seen was Jews sins of the for a divine punishment as great and the disobedience always was there hope – maybe a ray of God would Jewishpeople, the of the people and the repentance through decrees severe annul his and finally alleviatesuf- the of righteous men, and prayers intercession ferings of his people. trast to Jewish minors in the cantonist battalions), and they were in theyand were trast to Jewishcantonist the in minors battalions), It is not known Jewish recruits. than the younger a better situation for certain what kind of sufferings the Jewish soldiers of Sveaborg they Apparently were arriving the island. though before on gone had satis Helsinki, important capital, actual than the center more a population The Jewishsoldiers and crafts - which the mainland. is situated on their families living had to the military attached who were units, men, they and away, move want to not did island, the on them with together from that they away should move order personal I’s despite Nicholas they where from on the mainland, Sveaborgaccommodation and find island. boat to the rowing by should daily commute 98 André Swanström 38 highly courteous words courteous hisastonishment over thefacthighly thattheczar’s ence between AltfaterandEngel went on, andAltfaterexpressed in toSveaborg. awhilemoved back families had after The correspond Jews, for typical keepingatavern”.activity especially Apparently the shouldnotengagetrading sothatthey inillegal “strict surveillance had and that they been placed under employed factory at the brick inorder familieshadtobe been senttoSandhamn that two Jewish Isaev, anddemandedanexplanation. Isaev’s predecessor had beentold Colonel Engel wrote tothecommander ofthe3rd and hasnotbeenmoved”. grounds hasbeenallowed tolive Hatskaleva inthefortress “the Jewess ron Meyer Blah, BelkaHatskaleva”. Altfaterwantedtoknow on what of the lives of the private the wife fortress inside fortresses”. that Altfaterhad this General beeninformed “in expressed hishighestwill: familiestostay toallowJewish innocase theEmperor hadhim thatHisMajesty on 3 company,Engineering LieutenantColonel Engel, andreminded Altfater, General Artillery wrotetothecommander oftheSveaborg this remote location. On 2 oftheempire, part eral ofcommand butthechain reached even totheimplementation oftheorder.urgency - wasaperiph Finland 1845, inEurope gave butthedisturbances in1848apparently added empire, intheRussian fortresses ofvarious the walls wasissuedin order,The original familiesfrom Jewish forbade livingwithin which Nicholas Iintheface oftherevolutions of1848in Western Europe. in can be seen against the background of the anxiety displayed beseenagainstthebackground oftheanxiety by1848 can The forced moving of Jewish families from Sveaborg to Sandhamn familiesfromSveaborgforced to The ofJewish moving 1848. hallinnon arkisto, siirrettävät juutalaiset perheet 14647Santahaminan National Archives ofFinland, Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat, Sotilasinsinööri 1848. hallinnon arkisto, siirrettävät juutalaiset perheet 14647Santahaminan 38 July July A few days later, days Afew on 5July, Lieutenant 1848, thecommandant ofSveaborg, rd military working squad- 3rd military January January squadron, Captain “kindly 1845 “kindly Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 99 , that the 1848, August August 40 , the matter was forwarded the matter was - com to the regional 1848, 39 July why the Jewish families still were allowed to stay on on to stay allowed the Jewish1848 why families still were . The Jews on the list were privatewere 1st classThe Jewson the list Blah Meier 1848. 16 National Archives of Finland, Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat, Sotilasinsinööri sotilasasiakirjat, Venäläiset of Finland, Archives National 14647 Santahaminan juutalaiset perheet siirrettävät hallinnon arkisto, 1848. Sotilasinsinööri sotilasasiakirjat, Venäläiset of Finland, Archives National 14647 Santahaminan juutalaiset perheet siirrettävät hallinnon arkisto, 1848. On 16 last Jewish family had been transferred from Sveaborg to Sandhamn. last Jewish Sveaborg family to Sandhamn. been transferred from had The Jewish other four initially had families who main- the to moved so rent in Helsinki, the able to afford not been Helsinki had land in they been transferred to Sandhamn. too had mander of the engineer troops, Major General Brandt, who ordered the who ordered Major General Brandt, mander of the engineer troops, Letters exchanged were Sveaborg. from Jewishremoved be to families the pos- who investigated ranking military lower between bureaucrats, The on sibility for the families accommodation Sandhamn. of finding for seven Jewish was room families and that they was that there result boat with six oars for their daily a rowing transportcould be allowed still it was unclear correspondence in frenetic a Despite Sveaborg. to August Sveaborg. Captain Isaev reported finallyon 20 Sveaborg. 39 40 orders had been disobeyed. Engel replied that he had made a list of the a list of made he had that replied Engel been disobeyed. had orders Jews fortress in the on the lived who people four and that of five out craftsmen necessarylist were who were that the fifth and man was a therefore, fortification at the same time, also a shoemaker but worker strictunder All Jewsthe surveilwere - too. him, needed squadron the to punish them severely if they engaged promised lance and Engel by Isaev and dated The list was compiled activities. prohibited in any July (bricklayer), private 1st class Leiba- (bricklayer and squad Pribshtein (bricklayer), private 2nd class (carpenter Meerovich Girsh and glass tailor), ron privateclass 2nd Beniamin Baranovich- (blacksmithappren cutter), tice) and private 2nd class Leiba Zuperman (fortification and worker shoemaker). 100 André Swanström fear could be offered from a psychoanalytical perspective. couldbeofferedfear from apsychoanalytical According tional any andlacked real foundation. Apotentialexplanation ofthis ies. - irra The Czar’s wasbasically subversive fear ofJewish activity poseany great threathardly asspies, conspirators, orrevolutionar - soldierswithfamilies, private was aboutafew peoplewhocould ofSveaborg, Inthecase ofhisfortresses? within thewalls thematter presence concerned withtheJewish wasNicholas sodeeply Why symbol asa fortress The 41 Halén could. from timetotime, familiesreturned assoon buttheJewish asthey island.ilies withthemon thefortress were Deportations implemented strenuous efforts. soldiersmanaged Manyto have Jewish theirfam commandants’maintain apresence despitethevarious inSveaborg much longer thanHalénassumes. were ItseemsthattheJews ableto attention before,scholarly thattheprocess we have was toconclude If we takeintoaccount theorder of1848, hasnotreceived which ing the Jews from lengthy, wasrather ing theJews Sveaborg according toHalén. theordershe mentions only of1863and1866. The process of - remov but garrisons Finnish innineteenthcentury aboutJews Halén writes from Jews all Sveaborg. AlopaeusLieutenant General deported Harry Knak’s (Haja). Hova wife Three commandant years later thenew ter Hajka, Iohit Kolomatskiy’s andLejzer 17-year-old Schifra wife some Jews:Fajelovich’sthe familiesmoved included Schlem daugh- Commandant Alexeyev gave theorder on 1June1863andthelistof operation affected roughly private soldiers missioned officers and from fortress. the Thismassive teen years later. He wanted to remove non-com the families of all - many twists. Sveaborg The commandant tothematterfif- of returned The Jewish presence in Sveaborg was nevertheless a story with astory Sveaborg presence wasnevertheless The Jewish in 2000, 31. families (both Jews and non-Jews).400 families (both Jews 41 Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 101 The entire My choiceMy 44 42 Critics might want to 43 Thus the use of Freud’s theories in the Freud’s Thus the use of 45 . For Theweleit, the use of psychoanalytic symbols Theweleit, For 86. . Freud adds that these symbols are not limited to the that these symbols adds are Freud 140. 1993, 1993, 56–57. 1964, 2008, 67–79. realm of dreams. They are also found in various other contexts, such as also variousfound in They are other contexts, dreams. of realm 1964, 142. Se Freud and poems. everyday speech, legends, popular myths, grounded in the writings of Freud is a methodologically of writ in the writings solid way grounded - of Freud Theweleit 1993, 192–194. See ing psychohistory. A fortress is something to be conquered and owned. From another From and owned. A fortress to be conquered is something context of Nicholas I and the JewsNicholas of as jus- Sveaborgcontext in can be regarded interpretation is naturallyFreudian subject to serious schol- A tified. possibilityI offerone interpretation the and is just of arly challenge, Nevertheless, with fortresses. special relationship explaining Nicholas’ argue that the psychoanalyticalI would offers a plausible approach seemingly irrational behavior. of Nicholas’ explanation a symbol is of safetythe woman) and the fortress (i.e. view, point of of using Freudian symbolism is supported as a tool of interpretation of using Freudian - field of psychohis used in the which are of analysis, similar modes by - who dis Theweleit, by Klaus is offered example One prominent tory. Theweleit “in writes that cusses the castle as a symbol for woman. often to or are refer “castles” of images thoughts or perceived dreams, “mother”, carries the connotations “Castle” womb. associated with the high-born woman”. “pure, woman”, “noble dismiss Freud as outdated and discard his theories as unscientific, but theorieshis discard and outdated as unscientific, as Freud dismiss Even theories ignored. be cannot Freud’s psychohistory, of field the in they and modified, developed, as his theories been challenged, have As of relevance. of departurestill a point with a high degree constitute of conceptualization here the mode “As a rule, Theweleit puts it: Klaus Freudian.” while still remaining be criticalmust of Freud, Freud 42 Freud 43 Theweleit 44 Theweleit 45 Falk to Freud, the fortress is a powerful and loaded psychological symbol. psychological fortress the symbol. loaded and powerful a is Freud, to castlessees fortressesand symbolsas for woman. Freud psychological study of the causes heavily of Anti-Semitism relies on Freud. built by a foundation 102 André Swanström allowed to visitthefortress, gave which himanuneasyandprisonlike when hewasreceived by dignitaries. local Finally, deCustinewas tions deCustinewasmetwithsuspicion, pretexts, andstrangeglances matter. complicated a highly andrecommenda permits Despite all - Ladoga.Lake According todeCustine, was fortress visitingaRussian Shlisselburg, atthehead oftheNevaRiver fortress on the oldSwedish sion by theMinisterof War )tovisit (i.e. himself theCzar ultimately in1839.visited Russia The Marquis deCustinehad been given- permis ample. examplesare Other offered by theMarquis deCustine, who absurd ways, from beingjustone theJews ex expelling Sveaborg safety,need for impossibletosatisfy. wasnearly aneedwhich calculations,ical had butapparently todowithadeeperpsychological orpolit I would arguethatthisneedwasnotaboutrationalmilitary ofNicholas I, seatedinthepersonality wasdeeply build fortresses and nons, would protection which offer for theinhabitants. hisbuildings. failedtofortify never can- included fortifications The nannies. Heusedchairs, earth, andtoys asbuildingmaterials, andhe roots. Nicholas playhouseshimselfandhis Asachild builtsmall for and theengineercorps, althoughhisinterest had deeper infortresses attention to fortresses administration he would close devote military concrete in ahighly manner.tresses andtheengineercorps Regarding - for high enthusiasm for Nicholas was able to cultivate his unusually andsecurity.itself inanaccentuatedsafety needfor Asanemperor withhismother. symbiosis for deep craving manifested This craving witha away insuch thatheseemstohave beenleft been disrupted individuation phase inthedevelopment ofNicholas’ had personality fromseparated thecare ofhismotheratatenderage. The separ Nicholas I’s specialattitudeasregards fortresses. Nicholas had been anexamination point for of isastarting care andsafety or maternal find shelter behind its walls.one can of womanly The importance Riasanovsky 46 Riasanovsky Nicholas’ relationship itselfin couldmanifest with fortresses 1969, 10. 46 The needto ation- - Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 103 The entire host entire The 47 De Custine 2002, 351–368. of localby the paranoid dignitaries spiritbeen affected had that per- restrictions and The I. apparatus Nicholas of meated the bureaucratic manifestations of this paranoid fortresses the were surrounding secrets argue that the paranoia and the the same time I would but at spirit, psychological of the Czar’s manifestations fortresses themselves were cry the unanswered early in his unhappy needs rooted childhood years, and the absence of motherlyof the baby and care. love 47 The ordeals of and Schleimo Itshok The The history of the Jews in is particularlySveaborg interesting. story of the cantonists is absolutelyessential for Finnish Jewish the people who former Discharged cantonist soldier were identity. The displayed cantonists founded the Jewish community in Finland. clingingdetermination and courage of their fathers to the religion is slightly picture The for this. due admiration received and they have of the many that the fact account take into if we however, altered, All Jewish soldiers with them. and children Jewish wives soldiers had their Jewish family isolated from boys in Finland not lost young were of Jewish families accommodation The close to and community life. the barracks that was certainly a factor was for helpful the foundation previously I have the mentioned of Jewish life community in Finland. that dealt with the experience traditions narrative of the cantonists. One orally. Stories passed on of the cantonists were about the ordeals feeling. De Custine’s experiences from other European fortresses were fortresses were other European experiences from De Custine’s feeling. in a cour- received been he had In other countries, markedly different. despite all pleasant manner teous and imaginable strategic polit and visit became de Custine’s however, In Shlisselburg, ical consideration. spectaclea bizarre a become in which time have he felt he could at any as a noble and privileged entered whichhad he prisoner in the fortress, of the Emperor. permission tourist with the express 104 André Swanström and the mighty Russian patriarch entered patriarch theroom Russian accompaniedand themighty by to readand started prayers. the evening Then the door was opened courses,Shabbat litcandles, andputon theirtalitot(prayer shawls) could be presentable before the metropolitan. set the table with They sothatthey clothes wereprisoners allowed andclean to wear new Petersburg toseetheprisoners. wasabouttobegin, Shabbat andthe perseverance.spiritual Finally, metropolitan Antonius from came St. the commandant wasmoved, soldiers’ whenhesawthetwo Jewish theirhardships inotherways,and alleviated too. of Even theheart Shabbat. for andcandles alsomended their clothes She regularly food women from Helsinki, MrsChavaKnopp, especially brought them yearsto waitfour beforegot they any decision abouttheirfate. Jewish were inacasemate, locked abombproof dungeon. They wereforced the situation, and the men were transferred to Sveaborg. There they of thecell. this, After inSt. Synod theHoly Petersburg wastoldabout justmade themfurious,zeal ofthepriest The threwhimout andthey inorder totheircell topersuadecame themtoreturn toChristianity. Jews. ofthis,They were because incarcerated priest Orthodox andan creed didnotacceptwantedtobe they theChristian andthat school). toldtheircommanding grewupthey officersthat they When hadathome they learnt andinthechederwhich (i.e. elementary Jewish religiousDespite thisthetwo menhad customs, keptJewish secretly asyoung baptized. childrenhad andthey beenforcibly been drafted identity. Jewish about thenature oftheFinnish The protagonists had legend andactual facts. us tells thingiswhatthestory The important tradition,oral anditishard therelationship todetermine between metthetwo cantonists.had personally ofan isthuspart The story rights. for struggle from Jacobsson hisfather, had heard thestory who 1950s whenJacobsson Jews’ publishedhiswork abouttheFinnish down intheearly tothe1870sbutitwaswritten datesback story oftwo individualcantonits.the story According toJacobsson the history. Jewish major account of Finnish In Jacobsson’s book we find Jacobsson, down by Santeri waswritten story such authorofthefirst Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 105 1951, 97–99. 48 Soon after this the prisoners were released. They were were called They Itshok Soon after released. this the prisoners were Jacobsson 48 Jacobsson guards. The prisoners did not react. They just continued to pray. The continued to Theypray. just react. prisonersThe did not guards. closed and he the the room, to leave the guards ordered metropolitan and waited room on a chair in a corner of the Then he sat down door. were prisonersWhen the forthe prisoners their prayers. finish to telling that the Holy them in a meek tone, them addressed he ready, them to He wanted Synod authorized had them a visit. him to pay to return and to repent they prepared Were a simple question: answer you do “Why ask, you replied: prisonersThe do doctrine? pure the to not see the burning Shabbat candles not been we the table? Have on were We sufferings our tormentedyou? enough? Are not enough for stick we to creed, your do not accept We forcibly baptized as children. Our torture. faith will not be shaken by the doctrine of our forefathers. The Shabbat Leave us alone!” and our protection. God is our witness candles light in the their faint gently flickered on the table and spread of was a moment and there walls, Shadowson the stone flickered cell. triedand backhold to rose tears. his metropolitan the Finally, silence. I will and now “I shall leave voice: with a trembling Then he spoke that the I will recommend Sabbathnot disturb your evening anymore. I pray to the Almighty that Holy Synod immediately. you shall release as of heaven in the kingdom me the same kind of place He shall give God bless faith. unwavering your through earned yourselves have you you!” When bap- been they had Schleimoand fellowtheir Jews. among but they did not want to use tized new Christian they received names, where Vyborg, After to they went their release those names anymore. fur- travel not did them of One father. they met SanteriJacobsson’s He fell under the train ther since he was fatally in an accident. injured he where America, to The other moved at the SorvaliVyborg. stop in relatives. had 106 André Swanström Duchy of Finland were not the primary concernsofNicholas, were nottheprimary of Finland but Duchy lutism and paranoia. and their position in the remote Jews Grand of almostconstant intolerance, withhisabso- wassynonymous which into agreat championoftolerance. The reign of Iwasa Nicholas reign austere like Nicholas childhood would most prob with hisstepchildren, that istosay theJews. Aperson withahard and able mother; father” as theCzar “little relationship with acomplicated woman/mother for andNicholas’as asymbol longinganunattain- for ofhisself;aries asNicholas’ theuniform mental boundary, thefortress their relationship with Nicholas’ of the dissolution fear of the bound- of Nicholasnection I: to the personality borders geographical and of Finland, Ihave findingswithacon presented- new thefollowing mindset.cratic rooted suspicion weredeeply ofthe bureau anddiscrimination - part awayFinland insuch that Russia and in had thebureaucracy affected inFinland,ing thestatusofJews andattitudes andhispersonality Nicholas Ihad, however, already tothelegislation contributed regard- population inthecountry. Jewish thus establishing apermanent settleinFinland, soldierstolegally enableddischargedJewish which successor ofNicholas throne, Ion theRussian gave theorder, finally inFinland. history developments ofJewish AlexanderII,early the ground hispersonal affected intolerance, marked inturn the which Nicholashave in which I’s demonstrated the ways - back psychological werethat the victims Jews of theCzar’s not the only intolerance. I and onlevels all thefact thatNicholasruler Iwasanintolerant sizes ample, work of Yohanan thescholarly Petrovsky-Shtern. Heempha - identity, Jewish mark on Finnish benuancedby, naturally can ex for ance and insecurity. This impression, hasput an indelible which by intoler were characterized years settlementinFinland ofJewish clear message: JacobssonSanteri conveys a told by theearly The story Conclusions With regard to the psychohistory of tolerance in the Grand Duchy Duchy intheGrand oftolerance regard tothepsychohistory With ably not have evolved not have evolved ably - Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 107 ation and intolerance ation 14647 Santahaminan juutalaiset perheet1848 siirrettävät . New York: New York Review Books. Review Books. York New York: New Russia. From Letters Macmillan. Palgrave Basingstoke: Memory in Culture. Hatred of. Contemporary A Historyand Psychoanalysis Anti-Semitism: Praeger. CT: Westport, . from Maps in Psychogeography Readings the Mind: Symbolism”. “Border University Oklahoma: Norman, Niederland. G. W. Stein and F. H. Eds. of Oklahoma Press. from Maps Symbolism“Border in Psycho Readings Revisited”. the Mind: Oklahoma: Norman, Niederland. G. SteinW. and F. H. Eds. geography. University of Oklahoma Press. Gummerus. Jyväskylä: K.J. psykoanalyysiin. Johdatus in the Nineteenth-Century of Age and Coming the Body, “Masculinity, Youth, Journal The History of and the of Childhood Russian Corps”. Cadet Spring 2012. 2, Number 5, Volume Venäläiset sotilasasiakirjat Venäläiset Sotilasinsinöörihallinnon arkisto German Parish Vyborg Archives: Church De Custine, Astolphe De Custine, 2002 Astrid Erll, 2011 Avner Falk, 2008 Avner Falk, 1989a Avner Falk, 1989b Sigmund Freud, 1964 Rebecca Friedmann, 2012 Bibliography Archive sources Helsinki of Finland, Archives National References they received their share of ukases and imperial orders, which laid the and imperial of ukases orders, their share they received decades for foundation of discrimin coming the the narrative in ordeals of the cantonists’ lasting impression as a as well of Finnishtradition Jews. 108 André Swanström 2012 Smolar, Rony 1999 Siltala, Juha 2005 Seela, Jacob 1837 Bref afKejserliga Samling 1836 Bref afKejserliga Samling 1969 Riasanovsky,Nicholas V. 1995 Rancour-Laferriere, Daniel 2009 Petrovsky-Shtern, Yohanan 1989 Lincoln, W. Bruce 1951 Jacobsson, Santeri 2000 Halén, Harry församlingen iHelsingfors. hepreaksi”. tarina “Kantonistien Hakehila Helsinki: Otava. Valkoisen 5/2005. Helsingfors: Judiskaförsamlingen iHelsingfors. kaupustelijoitaja kauppiaita 1800-luvunTurussa”.“Juutalaisia och medår1834. Utgifven Pehr af Törnqvist. Helsingfors: Pehr Törnqvist. ochOeconomiae- Politiae-ärender. Tredje delen. Från och medår1829till Stor-FurstendömetDess Senatför utiJustitiae-, blifvit Finland utfärdade Hans Kerserliga af Majestät,hvilka i Expeditionerne äfvensom ifrån Bref, gällande Förklaringar detillefterlefnad af Samling och Föreskrifter, och medår1828. Helsingfors: Pehr Törnqvist. ochOeconomiae- Politiae-ärender. Andra delen. Från och medår1821till Stor-FurstendömetDess Senatför utiJustitiae-, blifvit Finland utfärdade Hans af Kerserliga Majestät,hvilka i Expeditionerne äfvensom ifrån Bref, gällande Förklaringar detillefterlefnad af Samling och Föreskrifter, Angeles: Press. ofCalifornia University Nicholas Russia, in I and Official Nationality York &London: New York Press. University Russia: The Slave Soulof Moral. New Masochism Suffering andtheCultof Cambridge: Press. University Cambridge Army, in theRussian Jews 1827–1917. Drafted into Modernity. Press. University Illinois Nicholas I: Emperor andAutocrat DeKalb: theRussians. All Northern of ja Suomenjuutalaiskysymyksen vaiheista. Jyväskylä:Gummerus. Taistelu ihmisoikeuksista. Yhteiskunnallis-historiallinen Ruotsin tutkimus limit jajuutalaiset n. 1812–1840. Helsinki: Unholanaitta. sekäHämeenlinnan–Turun–AhvenanmaanViaporin mus- varuskuntien äidin pojat. Siveellisyys jasenvarjot. kansallisessa projektissa 3/2012. Helsingfors: Judiska 1825–1855. Berkeley &Los Hakehila Nicholas I and the Jewish Cantonist Soldiers in Finland 109 . Minneapolis: Minneapolis: History . Bodies, Floods, Women, 1: . Terror White the Psychoanalysing Male Bodies. 2: Tsar Nicholas I and the Jews: The Transformation ofTransformation Jewish in Society Russia The Jews: I and the Nicholas Tsar JewishThe Publication Society America. of Philadelphia: . 1825–1855 Volume Male Fantasies. University Press. of Minnesota Volume Male Fantasies. University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis: one. Volume Scenarios Myth and Ceremony of in Russian Power: Monarchy. New Jersey: Princeton, I. the Great the Death of Nicholas to Peter From University Press. Princeton University of Seattle: JewishZakhor: History and Jewish Memory. Press. Washington Stanislawski, Michael Stanislawski, 1983 Klaus Theweleit, 1993 Klaus Theweleit, 1989 S. Richard Wortman, 1995 Haim Yosef Yerushalmi, 1982 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community Introduction “Not seven times, but seventy-seven times”, Jesus answered (Matt. 18: 21–22, according to the New International Version of the Bible) when Peter asked him how many times a person should forgive the one who offended him. Forgiveness is also a central issue in the Christian prayer Our Father “forgiveness” (Matt. 6: 9–13). In many of the world’s reli- gions forgiveness is important and, today, public and individual for- giveness is a means of reconciliation after war1 or other kinds of abuse (for example Bishop Desmond Tutu after apartheid or the Pope for paedophilia). The concept of forgiveness is closely connected to other central religious ideas, such as purity, sacrifice, confession, salvation, and, consequently also mercy and wellbeing.2 Christianity is founded on the idea of redemption, which is the result of a belief in the divine forgiveness of human sins. Forgiveness was also an object for research with psychologists of religion who maintain that forgiveness is vital to keep up a good and functioning life with other humans, with nature and with the spiritual world.3 Here I want to investigate how forgive- ness functions in praxis, or, in a more modern setting, what does lived 1 Basic 2013. 2 See, for instance, Heiler 1961, 501–514; McCullough, Bono & Root 2005, 397. 3 McCullough, Bono & Root 2005, 397. 110 Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 111 guilt is regarded as being guilt is regarded 5 gives a thorough overview a thorough gives - the extremely of com 4 ; Kettunen 2014, 13–26. 2006; 2000. , I conducted interviews, the target of whichof see to was target the interviews, conducted I 2012, In Shame, guilt, forgiveness, salvation are perhaps salvation the most central are forgiveness, guilt, Shame, connected with acts and deeds. A person feels A person guilty for what he or and deeds. with acts connected Shame feeling is a composite and can be or not done. she has done Shame a per- concerns of modern being. seen as the central problem incompetent, self for feels worthless, complete a shameful person son’s He or she is ashamed and unable and cannot him- or herself. accept are shame and guilt of the emotions practice, in Certainly, existing. of a sound feeling of guilt can- raise responsi However, felt as a mixture. The feelings of shame and shame can whereas paralyse a person. bility, of the guilt help humans to identify with evil and make them aware capable that theyfact are of doing evil deeds. a multidisciplin guilt and shame from between plicated relationship Antiquity- to con from philosophers It fascinated ary perspective. in Today, and anthropologists. psychologists, temporary sociologists, pastoral counselling of souls for the cure 4 Misheva 5 Kettunen forgiveness look like? The aim of this articleThe aim of this a how is to investigate like? look forgiveness experience his guilt, of related of a Laestadian community member it possible for a Was his interview in and forgiveness with me. shame, believer within an authoritarian take a subjec- to movement revivalist forgiveness viewpoint? where tive of a situation out a way Did he find was very did he do it? and how to produce hard how some members of a Laestadian group in Finland their group members of a Laestadian some expressed how but not victims themselves, were They thoughts about paedophilia. - In the conversa and/or his family. the paedophile they known had sins such as committing with issues connected touched on we tions, and sinning in general. paedophilia, revivalist in many particularly, in Christianityconcepts and, in general Misheva movements. 112 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 11 10 9 sions are casually formulated. sions are casually isconstituted” aboutthewaybelieve theworld andthattheseexpres- … ison whatpeople … do, thinkandsay inrelation towhatthey by contextorientation, hisorhercultural andlife orpresuppositions. theory,hermeneutic thescholar’s interpretation would beinfluenced presuppositions (Vorverständnis) justinthesameway as, according to havethey experienced. Their interpretationsare influenced bytheir narrate. However, their narrations are already interpretations of what gion whatpeoplesay meanstointerpret andhowact they when ingredients apersonal for belief. and practiceit”. gion asitislived: ashumanbeings encounter, understand, interpret, regarded central. itistosee how important Primiano underlines “reli- together intoawhole. Personal dimensions offaithare andprivate belief thatcontains ingredients from different mixed religious systems This conceptLeonard wascreated by Primiano. Itcovers subjective viewpoint. a single individual’s perspective on life, folkloristic is a typically which guilt, shame, inorder to see one interview and/orforgiveness inonly of thetextinterms interpret ontrate thepassagesIcan inwhich 8 Primiano 7 Lennartsson 6 affiliation, a person’sorientation cultural context and life gious experience inexpressivegious experience forms. a person orpersonsor giving meaning to his or their reli interpreting - material In a scholarly context,In ascholarly ashere, such todealwithvernacular reli- I base my folkloristic investigation reading I basemyfolkloristic on oftheempiric aclose Cf. Pargament 1997,99–100114. & Valk][Bowman & Valk][Bowman speaks aboutthesubjective inreligion. turn Cf. 2003. &DuBois Lentricchia 6 , more thatlasted for thananhour. aninterview Iconcen- 7 Myperspective isfrom thestudyofvernacular religion. 1995, 2010. 8 Marion Bowman and Ülo BowmanValk Marion andÜlo statethat “the stress 44, here [Bowman & Valk] 2012, 2012, 6. 2012, 5. 9 The methodsshedlightupon relevant 10 Inaddition tothereligious 5. Ketola(2007, 11 deliver 30) Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 113 Certainly, I Certainly, 13 I do not try I do not to explain 12 2005, 367–368. This seems to be a method of interviewing of method a be to seems This psy- within used also forensic 2014, 13. Hägen cf. chology, The interviewee from me his permission to quote passages gave Belief is a very intimate matter. In this kind of research, the kind of research, In this Belief is a very intimate matter. take the risk that my interpretation is too subjective. take the risk is too subjective. my interpretation that ethical For to hide his identity. however, tried, I have our conversation. I changed the spoken a detailed biography. I will not present reasons Swedish into a reader-friendly language text. how theologians understand the Laestadius message, nor do I try nor do to message, the Laestadius theologians understand how in seeing I am interested to it. illustrate believers should relate how about his thoughts formulates today a believer message in his how to obtain an insight into in order forgiveness at last, and, shame, guilt, of Laestadius message the how waysregards as additional/alternative can be understood. his belief is central. of formulating way individual interviewee’s my principle when interviewing as silent was to remain Consequently, I In this way, let the interviewee instead and speak freely. as possible, - such as paedo issue, one can he or she associates from also see how shame and forgiveness. such as guilt, others, to philia, Inwood 12 Inwood 13 The founder of was the Laestadianism Swedish clergyman Lars Levi Laestadianism in Lapland. Laestadius (1800–1861) who worked by Pietism and the influenced movement revivalist is a Protestant and above area, Arctic the throughout and it spread Moravian Brethren Laestadianism Consequently, the scholarly interpretation of a text, or an interview, or an interview, scholarly the of a text, interpretation Consequently, it but view a topic, or interviewee’s on onlydoes not writer’s the show analyst’s the or his on based or unveils also demonstrates perspective life orientationher subjective and experience. 114 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 16 Brännström tional andshouldconsist of “regret, contrition, over one’s grief sins, forgiven.sinner mightbepublicly The entire emo- process washighly anddemandpublicremorse.their shortcomings repentance, After a of Peace tocontrol their co-members’ way oflife, andtopointout forgiveness. Thirdly, ofthemembersanAssociation itwastheduty repent in front person of other Laestadians and ask for could publicly science. wasallowed believer toforgive. Every Alternatively, theguilty front ofaChristian, i.e. Laestadianbeliever, andreceive ease ofcon- 15 B[ergqvist] 14 traditionshould beread oral inmind. withtheSámi prayer housesasmeanstokeepupfaith. ofhissermons rhetoric The lay preachers, reading, andreligious homes and meetingsinprivate and thetargetmostofrevivalistmovements. for tury Heaccepted problem ofthenineteenthcen- intheNordic inthemiddle countries ).förening Laestadiusworked ofalcohol, againstthedrinking ageneral divided intofractions, ormeetings,- Associations ofPeace called (frids all, to Finland. In Finland, church and is it belongs to the Lutheran tional or even ecstatic experiences asasignofrepentance.tional ecstaticexperiences oreven hisdeath. untilafter fession wasnotinstitutionalized Hesawemo- ofrealizing one’slined theimportance sins, butthetradition ofcon - meeting. The meetingcouldalso refuse absolution.Laestadius under- public infront ofameeting. Absolution wasreached through only the about confession and absolution.the doctrine Confession should be two main principles, abouttheword thedoctrine ofGod, namely and There were three of ways repentance. America, seePalola 2014. 1982.see Raittila For heterogeneous ofLaestadianism inNorth forms until1885, America of LaestadianisminNorth distribution the early handled Finnish Laestadianism,Finnish 1976. seeRaittila Talonen, Cf. Elgvin2010. the role of Laestadianism in the political life ofFinland. therole life ofLaestadianism inthepolitical For 1911, 1962, 107. Cf. 2001. Leivo 784–785. over nineteenth century For an overview 16 Aperson couldrepent in 14 He proclaimed Heproclaimed 1988 and1993, 15 Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 115 al 23 18 The concept of key power of keyThe concept power in Laestadian My interest 60–62. 19 24 2013, , footnote 2. 153, . In other words, not until guilt and not until guilt and words, In other . 17 1962, This image was certainly 20: This image John taken from . In Swedish, the verse is: “Jag- skall dig nyck ge is: the verse In Swedish, . 20 22 , cf. Ventin Ventin cf. 93–97, 19 1962, 153–163. 2011, 1911, 784. B[ergqvist] 1953, 130; ; Heiler 1961, 375. cols 292–293; 1912, , which allowed the which allowed the clavis1551 and concerned ordinis, or Matt. 16: or Matt. ”Ånger, ruelse, syndasorg, eller samvetskval och hjärteångest”, Brännström Brännström och hjärteångest”, eller samvetskval syndasorg, ruelse, ”Ånger, 1962, 123. Brännström also, See, 1962, 110. Meier 2013, 63–71. Cf. According to Boreman 1953, 126–127. to Boreman According to Brännström According ism is professional. I do not belong to the movement. I do not belong ism is professional. Still today, repentance and absolution in the name of Jesus Christ in the and absolution repentance Still today, Laestadius’ contemporary Raattamaa Johan preacher and lay helper Laestadius’ 21 are central characteristics in the movement. Forgiveness is crucial Forgiveness central characteristicsare in the movement. of today. within the Laestadianism ) emphasized unconditional absolution and gave the and gave absolution ) emphasized(1811–1899 unconditional evangelical a more movement tone. 17 18 19 Boreman Brännström 20 Brännström 21 22 or remorse and heartfelt or remorse fear” 23 - com in a socio-culturalcontext been raised to awareness shame had occur. forgiveness could listeners, prising or more one 23 A[ulé]n 24 Snellman larna till himmelriket. Allt du binder på jorden skall vara Allt på jorden bundet i du binder larna till himmelriket. In the skall och vara allt löst i himlen.” du löser på jorden himlen, and “bind” the help of by expressed binda and lösa are English version keys of the at the Council accepted This image was of heaven “loose”. in of Trent and the clavis jurisdictionis the that allowed priest absolution, to give body to exclude of a church sinners or re-incorporate in front priest, Martin Luther whose writings important to Laestadius were them. of the keys the image as a kind of gospel. of heaven regarded signs of true remorse. became central. Every clergymanbecame central. the key believer had power and lay if his him forgive to not or sinner, repenting a or liberate, forgive, to or physic or other emotional the rightbody did not show gestures 116 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts apostle Peter had deniedJesus: the Association. Negation washisfirst reaction inthesameway as Association ofPeace wasawishtodeny hispersonal membershipin His first reactionrumour about apaedophile whenheheard inhis the guilt by others. with guilt, he burdened others with guilt, burdened and he felt with Bengt referred toguiltfrom three perspectives. Heburdened himself Guilt memory.wanted tolessenthepainofterrible philia. IcouldimaginethatBengt butstill The contrast wasenormous room uneasysittingthereI felt ina holy andspeaking aboutpaedo- nexttothepulpit. there thebench to meetmeexactly andhepicked and empty. thedoorandwe entered Heunlocked thehall. Hewanted We metintheprayer houseofhisAssociation of Peace. Itwasclosed well.of revelation very withemotions. Hisway wasfilled oftelling totheshock.also contributed man wasarespected teacher andbeloved preacherschool andSunday group thatshouldhave thanothers. highermorals The fact thatthe it had condemned happened in a Christian because was firmly event ordiscretely. atopiccarefully such to handle Inthenewspapers, the man’s deaththathissecret was revealed. Certainly, itwasimpossible sons, boys. atthattimesmall the years after Itwasnotuntiltwenty years before hehad had sexualrelationshipsforty - withhisgrand respectedspired lay thatahighly preacher wasapaedophile. Some In The Cultural Context 25 nPeasai(Jakobstad),- ittran atown inwestern Finland 2009, ( inPietarsaari He struggled with his experience ofnotbeingafaithfulLaestadian. withhisexperience He struggled My interviewee, Bengt, amaninhisfifties, remembered theday Cf., instance, for Matt. 26. 25 Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 117 26 In this way, Bengt placed his Bengt placed In this way, 27 - although he still kept a relation ence of denial outside himself, B: Nä, ingenting. Och det är ju en, det är ju en så jättesvår bit härefter, det är ju en så jättesvår bit härefter, Och det är ju en, ingenting. Nä, B: man skulle behöva ju bekänna man vill ju inte egentligen, för inte, att, att, man vill inte stiga fram ju alltså, men i det skedet, och stiga fram, sin tro, har sån där”, som hör till att jag den rörelsen ”Jag är laestadian, och säga: man är nog emot, det kommer alltså, man vill inte det, man vill inte, [Suckar djupt!] efter det är nog slut med orden det där. alltså det, totalt, (IF mgt 2014: 002.) U: Du visste ingenting, anade ingenting? anade DuU: visste ingenting, and filled “I” and “one” the interviewThroughout Bengt switched between onlycontext made it The situational meanings. with different the concepts possible for me to understand his choice of terminology. , which is Swedish for a subject contains calledThe quotation man, U: So you didn’t know anything, you didn’t suspect anything? suspect didn’t you anything, know So didn’t you U: it is such a tremendously difficult matter It is such a, nothing. No, B: one’s should confess one really want, doesn’t one for, to, to, hereafter, to say: want to step up doesn’t one well, but then, step up, and belief, that has such movement to that a”, I belong that “I am a Laestadian, against it goes well, want to do that, doesn’t one want, doesn’t one after words no more are there it, well is totally, one the grain for me, [Sighs deeply!] (IF mgt 2014: 002). that. However, being a believing Laestadian, Bengt was also fully aware being a believing Laestadian, However, a third undefined person, “somebody”, “anyone”. It is possible to inter- “anyone”. “somebody”, undefined person, a third he feels somebody threatened, when the text as a generalisation: pret the to but to blur his relationship not to stand up in person, prefers in this case man refers However, subject. inexact using a more event by This becomes härefterclear from (hereafter) which to Bengt himself. me he said that he To of time. individual perception points to Bengt’s In still denied Laestadianism. struggled that he had with the problem referred I) the jag (generally meaning the first person, this quotation, as an example. person, to a fictive that every human being was filled with sin. He used words such as words used He that everybeing was filled human sin. with ship to it in his personal struggleship to it in his personal for peace. experi 27 26 118 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 28 individuals. guilty and remorse wascentral. There werecases whenhesingledout also expressed hisknowledge asapersonwhom for therecognition ofsins There wasnohumanexception, hehimselfincluded.clearly He dust, ashes, doubt, me what he meant. to tell when he tried or rust ation would isthathisblamersthoughttheprofane become a world that wasnotapproved ofby the dominating members. Myinterpret Peace, device heowned for atechnical criticised buthewasseriously had offered to take on amore responsible role in hisAssociation of benobodyanywherewill goodthelastjudgement. enoughfor ising interpretationofhisstatementmightbethaton doomsday there bers thatwere toogreat, sothatnobodycouldfulfilthem. A- general people who steered theAssociation had made demandson the mem- person alsocontrolledThey themembers’ living. Again, Bengtusedthefirst Association themembersshouldlead. whodecidedwhat kindoflife Bengt had ofbeingblamedby alsohad theexperience others. He refersDe (they) tothepowerful, dominating persons inthe mgt2014:002.) (IF would Day beableontoshow theLast that have beengood”.“I it doesn’t work, therewalksothathe isnohuman beingthatcan difficulttowander,it sotremendously to wander alonga such way, and ourbelief, have they made itdifficult, have, they have they made wrong way, understooditinacompletely they itself Christianity for B: OK, [some they influential membersoftheassociation], orelse mgt 2014:002). kunnavisapåsistadagen såatthanskulle att vandra bra””jag harvarit (IF påensåndärväg,vandra detgårinte, detfinnsingen människa som kan det,har juförsvårat dehar, attvandra, svårt deharlagatsåfruktansvärt att det är, fel fattat det fullständigt vår tro, och själv att kristendomen för de B: OK, dominerande föreningsmedlemmar], de[några såhardeupp eller jag inhisgeneralising example, buthismessage wasthatthe 28 Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 119 det var, det var det det var, , but his life orien- 29 30 Cf. Sundén 1959. Cf. man skämdes ju att vara laestadian ”Det är ju så alltså, värsta, man tänkte, vilken idiot man är som, som är med i en sån där flock” är med i en sån där flock” som vilken idiot man är som, man tänkte, värsta, (IF mgt 2014: 002). Bengt’s cultural context, as a person very as a person familiar with Biblical cultural context, Bengt’s 30 29 Shame and he still struggled with Shame was also part experience, of Bengt’s He and of other people. He was ashamed of himself met. it when we He even men- also feltthat these other people should be ashamed. He repeatedlyof about his denial spoke shame. people’s other tioned it was a seriousLaestadianism so that I could see that matter for him. it was, I was ashamed to be a Laestadian, it is like this, “Well, He said: who is part what an idiot I am who, I thought, thing, it was the worst (IF mgt 2014: 002). of such a crowd” threat to the leaders of the Association. Too much of the secular life much Too the Association. of leaders to the threat done he had although However, way. in influence him would wrong forbidden that was something for to me believers he did not admit he classifiedguilt: grades of two By this means, failed. that he had of identity his Laestadian years at least two him to deny given had a forbiddenown but to apparatus was not serious enough for remorse, he saw hand, the other on as a sinner although, him to be accepted every sinner. being as a constant human deep influenced his feelings of guilt, tradition, tation, derived from the secular milieu in which he lived as a person, as a person, milieu in which the secular he lived derived from tation, He him feel also made unjustly treated. other people, among working felt him of wrong unjustly accusing even the persons though treated the norms of which they should to his Association, behaviour belonged he was partly within In this way, to them all. common as they are share and partly outside the Association. 120 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts that I was cheated so”that Iwascheated mgt2014: (IF difficult,tremendously indeed,prayer toenterthis houseandthink something about the paedophile.knew was wrecked: His pride is “It himself. by cheated Hefelt hiscommunitymemberswhoprob a pack. disappointed with see that hewas really we Consequently can same wayinaflock, assheepmoving in asmoving wolves orcruelty and his opinion abouthimself with ashamed) but he underlined expressBengt didnotonly hisshamethrough theword skämdes(was 33 32 31 He alsostated: the wrongdoers, sentences: instanceinthefollowing for reflectiveand extremely person. compared He constantly himself with mgt 2014:002.) against thelaw, well, nomatterwhatwe say itisagainstthelaw. (IF philia] isindeed, are they indeedthingsthat, thatwe totally, itis regarded asaperson whowantstobehave myself andthis[paedo- thisis,for agroup insuch one doesn’t wanttobeapart, Ihave for B: And Ijuststayed asideandthought, now Ikeepmymouthshut, house]. do. Itistheworst thingmancan mgt2014:002.) (IF show toothersthatIamgood [thatthesinnersgatherinprayer why inorder and shouldI?Butitisonly tokeepupappearances B: Iwouldn’t come here one for day even ifI’d things, bedoingsuch för dethärär,för medi, manjuintevara vill ensåndärgrupp attmanhar för B: tänkte, åt sidan och ju sig bara man höll och man nog käften, nu håller bönehuset]. Detärdetvärstamankangöra mänskor, andra fasad visaför och kommer till [som attjagärbra syndarna där, uppeen atthålla för vits?Mendetärjubara för vaddetvara skulle B: intekommapåmedsånt Jagskulle hitendagjagom hålla jagskulle man harblivitbedragen sådär” mgt2014:002). (IF ”Det ärjättesvårt, nog, attkomma inidethärbönehuset tänkaatt, och att flock (crowd, pack). inthe ofwords Hischoice stupidity indicates 33 002). (IF mgt2014:002 ). (IF 31 Bengt was a self critical Bengtwasa self critical idiot (idiot) 32 ably ably Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 121 35 1991, 63. 34 ju själv uppfattat sig som att en mänska, som vill uppföra som sig och det här ju själv att en mänska, uppfattat sig som det är ju det vi helt totalt, som det är ju såna saker som, [pedofilin] är ju, så är det mot lag (IF man säger vad mgt alltså oberoende är ju lagbrott, 2014: 002). helst i den som religioner för det finns ju hur mycket inte, Och jag tror B: för [skrattar] för, men inte vill jag börja vara med muslimerna, här världen, känns det men inte, men, men, bra, är OK muslimer som vissa finns ju det inte jag de tolkar ju Bibeln fullständigt som och Jehovas vittnen, inte bra, ska fortsätta ju att den här jorden samtidigt de tror riktigt förstår mig på, så himmel och jord, ny det står i Bibeln att Han ska skapa en ny en som inte fem penni på det (IFjag tror ). mgt 2014: 002 Bengt’s solidarity was challenged. Due in to his cowardly solidarityBengt’s reaction was challenged. B: and I don’t think, for there are so many religions as ever in this religions so many are for there think, and I don’t B: for[laughs], for, startto want a Moslem, being I don’t but world, no, but, but, but, OK fine, are that Moslems some are there indeed, they interpret the Bible witnesses, and Jehova’s feel good, it doesn’t the believe that this understand, completely that I don’t in a way earth says will at the same time as the Bible that He shall continue believe for I don’t so in that a new and a newcreate heaven earth, (IF 2014: 002.) mgt pence. five He could not see the point in concealing such a cruel in concealing not see the point He could as action denying Laestadianism we might regard him as a loser. However, the However, him as a loser. might regard denying Laestadianism we he tried to Consequently, with. feeling shame was difficult to live of religion, his was to leave One way out. himself and find a way unburden of concept the Laestadianism over he pondered Therefore, for instance. Witnesses: and Jehova’s his faith with Islam and compared paedophilia. The only explanation for hiding was, according to him, to to him, according onlyThe for hiding was, explanation paedophilia. qualities as a perfect own Christian. and underlinedemonstrate one’s it was even only to him not This was the secular law, of a violation Lutheran good to not belong does Boasting sins. worst the of one Christianity. Wolf-Knuts 34 Wolf-Knuts 35 122 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 37 36 acceptable kindoffaith, by a “process ofgrieving” being. tohim. Godwastrustworthy Only Hereached thisgoal, an Association ofPeace human had made himdisappointedinevery also referred tomaningeneral. ofpaedophilia Hisexperience inhis different, asincestuousandhomosexual such people. However, Bengt law,against theFinnish liars, hypocrites, andthosewhoare sexually hisway chose outofhisdilemma. hedeliberately because acategorisation, such enoughfor ence isofthekindthatnotserious demandsoppression from outside.becoming amartyr Bengt’s- experi his entire life. Perhaps we regard Should Bengtasamartyr? not, for himself asbeingoutofthegroup hehad towhich belonged almost for of demarcation between himselfandotherLaestadians. Hedefined To himthe “title” would do. Christian hedrewaline Subsequently the solution, ashesays, himselfaLaestadian. innotwantingtocall pangs ofconscience orhedidnot wanttobeashamedandthusfound Christianity.the dominating Lutheran Eitherhedidnotmanage his gions, themfrom butIimagineheknew hishometown ascontrasts to underlined how serious and difficult Bengt foundthesituation. anddifficultBengt how serious underlined aged. mgt2014:002.) (IF been abused, thataperson doesn’t standhiswholelife, heisdam - not manage, start, and then they start. then they So. you have When many, many years ago, andcarried, twenty, years, thirty did butthey B: Sure, children, innocentsmall have butthey grown, you know, Bengt’s shameasregards otherpeopleconcernedthosewhoact thesetwo reliBengt didnotexplaintomewhy hechose - exactly According toBengtthevictimsofpaedophile were ashamed, too: håller inteenmänskahelalivet,håller duärskadad såbörjarde,och såbörjarde. och Så. När manharblivitutnyttjad, sådet år sedan, hade och medsig, tjugo, trettio år, avdet, mendeharinteklarat B: Absolut, småbarn, oskyldiga mendeharväxtupp, vet du, många, många mgt2014:002. IF 37 (IF mgt2014:002 ). (IF 36 , anexpression that Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 123 38 002). ”Om man syndar och gör nånting och det känns, jag får inte nån frid och ”Om man syndar och nånting och det känns, gör (IF mgt 2014: 002). ro” Bengt’s life orientation as a person who preferred a life according a life according life who preferred orientation as a person Bengt’s This kind of shame was different from the one he felt and the one one he felt and the the from of shame was different This kind He also stated that not only would he have to regret his false steps to regret He also stated that not only he have would - himself in relation morals helped him to place to the law and good His cultural as context victims. and to the ship both to the wrongdoers of shame at a Christian his emotion to solution helped him to find a of and approved his perspective when he changed being a Laestadian him Laestadianism was the norm To form of belief. generous a more righthis kept he but define to whichbelief a and live, to wanted he his he expressed With to shame, regard it. to perceive he wanted how rather the Association than inside it, outside as a person position own completely. with the Association the contact although he did not break he wanted the perpetrators to experience. In the interview, he had he had In the interview, the perpetratorshe wanted to experience. he had belonging, religious his over reflecting by solved his problem left- telling con crimehis the of them committed by had that those fullythe victims he was but concerning of the aware tempt for them, I inter- lives. that their experiences influence their entire fact would shame did him, To and compassion. as sympathy his wording preted but such as pain or disdain, consequences, not onlyto negative lead also to pity the future. on and a perspective Remorse gave Bengt a feeling of uneasiness. In this case, he was very In this case, Bengt a feeling of uneasiness. Remorse gave jag (I) referring to himself. He even used the first pronoun personal. He also men- but everybody finally would arrive in such a situation. remorse: a specific tioned case of 38 Forgiveness “If sin and I [somebody] starts with a feeling of remorse: Forgiveness (IF mgt 2014: no peace” I get and it feels do something like, 124 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 39 tions ofguilt, shame, andremorse. enough, Interestingly headmitted ness. to thispreacher’s publicrevelation ofhisfailinghereceived forgive- positive occasion, atleastnottothosewhowitnessit. However, thanks inhumanbeings.no longer trust Remorse, then, a isnotnecessarily confession was disappointment andonce again hestatedthat he could stand upandavow something. Bengt’s reaction ofthis totheevent formulated hisremorse infront ofhisco-members. Stiga means upp had respected. This member of the community, a preacher, officially whombut alsoexistedamong Bengt themore participants liberal abuse was not limited to the most severe faction inthe community, ofpaedophiliadisappointed asthiscase revealed thattheproblem of The above analysis of the interview demonstratesBengt’s emo- oftheinterview The above analysis thispieceoftheconversation I interpret asBengtbeingespecially it.was forgiven for mgt2014:002.) (IF B: but hedid get up in this prayer house and told, and, and, and he U: cheated Itwasthesecond time[unclear] trusted really B: no, no, and, from anditcame Itrusted, thesidewhich I which U: intheinterview] andthisisnottheson [mentioned earlier couple ofchildren had thesame, thesame, scale, butinasmaller but, buthasabused a B: Well, butthenthere was, there emerged another[preacher] and och han har fått förlåtelse för det (IF mgt2014:002). det(IF för hanharfåttförlåtelse och B: och, Menhanhar nog stigituppidethärbönehusetberättat och och, U: sviken gången Detvarandra [oklart] troende för, för som förtroende manhade riktigt B: nej, nej, och, detkom densidandå, och ju från som manhade för U: detärintedenhärsonen och [som nämntstidigare iintervjun] barn samma, haft också sammaimindre skala, men, några menharutnyttjat B: Så, mensenhardetvarit, detkom juuppattenannan[predikant]… 39 Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 125 Accordingly, Accordingly, 41 40 002). - http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/stens Considering this opinion, it was a sur- Considering this opinion, 42 2011, 107. Cf., for instance, Lemberg 2005; < for instance, Cf., ; Kahl 1990, 598. 4e-sondagen-efter-trefaldighet-andra-arg-2007>; jon/ nån frid jag får inte och ”Om man syndar nånting och och det känns, gör förrän och det för man får lägga bort man har berättat om någon det ro, (IF mgt 2014: 002). där” He said to me that anyone in whom a person has confidence would confidence has person a in whom anyone He said to me that which means “to tell, to “to tell, which means berätta Bengt used the Swedish word do as a listener and a forgiving human. He exemplified this person this person He exemplified do as a listener and a forgiving human. been very – if he had or even his children or his brother, with his wife, - for is interest forgiveness valued as targets Children angry with them. ing because a characteristic trait within the Laestadian Associations prototypethe is himself God father. the of supremacy the is Peace of and model for the father. narrate”. The quotation is not clear on this point. On the one hand, one hand, On the is not The quotation on this point. clear narrate”. to verbaliseit helped him that meant feelings his have of Bengt may prise to listen to Bengt saying that he, the father, could turn to his the father, prise Bengt saying to listen to that he, God never for asked humans ask them for and children forgiveness. forgiveness. 40 41 42 Snellman his failings but, in the first place, he did not mention forgiveness as mention forgiveness he did not place, in the first but, his failings Only did later much a logical or evenconsequence. a matter-of-faith cer- When forgiveness, speaking about issue. an become forgiveness he described sinning felt as being in how tainly terms, in concealed and also to to Bengt According rest. and peace without a situation in man. voice is God’s conscience theology, Protestant Bengt referred to conscience as an agent, and it made him feel uneasy. him feel uneasy. made and it agent, an as conscience to Bengt referred Bengt’s and used or even in him, God was with him, In other words, in whichThe way as a channel for communication. his feelings, body, - themselves con could divest of a bad somebody Bengt thought that - “Ifsome does sins and a person was to verbalisescience the feelings: - forit told has some one before peace no get I it feelsand thing like, (IF mgt 2014: canbody else and one put it aside.” 126 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 43 performa theperson’sing orconfessingofwhathascaused concern anditisa statethat “telling”clearly impliedforgiveness. person hewould relief.some feel trustworthy However, Bengtdidnot may have methatifheformulated hissininfront wantedtotell of uneasiness. Ontheother, hemay have referred tohisfailings, i.e., he ground. The expression might to Johnrefer text,Although thisisnotabiblical - back itscontent hasabiblical your thatall believe sinsare forgiven inthenameand blood ofJesus”. was aquotation from theBible. Bengtremembered itas “you shall was aChristian, i.e., Laestadian. abelieving The reasonfor thisbelief the person towhom heconfesseshismistakesprovided thisperson In thissituation ofconfessing, according toBengt, thepower lieswith “confess”, andIthinkwe shouldunderstandhislanguage inthisway. name ispowerful. The bloodofJesusmentioned inthisconnection has in theSon.” The message isthatthename ofJesusisefficient.God’s ye askinmyname, shall Ido, that will thattheFather may beglorified According to Bengt, therelat forgiveness becomes real- after Provided myinterpretationisplausibleberätta near to comes very ten, itdoesn’t annoy you any longer. mgt2014: 002.) (IF years, thesefifty far asIhave experienced forgotten, itis forgot itis - yourall sinsare forgiven inthenameandblood” ofJesus, andI, as topreach preachthe right andthenthey that “you that believe shall that,to theBibleitsays has andbelieves thathewhoisaChristian B: thatone Onetells didthisandthat, itwent wrong, andaccording det ärbortglömt, mgt2014:002). inte ennågot(IF mera detirriterar blod”och jag, och åren, dehärfemtio vad jag har erfarit det är bortglömt, såförkunnar deatt och ”du iJesunamn blirförlåtna skatro dinasynder alla Bibeln såstårdetatt, tror och attförkunna attensomharrätt ärkristen B: så, och att man har gjort Man berättar det har gått snett, enligt och tive utterance by the trustworthy listener:tive by utterance thetrustworthy 14: 13: “And whatsoever 43 Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 127 but it is but it 44 45 ). In the same way as his belief and remorse helped as his belief and remorse In the same way 32–43). 23: enced world with the supernormal world, the holy landscape. the holy landscape. enced world with the supernormal world, Cf. Boreman 1953, 26–27. Boreman Cf. Leivo 2001. Cf. 2013, 7–17. Ingemark Cf. A synonym to receiving forgiveness was “to put it [i.e., the sin] it [i.e., “to put was forgiveness A synonymreceiving to Bengt’s words also have associations with the criminal on the cross the criminal with the cross associations on have also words Bengt’s The combination of the name and the blood of Jesus is a of the name and the formula The combination away”, as quoted above from Bengt’s conversation. Bengt said that if conversation. Bengt’s from above as quoted away”, peace have not he would he was distressed, and a sin committed he interpret In this and put it away. it to someone admitted until he had to decide It seems that he is the one himself is the agent. he ation, him to enter heaven together with Jesus, implying forgave Jesus that Jesus, with together heaven enter to him believed Bengt an as forgiveness in becausesins his him faith, his of to was given forgiveness Moreover, of confessing. “telling”, effect of but of behaving, or his way the criminal of his deeds as a result not can without further we see how Bengt ado Again, will. out of God’s personal his own He connected a bridge worlds. between has created experi worlds these two combined that he might also say with the his- We him the historical Calvary and the symbolical To torical Golgotha. to his literal due belief in the Bible. Calvary merged, (Luke 44 45 connotations of the influence from the Bohemian Brethren Bohemian the influence from the of connotations also an important and powerful symbol in the Lutheran Protestantism, importantan also symbol powerful and Lutheran the in Protestantism, In a situation the Holy with in connection Communion. for instance, a link of Jesus, name and blood the when mentioning of forgiveness, the world between was created of the miserable- sinner and the super Jesus was a helper. where natural world, can we hand, On the one like a spell. performatively, and functions, trueinterpretto come it so that what is said is supposed and change On person. “clean” a a sinner to the confessor from the social status of and verbalise that to formulate what is on know we the other hand, a is It feelingthe control. of person the give to helps mind person’s a therapeutic act. 128 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts doubt, man. for iscrucial security theneedfor also beGodifthereceiving person isregarded ashisrepresentative. celestial keys, i.e., ofloosening, thekey offorgiveness. The agent might his confession, means that this person which made use of one of the himself ofhisbad feeling. This agent couldbethe one who received giveness change. There must besomebody whoallowsBengtdivest Swedish 49 48 47 46 to putitaway” mgt2014: (IF one hastoldittosomebody namely: andonesays isallowed “before discard it. However, there isalsoanotherinterpretation. The quota talkabouthisproblemwhether hewill and, moreover, heistheone to interviewee saidthatforgiven liesin “the oceanofabysmal mercy” interviewee tages, inawrong way, by through thehelpofwhatheknew confession. way. IaskedBengtifthere mightbesomeone whocouldobtain advan- However, function families orcommunities inasecure donotoften become anefficient ness can factortomaintain good relationships. Bengt said. the beginningofsomething new, mangår (“one vidare continue”), can meansthatitisandshouldremainwhich im ten, itdoesn’t annoy one any longer” mgt2014: (IF deedwasforgotten:lined thattheevil isforgotten,“It itisforgot- it away”, i.e., ofguiltwaseradicated. hisfeeling Moreover, heunder- forgiveness, peace Bengtsaidhefelt andtranquillity, hehad for “put withwhom he couldconfess hisfailures.partners havingreceived After confidence and reliance, nottosay love. Bengt as referred tohisfamily According to Bengt,forgiveness of issecurity. theeffect Without In agood family, one anotherandforgive- thememberstrust IF mgt2014:003. IF mgt2014:002). (IF ärbortglömt,‘Det detärbortglömt, inteennågot mera’ detirriterar Cf. Maslow 1970,39. mgt2014:002). (IF ‘Förrän detdär’ omnågon manharberättat detför fårläggabort och få means allowed to”“be andnow theprerequisites- for for 002). 46 Here Ipointatfårlägga bort. palpable. Forgiveness was 47 Security comes from Security 002). 48 An other tion 49 , Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 129 orka leva leva orka , the Devil). However, he did not not did he However, Devil). the , Fan 50 B: Det här har man varit med nu 48 år och att fortsätta jag kommer tillsB: jag att Han har tagit bortdör och då har man försökt och jag tror våra synder, mera och kan jag inte (IF något på Honom mgt 2014: 002). jag tror years now and I will till now continue participated for I have 48 years here B: and I believe He has taken that tried and then I have my best, I die, I believe in Him and I cannot do anything more. our sins, away (IF 2014: 002.) mgt There is also another explanation for Bengt’s feeling of secur Bengt’s is also another explanation for There He was an issue that Bengt associated with death. Forgiveness 50 elaborate on such treachery, and his explanation forthat he this was and his explanation suchelaborate treachery, on in man after lost confidence scandalhad occurred. the paedophile He believer. He is a profound ity after forgiveness. having received - and there and forever, taken his sins once believed Jesus had that he felt that he In a way he could not be completelyfore reprobated. mythical from that stemmed forgiveness an overarching received had security this way In in a mythicalactions world and a mythical time. voice God’s followed he provided for alwayswas Bengt, have to there The illogical fact and asked for in his earthly forgiveness everyday life. eternalas a believer forgiveness and the feelingof receiving of insecur ity in his daily and my conversation. life in Bengt’s was not relevant who died without anxiety his brother as a relatively remembered Bengt it was clear that everybody his or has to leave To man. young security in his but since he witnessed his brother’s her earthly life, for was there forgiveness Bengt, To fear. belief Bengt did not feel any tro with life on (orka man to be able to believe to go and , was not mainly a means to reach Forgiveness vidare) as a Christian. This was his strategy and this our conversation we had until heaven. strategy was to continue: In his answer he almost swore: “Det vete fåglarna” (which means Lord “Det fåglarna” vete swore: he almost In his answer DevilThe fåglarna knows, forbut which euphemism is a also knows, starting (the birds) like f an with 130 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts functioned him. for religion created ofChristian apersonalthat variant My interviewee sacred world. Inthiscase, words were thanbehaviour. more important formulation that referred in a performative but he believed tothe towards Laestadianism. He didnotmention thepairofcelestialkeys, himself abouthow tofinda solution tothefact thathewascritic negotiationsemotions with andthoughtsinan individual way after ment totakeasubjective viewpoint. formulated his Myinterviewee revivalistmove- withinanauthoritarian abeliever possiblefor clearly than thatappliedby thedominant persons intheAssociation. Itwas sify sins; was accordingscale toadifferent ifthisclassification even related torecognise tohispersonalasin, ability - toclas andhiswill he drewhisknowledge inreligious matters. andshamewere Guilt contextin thecultural thatcreated thereligious store from which issues.important andshamewere ingredients Guilt alsoimportant Association ofPeace forgiveness. experienced andshamewere Guilt Laestadian indepthtofindouthow amemberof one interview doeslived forgiveness look like?Inthisarticle,What Ianalysed Conclusion 51 ing his life – but insteading his life made it meaningful. Postmodern ideas about from thathindered anxiety dominating anidentity andlimit- crafted think critically. and, apersonal worldview Hecrafted moreover, he to inhisself-esteemandability thatwas founded on hisagency individualaction depending able kindofLaestadianismwasahighly recent religious movements.he scrutinized Hisway ofcreating asuit- i.e.both history from tohis own situation, thecrucifixion andwhen work ofChristianity, whenhewidenedhisperspective, even through to live according toit. To andhehad theresourcefulness Bengttradition wasimportant Cf. McKeough2013,104–105. 51 Certainly, stayed- healways within theframe al Lived Forgiveness in a Finland-Swedish Laestadian Community 131 52 Nordisk familjebok. Konversations- och realencyklopedi realencyklopedi och Konversations- familjebok. Nordisk 2011. Stockholm: Nordisk familjeboks förlags AB, cols 783–786. förlags familjeboks AB, Nordisk [15]. Stockholm: dess förhål - och väckelse märkligaste Fennoskandiens Læstadianismen. Svenska Stockholm: kyrkans Prästmötesavhandling. lande till kyrkan. diakonistyrelses bokförlag. and the dynam- generic expressions religion, Vernacular “Introduction: Expressions and Belief. in Everyday Religion Life: Vernacular ics of belief.” Nordisk familjebok. Konversations- och real och Konversations- familjebok. Nordisk “Löse- och bindenyckel.” cols. förlags familjeboks AB, Nordisk Stockholm: [17]. encyklopedi 783–786. och försoning överlevandesi oförsonlighet berättelser efter “Förlåtelse, forskning 50, 51–68. Sociologisk kriget i Bosnien.” ”Læstadianismen”. (Turku) However, interestingly enough, he limited himself in the issue himself in the issue he limited interestingly enough, However, of receiving forgiveness. He never mentioned the fact that he could that fact the never He mentioned forgiveness. of receiving the trustworthy be he would the task person where a situation reach for important- is more it to receive Perhaps forgive. to was whom of than to forgive. giveness Boreman, Per Boreman, 1953 Ülo] Valk, Marion & [Bowman, 2012 52 Kaufmann Published H. E. G. A[ulé]n, 1912 Goran Basic, 2013 O[lof]B[ergqvist], 1911 Archives Åbo University. Akademi Åbo the at CulturaThe Archive Cultural Research IF2014: 003. mgt IF mgt 2014: 002, References individualism as a norm and about man’s opportunities and to create as a normindividualism man’s and about is important what my interviewee. in life influenced had re-create 132 Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 1990 ”Toleranz.” Kahl, Joachim 2005 “Hermeneutics.” Inwood, Michael 2013 Ingemark, Asplund Camilla 1961 Heiler, Friedrich 2014 Hägen, Nicklas 2010 Elgvin, Østtveit Lilly-Anne 1962 Brännström, Olaus 2014 2006 Kettunen, Paavo 2007 Ketola, Kimmo 2011 Kaufmann, Jean-Claude Edward Craig. &New London York: Routledge, 367–368. Ed. AsplundIngemark. Camilla Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 7 –17. Uses Storytelling: to Approach of Narration as Interdisciplinary An Therapy. usesofstorytelling.” themesinthestudyoftherapeutic “Key Therapeutic Verlag. DieReligionen1. derMenschheit Erscheinungsformen und Wesen Religion. der Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer 12–15. 2014(2), Åbo Akademi smutsigt“Ett tvättande.” MFÅA. Vetenskapsmagasinet Meddelanden från theologiae 88. practicae Læstadius’Lars Levi &Norma. Artos spiritualitet. Skellefteå: Bibliotheca 13. ticae Uppsala:century. C.W.K. förlag. Gleerups theologiae prac- Bibliotheca pastoraltradition of thenineteenth Laestadianism during inSwedish care 1800-talet.Den laestadianskaiSverigeunder själavårdstraditionen The Ltd.,Publishing 1–19. Ed. Bowman Marion &Ülo Valk.Bristol & Sheffield CT: Equinox uskonto-ilmiona/95-mitn-hengellinen-h> (Available 20.102015.) Journal of Religion andSociety 20,29–39. of Journal religiousorganisations.” ofemergencerates ofnew andspiritual Nordic ), 1–13. Social of Research 1(2), Review nationalist pronouncements.” and thenew “Identity International Verlag, 597–599. 4: R–Z. Hrsg. &al. HansJörgSandkühler Hamburg: Felix Meiner Häpeästä hyväksyntään. Helsinki: Kirjapaja. “Mitä on hengellinenhäpeä?”“Mitä Ulrika Wolf-Knuts 1991 Wolf-Knuts, Ulrika 2013 Ventin, Lennart 1993 1988 Talonen, Jouko [1959] Sundén, Hjalmar 2011 Snellman, Gerd 1982 1976 Raittila, Pekka 2007 församling,Stensjöns kyrkan Svenska sources Internet Religionen och Stockholm: rollerna. Ettpsykologiskt stadium fromheten. av tradition. Åbo: ÅboAkademis förlag. Människan och djävulen. form, kring Enstudie motiv och funktionifolklig Media, 56–66. tet liv. Utg. Patrik Hagman&LiisaMendelin. Helsingfors: Fontana “Gemenskap –pågott ont.” och Enliten skillnad. Elva texter- omkris 163. samfundetshandlingar kyrkohistoriska toimituksia –Finska seura. kirkkohistoriallinen Suomen seuran kirkkohistoriallisen Suomen Esikoislestadiolaisuus jasuomalainenyhteiskunta 1900–1944. Helsinki: 144. handlingar samfundets kyrkohistoriska toimituksia–Finska seuran historiallisen 1929. Pohjois-Suomen lestadiolaisuuden poliittis-yhteiskunnallinen 1905– profiili bokförlag. diakonistyrelses kyrkans Svenska svenska Österbotten 1927–2009.Åbo: åren ÅboAkademis förlag. Sions döttrar. inorra somtraditionsförmedlare Delaestadianska kvinnorna 121. samfundetshandlingar kyrkohistoriska tuksia –Finska kirkko Lestadiolaisuus Pohjois-Amerikassa vuoteen 1885. Helsinki: Suomen Akateeminen kustannusliike. Lestadiolaisuus 20.102015 stensjon/2007>.4e-sondagen-efter-trefaldighet-andra-arg- Available Risenfors.sjökyrkan kl10Stefan Försoning, erkännande och inklusion Perspektiv på försoningsprocessen mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna Utgångspunkter Som kyrka erkanner vi att vi har del i den skuld som ligger kvar fran det forgangna. Vi ber om forlatelse for det som vi tankt och gjort fel och for det som vi forsummat. Den forsoning vi soker ar att vi nu gemensamt kan bara dessa svara erfarenheter och ga vidare i omse- sidig karlek, respekt och tillit. Symboliskt far vi nu lagga vara stenar vid korset i koret och visar genom denna var vandring att vi vill vara med och gemensamt utmarka en framtida gemensam vandringsled, en forsoningens vag i Jesu namn.1 Vid en försoningsgudstjänst i Undersåkers kyrka den 25 mars 2001 bad biskopen Karl-Johan Tyrberg den bön om förlåtelse som cite- ras ovan. Denna försoningsgudstjänst var den första i sitt slag och Tyrbergs offentliga ursäkt var ett viktigt och symboliskt moment i den försoningsprocess mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna som hade påbörjats kring 1990. Nu har tjugofem år gått sedan de första initiati- ven till ett försoningsarbete togs. Under denna tid har en rad åtgärder 1 Rapport från Ságastallamat, en konferens om samerna och Svenska kyrkan, i Kiruna den 11–13 oktober 2011 (2012), 135 136 Carola Nordbäck 3 2 densamiskabefolkningen. till attåstadkomma relation sidaför kyrkans enförändrad vidtagits från erkännandeprocesser. om historiebruk, teorier till minne, kollektivt religiös inklusion och samerna Svenska och försoningsprocessen kyrkan specifika mellan ser genom rottrådar relatera att undersöka historiska och den deras att skapa en fördjupad försoningsproces förståelse av kyrkliga - perspektiv. urettkyrkohistoriskt samerna och kyrkan är Syftet Föreliggande försoningsprocessen Svenska mellan belyser artikel religion, modernitet, politik (Göteborg2009)s. 309–316. gisk kommentar (Uppsala2012); Sigurdson, Ola Detpostsekulära tillståndet: erkännande,och Lundberg, seJohanna Gustafsson Medlem (Göteborg2003 ).studier Praktisk-filosofiska Omteologi, kyrkan Svenska Angående inklusion erkännande, och seAxel Honneth, Erkännande. 66ff. under1900-talet”, frikyrkorna och kyrkan (Umeå kyrkohistoria:Gränsöverskridande despråkliga minoriteterna på Nordkalotten försoning”, till tiva praktiker: bidrag historikers iDanielLindmark (red.), och 2015); (Lund försoning DanielLindmark, iretrospek- ”Historiebruk Kyrkan, historien”, och samerna (red.), Söderholm iLars Religion: Konflikt 2013); dagen (Helsingfors DanielLindmark, skagöraerfria:”Sanningen perspektiv på kyrka och väckelse: Festskrift tillIngvar Dahlbacka på 60-års- har deattsägaidag?” iKimGroop (red.), &BirgittaSarelin Historiska 2013). även DanielLindmark, Se r ”Samiska framtid:Inspilltilkirkelig forsoningsarbeid –forme (Stamsund iSápmi fortid kyrkan”,tiv på Svenska i Tore Johnsen & LineM. (red.), Skum Erkjenne Tyrberg, ”Försoning som envägmotgemensam framtid: Ettperspek- insatser ”F (Skellefteå mellan Svenskationerna kyrkan och samerna: Envetenskaplig antologi 1–2 arbete”, Sundström(red.), iDanielLindmark &Olle Dehistoriska rela- soningens vag i Jesu namn’: Perspektiv f kyrkans pa Svenska Denna artikel ärenreviderad version avCarolaDenna artikel Nordbäck, ” rsoningsprocessen mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna: och orsoningsprocessen kyrkan Svenska mellan Initiativoch 2016); Bo Lundmark, ” 1990–2012” iLindmark iKarl-Johan &Sundström(2016)och 2016). Försoningsprocessen avKarl-Johan beskrivs Tyrberg i 3 2 ’O må vi vakna upp’: Samerna, Svenska Kyrkohistorisk (2011)s. årsskrift ster ur kyrkohistorien –vad oster urkyrkohistorien 2010: enteolo- orsonings ’En f or Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 137 tidigt som tidigt som Jag vill i denna artikel processens relation till relation processens 4 ). Den Samiska frågor :1). 2006 (SKU kyrkan i Svenska Judging war, judging history: Behind truth Behind judging history: and rec- war, Judging Hazan, Pierre Se t.ex. Det finns dock också på exempel forskning onciliation (Stanford 2010). Closing the Se exempelvis Elster, Jon där man lagt ett historiskt perspektiv. (Cambridge2004). justice in historical perspective Transitional books. Det föreligger tyvärrDet föreligger texter eller få publicerade - policydoku Den andra delen av artikeln kring av en diskussion olika utgörs jag en analysI artikelns del genomför tredje av Svenska kyrkans sätt Artikeln består av tre delar. I den första delen diskuteras för Artikeln delar. tre består av soningsprocessen i relation till samerna, vad som är försonings som vad till samerna, i relation soningsprocessen processens egentliga mål och konkreta innehåll. En central text är innehåll. mål och egentliga konkreta processens utredningen goda men ger behandlar översiktligt, relativt dock försoningsprocessen Det övriga i min material jag har använt som bakgrundsbeskrivningar. - tendenser och viktiga teman illustreras och problema förhållningssätt, diskuterar jag försonings Avslutningsvis tiseras. av skuld och offerskap tolkningen samt olika former av historiebruk, teologiska dimensioner. och erkännandets inklusionens försoningens, ment där Svenska kyrkan sammanfattar och beskriver sin syn på för snarare peka på de kyrkliga försoningsprocessernas långa förhistoria. förhistoria. långa kyrkliga peka på de försoningsprocessernas snarare kyrkohistorisk nedslag i och genom Detta sker forskning. teologisk Hur har kyrkan iscensatt och praktiserat kollektiv försoning? Hur samman? försoning och inklusion hänger både Den relaterar sätt att förstå försoning och försoningsprocesser. till aktuella teologiska tolkningar och till historisk forskning om skuld Här synliggörs en förändrad syn på försonings- och kollektivt minne. Svenska- inom kyrkan ochbegreppet de konsekven jag beskriver även en förändradser som inneburit försoningsteologi för kyrkans självbild. beskrivaatt och göra nedslag att försoningsarbetesitt uppfatta genom för försonings- kyrkan uttalar sig om där företrädare texter i sådana Via dessa nedslag nås den aktuella diskursen sam processen. soningspraktiker som historiskt fenomen. I analyser av försonings historiskt som soningspraktiker fenomen. ofta betonas företeelse. processer att de är en ny 4 138 Carola Nordbäck bidragit till att många samer förlorat kontakten medsitteget språk. attmånga samerförlorat till bidragit användas gudstjanster. ikyrkans Kyrkan hardessutom på olikasätt respekterat.kyrkan fr hindrats harsamiskasymboler Istället egna kulturella symbolspråket. har Svenska detta behov Inte heller sintro meddet påsittmodersmaloch människor måstefåuttrycka i samhället. diskriminerats och ringaktats Tyrberg betonade även att manniskors likavrde. attsamer blundatför Kyrkan ofta haristället budskapetom alla isittansvarattvisapådetkristna brustit kyrkan f darmed och menade Tyrberg, att f till ”bidragit av präglats patillit,”brist respekt”. oppenhetoch har, kyrkan Svenska relationer kyrkans den samiskabefolkningenofta att Svenska till agerandemotdensamiska befolkningeniSverige.kyrkans Hansade avSvenska beskrivning lerade sinbön gavhanenöversiktlig historisk i den försoningsgudstjänst som nämnts. Innan biskop Tyrberg formu- också –återfanns enbön och om förlåtelse tillbakablick rannsakande somiSverige. samerharutsattsför förtryck - Dessamoment –ensjälv telser om sinaerfarenheter. erkänt harkyrkan sinskuldidet Därefter - samersberät till undersökningar lyssnat och historiska initiativ till hänt i detförflutna. tagit attkyrkan Processen inneburit hardärmed samerna och kyrkan En viktigdelavförsoningsprocessen Svenska mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna Europeiska kyrkokonferensen. sationer såsom Kyrkornas världsråd, och världsförbundet Lutherska organi- rör avolikainternationella mission fredsarbeteoch framställt policydokument som studerat harjagockså försoningsarbete kyrkligt För densamiskaförsoningsprocessen attkunnajämföra medannat pågått. analysen. för underlag Även harutgjort kyrkomöteshandlingar försoningsprocessen isambandmedatt offentliggjorts och framställts ärtal,analys som samtsådant har material predikningar artiklar och har handlat omvad attförsökaförstå som egentligen harhandlat orstarkt manniskorsutsatthet”. Dessutom harSvenska ordomar om samiskt liv bevarats an att Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 139 or allas mojlighet att rdighet, barmh ar- attfardighet, tt, r att, rsummat sin uppgiftorsummat relation i ”När jag ”När i boken Detta framgår även 6 Daniel Lindmark och Olle Sundström. I ett stort och OlleDaniel Lindmark Sundström. 5 ”När jag var åtta år lämnade jag mitt hem och jag har ännu inte kommit inte jag har ännu år lämnade jag mitt hem och åtta jag var ”När tillbaka”: minnesbilder från samernastillbaka”: (Stockholm skoltid 2016). Rapport från Ságastallamat, en konferens kyrkan Rapport Svenska om samerna från och Ságastallamat, 50. (2012) s. Se Kaisa även Huuva & Ellacarin Blind & Sundström (2016). Lindmark (red.), De historiska villkor som Tyrberg beskrev är exempel på att är exempel beskrev Tyrberg De historiska villkor som antal vetenskapliga artiklar blir såväl försoningsprocessen som de his- artiklar som antal vetenskapliga blir såväl försoningsprocessen toriskaDär förhållandena mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna belysta. bekräftas den beskrivning och fördjupas av Svenska kyrkans delaktig- år 2001. formulerade förtrycki het Tyrberg och diskriminering som av det kyrkliga deltagandet har snarastOmfattningen varit än större framkommit. tidigare som vad Svenskakyrkan bidragithar till samhälleligaden exkludering som att samernas språkvidmakthållits genom och kultur har ringaktats Det har således också- pågått en form reli av och marginaliserats. beskrivning av de historiska förhållandena Tyrbergs giös exkludering. till Det senaste bidraget vår kunskap bekräftas av historieforskningen. dessa förhållanden 2016 ochom utkom vitbok som är den omfattande historiska Den bär titeln De finansierats av ut som kyrkan. Svenska - anto En vetenskaplig samerna: och kyrkan relationerna Svenska mellan är logi. Redaktörer 6 5 Sammantagetatt kyrkan kan sägas f r pa visa ”att till befolkningen samiska den var åtta år lämnade jag mitt hem och jag har ännu inte kommit tillbaka”: kommit tillbaka”: jag har ännu inte år lämnade jag mitt hem och åtta var för bok denna Redaktörer minnesbilder från samernas (2016). skoltid Den innehåller skildringar av är Kaisa och Huuva Ellacarin Blind. och arbetsstugorhur samer upplevde – centrala nomadskolor delar av det utbildningssystem för skapades samerna som vid 1900-talets Utformningen av detta utbildningssystem var en del av statens början. Eftersom stort kyrkan hade inflytande dessa över förtryck av samer. tighet ocharlek nastank ansvar f ett gemensamt i arbeta och leva”. 140 Carola Nordbäck handlar också om attkyrkan, också handlar påbasisavdettaförtryck, erkänner sin iSverige. avsamerna kvardröjande delvis –och –förtrycket riska Det delom kyrkans atterkänna sindelaktighetidethisto - Svenska för tiker. Idennaprocess ingårolikaaspekter averkännande. Dethandlar - prak nyainkluderande och samtidigtutveckla democh från avstånd om mönster, därmed atterkänna dessa historiska handlar samerna ta tillhörighet,kunna utveckla självtillit. och självrespekt att erkännande för som krävs avgrundläggande deformer inte erbjuds där handlar exkludering gårså inkludering samhällelig olika slag. erkännande och avenindividsrättigheter Grundläggande med hjälpavsinomgivning. Dettaskerviaerkännandeprocesser av enkänslaavtillhörighet och enpositivsjälvuppfattning – utvecklar Det innebär att människor – såväl enskilda individer som grupper livsform. aspektavmänniskansmoraliska på såsättengrundläggande 8 7 samerna. och kyrkan Svenska mellan som avdevillkor rådde enviktigdelavförsoningsprocessenringen dokumenteinstitutioner och - ärinsamlandetavsamiskaberättelser ran som den exklude- utsätts för de grupper få djupgående för följder till hjälp och bejakande från andra människor”. andra bejakandefrån hjälpoch till självrelation,gandet avenpraktisk stundärhän somförsta från tet äravhängigav, det, somAxel filosofen Honneth uttrycker ”uppbyg- avsocialaprocesser. stordeleffekter ärtill självtillit Människorsidenti- exklu människors de behandlingen. särskiltpekapåvadför Jagvill detkaninnebära Den pågående försoningsprocessen mellan Svenska kyrkan och och Den pågående kyrkan försoningsprocessen Svenska mellan Sådan social och religiös exkludering som beskrivs av religiössom socialoch beskrivs exkludering Sådan Tyrberg kan spective 2011)s. (Leiden 206–226. human condition: ineconomic, anthropology philosophical andtheologicalper- perspektiv påerkännandebegreppet, seRebekkaA. Klein, Sociality asthe Jfr Honneth (2003)s. 103f.För fördjupande av Honneth och en kritik Huuva &Blind(2016). deras påliknandesätt.deras Individerssjälvaktning, och självrespekt självbild när en grupp i samhället ges i samhället lägre statusoch närengrupp självbild emot om att grupper eller enskildaindivider eller emot om attgrupper ledes handihand. kulturell och Social 7 8 Intersubjektivitetär visad Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 141 11 medlemmar. medlemmar. rsoningstanken: orsoningstanken: 9 Bekännelse och avlösning: En typologisk En typologisk avlösning: och Bekännelse Men försoning som mellanmänsklig som Men försoning 10 ); Ernst Newman, Den waldenströmska för- Ernst Newman, 1930); Försoningens mellanrum: En analys av Daphne Hampsons och och Hampsons En analys av Daphne mellanrum: Försoningens (Stockholm ); Bertil Werkström, Bertil Werkström, 1979); ); Lars Holmberg, Den Lars (Stockholm Holmberg, belysning i historisk 1932); soningsläran Sofia En studie om försoningens mysterium (Göteborg 1994); lidande guden: Camnerin, ) s. 97–103. (2003) s. Jfr Honneth under systematisk och En dogmhistorisk Försoningen: Hjalmar Lindroth, Den kristna f Gustaf Aulén, (Uppsala 1935); sökning hållna vid Uppsala Olaus-Petri-föreläsningar brytningar: och Huvudtyper universitet (Uppsala 2008). tolkningar teologiska Brocks Nakashima Rita Hans-Göran Karlsson, avlösning (Luleå 1941); Bikt och SvenHedenberg, avlösning från och Studier av syndabekännelse förståelsen till Gud: Förlåtelse (Lund (Lund biktuppfattningar Buchmans Thurneysensoch undersökning av Luthers, studie av kyrko En systematisk Kyrkotuktsfrågan: Bengt Hallgren, 1963); frikyrklighet i svensk tukten hos Martin Luther (Lund och 1963). 9 10 11 I biskop Tyrbergs bön formulerades en önskan att uppnå försoning. försoning. att uppnå en önskan formulerades bön Tyrbergs I biskop att tillitDär fanns en förhoppning om skulle nytt växa på och- gemen offentliga bekännelse av skuld, Tyrbergs Hur kan skap återupprättas. förlåtelse om hans bön och försoning gottgörelse och om önskan hans tolkas ur ett historiskt förhållit Hur har kyrkan perspektiv? tidigare den sistnämnda Trots sig till mellanmänskliga försoningsprocesser? Försoning frågansstora är den i det närmaste relevans outforskad. har förvisso varit dogmatiken och inom den teo- ett centralt begrepp logihistoriska forskningen. De kyrkliga försoningspraktikernas historiska rottrådar historiska försoningspraktikernas De kyrkliga del i den moraliskadel i den det inneburit kränkning som för samerna att för fullvärdiga som vägras samhälls- erkännande och kyrko Det handlar slutligen om att kyrkan, i ord och handling, erbjuder det och handling, i ord Det handlar att kyrkan, om slutligen grundläggande uteblivit. tidigare som erkännande praktik har sällan berörts inom kyrkohistoria och praktisk teologi. praktik har sällan kyrkohistoria berörts inom och praktisk teologi. syndabekännelse, bikt, undersökt forskning som har sådan Däremot avlösning och skriftermål anknutit till frågan. indirekt bannlysning, 142 Carola Nordbäck 13 12 liv. om evigt – iettlöfte dessutomom –genom försoningutmynnar tron påJesuuppståndelse uppkomna försoningen förlåtelsen. och metaberättelse Denna kristna komlighet, den, och motGud genom hennesförbrytelse Jesudöd, - av människans ofull sammans tolkatssomskildring enallmängiltig - dehartill och hebreiska syndafallsberättelser bibelnsskapelse-och av Jesusliv, uppståndelse. död och harrelaterats den Berättelsen till beskrivning tolkningaravevangeliernas harutgåttfrån formulerats rättfärdiggörelse. och återupprättelse De olika försoningsläror som har genomtolkatssomom nåd, enberättelse försoning och historien sammanhang. fördjupad förståelse av vår tids sätt att iscensätta försoning i kyrkliga rottrådar därigenomskapaen historiska och försoningspraktikernas de Genomnutida ämnar jag följa att relatera denna forskning till (mellan Gud och människa), och Gud (mellan försoning (mellan dels horisontell/social ibland omaspekteravdennaprocess. två försoning Detärdels vertikal utgångs teolo mål för före- varit och stått mot varandra lidande har ofta av Jesu död och samt vem som egentligen försonatsmedvem. Deolikatolkningarna om,vad slagsförsoning dethandlat för denskett påvilkagrunder Begreppet För att kunna fördjupa förståelsen av försoning talar teologer av endiskussionDet teologiskasamtaletharsåledes präglats om Reflektioner över ettcentralt tema ikristen 2015). Reflektioner teologi (Stockholm (red.), Möller &Göran Bråkenhielm Carl-Reinhold Tala omförsoning: s. &Arne Camnerin Jfr Sofia Fritzon, Försoning 2012) behövs(Stockholm (Aldershot2006)s.Latin America 135 –170. America”, iIainS. (red.), MacLean Reconciliation: Nations andchurches in 44–76; JoséComblin, Latin in ”The themeof reconciliation andtheology John W. De Gruchy, 18. idettasamtalutgörs Ettviktigtbidrag avdeolikabidragen i punkt för enständigtpågåendepunkt för teologiskutveckling. giska strider och kyrklig splittring. kyrklig och giska strider varit Deharockså är centralt inom ärcentralt kristendomen.försoning Evangelierna 12 Reconciliation: Restoring justice(London 13 2002) s. Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 143 Denna indelning är relevant för är relevant Denna indelning artikelns 15 Social kan också försoning i försoning mellan indelas 14 The distinctive characteristics of Christiancharacteristics , reconciliation The distinctive Robert Schreiter, Carola Nordbäck Bikten och avlösningen ansågs medföra enrening synd. ansågsmedföra från avlösningen Bikten och livet. attkunnadeltaidetkristna för enförutsättning därmed och sakrament.bli ettbetydelsefullt nattvardsgång inför ettkrav Denblev kommunion. under1200-taletsom först biktenkom att Detvardock attbiktasigföre varje kristna för meretablerat detallt 900-talet blev avenavlösning. sompräst efterföljdes vanligare under Dettablev och av botpraktiken. en Detutgjorde inför enenskildsyndabekännelse mentet bidrogavdenromersk-katolska splittringen till kyrkan. – återupptagandet iförsamlingen–kalladesreconciliato (försoning). – återupptagandet förnyad nattvardsgemenskap.i församlingenoch Detsistamomentet botgöring. avslutadesmedavlösning, Botgöringstiden återupptagande exkommuni 19 18 17 16 således för förlåtelse). var givande avsyndernas botpraktiken för Slutpunkten (bekännelse), sakrament. moment: (ånger), Det bestodavfyra contritio confessio fent hanterades. 1517 hurbotgöring, i sina95teserfrån exempelvis avlösning biktoch i samband med reformationen.frågorna ifrågasatte Luther Martin betydelse. utgjorde Botenssakrament konflikt enavdefrämsta Dessa försoningspraktiker kom att få en central kyrkohistorisk komkyrkohistorisk Dessa försoningspraktiker attfåencentral Under I den romersk-katolska vidareutvecklades en of kyrkan detta till lig botpraktik som komförsoningenslig botpraktik attbildabotens–eller teologi 1517–1537(Uppsala 1970) s. 4f; (1979)s. Karlsson 118ff. vidare IngemarSe Öberg, Himmelrikets nycklar och kyrklig bot iLuthers 154 ff. s. (1979)s.Karlsson 111 –117; Hedenberg(1941)s. 24–27; Comblin (2006) (1979)s.Karlsson 116f. Kyrkorna och olika 2000)s. kärlekens vägar (Stockholm 24–47. historien”, Lindström iEvaReimers&Susanne (red.), Blottidetöppna: gemenskapen inte: –eller ikyrko utanförskap och Aspekterpåkyrkotukt (1979)s.Karlsson 113–117; Nilsson, Bertil denkristna ”Att tillhöra låtelse och försoning.låtelse och -talet utvecklades dessutom500-talet utvecklades biktensom enviktigdel 19 cering (uteslutning)avsyndarensom isinturpåbörjadecering en - botsakra teologiskakonflikten kring Denefterföljande (gottgörelse)- satisfactio absolutio och (avlösning/till 17 18 20 16 - Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 145 soning soning tukten. tukten. (Uppsala gudstjänstliv i evangeliskt Nattvarden Svenskt gudstjänstliv: gudstjänstliv: Svenskt Rodhe, Edvard 163–171; 21 ) s. (Stockholm 1923) s. kyrkohandboken av den svenska belysning Historisk Yngve Brilioth, 312–326; 213–216, 444ff,459ff. 1926) s. ) s. Maclean (2006) s. (2006). se Comblin på Latinamerika, med fokus 135–170. 133ff.,Karlsson (1979) s. För en diskussion om den katolska kyrkans förändrade om en diskussion syn på för För Den romersk-katolska kyrkans botsakrament alltså upplösts hade Den romersk-katolska Det är det allmänna och det uppenbara skriftermålet främst som är De framväxande protestantiska kyrkorna utvecklade protestantiska De framväxande följaktligen inom den lutherska kyrkan i Sverige men inslagen av ånger, bekän- lutherska kyrkan den i Sverigeinom av ånger, men inslagen och förlåtelse gottgörelse präglat som botsakramentet var fort- nelse, sakrament eget ett att ha bildat Från farande närvarande och centrala. blev i stället en del av förberedelsen inslagen inför och nattvarden fick till koppling detta sakrament. därmed en starkare analysen med samband i intressant försoningsprocessernas nutida de av nya sätt att hantera försoning. Synen på exempelvis avlatens, biktens Synen på exempelvis avlatens, sätt att hantera försoning. nya för ochvertikala funktion den botgöringens förändrades försoningen sakrament och av försoning försvann. bot som Betoningen radikalt. Gudstjänsternas utformning försoningspraktikerna och de religiösa I Sverige försvann exempelvis det obligatoriska bikt omvandlades. Istället utvecklades 1600-talet under institutet och avlatshanteringen. det allmänna skriftermålet innehöll vilket nattvardsförberedelse såsom avlösning och förlåtelse den som bot, de inslag av syndabekännelse, Som ett uttryck för lutherska kyr den kyrkotukten- inbegripit. tidigare fick ambitioner ocksåkans pedagogiska skriftermåletökat inslag av ett Katekesen därför kom att bli utgångspunkt för en kunskapskontroll. del av skriftermålets utvecklades en form Dessutom syfte och innehåll. av uppenbart skriftermål i samband med kyrko användes som Syndare fick då bekänna sin synd offentligt för att i nästa skede kunna tidigare Den enskilda bikt som återupptas i församlingsgemenskapen. varit så betydelsefull hemligt (ibland enskilt) skriftermål kallades och försvann nästan helt. 21 20 146 Carola Nordbäck sen varsammantvinnade. rättvisa, lag, straff. skuldoch denteologiska diskur- rättsliga och Den som beskrevs domare betonade kyrkan och begrepp ofta somatt Gud även till statsmaktsomoch präglade1600-taletbidrog förmodligen tade rättsskipningens från arena. kyrka mellan förhållandet Detnära präglades avmetaforer begrepp och häm- teologiska diskursendelvis påverkan genomMen samtidigtkom motsatthåll också från attden tid. maktutövningenunder tidigmodern densamhälleliga tament för av brott. hantering rättssystemets endelavdetsamhälleliga utgjort ning och detta. för praktiker föregåtts pröv avrättslig - harofta Dessapraktiker na. rättstraditioner - överförhärskande de inflytande stort försoningsläran betning. tidhade av Undertidigmodern deteologiskatolkningarna målet utgjorde enintegrerad- socialakonfliktbear delavsamhällets rottrådar.historiska - skrifter attdetuppenbara också Detframgår 23 22 gift samtutlofvade bättring, botoch gift presten hvarefter tillsadehonom skuld, sinånger deröfver, betygade församlingenom- och till bad Gud samlingens gemenskap. Dennabestodiattbrottslingen ”erkände sin - inlemmasiför denne attundergåsåkalladkyrkoplikt attpånytt för sindelaktighetiförsamlingen ålades brott därigenomförverkat och försoning.som horisontell hade begåttett När enförsamlingsmedlem avlösning, och syndabekännelse såvälvertikal varattfrämja vars avsikt i budorden. olikaföreteelser, Dessainnehöll skriftermål, exempelvis sociala som – horisontellt.såväl vertikalt sätt att bearbeta Det var kyrkans 22 Kyrkans straff- och rättstänkande utgjorde Kyrkans och såledesettviktigtinci- straff- Kyrkotuktens syfte var att bidra till återupprättade relationer återupprättade till varattbidra Kyrkotuktens syfte Jfr Brilioth (1926)s.Jfr Brilioth 461ff. 1992). 1840 (Stockholm Jan Sundin, För Gud, staten och folket: och Brott rättsskipning iSverige 1600– Teologin tillhandahöll kyrkan försoningoch för ettspråk erbjöd konflikter och överträdelser mot de föreskrifter som återfanns som återfanns föreskrifter motde överträdelser konflikter och 23 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 147 2015. . Den förDen 1855. 25 Detta kunde ske offentligt Detta kunde med en gudstjänst i samband 24 Kyrkoplikten kom dock att fungera som ett skamstraff. Den världsliga Den dock kom ett skamstraff. att fungera som Kyrkoplikten kyrkoplikt framända utdöma att möjlighet till rätten hade 42ff. Se (2000) s. Nilsson svann inte ur lagstiftningen förrän 1918. 33. (Stockholm1686 års kyrkolag 1936) s. - innehål realencyklopedi och Konversationslexikon familjebok: Nordisk begrepp föremål, och namn, om märkliga förklaringar och lande upplysningar 4/4 Carola Nordbäck 27 26 återupprättad. församlingen. församlingen var därmed och Gemenskapen med Gud hade inslagsom påminnerom dagens försoningsprocesser. att den processatt synliggöra som fanns inkapslad i denna kyrkotukt troll. inteensådan Jagifrågasätter tolkning. Minambition ärendast attskapa social kon- ageradekyrkan som en del avstatsmaktenisyfte där tolkatssom etttvångsredskap disciplineringsinstrument och ofta kristna kyrkotukten ärMatt. kyrkotukten kristna 18:15–17 för modell som avallmänkyrklig och harkommit attutgöra enform Denna kyrkotukt har i rättshistorisk och kyrkohistorisk forskning forskning kyrkohistorisk och harirättshistorisk Denna kyrkotukt tullindrivare. på församlingenheller, honom betrakta dåsomen enhedningeller pådem,lyssna såtalaomförsamlingen. detför hanintelyssna Vill tre eller varjesakavgöras. påtvå vittnesmålskall för Omhanvägrar broder. Menom lyssna, hanintevill till, två tadåmeddigeneller svarsienrum.till Lyssnar din hanpådig harduvunnittillbaka dignågonOm dinbroder orätt, hargjort honom ställ sågåoch Det bibelställe som låg till grund för detta sätt att utöva kyrkotukt kyrkotukt dettasättattutöva för somgrund Det bibelställe lågtill ” blivitunderbetonad, gemenskapen hardärför upprätthålla seLindaOja, slutsteg.kyrkotuktens De tidigare att stegen för av ömsesidig förmaning forsk tidigare (1992);Sundin haräven pekatpåattkällägetstyrt LindaOja Om bannlysningen, seNilsson (2000)s. 24 –46. som praktik under tidigmodern tid,som under tidigmodern praktik se UrbanClaesson, och Kris kristnande: Religiös mentalitet istormaktstidens 2002). Sverige (Lund Omkyrkotukten bliförsonad,någon förvägrats Malmstedt, seGöran och Bondetro kyrkoro: angavfrånvaro attmångapräster nattvardsbordetoch från medskälatt 50f. Malmstedtharäven Göran betonat iförsamlingen, viktenavendräkt 2000)s.samhällsordningen iSverige och (Stockholm Östersjöprovinserna Jansson & Torbjörn Eng(red.), Stat –kyrka –samhälle: Denstormaktstida svenskar”, ambitionen avstormaktstidens och attgöragoda kristna i Torkel ’God enighet, Denreligiösa lagstiftningen utilandet’: kärlek sämjaoch ning om mot enbetoningsidan, kyrkodisciplin avdenstraffande dvs 26 27 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 149 Det finns också 28 -talet skedde en successiv sekularisering1800-talet skedde av rättsskip - derade med församlingens förförståelse. Olof Ekmans kamp för kristendomens återupprättande vid Stora Kopparberget Kopparberget vid Stora Olof Ekmans kamp för återupprättande kristendomens (Göteborg 2015). praktik och program Pietism, 1689–1713: Människan och moralis: Homo Kurtén & Joakim Molander (red.), Tage 136. (Lund 2005) s. rättssamhället Under Kyrkotukten baserades således på föreställningar som har likheter har som föreställningar på således baserades Kyrkotukten ningen och straffrätten. FilosofenMolander har beskrivit Joakim hur och straffrätten. ningen denna sekularisering succes- försoningstanken innebar att samtidigt växte fram Det fängelsesystem som straffrätten. inom sivt reducerades ”existentiella Molander inte avsettvar enligt hantera att människors botgöring och försoning”. behov upprättelse, av förflutna genom bekännelse och ånger. Den skyldige Den skulle formulera och bekännelse ånger. genom förflutna skulle att försoningen För skildringskett. en acceptabel av det som utgå från kor som ånger en bekännelse kunna ske måste förövarens respon sådant som tyder på att den teologiska diskursen, liksom de kyrkliga liksom tyder diskursen, på att den teologiska som sådant utsträckning att fokusera på den vertikala kom i större praktikerna, i att kyrkotuktens Detta speglas även än den horisontella. försoningen praktiker omvandladeskollektiva under och gemenskapsbyggande 1900-talet. Det de centralamed aspekterna syntids vår av försoning. social på I kyrkotuktens och läka brustnahandlade att reparera relationer. om till Gud det i första- hand relationen och i andra hand rela fall rörde beskrivits De försoningspraktiker som tilltionen medmänniskorna. ovan eller kan liknas vid ett rollspel en ritual där syndaren uttryckte sig villig bot och avgav en bekännelse samt visade att göra bätt- ånger, på nytt. Den andra att ta upp relationen parten sig beredd visade ring. föll bort någon delarna – om Detta var de omistliga av försoningen Dessa försoningspraktiker innehöll en speci blev omöjlig. försoningen av förhållningssättfik kombination det mot både förflutna, riktade handlade Det att den om inledningsvis mot nuet och mot framtiden. en handling begått som måste förhålla sonas behövde som sig till det 28 150 Carola Nordbäck 29 lektiv försoningsprocess. länder som iandra ettledenkol- befolkningen idetegnalandeteller sina övergrepp för mot civil- ber ominstitutioner kyrkor förlåtelse och då ursäkter–exempelvis representanterav offentliga för stats forskare, i påattvårtidärfylld ”the syftar age ofapology”. Uttrycket över världen.fenomen som blivit vidaspritt justnu, lever Vi menar med försoningsgudstjänstenden25mars2001kanrelaterasett till vår egen tidsbekännelser, ånger försoningsmönster. och kunna vidareutveckla dennajämförelse attdiskutera övergår jagnutill soningspraktiker som sammanhang. idagväxer ikyrkliga fram För att försoningsmönster deför som från både påminnerom avviker och ettsocialt och attmankanskönja ovan ettvertikalt Det harframgått Försoningsprocesser igår och idag 30 idag används ienrad olikakontexter som –isåvälkyrkliga sekulära innehåll, funktionsyfte. och kontexter tolkningar av försoningsprocessernaslära formuleras samtinom rätt freds-nell konfliktforskning. och Inom dessaseku- begreppet fåttdesenastetjugofemåren- inominternatio politikoch sin aktualitet. som pådenbetydelse försonings istället Jagsyftar soning. för aldrig Identeologiskadiskursenharförsoningdock Den bön om förlåtelse som biskop Den bön om förlåtelse Tyrberg lästeuppisamband - intresse för Man kan följaktligen iaktta ett nyvaknat kollektiv för justice Janna Thompson, 2008); MelissaNobles, The officialpolitics of 2008); apologies (Cambridge Mark Gibney (red.), Theageapology: of up Facing to the past (Philadelphia (2004). 2010) s. 167–190. För avliknandeprocesser, analys enhistorisk seElster (red.), Vems försoning?Omförsoning som politisktbegrepp”, iHannaStenström 2011 ); commissions(London Nordquist, Kjell-Åke truth of ”Vems sanning? Priscilla B. Hayner, Unspeakable truths: Transitional justice and the challenge apologies 2006). wrongs seriously (Stanford andreconciliation (Cambridge (Cambridge På spaning: Från Svenska kyrkans forskardagar Taking thepast: for responsibility Reparation andhistorical 2002); (red.), Barkan &AlexanderKarn Elazar Taking 29 30 Försoning ärsåledesettbegrepp som (Stockholm 2009 (Stockholm makter, lorat lorat Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 151 32 har 33 2011); Begreppet syftar Begreppet 35 34 31 Understanding Understanding James Dignan, i en senmodern (Åbo 2011); tid metod punkt i så kallad transitionellkallad så i punkt rättvisa rättvisa och restorativ (Maidenhead 2005). justice (Maidenhead victims and restorative Elster (2004). 26ff. Jfr Maclean (2006) s. The aftermath of the truth and of justice: The era transitional Gready, Paul reconciliation in South Africa commission and beyond York (New i of reconciliation”, ”Nature quist Nord Daniel Bar-Tal, 167–190; (2010) s. 23–24 Sweden, Stockholm, A conference justice and reconciliation, on truth, 18–23. (Stockholm 2002) s. April 2002: Proceedings, formulerade som Teitel juridikprofessorn Det var Ruti 8. Hazan(2010) s. uttrycket första och det skedde 1992. gången Medling vid brott: En begreppslig analys av en konflikt Medling vid brott: Heidi Jokinen, lösnings Begreppet transitionell rättvisaBegreppet i början av 1990-talet formulerades Det nära historiska sambandet mellan rättslig och teologisk dis- Den förändring skett handlar som att det har utvecklats om såväl och syftar på hur samhällen försöker skapa stabilitet och återuppbygga förtroendeömsesidigt mellan brustit parter och där relationer befolk- tvingatsningen uppleva olika typer av övergrepp. (kallas även ibland reparativ rättvisa). ibland reparativ (kallas även förflyttats från teologin till en sekulär politisk konfliktlösningsarena och är i dag i fokus för en rad olika studier och praktiker tar sin som utgångs kurs som beskrivitskurs som i det historiska avsnittet ovan också kan således försoning Begreppet försoningsprocesserna. iakttas i de nutida begrepp som metoder för att restaurera mellanmänskliga relationer. förmetoder restaurera att som begrepp - från teologiska kontex den har migrerat försoning om Föreställningar de upp- Men sekulariserats. ten och har de även i samband med detta exempelvis återfinns inom som försoningsprocesser fattningar om detta stora likheter med sådana och har trots konfliktforskning freds- teologiska diskussionen. återfinns i den försoning som tankar om 32 33 34 35 31 sammanhang. Dessutom utvecklas hela tiden nya försoningspraktiker. utvecklas försoningspraktiker. Dessutom tiden nya hela sammanhang. praktik medling ny är ochrelativt på en olika Ett exempel brott vid formerav sociala konflikter. 152 Carola Nordbäck sat rättsligt mandat – de kan exempelvis inteutdöma straff. mandat–dekanexempelvis sat rättsligt olikaövergrepp.för Däremot harkommissionerna- endastettbegrän avgottgörelse offren för klargöraansvarsfrågor peka påolikatyper och förflutna. Dessutom kansådana kommissionerförslag på ge reformer, att klargöravad till som skettidet har syftat och rättssystemet övriga institutioner vidsidanavdet kommissioner temporära ärattdevarit 2009.som 1974och pågåttmellan samtligadessa Gemensamtför inslagiolikaförsoningsprocesserDessa kommissioner harutgjort försoningskommissionersannings- och olika delar av världen. från av Priscilla B.I en kartläggning över 2011 beskrivs från Hayner avfolkmord, etc. iform trauman genomlevt svåra krigsförbrytelser attbefolkningeniolikaländerhar missioner somefter hartillsatts sidigt för avömse präglat stabiltsamhälle ettdemokratisktoch liknande till avövergrepp, övergången etttillstånd från på själva diktatureller 37 36 genom attdefoku hantering enviktigfunktion systemets vidsidanavdeträttsliga dock och berätta om berätta vadoch som skettmed dem. ståelse avför hållningssätt gentemothållningssätt den drabbade. fokuserar Dennarättvisefilosofi på sigansvaret singärning, för - för och attityd ändra delsförväntas förövaren påoffren att sätt attfokusera innebärockså delsmåsteta dedrabbade. helandeför läkningoch till ärattbidra tigt syfte Detta fokus. däroffrensståri restorativ avupprättelse rättvisa behov Ettvik- erkännande. för ettuttryck också ärdärmed Sanningskommissionerna gottgörelse samtatterhålla offrens sinhistoria och attfåberätta behov tiv rättvisa. blandannatom åtgärder sompå Dethandlar fokuserar offren värna och benämnsrestora attupprätta till åtgärder som syftar gottgörelse till offrens för räkning.olika åtgärder som syftar Sådana Sannings- och försoningskommissioner är ofta startpunkten för för startpunkten försoningskommissioner och är ofta Sannings- Hayner (2011)s.Hayner 13f. (2011)s.Hayner 19ff. troende. Ettexempel påsådana åtgärder ärdesanningskom - tryckets karaktär främst genom främst karaktär attlåtamänniskorvittna tryckets serar på offrens erfarenheter och söker efter för påoffrensserar söker erfarenheteroch efter 37 36 De fyller Defyller 40 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 153 2010) 40 What is reparative justice? (Milwaukee What is reparative Restorativt skiljer sig därmed tänkande från 38 Walker, Walker, - con politial beyond and within ”Moral ambition Elizabeth Kiss, 9ff; 39 Dignan (2005). Urban Margaret s. Rotberg & Dennis i Robert I. justice”, restorative on Reflections straints: of The morality 2000) s. truth commissions (Princeton (red.), Thompson 68–98. Reconciliation after Barnes & Teresa Luc Huyse (red.), David Bloomfield, 12. (Stockholm ) s. 2003 A handbook conflict: violent En försoningsprocess innebär enligt det synsättdet enligt innebär fram vuxit att som försoningsprocess En Beskrivningen ovan ger en teoretisk bild av sannings- och bild av förBeskrivningen- ovan en teoretisk ger en part förbrutit som sig mot en annan part återskapar den successivt brustna tillit och det förtroende förlorats som bland de människor blivit offersom att exempelvisför kränkningarnagenom lyssna på om be förlåtelsegott- och försöka sina förbrytelser, erkänna offren, syftar försoningsprocess Begreppet på olika sätt. göra de drabbade på ett mål och leder fram självasåledes både mot detta som processen och Målet är att återskapa stabila förtroendefulla relationer. mål. är själva dit. vägen Försoningsprocessen soningskommissioner. Men hur är det i praktiken – leder verkligen Men hur är det i praktiken – leder verkligen soningskommissioner. sanning och åter- gottgörelse, tillförsoning, försoningskommissioner fråga. och Detta är en omfattande komplex upprättad gemenskap? Hayner skriver i sin rapport ett att ge att det är omöjligt B. Priscilla - Det finns pekar på att forskning som försonings entydigt svar på den. - och åstad på konflikter i värsta fall kan späda både kommissioner Men det finns också observationer motsatta kränkningar. nya komma det retributiva rättstänkande som vanligtvis rättstänkandedet retributiva för är i fokus som sam den innebär i stället Det sistnämnda - en fokuse hälleliga rättsskipningen. Ju allvarligare ring begått ett brott. på att ett straff för den som utdöms retributiva Det är den rättvisans blir straffet. hårdare desto är, brottet logik. 38 39 40 på att byggandet av ny tillit genom bland annat erkännande, ansvars bland annat erkännande, tillit av ny genom på att byggandet och upprättelse Försoning tagande och förändrade handlingsmönster. är målet för processen. 154 Carola Nordbäck till enförsoning.till offren positiva resultat attbidra och både vadattåterupprätta gäller som kommissioner visarattdetärmöjligtför attåstadkomma mycket 43 42 41 that, ifit’s lucky, shapeitsfuture”. helptofundamentally understandsandaccepts itspast,change how acountry andthrough resources andsupport,if given thenecessary commission can atruth that are fundamentalenoughthatbroad is acceptance oftheirtruth kanacceptera.båda parterna att skriver Hayner ”there are some facts des om en förståelse av det som att somkunna formulera skett och mot försoning.att vandra såle- del av försoningen En central handlar ser, för versioner av olika existerande präglas av det förflutna, av anklagel- betydelse.detta historieskrivningens samtalet Omdetoffentliga betonar och isambandmed dennafråga diskuterar har skett?Hayner deharfåttveta vadförrän som egentligen harhäntidetförflutna. är attmångamänniskorinteberedda attbörjatalaom försoning andra.men intefungerapåsammasättför Menengenerell iakttagelse försoningskommission enindivid, envägmotförsoningför kanvara olikaindivider. mellan varierar håll Detinnebärattdeltagandeien försoningärdjuptpersonligaoch processer inne- varshastighetoch försoning.liga inblandade enindividuell upplever Förlåtelse, läkning att deförsonas. Även pålokal nivåkanförsoningskeutanattsamt- upp försoningsamtidigtsomnell mångamänniskorintesjälva respektive på individuell nationellnivå.pelvis Det kan ske en natio- Dessutom försoningpåolikanivåer, börmanskiljamellan exem- följaktligen länge enförsonings innandetgår attutvärdera enskild händelseutanenprocess som decennier. kantaflera Detdröjer Vilka kriterier krävs för attmanskakunna talaom för atten krävs kriterier Vilka påattförsoningtartid. pekarockså Hayner Försoning äringen Hayner (2011)s.Hayner 182f. (2011)s.Hayner 233. 120–209. (2011)s.Hayner 25f., nekande och motanklagelser så finns fortfarande enlångväg motanklagelserfortfarande nekande och såfinns 41 Hayners slutsatsbliratt Hayners done well,”if however, and 42 process. soning lever lever 43 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 155 I 46 Men Hayner 48 44 45 Exempelvis har det försoningsarbete 47 International journal International minorityon groupand rights peoples of the north”, 67–156. 16:1 (2009) s. ”Samisk- kyrka? En studie av försoningsproces Jfr Mattias Haglund, med jämförande utblickar sen mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna, masteruppsats Centrum vid för ochteologi religionsveten Norge”, mot - Carola Nordbäck 51 50 49 för regionerna. ideegna manades sinarelationer atttaansvarför urbefolkningar till upp- inomsådant dessaorganisationermedlemskyrkorna arbete och försoningsprocesser.och Redan vid försoning frågor kring drivit hartagituppoch Kyrkornas världsråd lat socialtförsoningstänkande. som världsförbundet Lutherska Såväl des ovan,- välutveck framväxtenavettalltmer till samtidigt bidragit avkommissionärerna ettflertal varteologer.ordförande och kommissionentill dess utförande. och Ärkebiskop Desmond Tutu var dets protestantiska enstorroll, kyrkor bådeinitiativet närdetgällde missionen som upprättades1995. Idennakommission spelade lan- soningsprocesser försoningskom vardensydafrikanska sannings-och - - för intresset detväxandekyrkliga horisontella för för inspirationskälla samerna. och soningsprocessen kyrkan Svenska mellan En annan viktig process ärenviktignyckel förståelsenavför olikakyrkor till mellan desenaste15– över världen kyrkor naturligt sättutgårfrån. naturligt lit. Då fanns helt enkelt inte den försoningsdiskurs som man nu på ett vokabulären konnotationer –menmedandra änvad- detnuharerhål del av den teologiska Begreppet då som ennaturlig försoningingick decenniersedan. varomöjligtre–fyra rättigheter för med urfolkens soningsprocesser harsåledes, enligtmintolkning, påverkats avdet Svenska kyrkans sätt att uppfatta försoning och bedriva bedriva sättattuppfattaförsoningoch kyrkans Svenska organisationernahar, kyrkliga De internationella som nämn- i en rad har således pågått parallellt med urfolksfrågor Arbetet Den kyrkliga självförståelse som genomsyrar försoningsarbetet som försoningsarbetet genomsyrar självförståelse Den kyrkliga (New York reconciliation intergroup of psychology tive”, Nadler, i Arie Thomas Malloy & Jeffrey Fisher (red.).D. C.Herbert Kelman, ”Reconciliation from perspec - a social-psychological 164f. fr Samiska sekreterare E. Castro hade föreslagit enkommission. (2006)s.Maclean 20ff. dåvarande general världsråds Även kyrkornas 50 ), s. 105; Tyrberg(2013) s. s. (SKU kyrkan agor 2006:1), i Svenska 51 20 åren. Dennaidéspridnings 1990-talets början initierades 2008) s. 15–32. 49 The social Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 157 - 46, rsonade hela orsonade rsonat oss med sig genom oss med sig genom orsonat I försoningens tjänst: Tankar om san- Tankar I försoningens tjänst: 2015; nst. Ty Gud f Ty tjanst. orsoningens 29/8 52 , Catholic of Christiancharacteristics , reconciliation The distinctive syn leder detta försoningsbegrepp framsyn till? leder detta försoningsbegrepp Tillsammans för livet: Mission Tillsammans för livet: Robert Odén & Olle56; Kristenson (red.), Robert 14; 2013) s. i förändring (Bromma i en värld evangelisation och Schreiter, Carola Nordbäck 53 av vad detkonkret innebärattståiförsoningens tjänst: idennaskrift,av författarna RolandPersson, gerbeskrivning följande försoningirelationsocial försoningmenockså skapelsen. till Enannan avförsoning: itermer kanbeskrivas uppgift kyrkans hur Svenska som skettdesenastedecennierna. därom MatsHermanssonskriver avför förändringen exempel beskrivna pådenovan ärett och nationella nivåharutvecklat kyrkans försoning som Svenska ärettfördjupningsmaterialom och (2007 ). Dennaskrift barmhärtighet tjänst: Iförsoningens återfinns iskriften Tankar omsanning, rättvisa, fred verksamhet. övergrepp. Försoning kyrkans utgångspunktenför själva blir därmed förtryck, avsamhälleligt att olikaformer orättvisor, och kränkningar social försoningsarenaom dekonflikter och somförsonas skahandlar kyrko till helaskapelsen.till uppgiften. varit Detharalltid Den försoning som kyrkan ska verka för handlar om vertikal och och om vertikal Den försoningsom skaverka kyrkan handlar för uppr och uppr iJesus Kristus. karlek befriande ompa evangeliet Guds Kyrkan ska visa meduppdraget attiord handling och ivarlden sand avGud Kyrkan f finnsintetill Ett exempel idag påhurförsoningsbegreppet förklaras och förstås Ur enförsonings-och dettabibelcitathämtasinspirationtill er genom mig. vagnar: Jagberer paKristi latf om dennaf svars f I försoningens tjänst…I försoningens (2007)s.42. syn som utgår från tanken att kyrkan utgör en såväl vertikal som utgör som tankenattkyrkan ensåvälvertikal utgårfrån syn Guds rike genom f rike attvisapavgartill paGuds atta tecken r deras or deras attelse f orsoning. sandebud,a Kristi Jagarallts manar Gud och o or manniskorirelation Gud, till och varandra till vertr a delser, han anf och or sinegen skull, utansom engemenskap rtrodde mig budskapet ortrodde orsona ermedGud. 53 soningsbegreppet orsoning Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 159 55 råd. or- Mission . Jfr 2015. rsoningen orsoningen 14/8 Mission as minis- rsoning mellan orsoning rsoningen mellan orsoningen rsoningsverk och av orsoningsverk nst. Ocksa tjanst. orsoningens Carola Nordbäck 57 upprättelse läsaföljande: (2009)kanmanexempelvis Mission ikontext stårföljande: räckvidd.tjänst hareninternationell Idenmissionsteologiska skriften människa. och Gud iförsoningens arbete Dettainnebärattkyrkans relation mänskliga försoningen enåterupprättad mellan utgår från soningen som densociala. betraktas utgångspunktför - Denmellan världsförbundet.Lutherska för hurdenvertikala Härframgår I citatet ovan framgår hurförsoningsbegreppet framgår I citatetovan uttolkasav aggande sidan avf Den grundl ning horihop. b a Kyrkans arattbefria uppdrag grupper, olikalander. mellan eller isamhallet f och Befrielse manskligarelationer;soning andra till inom enfamilj, medandra f som faruppleva att uppr bud f manniskan. och Gud det mellan arettsnde kyrkan Meneftersom en tanke. syfte. F f ortryckaren. utan tanke pa f Befrielse 2015. gänglig på attvisaoch f attelse ba 59 r or or ttvisor. L attvisor. rsoning i Guds orsoning eskatolo- ora befrielseoch f ortryckarna.[…] F or f cker till det internatio sig aven - a attvisa och uppr r att offren f att offren or ortryck och or rsoning str orsoning ) s. 19. 2007) s. ortryckta och f or f rsonande befrielseorsonande paborjar kyrkan en f regriper alltingsoregriper f slutliga or de f dana farliga strukturer och inte fa sista system borde a det. Ocksa i var tid leverander fortfarande manga l under det. 58 de f a 32f. Maclean (2006) s. Mission i kontext … ( Mission i kontext rsoning ochorsoning f rsoning och befrielseorsoning fordras r rdighet. Genom denna befriande Genom tryck aterf ska anskliga vardighet. a sin m f f som process, giska rike. nationell ochnationell internationell niva f - kyrkokonferen en ekumenisk aktör är Europeiska Ytterligare Detta fokus på social försoning visar på en internationell trend i på en internationellDetta fokus på social försoning visar trend nella omr rhundradens a nedarvdatidigare f Kyrkans uppdragf Kyrkans mpade under kolonialismen lider nu av fattigdom som orsakas av som lider nu av fattigdom under kolonialismen kampade drivs som den nyliberala globa- fram ekonomi den ekonomiska av S liseringen. Kyrkans rld i en va ordet d ar Gud har brutit dodens slutgiltiga makt. uppdrag pa uppstandelsens vag ar att g mojlig ba f sen. Det är en gemenskap bestående av såväl katolska som ortodoxa av såväl katolska som bestående Det är en gemenskap sen. form av ett ökat kyrkligt intresse för att bidra till att läka politiska, förform att bidra kyrkligt intresse till av ett ökat att läka politiska, internatio De - konflikter. ekologiska ochäven ekonomiska sociala, exempelvisnella världs som ekumeniska organisationerna Kyrkornas - råd ochdet Lutherska världsförbundet spelat har således sannolikt av medlem för betoning de senaste decenniernasen stor roll starka - steg Ett avgörande skyrkornas arbete för mellanmänsklig försoning. storavar exempelvis internationella ekumeniska rörelserna, att de tre Lutherska världsförbundet och Reformerta världsråd, Kyrkornas kyr - på olika sätt tog aktivt avstånd från apartheid och kornas världsallians, rasism under 1980-talet och bistod medlemskyrkorna på så sätt både på de nationella makthavarna. press och satte ökad 59 58 162 Carola Nordbäck teologiskt och kyrkohistoriskt. teologiskt och motiveras och kanförstås hur ettaktivtfreds- försoningsarbete och försoningsfrågor.och Kyrkorna bjödsinattteologisktreflekteraöver freds- kring gåiniettfördjupat skulle arbete att medlemskyrkorna möte 1998iHarare,vid Kyrkornas världsråds Zimbabwe, beslutade ation andpeace 2001–2010”. varettresultat avattman Utlysningen som overcome to ”The decade violence: Churches seeking reconcili - decennium 2000-taletsförsta utlyste ärattKyrkornas världsråd arbete mellan protestantiskaoch medlemskyrkor. Även dennaorganisation harhaft 63 62 61 60 maning i2Kor. blivit 5och ”ambassadors ofreconciliation”. försoningsprojekt åtgärder och fred. för ManhadePaulus följt upp- ienradolika presenterade 2011stårattdecennietutmynnat världsråd nationella kontexterna till ytterligare ennivå. ytterligare nationella kontexterna till uppfrågor som härrör urde kunnatlyfta kyrkorna Där harexempelvis plan. påett övergripande freds-internationellt försoningsarbete och De ekumeniska organisationerna har sålunda utgjort enarena för De ekumeniskaorganisationernaharsålundautgjort Overcoming violence …(2011)s.Overcoming 8. 2015. coming-violence-in-the-way-of-christ-for-the-sake-of-the-world>, and-meetings/theological-reflection-on-peace/nurturing-peace-over- commissions/faith-and-order/x-other-documents-from-conferences- ation to violence: thedecade overcome during Churches seekingpeace- andreconcili on peace, and reflection theological study a process reconciliation of justice and theworld:ing violence: invitation thesakeof An for to Christ Inthewayof Reflektionsdokument världsråd, från Kyrkornas peace, Nurturing - overcom violence … även Overcoming Se (2011)s. 9. 256–263. paradigmofhealing”,and thenew review Theecumenical the secondEuropean assembly1998); (Graz Keith, Clements, ”Ecumenism Vesper (red.), Reconciliation: life: new God of Documents Giftof andsource from 2003 i och Det skedde1997iGraz Trondheim. Noll Rüdiger &Stefan mänsklig försoningsomtemavidsinamöten. centralt 2001–2010, 64 65 . Jfr Schreiter & Jørgensen (red.) (2013). Jfr Schreiter (red.) & Jørgensen 6. Odén & Kristenson (2013) s. Denna förändrade syn och- får också försoning på mission konsekven Diakonia in context: (red.), Se Kjell Nordstokke ser för synen på diakoni. empowerment (Genève 2009). reconciliation, Transformation, 27. Maclean (2006) s. Denna ökade betoning av försoning, fred, befrielse av förtryck fred, av försoning, betoning Denna ökade och upprättelse av de förtryckta kan beskrivas av en aspekter som att uppfatta försoning Detta sätt förändrad ecklesiologi(kyrkosyn). synsätt- präglat men är samtidigt med äldre har likheter av en genom ochsolidariteten fredssträvandena Både fat- med gripande förändring. förtryckta och utsatta människor samt kritikenvärlds mot den tiga, - Men de har utgjortav en delar tidigare. liga makten har förekommit präglat mot de samhälleligaideologi där lojalitet kyrkans ordningarna lojalitet och En sådan identifikation föreställningsvärld starkt. mycket statsbärandede med - maktapparaterna doku i dessa skönjas inte kan präglas skrifterna Dessutom av en självkritiskment. hållning ochen Detta illustrerar ett kritisk förhållanden. syn ekonomiska rådande på nytt att uppfatta kyrkornas sätt uppgift missionerande försoning där en central av missionsuppdraget. utgör aspekt 65 64 Försoning som kulturell minnesprocess Försoning handlar- att återställa mellanmänskliga om rela Försoningsprocesser förståelse och tillit. Det är ett försök att bygga har brustit. som tioner handlarEn central del av vår tids försoningsprocesser att bear- om Ett samhälles sätt att bearbeta det förflutna efter beta det förflutna. centralt är och framtidasamhälleliga dess för konflikter övergrepp ordförande Tutu, Desmond åtminstone Detta hävdar utveckling. som för sannings- och den sydafrikanska försoningskommissionen, skriver att ”experience worldwide shows that if you do not deal with a do not deal with worldwide that if you shows ”experience skriver att that beast effectively the beast in the eye, look past such as ours, dark to come as anything, quietly; to lie down as sure is not going is going it horrendously. back and haunt you 164 Carola Nordbäck 67 66 att i framtiden intebegå liknandeövergrepp.att iframtiden hosförövarenavsikt om attdenneämnargottgöra offren envilja och parterna. om offrens handlar önskan Dess framtidsaspekt om att se en som båda begåtts stårivägen plågardenenaeller de oförrätter och eras. Försoningen situation sinutgångspunktienaktuell där taralltid ifokusnärdeniniti framtiden försoningsprocessen nuetoch ärdock lämnadetbakom somoch sig. begåttsidetförflutna de oförrätter glömska –enönskan om attsläppataget omär dessinslagavsjälvvald Ett annatexempel påförsoningsprocessens inslag minnesbearbetande orsakatandra. deskador omsom attinteförneka handlingen handlar skäl. omavrätt attångra också enförsoninghandlar för krävs Det intehadeen önskangenomförts. om atthandlingen Denånger som –atttapåsigansvaret formulera och konsekvenserna avenhandling om ånger. inslaghandlar bakablickande om attkunnase Dethandlar nelsen. Ettannatexempel äraxlandetavskuld. Ytterligare etttill påverka nuet och framtiden.förändra Ett exempel på detta är bekän- att isyfte minnetomförhandlas därdetkollektiva –ettförlopp praktik Försoningsprocesser avminnes som kansåledesbetraktas enform om något som harskett.bemärkelsen handlar attförsoningalltid motframtiden.och iden Dentarsinutgångspunkt idetförflutna likaberättigande. existens och gottgörelser erkänner varandras genomförs attdebåda och parterna skipas,rättvisa formuleras, ursäkter attoffentliga av former attolika soningsprocesser inslag. andra också om attformell Detkanhandla Även om bearbetningen av det förflutna står i centrum för själva Ävenför själva ståricentrum omav detförflutna bearbetningen bådemotdetförflutna,En försoning ärdärmed riktad motnuet Förutom- sanningenför innehåller denhistoriska sökandet efter lent conflict: ahandbook, 2003)s. InternationalIDEA(Stockholm 30. Jfr DavidBloomfield,TeresaLuc Huyse, & Barnes Reconciliationafter vio - 2009) s. 543–563. I. (red.), Zartman TheSAGE Angeles handbook resolution conflict (Los of limits”, iJacob Bercovitch, AleksandrovichKremenyuk & Viktor William Jfr Valerie Rosoux, ”Reconciliation as a peace-building processs: and Scope 66 67 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 165 processer processer 69 ; Jfr Fernando Enns & Jfr Fernando 2015; 68 25/8 . De innehåller . truth-telling ochreparation Som en central det skrev del av denna försoning 70 restorative justice, restorative ) s. 15. Barnes & Huyse) s. (2003 Bloomfield, 23f. Barnes & Huyse) s. (2003 Bloomfield, of Report the Lutheran-Mennonite Reconciling in Christ: memories: Healing Lutherska världsförbundet (Genève studyinternational commission, Carola Nordbäck 73 72 71 historia: (2010).Reconciling inChrist enny Därbetonas vikten avattskriva medtitelnHealing memories: enrapport blev denna historieskrivning konflikt egentligenharlöstsupp. som därefter aldrig Resultatetav avdeskeendenunder1500-taletsom dendjupa alstrat skildring risk engemensam histo- detmennonitiskalutherska och världsförbundet lektivt minne. om som Halbwachs och kol- inspirerats teori av bland annat Maurice studies memory som cultural detforskningsfält kallas för är centrala medhjälpavbegreppen kollektivtminne.kulturellt De och analyseras utsagor omärdensamtidigt detförflutna detkollektiva relaterad till via olika medier. på försoning baseras en mellanmänsklig Eftersom sion. historiska referenser och som Däråterfinnsdenarrativ artikuleras dess ursprung, funktion uppgift, och minnesdimen- harenkollektiv förenar och gruppen,ningar om vad som karaktäriserar vad som är enförsoningsakt. inneburit isigsjälvt historia Kollektiva identiteter,Kollektiva föreställ- sägagruppmedlemmars detvill avengemensam menarsåledesattskrivandet Rapportförfattarna of reconciliation. shared history. To look atthepasttogether inthisway isitselfanact in anattractive andaccessible way, have they presented usthis for ofthesixteenthcentury. events the crucial For thefirsttime, and The commission discovered thatthere wasnocommon narrative of (Chicago 1992). (Chicago lective memory 2010);panion (Berlin Halbwach, to studies Maurice cultural memory On col- (Hampshire &Ansgarculture 2011); Nünning (red.), Erll Acom- Astrid För Erll, endjupare avdettaperspektivseAstrid in beskrivning Memory (2015)s.Jfr Enns&Seiling 31f. Healing …(2010)s. memories 6. encounters,national andecumenical 1975–2012(Eugene 2015). (red.),Jonathan Seiling from inter - Mennonites indialogue: reports Official 73 71 72 Dennafunktion kan Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 167 74 ) s. 7f. 2010) s. ing your identity? caning your distance ourselves How we from Healing memoriesHealing … ( Det finns flera inslag i försoningsprocesserna som har en minnes- Det finns flera inslag i försoningsprocesserna Miller pekar på historieskrivningens betydelse för de kollektiva We receive your commitment to rightly his- commitment shared this your remember receive We vulnerability body and your in taking steps to heal the fractured tory, are We as a gift God. from of Christ together, live in which we with holyare dealing We histor difficulty of the aware of the task. self-un- basic most our with dealing are We ours. and yours ies, Augsburg the of witness the you, For ours. and yours derstandings, an essential shaper of and authoritative, is foundational Confession martyrs Anabaptist the of witness the living a is us, For identity. your build to churches of community global our in retold story, vital and - the condemna from distance yourself can How you identity. group history while still and their consequences honoring your tions and strengthen martyrthe of use which perpetuates tradition - victimi of sense a out for forgiveness reaching zation and marginalization – and your canpushes us to do precisely thus distance ourselves that – how we while still honoring our history our identity? strengthening and politisk betydelse. Jag har tidigare i denna artikel Jag har tidigare på de officiella pekat politisk betydelse. Sådana ursäkter bidrar till konstruktionen av en ursäkternas betydelse. Samtidigt omvandlad bild av det förflutna och det kollektiva minnet. identiteterna och de båda religiösa rörelsernas grundläggande rörelsernas identiteterna och religiösa de båda själv- kan aktualiseras, Detta visar hur kollektiva identiteter både förståelse. det kollektiva minnet. och utmanas genom förstärkas, 74 minnet. Försoningsprocesser medför förändringar kollektivaav iden- Försoningsprocesser minnet. Detta avspeglas tydligt mycket i rapportenmemories . Healing titeter. världsförbundet det lutherska När be mennoniterna 2009 beslöt att - för det mennoni generalsekreteraren förlåtelseom Larry sade Miller, tiska världsförbundet följande: 168 Carola Nordbäck också offrens identitetenlegitimitet. också kollektiva som narrativ nationenplats idetkollektiva bärupp, ges därmed och minnenen gruppernas tillerkänner dediskriminerade handlingen 77 76 75 följande sätt: detpå beskriver Finland och ursäkteri offentliga rat påverkar gruppidentiteter. dettakollektiva - har analyse Jan Löfström Omvandlingen innehåller tre innehåller dimensioner:Omvandlingen självbilden, bildenavden bär en bearbetning avdessa,bär enbearbetning självbild. samtidigtenomvandlad och tiva föreställningaromparten. denandra Enförsoningsprocess inne- ståelse fiendebilder. och nega- grupper innehåller Konflikter mellan uppfattats som legitimaavdet omgivande samhället. kulturella och identiteterinteharbliviterkända eller vars historiska och historieböckerna ideoffentliga erfarenheter harosynliggjorts och minnen människorvarskollektiva processen till inkluderande riktas inklusion. symbolisk för att fungerasom riter förmåga i deras Den - självför försoningenI fokusför återfinnssåledesolikagruppers ligger betydelse ursäkternas menarattdeoffentliga Löfström in incorporated ‘our shared memory’ and ‘our history’. areor other)community–theirpainfulmemories institutionally in the (national inclusion victims a confirmation of their symbolic are unacknowledged tothe suffering thepreviously apologies for tims. purposes; historical Inthisrespect, inclusionary serve can they andself-perception totheidentity ofthevic- significant are often entail recognition asthey ofinjusticesthat citizenship of cultural of the past. of the public view the construction areThey also politics to contribute inthatthey apologiesare politicsofhistory Historical Rosoux (2009)s. 549f. (2011)s.Löfström 95. izenship”, 15:01(2011)s. CitizenshipStudies 96 . Reflections exclusion? on institutional cit- apologies aspoliticsofcultural Jan Löfström, –and inclusion apologiesasacts ofsymbolic ”Historical 76 75 Den reparativa 77 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 169 78 - utgångs som Det tjänar här 79 2013. , tillgänglig via Rádio Sápmis hemsida, Carola Nordbäck kyrkans egetkyrkans ansvar. nyanserasmedendiskussion om kanockså – mendennaförklaring som ska undersökas. de orättvisor till klaring Det är givetvis korrekt en delavstaten”. Kyrkans relation nära statenbetonas till som- en för påatt icitatetovan exempelvis ”det gjorde, kyrkan gjorde mansom ansvar för sina relationer till urbefolkningar ideegnaregionerna. sinarelationeransvar för urbefolkningar till uppmanades attta inom dessaorganisationer medlemskyrkorna och försoning. Redan vid frågorkring drivit hartagituppoch bundet som Kyrkornas världsråd attförsoningsprocessergit till initierats.- världsför Lutherska Såväl harpåbörjats. soningsarbetet har spelatenviktigroll idekolonialiseringen idessaländernärför iolikaländeroch harutsattsför som urfolk detförtryck till bidragit debåde har eftersom enviktiguppgift haft har denationella kyrkorna somgit identidigaredrabbats. kolonialadeurfolk politikenoch Här försoningsprocesser attinitiera deinstitutionerför mellan som delta- 83 82 81 80 av att Svenska kyrkan fram till 2000varstatskyrka. till fram kyrkan av attSvenska tion sittkoloniala atttaansvarför arv. ärstarkt präglat Dennahistoria ambi- Försoningsarbetet kyrkans för kansåledessessom ettuttryck den svenska staten har genomfört ettliknande arbete. den svenska statenhargenomfört som nupågårärdirektatt sedetförsoningsarbete relaterat att till lighet attfaktisktgåinienförsoningsprocess. ärdetviktigt Samtidigt - organisationernaharbidra Men även kyrkliga deinternationella Wejryd stateninnebärenökad från pekaräven möj- påattfriheten 2008).även Se svenskeller enminoritet? av Enstudie samepolitik 1986–2005(Göteborg För statens del, Peter seexempelvis Johansson, Samerna: Ettursprungsfolk Kirke ogkontekst ikultur (Tromsö 2007) s.109f. kirkens forsoningsprosjekt ilulesamiskområde”, (red.), Sirris iStephen Jfr RolfSteffensen, ”Ågjørefor gammelurett: bot Noen utfordringer fra 9,368386101f. s. (2006), Ekström &Schött 2006)s.(Stockholm 105; Tyrberg( 2013) s. 164f. EkströmSören Schött, & Marie Samerna – ett ursprungsfolk iSverige: –ettursprungsfolk FråganSamerna omSveriges 82 -talets början initierades sådant arbete 1990-talets början initierades sådant arbete Samiska frågor i Svenska kyrkan frågor Samiska 81 83 Wejrydpekar Tre årinnan 80 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 171 ver det samiska ver vat o - Carola Nordbäck 88 87 86 kyrkan”. delaravSvenska samtövriga med samerna såbrettvidareprocess somföras idialog måsteförankras möjligtoch rådets verksamhetsberättelse år2000medtilläggetatt från ”denna rien harattber rien som hant.a av vad kyrkohisto- studium ocks ett grundligt Det betyder innebar att ba fr Samiska att: kyrkostyrelsen mötet år2000skriver Liknande ställningstaganden formuleras också i utredningen också formuleras Liknande ställningstaganden bakom gåvidare ossoch tillsammans. framtiden,på ettsådant för sättattvikanlära läggadetförflutna misstag, för finnastegenförsoningsprocess. ien Kyrkostyrelsen Övergrepp och utgör.erna vill kyrkan rådetinom Svenska IdialogmedSamiska eget landsom sam- ivårt gå vidare om ifråga denurbefolkning situation rättigheter. och om urbefolkningars Detärnudagsatt uttalat generalförsamlingar Kyrkornas världsråds och förbundets - världs avvad följd Lutherska till beslut iKyrkomötet förpliktelser iklädde kyrkan sig redanSvenska i början av detta. harformulerat kyrkostyrelsen Också - kyrko till Ienskrivelse Ekström & Schött (2006)s.Ekström &Schött 105. 2000-1/ksskr0001-original.htm>,skrivelser/ 29/82015. nivåns uppdrag, 2000:1, KsSkr Carola Nordbäck romerna. i Göteborgjuniår2000framf av 90 kyrkan” känner. som finns förlåtelsetematik den skuld- och för I stället sorgen och som denegnasmärtan tillfällen nar vidtvå ”vi iSvenska sigmot–romerna. som manförbrutit engrupp ytterligare enförsoningsprocess kyrkan inleddenämligen med samerna Svenska Hammar som dåvarärkebiskop. Parallellt med medförsoningsarbetet som bad offentligt om ursäkt. Ettviktigtstegtogs redan år2000av kyrkan representantenSvenska inte den förste den självständiga för skuldärförreoch ärkebiskopen KGHammar. Tyrberg varnämligen som om kyrkan tagit upp frågan försoning, Svenska sentant för historia personligt och plan.tiden påettindividuellt Enannanledanderepre- 92 91 -talet initierades detta försoningsarbete och vid en gudstjänst och 1990-talet initierades detta försoningsarbete detta. Hammar berinteexplicitom ursäkteller förlåtelse. Hanbeto- medenpa och till inget kyrkan skyddlagar somfolk sablev utankanske utdefinierade skap, tadelif osa karlek,villkorsl d ar bidrog attresa vitill murar, skapafr land. barare vara avevangeliet, Darviskulle budskapetom Guds det som var egen tradition har orsakat romer i vart av skilda grupper vikansagaattorjer satydligt kyrkan idagiSvenska vill Vi Wejryd talarhäråteromansvar. skuldoch Hanrörhela sigdock (Uppsala ochInkludering f www.svenskakyrkan.se/default.aspx?id= 989898>, Inkludering ochInkludering f soning, miljöoch2003) s. fred, rättvisa (Sundbyberg 62–64. Per Harling, Urdjupen roparvi: och Andakt på för gudstjänstmedfokus (Uppsala 2013)s. 5f. Al Fakir, och Svenska tillromer 1900–1950 ca kyrkans förhållande resande 92 91 Hans ursäkt formulerades på följande sätt: Hansursäktformulerades påföljande 2013), Enhetenf orf orsoning …(2013)s. 8. orsoning: Enrapport och omromer iSvenska resande kyrkan oljelsen. stiftade samhalle arnvrt Detandra drivande faktor.drivande o smarta kannersorgoch Vi or flerspr orde urs akt till Hammarenoffentlig akighet, Kyrkokansliet, Carola Nordbäck han syftar pånärhantalarom främlingskap.han syftar sigidetta Hanriktar harskapat.förtrycket av Hammars talvad interiktigt Detframgår som läkning avdetfrämlingskap till ärenligtHammarattbidra arvet dettaarv.rar avdethistoriska som åligger osspå grund Enuppgift med. som vimåsteleva arv lektivt historiskt Frågan ärhurvihante- då om skuldiHammarstal? dömande. eller moraliserande kunskapssökandet blialltför Vad sägs ensidiga tolkningarsom för en uppmaning varning att inte låta och kans eget ansvar. JagtolkarHammarsbetoning avnyanserad förståelse ningar.- kyr fram utanlyfter Hanbetonar intestatensroll iförtrycket - illgär misstagoch detförflutnas dimensioner skainrymma toriska varshis- självbild kollektiv såledesenomvandlad Hammar beskriver namn har människor genom begått förkastliga handlingar. historien troninsikten att den kristna inte är något skydd mot felsteg. I Guds meneutiska process uppstår smärta. bland annat om Det handlar grepp sammaönskan utifrån om skahanteras förståelse. Idennaher- desom över - och harblivitutsattaför de som harbegåttoförrätter kunskap om detförflutna. nyanseratsökandeöppet och efter Både Någon personlig skuldfinnsinte, mendäremot harviettkol- legender. om historia,även om dethandlar med och tradition kansketill och jag måsteuppge minidentitetsom förorättad, kränkt, eller förtryckt i försoningens anda,hand utsträckt om att den samtidigt betyder sådan identitet. attta emot en skainteunderskattasvårigheten Vi endel avenidentitet idag,blir till bärare aven kanske ärvisjälva främlingskap.nedärvt begångnaoförrätter vet hurlätthistoriskt Vi förflutna. hela också och överbrygga oss att Men vi måste anstränga idet detonda göras personligen för somkan heller gjorts ansvariga endelavvårhistoria. attvara alltid för Ingen avosssom idag lever idag.Det som kan inte ogjort skett i det förflutna göras Det kommer Hammar menade attförsoningsprocessen måsteinledasmedett Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 177 Även här talas talas här Även 94 ) s. 55. 2012) s. … ( agastallamat an S Rapport fr Liknande uttalanden har gjorts av ärkebiskop Anders Wejryd. I Wejryd. har gjortsLiknande uttalanden Anders av ärkebiskop Vididentitet och om sätt att tala Hammars tolka ett försök att I citaten ovan har två centrala aspekter av hanteringen av det för- da sidor ser sig som det. Vi bidrainte ska till det”. det. som sig ser sidor da 94 sammanhang samtidigt tillsammanhang gruppersläppa inte kan eller individer som Hammartycks det förflutnas oförrätter i en offerroll. utan fastnar fokuseringenmena att av historiskt Den som förtryck innebär en risk. genom kan ”identitetförorättad” som sin förmårinte om taget släppa detta försvåra en försoningsprocess. år 2011 säger frånett referat med samiska representanter ett samtal Det r latt att a lar de kristna”hoppet att sluta att vara offer. att Wejryd ba således om offerskapet som en del av en självbild offerskapet som således om kan och som bör väljas bort. skuld framgår- att han menar att historien person inte alstrar någon - Hammar nämner inte heller begrep lig skuld för de efterlevande. hävdar Däremot pen skuld för att beskriva kyrkans kollektiva ansvar. Hammar att de vars arv av ett historiskt utgörs förtryck löper risk att offerskapet i sin identitet. integrera synliggjorts flutna inom ramen för en försoningsprocess – frågan Wejryd diskuterar dessa Hammar och Både och skuld om offerskap. för historiska ansvaret - över Det konkreta nivå. frågor på en personlig kan inte ärvasgrepp parter förorättade de uppmanar – samtidigt som såväl individuellt kollektivt om som historisktatt släppa taget offer- Skuld och individrelaterat därför ses således som kan ingen skap. Samtidigt annan människas handlingar. människa lastas för någon tycks det offerskap det historiska som förtrycket ärvas. skapat de facto som samtidigt något men beskrivsDessutom ett problem, detta som Här synliggörs skilda de efterlevande kan välja bort – kasta av sig. sätt att förhållatill sig väcker och historiska händelser som processer av detta slag sker exempelvis i en försoningsprocess Vad viktiga frågor. 178 Carola Nordbäck nu. senare isitttal. det om devalsom vigör häroch Dennagånghandlar resultat övergrepp. avhistoriska som som ioch detolkarsomav utanförskap dessamänniskorlever ett uppfattassom enreduceringavdekänslor skapet? Detkanexempelvis - offer väljabort och avsigdetförflutna attruska förorättade parten uppmanar den förtryckande när representanter som varit denpart för 95 Hammar, tjäna, att vittna, fri att vara” fri den hans sätt att beskriva är viktig för försöka kanvi förflutna gestalta enbättre framtid. packning, bråte. av historisk likatyngd intefullt Medinsiktom det därigenomskapaenlättare och främlingskap relationer –överbrygga kanviskapabättre klarsyn menaattmedenhistorisk Hammar tycks kunskaper hjälpa ossatt undvika att detta blir ett tungt arv? toriska generationer. framtida till att generera arv etthistoriskt Hurkanhis- kommer pekarpåattviockså och motframtiden Hammar blicken Hammar kommeromskuldlite återinpå frågan identitetoch Hammars önskan om enlättare som packning gör honom att ”fri försoning riktar Med hjälp av diskussioner skuld och om historisk attvara. fri ning. som Enpackning görfri, migmera atttjäna, fri attvittna, fri enlättare- pack nu –längtar efter –här och försoning för? och Vi tiden får så mycket att be om ursäkt för, skämmas för, söka förlåtelse - detvägarattidagundvikafram sökasorg och försoning?Finns lärjungaskapinnebär,tolkning avvad kristet kommer deattkänna anklaga ossför, prioriterande, vårt och handlande vad för ivårt ivår så: frågan ställa också ossatt vad kommer generationerna efter ettenkeltsvar. jagska undvikaattantyda och enkel fråga kan Vi Vad våridentitetidag?Detäringen för klarsyn innebärenhistorisk Lättare packning–menhur?(2000). 95 Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 179 skapelse. skapelse. I citatet ovancitatet I formulerarav teologisk förståelse en Hammar packning. Men vi förväntas vara inte helt passiva i denna ny packning. att sätta förväntan en gudomlig Det ligger på oss att gå till mötes, 5: (Matt. Jesus i Bergspredikan namn på smärta och övergrepp. fram’Om du bär och din offergåva där kommer till altaret 23–24): så låt din gåva ligga otalt med dig, har något ihåg att din broder sedan Kom ochframför gå först ochaltaret med honom. försona dig eller syster den broder Men om vi tillbaka och bär fram din gåva.’ är kvar i livet? inte räckhåll, är inom försyndade oss emot inte längre det om försyndade som mig, Och det inte var jag personligen om samhöriga ochen i mig med trostradition, samma människor, var jag då? Hur gör ansvar för. jag likväl inte kan ta personligt men som vilja att där det finns en är många överallt i Kristi kyrka, Frågorna med vi gör Vad packning. och gå med lättare ögon se med klarare de svarta hålen? sidorna, de mörka skuggorna, Det specifikt kristna är att livet sker på nåd, att vi inte förtjänar Guds Det specifikt kristna nåd, sker på är att livet att Gud för Kristi skull kärlek utan är oförtjänta av den, mottagare möj- en ständig nystart, ständigt erbjuder och frisk oss en ny relation, lättare med steg, lätta på vidare gå att sig, bakom lägga att ligheten grunderna för de aktuella försoningsprocesserna. För att kunna för För grunderna för de aktuella försoningsprocesserna. Här Gud med sonas måste människan först försonas med sin nästa. låg till grund den tanke som återkommer för kyrkoplikten fram till historiska klarsynens betydelse. Men för att till fullo förstå som vad historiska klarsynens betydelse. bön Tyrbergs i Både åsyftas också försoningen måste teologiskt. tolkas 2001 och en teo- 2000 applicerades tal vid kyrkomötet i Hammars Svenska som på de försoningsprocesser logisk försoningsuppfattning Svenska att om kyrkan talade och samerna Tyrberg kyrkan deltog i. I väg i Jesu namn”. ”försoningens fortsättningsvis skulle vandra en till katolska kyrkan, Hammars tal handlade relationen om försoningen utvecklade Han till samerna och till romerna. tillfolket, judiska det sambandet mellan försoning och på följande teologi sätt: 180 Carola Nordbäck Svenska kyrkan tänkeridennafråga: kyrkan Svenska som kange enbeskrivning indikation omdock hur maninom cessen ärnågot oklar icitatenovan, likasåvadav. denskaföljas att kunnaläkarelationer? roll iförsoningspro Historieforskningens - För förlåtelse? Föratt fåGuds skuldfrågan? attklargöra ansvars-och lärdomar? attdra bakåt för För att kunna glömma gå vidare? och För avettsådant nyttan tillvägagångssätt. och tillbakablickandet vi Blickar bakom syftet frågan enstörre iom finnsdock mångfald det förflutna vad som sketti en enighetbakom tankenattdet ärviktigtattbelysa enförsoningsprocess. för betydelse rieskrivningens Även om detfinns att ovan Det harframgått Tyrberg, Wejryd Hammarbetonar och histo- skuldochAxla identifiera ansvar på ettannatsätt. bekännelsen attinteanvända utanbeskriver traditionella termer dock muleras. om ensyndabekännelse. Dethandlar HärväljerHammar skuldensom- skafor också därmed och teologi ärdetsnarare synden attoffrets och upplevelse ges utrymme.beskrivs Itraditionellt luthersk är något otydligt. både attövergreppet påbetydelsen Hanpekardock mötes,till övergrepp”. och attsättanamnpåsmärta Vad här som åsyftas göra.något som hon förväntas enligtHammarom att Dethandlar ”gå denfinnsdet dennanådförtjäna utanattbehöva människan erhåller nåd. genom Guds som människan kan erhålla att erhålla Även om ning upppånytt. genom erhålls denständiganystart Dennapackning 1800-talet. dykerHammarsönskan om enlättare- Samtidigt pack I utredningen fr Samiska baka –såmåstenågon vägnar. detpåderas offentligt göra Som en kan erkänna dem –övergreppensjälva kan ju ligga generationer- till konkret,och punkt. punkt för Omdesom begått övergreppen inte jande: Deorättfärdigheter som förekommit erkännas, skall iprincip Försoning måste, som mankonstaterat iNorge, bl.a. innebära - föl agor iSvenska (SKU kyrkan 2006:1) finns Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 181 97 -trondheim/>, 1997-trondheim/>, Urfolk i den verdens- 11. 2014; 3/3 Hon skiljer mellan skiljer Hon ett syn- 1997---14. 98 11. 96 d. Et historisk tilbakeblikk og veien framover og veien tilbakeblikk Et historisk , d. a Samisk kirker , Norska kyrkans erkännande kyrkans erkännande Norska , i samisk kirkeliv med utgangspunkt vide kirke resolu- se beslut och av skuld och offentliga ursäkt tillNorge, samerna i Sak KM 13/97, kyrkans, 1997 kyrkomöte i samband med Norska tioner Carola Nordbäck lisk förpliktelse attreparera skadan.lisk förpliktelse organisa representanterna dessa för ärdödasåhardeefterföljande trycket perspektiv. Detinnebärattäven om deindividersom- utövadeför 99 formulerade bönen representerade men kyrka handagens Svenska f och fel gjort tankt och som ligger kvarfr 2001. Hansade att ”som erk kyrka anner viatthardelidenskuld den25mars vid försoningsgudstjänsteniUndersåkerskyrka förlåtelse pågåridag. som eventuellt detförtryck skuldför sonlig kollektiv och som pågått bakåt i tiden.tryck Däremot kan det givetvis finnas en per- någon bära personlig- skuldidetför sittsamfundutanatt själva för företrädare skuldgör som detsom idagaxlarhistorisk representanter talet omförsoningfinnssåledesolikanivåer. skuldoch Dekyrkliga iljuset. fram som dekränkningar samerfåttutstålyfts ansvar för I motdetförflutna.kablick Svenska historiska kyrkans Detinnebäratt gemensam- utgångspunkt–tanken attenförsoning kräver entillba forskningen såfinnsdären av denhistoriska slutsatser mankandra äntidigare. ageraienannanriktning digheter attiord handling och - skyl skuldeninnehåller viktigtsteg men denhistoriska vändigt och erkännande. Detärendastettstegpåvägen. Erkännandet ärettnöd- rätta.saker till skuld kan således inte undanröjas Historisk genom ett samtidigt tapåsigettansvaratt–idenmåndetärmöjligtställa som det orättfärdiga tar ansvar för i det förflutna gör det genom att enligt därdenpart Thompsonförhållande attklivainiettmoraliskt står ning i.av den relation parterna Ett sådant erkännande innebär som övergrepp. utsattsför av dengrupp om enomtolk- Dethandlar sinförståelse och självförståelse dettaisinkollektiva att inkorporera Detta representantskap framgår tydligt ibiskop Detta representantskap tydligt framgår Tyrbergs bön om Även omolikatolkningaravvilka detiexemplenformuleras ovan innebäräven förtryck axlaansvaretAtt och för historiskt identifiera Thompson (2002)s. 148ff. tioner en skyldighet attundersökationer övergreppen- enskyldighet enmora och an detf or detsom vif organgna. berom f Vi 99 orsummat”. Idetögonblick han atelse f orl or detsom vi Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 183 tala- o- vades vades innan o om agor ar jag vaxte upp k inte duger nar ak inte duger ”N Den fråga väcktes som inom r jag hade trott att det var trott or jag hade 100 101 ga: ar det att hora sin dotter saga: n varre ak. k. A ak. orstar inte Gudsa fr samiska? Religio r det? Jo mitt. Jag fel ar det? Jo mitt. Vems pa.” ak att tala med honom Rapport från Ságastallamat, en konferens kyrkan Rapport Svenska om samerna från och Ságastallamat, (2012), s. 6. Jfr Huuva & Blind (2016). sentligaste, ockssjalv a hade ber vasentligaste, var det svenskan modersmalet, rsta insikten var dock att jag, f Den varsta insikten var dock att jag, fick”Jag aldrigaral att mojlighet farfarmin k anna mig hade – jag spr inget vat mina barn mitt spr de sin historia och sitt spr Marainen- – och alstrade den – ska utgöra före den upplevelse som Men dessför förmål artikelns nedan. avslutanderesonemang Han beskri - Marainenska upplevelser. sina få berätta om lite mer via den diskriminering och försvenskningsprocess nedan hur han, ver ber innebar för skolan som de samiska barnen under 1950-talet, ba 101 100 språken används inom kyrkan och berättade att: kyrkan ochspråken inom att: berättade används Förstår inte Gud samiska? inte Förstår samerna och år 2011 om Svenska konferens en Vid Ságastallamat, fick av att levaom sina olika erfarenheter samer berätta kyrkan, medlem av Marainen, En av dessa var Johannes same i Sverige. som vikten av att de samiska Han betonade samiska rådet i Svenska kyrkan. också denna kyrka ur ett historiskt perspektiv. I bönen finns en vil- finns en I bönen också kyrka denna ur ett historiskt perspektiv. axla historisklighet att och- av försonings en del kollektiv som skuld Skulden och ångern tycks nödvändigt. något uppfattas som processen. upprättas väg framåt och därefter gemensam en relationen kan Först ut. kan stakas f fick jag tanken: samiska – som om vart om des pa finska men inte pa samiska – som spr man ska samtala om och med Gud.”man ska samtala om 184 Carola Nordbäck 102 för för tvinga över telse finnsensorg denspråkliga omstöpningsprocess som han jämlik delaktigheti de svenska sammanhangen.uppleva - I hans berät som hans egen fick släkt utgjorde som att han aldrig och ledde till dering, dengemenskap som från innebaratthanbåde avlägsnades äldrars modersmål.äldrars enbetoning av finnsockså Ihansberättelse lorade kontakten med det språk som var Marainens och hans lorade kontaktensom och meddetspråk varMarainens Marainen beskriver en upplevelse avalienering, enupplevelse beskriver Marainen endubbelexklu- ardet f visar symbolv ber sjalva ardigarbev sigattanvspr anda deras att hananvant samiska. Dekandeattdebliviterkanda nrenbiskop massa iUme, tackadebiskopenf och koma samekvinnorfram tv N anvandas. varde. Darf f tiden dadenleddesavkyrkan staten sasmningom togo digt langebeslutade och om densamiskaunder-visningen, fastan valsignelse. lapp”. skavara Lapp Kyrkan f ettlappjande, bara fall alla blitill aldrig skall och mendetharaldrig skrev bl.a. at dem inte lappja pa civilisationens bagare ...”l det blir i sig.lara iKaresuando Hansmedhjalpare Karnell kyrkoherde Vitalis atttaredaa iuppdrag pavad biskopeniLule samerbeho varande Kyrkan artminstone delansvarig. då Iborjanav1900-taletfick S hade integett hennemitteget spr ), s. 15f. s. (2012), Ságastallamat, och från omsamerna SvenskaRapport kyrkan enkonferens a rdetf ar f des delta i som barn och somdes deltaisomoch resulterade barn iatthansegnabarn orrea f biskopeniLule o or mangaavosssamer. vats sittspr r det nu viktigt att kyrkan ser till attspr ser till or adetnuviktigtattkyrkan or anvandandet avsamiskaikyrkan. k och intekundesamiska.ak och Dettaom nagot ver ansvaret. Menskolanharandafr or f orsta gangen anvande samiskaviden rt vidare attsamerinteharnagotort ak shon kundetalamedhonom. ak. Detmarkligaste varattde rvaltade same orvaltade 102 skolan val- aket fr vde an or Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 185 103 ledes . Jfr Tyrberg Jfr Tyrberg 2016. 2/4 , Carola Nordbäck mänskliga rättigheter. attkämpaför kanvara kyrkor för attenviktig uppgift menar därmed desocialarelationer genomsyrar och som hon ärinvävd i. Sigurdson harengudsrelation och ning skapad avGud som både överskrider relationell änsubstantiell. Varje människaärenligtdennaföreställ- tro,människor oavsett ärsnarare och kulturell eller tillhörighet språk människor. skillnadermellan alla skrider såledesalla Deninkluderar människa bär. över- Sigurdson betonar attdennagudsavbildlighet lika värde. Detinnebäretterkännande avettomistligt värde som varje avbild. denteologiskabetoningen för avmänniskors Detärgrunden föreställning om människansom skapad Guds till grundläggande ringen avmänniskovärdet”. ringen motive påmänniskan och - omteologiska frågeställningar justsynen tigheter hänger, ”historiskt, såvälsom isamtiden, intimt sammanmed mänskligarättigheter.också om- attfrågan mänskligarät Hanskriver medett betonande sammantvinnas avmänniskovärdet därmed och delaktighet. erbjuda innebärattiord praktiker handling ikyrkliga och rella symbolspråk värde rättigheter. och kultu- modersmåloch Attsamernas inkludera människo- högomfattningsamernas ståttuppför inte itillräckligt iSverige.nas villkor Dettakanrelaterasattkyrkan, till enligt Tyrberg, samer- attförbättra till process samhälleliga somövergripande syftar den till erkännande bidrag är enligt min mening ettviktigt kyrkligt som universella gemenskap kyrkans konstitueras.dering av Denna typ gemenskapen. marginaliserade. idenkyrkliga rösterges Deras utrymme börockså 106 105 Teologen Sigurdson harpekatpåhurteologiskaargumentkan Ola Tyrberg menaattdetärgenom inklu- kulturellspråklig tycks och Sigurdson (2009)s. 256. Sigurdson (2009)s. 254. 106 105 I den kristna antropologin Idenkristna finnsen Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 187 - or den samiska gudst En sådan religiös inkluderingreligiös har En sådan 107 fungerar det oftadet fungerar sa n armast som ochak symboler, tetsformeringoch deras möjligheter att utveckla självförtro- Rapport från Ságastallamat, en konferens kyrkan Rapport Svenska om samerna från och Ságastallamat, 27. (2012) s. Detta resonemang om erkännandets fundamentala funktion kan fundamentala funktion erkännandets om Detta resonemang En viktig frågaEn viktig således vilka effekter är blir när en statskyrka det ende, självrespekt och självuppskattning. När människor förvägras När självrespekt och självuppskattning. ende, inte bara en avgörande betydelse för för samerna samhället utan även och för helhet – för kyrkan Svenska som kyrkans kollektiva självbild, för hennes samhälleliga och roll för den andliga inom gemenskapen kyrkan. Gustafsson Johanna tillrelateras teologen Lundbergs sätt att betona Gustafsson betydelse för Svenskaerkännandeprocessernas kyrkan. Lundberg erkännandeteori från utgår som Honneths filosofenAxel grundläggande tre inom behov människors erkännande av betonar juridiskt/rättsligt och social uppskatt- erkännande kärlek, områden: centrala för är enligt Honneth människors Dessa områden ning. identi nsten genom spr genom jansten Det sander Det vill aga: s en politisk handling samhalle. in i ett lokalt att kyrkan menar att det samiska ar en naturligett budskap om och allet”.viktig del av det lokalsamh upprätthåller religiös exkludering. Jag menar att kyrkans medverkan att kyrkans Jag menar medverkan exkludering. upprätthåller religiös övriga den förstärker samhälleliga exkluderingen djup- på ett mycket detta gäller Men utsträckning i lika hög en kyrka när sätt. gående en kyrka vägrar delta i en samhälleligNär motsatt sätt. agerar på exkludering inkludering ochform en religiös i istället genomför av en gruppers av marginaliserade teologisk betoning och människovärde handling som i konkret visar detta innebär det ett erkännande även En kan vara av stor betydelse för deltagarna i den aktuella gruppen. inkluderingsådan kan innebära stöd och ett viktigt emotionellt utgöra rättvisa och ett steg i en individuell och kollektiv kamp för upprättelse, och präs samiske teologen Den norske - samhällelig inklusion. ökad ”nar man synligg skriver att Johnsen Tore ten 107 188 Carola Nordbäck inom deexkluderadegrupperna. detenligtHonnetherkännande ensocialkampför erkännande startar 109 108 att erkänna och uttrycka deerfarenheter som offren bärpå menar jag att erkänna uttrycka och mycket vunnet. ambition Medutgångspunktdenrestorativa rättvisans sittgudstjänstspråk.variera Men om detstannardärsåärinte så som intekangörasinröst hörd”. måste Detinnebärgivetvis attkyrkan rättvisa. som detsomrestorativcessen och samspelarinom för kallas ramen averkännande som former ingåriförsoningspro- betona deövriga averkännandetbetydelsen avskuld. också avslutningsvis dock Jagvill averkännande.former på fokuserat harfrämst forskning Tidigare attförsoningsprocesser olika avdettaslaginnehåller tydligt det också pel pådettaovan. Iundersökningen avdennaförsoningsprocess blir hargett och exem samerna - och kyrkan processen Svenska mellan erkännande ientolkningavförsonings- för kantillämpas struktur gemensam framtid.” helande kanskeiömsesidighet, en kantaansvarför båda och parter en försoning, erkännandet avupprättelse. och utgör isigenform Ett till Tyrbergs egnaord italetovan: ”Genom erkännandet öppnas för funktioner.utgör primära delaravkyrkans Dettakanäven kopplas som erkännande innebärattförsoningoch synsätt ecklesiologiskt gemenskap på nya villkor. här ett formulerar Lundberg Gustafsson av erkännande tidigare delaktighetoch negligerats fårmöjlighetertill deindividervarsbehov och människovärdetolikagrupper rättas för erkännande. för infrastruktur Genom erkännandeprocesser- återupp Tyrberg att om uppgift talade kyrkans exempelvis ”ge röst åtden om som- kyrkan infra teori Lundbergs Jag menar att Gustafsson Gustafsson Lundberg driver tesen att kyrkan kan och börutgöra en kanoch tesen attkyrkan driver Lundberg Gustafsson Tyrberg (2015)s.3. 2007). (Cambridge socialical theory (red.).Owen - Recognitionandpower: AxelHonneth crit and thetraditionof (2012) s. Lundberg Gustafsson 8, 109 108 18f. &David vandenBrink Jfr Bert Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 189 - annande pro randeprocess om om orandeprocess gorna i samisk histo- agorna ker uppfatta evangelietsuppfatta ker orso Det kan exempelvis Det kan handla 110 pmi”. Det handlar enligt Johnsen apmi”. 111 rum och av gudstjänsternas utformning. Men det innebär också Men rum och av gudstjänsternas utformning. Rapport från Ságastallamat, en konferens kyrkan Rapport Svenska om samerna från och Ságastallamat, vindens barn: barn, solens Jordens barn, Johnsen, Tore Jfr 25–34. (2012) s. trokristen (Oslo 2007). i et samisk landskap en konferens kyrkan Rapport Svenska om samerna från och Ságastallamat, 26. (2012) s. Jag menar att den dialogiska och teologiska reflexion som Johnsen Johnsen som ochdialogiska den att menar Jag reflexion teologiska efterlyser för är nödvändig både samiskt kyrkoliv och för kyrkan som möjlighet att berika att samiska erfarenhet ges kyrkan. helhet genom ska fung- Gustafsson såsom Lundberg föreslår, Om Svenska kyrkan, era en infrastruktur som och för försoning blir det uppen- erkännande bart teologisk bäring måste finna en att denna funktion i en fördjupad där kyrkans utforsförmåga- att härbärgerareflexion processer sådana samtidigt Då ges kas i dialog med de grupper lider av förtryck. som utrymme för nivå. en inkludering på en djupare ar evangeliets budskap till m anniskor Vad budskap i motet med detta. i var tid?” 111 110 - leder tillatt ett språkbyte reli som bara är ett första i den process steg betydelsefull En annan är aspekt och inkludering. giöst erkännande samernas förmågaatt erkänna ochrättighet - att formulera en kontex tuell teologi utifrånerfarenheter. sina blemstallningarsamhalletegna det i och f en teologisk reflektion där samiska erfarenheter möter och där samiska tolkas i en teologisk reflektion beskriver Johnsen Tore teologen samiske Den evangeliet. av ljuset ”medvetandeg en teologi som samisk kontextuell om den konstnärliga, och därmed också teologiska, gestaltningen av gestaltningen och därmed ocksåteologiska, den konstnärliga, om kyrko det betyder att varavad kyrka i S ett kristet ar och budskap vad svar pa evange- ”evangeliets vad om i motet med de centrala fr liet skulle innebara, Det innebär ett kollektivt ria och kultur och i samiskt samhallsliv”. ”br dar samer sammanför samiskt och dialogiskt projekt, 190 Carola Nordbäck Barkan, (red.). &AlexanderKarn Elazar Taking apologies wrongsseriously and 112 Aulén, Gustaf. f Denkristna återtaAtt mittspråk: attstärka för Åtgärder detsamiskaspråket,- offent Statens 1936). 1686 årskyrkolag (Stockholm ochKällor bearbetningar arbeta diskriminering och kolonisering ivåregen kolonisering tid. och diskriminering arbeta en beslutsamhet att begångna mot övergreppen till har omvandlats delaktighet ide kanvisaattinsiktenom historiska kyrkans tydligt kyrkan Svenska huruvida ärförmodligen samerna och kyrkan Svenska av samer fortfarande pågår.av samerfortfarande diskrimineringen den samhälleliga och liga koloniseringen av Sápmi intresseorganisationerna pekatpåattdenstat- harvidolikatillfällen idag. attbistå samerna olika sättagerar för Företrädare desamiska för på och tar försoningsprocessens utmaningarpåallvar och innehåll kyrkan Svenska ligt attantadenavgörandepunktenärhuruvida om gemenskap. erbjudande kyrkans från väljer attavstå - Detärrim inkludering. resultera iattmångasameravolikaskäl Detkanockså endjupare ledatill ansvarbehöver intenödvändigtvis det avhistoriskt Men kyrkans erkännandeMen kyrkans avskuld, axlan- och böner om förlåtelse se/2015/1219/rasismen-och-hatet-mot-samer/>, 8/42016. hemsida den19december 2015, Carola Nordbäck Kelman, C. Herbert ”Reconciliation from perspective”, asocial-psychological i Karlsson, Hans-Göran. Förlåtelse Gud: tillförståelsen syndabe- av Studier från Jokinen, Heidi. Medlingvidbrott: enkonfliktlösnings analysav Enbegreppslig Johnsen, Tore. av gave? Enteologiskdrøfting Guds eller ”Menneskers arbeid Johnsen, Tore. Johansson, Peter. ellerenminoritet? av Samerna: Enstudie Ettursprungsfolk Huuva, &Blind, Kaisa (red.). Ellacarin ”När jag var åtta jag mitt hem år lämnade Honneth, Axel. Erkännande:(Göteborg 2003 ). studier Praktisk-filosofiska Holmberg, Lars. Denlidandeguden: mysterium omförsoningens Enstudie Hedenberg, Biktoch 1941). Sven. (Luleå avlösning Hazan, Pierre. Judgingwar, andreconciliation judging history: Behind truth Hayner, Priscilla B. Unspeakable truths: Transitional justiceand the challenge of Harling, Per. Kurtén, Tage &JoakimMolander (red.). Homo moralis: Människanoch rätts - Klein, RebekkaA. Sociality asthehumancondition: ineconomic, anthropology Kiss, Elizabeth. ambition”Moral within and beyond politial constraints: Lundberg,Gustafsson Johanna. Medlem Gready, Paul.transitionalera The justice: of reconcili- truth and of the Theaftermath (New York reconciliation intergroup of logy Nadler,Arie Thomas Malloy &Jeffrey Fisher (red.),D. Thesocial psycho - kännelse och 1979). (Lund avlösning metod tid(Åbo2011). iensenmodern 13–31. s. 2013), lig forsoningsarbeid (Stamsund iSápmi & LineM. (red.), Skum framtid:Innspilltilkirke- –forme Erkjenne fortid forsoning medhenblikkpåforsoningsprosesser iSápmi”, i Tore Johnsen skap (Oslo2007). svensk samepolitik 1986–2005(Göteborg2008). 2016). (Stockholm och jagharännuinteskoltid kommittillbaka”: samernas från minnesbilder (Göteborg 1994). 2010). (Stanford 2011). commissions(London truth miljöoch 2003). fred, rättvisa (Sundbyberg 2012). (Lund 2005). samhället (Lund philo 68–98. Thompson (red.), commissions(Princetontruth Themorality of Reflections on restorative justice”, I. iRobert &Dennis Rotberg (New York andbeyond ation commissioninSouthAfrica sophical andtheological perspective 2011). (Leiden Ur djupen ropar vi: och Andakt på gudstjänst medfokus försoning, Jordens barn,Jordens solens barn, vindensbarn: ietsamiskland- kristen tro 2010: en teologisk kommentar (Uppsala ), s. 15–32. s. 2008), 2011). ), s. s. 2000), Försoning, erkännande och inklusion 193 Reconciliation: Nations and Nations Reconciliation: - Gränsöverskridande kyrkohisto Reconciliation: Gift of and source of God Reconciliation: ster ur kyrkohistorieni ur säga oster att de har vad – ’En försoningens väg i Jesu namn’: Perspektiv på Svenska Perspektiv väg i Jesu namn’: ’En försoningens ’O må vi vakna upp!’: Samerna, svenska kyrkan och svenska frikyrkorna Samerna, ’O må vi vakna upp!’: kyrkans försoningsarbete”, i Daniel Lindmark & Olle Sundström (red.), & Olle i Daniel Lindmark Sundström (red.), kyrkans försoningsarbete”, new life: Documents from Documents new life: (Graz assembly 1998). the second European Religion: Konflikt och (Lundoch försoning ), 2015 Konflikt Religion: s. i Lars Söderholm (red.), 83–93. 1–2 (Skellefteå antologi 2016). vetenskaplig En samerna: och kyrkan (red.), Daniel Lindmark, i tillförsoning”, . 115–142 2016) s. (Umeå Nordkalotten på minoriteterna de språkliga ria: (Uppsala 1935). årsskrift (2011),Kyrkohistorisk under 1900-talet”, s. 61–73. as politics of cultural apologies on institutional citi- Reflections sion? Citizenship Studies 15:01 (2011), 93–108. zenship”, MacLean (red.), i Iain S. as possible?” much in Latin Americachurches 2006), (Aldershot s. 3–40. Sverige (Lund 2002). (Uppsala av missionsuppdraget utövandet världsförbundet och till förståelsen - tillgänglig på Carola Nordbäck Steffensen, Rolf. ”Ågjørefor gammelurett: bot kirkensNoen utfordringer fra Sigurdson, Ola. Detpostsekulära tillståndet: religion, modernitet, politik (Göteborg Schreiter, J. Robert &Jørgensen, Knud(red.). reconcili of Missionasministry Schreiter, J. Robert mission”,”Reconciliation paradigmfor andhealingasanew Shore, Megan.Africa’s Religionresolution: and conflict andsouth Christianity iSverige: –ettursprungsfolk FråganSamerna omSveriges anslutningtillILO:s Rosoux, Valerie. ”Reconciliation as a peace-building process: scopeand limits”, Rodhe, Edvard. Svenskt gudstjänstliv: Historisk belysning densvenska av kyrko- Ohlsson AlFakir, Ida. och Svenska tillromer 1900– ca kyrkans förhållande resande Oja, Linda. ”’God enighet, Denreligiösa lag - utilandet’: kärlek sämjaoch Odén, (red.). Kristenson &Olle Robert livet: för Tillsammans Missionoch Nordstokke, (red.). Kjell Diakonia in context: Transformation, reconciliation, Nordquist, Kjell-Åke. ”Vems sanning? Vems försoning?Omförsoning som Nordisk familjebok: Konversationslexikonoch realencyklopediinnehållandeupplys- ), s. 103–114 . ogkontekstkultur (Tromsö s. 2007), forsoningsprosjekt i lulesamisk område”, (red.), Sirris i Stephen 2009). 2013). ation (Oxford 74 –83. s. mission94:372(2005), of International review commission(Farnham andreconciliation 2009). truth 1999). konvention nr169, utredningar offentliga 1999:25(Stockholm Statens 543–563. s. 2009), (red.),Zartman TheSAGE Angeles handbook resolution conflict (Los of i Jacob Bercovitch, I. AleksandrovichKremenyuk & Viktor William 1923). handboken (Stockholm 1950 (Uppsala2013). 17–85. s. 2000), (Stockholm Den stormaktstida samhällsordningen iSverigeoch Östersjöprovinserna svenskar”, i Torkel Jansson & Torbjörn Eng(red.), Stat –kyrka –samhälle: ambitionen avstormaktstidens och attgöragoda kristna stiftningen evangelisation ienvärld iförändring(Bromma2013). 2009). (Genève empowerment 167–190. s. 2010), kyrkans forskardagar 2009(Stockholm politiskt begrepp”, iHannaStenström (red.), På spaning: Från Svenska 1885),bandet (Stockholm De historiska relationerna mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna: En samerna: och kyrkan relationernaDe historiska Svenska mellan Svenska kyrkan och samerna, med jämförande utblickar mot Norge”, med jämförande utblickar mot Norge”, Svenska kyrkan och samerna, Lunds masteruppsats vid Centrum för teologi och religionsvetenskap, - Carola Nordbäck Nurturing peace,Nurturing theworld: violence: thesakeof overcoming for Christ Inthewayof Motion tillKyrkomötet Karl-Johan 2000:32av Tyrberg m.fl. omdensamiska Mission incontext: Transformation, reconciliation, empowerment: LWF An - contri reconciliation: paper of No Preparatory 10(2005),Mission asministry Kyrkornas Kyrkomötet till skrivelse 2000:1.Kyrkostyrelsens rambudgetför Måloch Kyrkomötet till skrivelse 2000:3.Kyrkostyrelsens Verksamhetsberättelse för Johnsen, Tore. ärkebiskop meddåvarande Anders WejrydIntervju den26 Sápmi iRádio Inkludering ochInkludering försoning: En rapport och om romer i Svenska resande kyrkan christ-for-the-sake-of-the-world>, 28/82015. tion-on-peace/nurturing-peace-overcoming-violence-in-the-way-of- documents-from-conferences-and-meetings/theological-reflec org/en/resources/documents/commissions/faith-and-order/x-other- seeking peace2001–2010, Ingvar Dahlbacka (Th.D., Phil.Lic.) is professor of Church History at Åbo Akademi University. He has served as the project leader for The Shifting Boundaries of Tolerance: Inclusion and Exclusion in the Context of Nordic Church History, 1750–2000. In his research, he has focused on revival movements, emigration, biographies and the uses of history. Jakob Dahlbacka (Th.D.) is a postdoctoral researcher in Church History at Åbo Akademi University. In his research, he has focused on religious uses of history, cultural memory and the spatiality of memory. Kim Groop (Th.D.) is a docent and university teacher of Church History at Åbo Akademi University. His research has focused on the history, legacy, and the (trans)cultural memory of Christian mission, Pietism and European colonialism in Africa. His research has also included the “re-building” of cultural memory sites in the former German Democratic Republic. Carola Nordbäck (Ph.D., Th.D.) is a docent of Church History working as a teacher and researcher in the Department of Historical, Philosophical and Religious Studies at Umeå University. Her fields of research are the didactics of religion, heritage didactics, church history and cultural memory studies. 198 För Gud och fosterland 199 (Ph.D.), retired professor of Folkloristics of Folkloristics professor retired (Ph.D.), Ulrika Wolf-Knuts scholarship has concentrated her on University, at Åbo Akademi folk revivalist and particularly folkSwedish belief, in Finland, folklore she has been the Since 2015, history research and migration. religion, University. Chancellor of Åbo Akademi (Th.D.) is a docent of Church History of Church is a docent (Th.D.) Åbo at Swanström André include interests the his- research current His University. Akademi Jewish-Christian and anti-Semitism in Finland, relation tory of Jews, history as the as well of Finnish military chaplainsWWII. during He has served of the Finnish Society President as History of Church since 2015.