Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a Conceptual Review

july-december 2019 p-ISSN:1390-325X / e-ISSN:1390-8642 Vol. 14, No. 2, 162-171 http://alteridad.ups.edu.ec https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.01 Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review

Educación Intercultural Bilingüe en Ecuador: Una revisión conceptual

Guadalupe Vernimmen Aguirre is a full professor at the University of Guayaquil (Ecuador) ([email protected]) (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2942-9022)

Received: 2018-02-14 / Reviewed: 2019-04-06 / Accepted: 2019-05-16 / Published: 2019-07-01

Abstract Resumen The article explores the challenges of El artículo explora los desafíos de la Educación Intercultural Bilingual Education in Ecuador (EIB). For Intercultural Bilingüe (EIB) en Ecuador. Para ello, se this, it reviews the theorical background and the his- analizan los antecedentes teóricos e históricos del pro- tory of the institutionalization of the EIB. It considers ceso de institucionalización de la EIB. Toma en cuenta the history of the struggles and resistances found by las resistencias de los movimientos indígenas por edu- indigenous movements for educating themselves in an carse en una lengua ancestral desde sus inicios hasta ancestral language from its beginnings up to the insti- llegar a la institucionalización del Sistema de Educación tutionalization of the Bilingual Intercultural Education Intercultural Bilingüe (SEIB) en el año 1988. El prob- System (SEIB) in 1988. the problem of this study is: lema que se plantea el presente estudio es: ¿cuáles son which are the principal conceptualitation of intercultur- las principales conceptualizaciones de la interculturali- ality that allows us to reflect around the EIB in Ecuador, dad que permiten reflexionar alrededor de la EIB en for developing and public policies. As a general objec- Ecuador a favor del desarrollo y las políticas públicas? tive there is an analysis of the EIB in the order of the Como objetivo general se analiza el devenir de la EIB, relationship between cultures and how these can be los conceptos y marcos legales que la sitúan. El ensayo strengthened or have as simply interchange. The pre- se adhiere al estudio crítico de la EIB en el marco de liminary hypothesis is that the Ecuadorian country it is las relaciones entre culturas y cómo estas podrían for- talecerse o simplemente intercambiarse. Se presenta allowed a more multicultural education rather than the como hipótesis preliminar que en el país ecuatoriano intercultural education and that affects local developing, se avala una educación más multicultural que intercul- son it’s a fundamental to implement cultural public poli- tural y esto incide en el desarrollo social, por lo tanto, cies that also allows the interculturality as a political an es fundamental la implementación de políticas públicas ethic project in Ecuador. culturales que también impulsen la interculturalidad Keywords: Interculturality, cultural policy, como proyecto político y ético en Ecuador. indigenous, communication, cultural development, Descriptores: Interculturalidad, políticas públi- decolonization. cas, desarrollo social, cultura, educación.

Suggested form of citing: Vernimmen Aguirre, G. (2019). Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review. Alteridad, 14(2), 162-171. https://doi.org/10.17163/alt.v14n2.2019.01 Ecuadorian Intercultural Education: a conceptual review

1. Introduction the field of studies of culture and communication in an interdisciplinary key. It is neuralgic to review the consequences of Therefore, this essay analyzes what colonial capitalism in Latin America. The his- Intercultural Bilingual Education is and what has torical conditions that allowed languages like the been the theoretical and historical context that Kichwa to be considered worthless, but at the affected its institutionalization, going through same time, have been strategically used by the the processes of resistance as the struggles of Spanish colonizers at different times to domi- the indigenous movement, until arriving at the nate. Those who came to America learned the routes for international aid and the participation language to communicate with the Indians and of religion and a model of hegemonic modernity. teach the prevailing Christian religion (while the Special attention is paid to the national original ancestral beliefs were discredited), later, and international legal and regulatory frame- during modernity, international support was work that protects and promotes rights for an received to promote the education of the indig- IBE. The official documents and the academic enous peoples and they did so in the indigenous literature place IBE in Ecuador in context to language because from the struggle of indig- recognize which are the points of tension that enous movements there was a need to be includ- problematize the situation of the Peoples and ed in education projects, which subsequently Nationals that receive an IBE and what is the sit- gave rise to Bilingual Intercultural Education. uation of the hegemonic population in Ecuador Therefore, it is taken into consideration that the as it is the white-mestizo society. itineraries of multiculturalism and intercultural It is thought about constructing decoloniz- projects in Ecuador will always refer, especially, ing changes taking into account four dimensions to the history of education and the struggles of posed by De Souza Silva (2013): epistemological, indigenous movements. ontological, methodological and axiological. In It is recognized that in Ecuador happens the first place, epistemological, in reference to the same that did for the Australian indigenous Walsh when he reflects on the incidence of the Nakata: phenomenon of knowledge and the processes (...) “the language of a people and the his- that construct it; ontological to the extent that tory of their development are still secondary and specific capitalist realities are determined; meth- remain a subordinate consideration to linguists’ odological because it is based on the processes of interpretations of how grammar determines inquiry from methods, and axiological from the meaning (...)” (Nakata, 2014, p.84). type of intervention and ethical and aesthetic This has brought disastrous consequences values for the recognition of reality. such as the linguistic and social discrediting of Finally, it is recommended that Ecuador’s ancestral languages when they are not analyzed Public Policies consolidate plans, programs and and considered by their contexts of struggle, projects that support a more equal relationship resignification and the needs of education itself, in terms of reaching an intercultural dialogue for under the great umbrella offered by the analysis socio-cultural development. of multiculturalism and interculturality from a critical and functional perspective for the indig- 2. Method enous peoples and nationalities of Ecuador. In this framework, it has been fundamen- The applied method is a bibliographic tal to reflect on the urgency of an epistemological review with a grounded theory that will be and critical turn in indigenous and intercultural contrasted with the main contributions of inter- education in Ecuador, as defined by authors of culturality understood in a more complex way

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than a simple relationship between cultures. refers to the notion that the indigenous peoples Therefore, within the selection of the bibliogra- at first had to revitalize their culture (multi- phy, the studies carried out by authors belong- culturalism) motivated by public policies that ing to the social sciences and communication wanted to maintain social, political, cultural and under a critical perspective of capitalist moder- economic inequalities and then the indigenous nity, to establish radically different relationships peoples had to integrate with the rest of society with forms of power and new life, stand out. it for dialogue (interculturality), what is currently involves disciplining and regulating racialized seen from a critical and functional perspective and excluded thoughts and situations. Therefore, is conceived as an ethical and political project the disciplines with which the theme will mainly under construction. be carried out are: education, studies of culture With this background, the legal frame- and communication. works established for the analysis have been substantiated. At the national level, the basis 3. Analysis and results is found in the Political Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador (2008) while internation- When studying the history of colonization we are ally it is Convention 169 of the ILO and the led to what Rodríguez (2017) explains through Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples of the various authors (Mariátegui, 1928; Cueva, 1980), United Nations. Several documents on inter- that the situation of indigenous education from cultural education, such as the national devel- the consolidation of the nation-state in America opment plans that were published at different Latina was affected by capitalism and the rejec- times, emerge from the national document. The tion of the indigenous because they considered it last one (2017-2023) corresponds to the current socially, politically and culturally inferior. president, Lic. Lenín Moreno Garcés, among Such is the case, that for Vera Candau, other official documents that as we will see, in from the colony to the 20th century, a stage is Ecuador they take action from the multicultural consolidated that has as its mark “an explicit and not so much from the intercultural. ethnocentric violence of imposition of the hege- The Constitution of Ecuador (2008) went monic culture on the indigenous populations. through a series of reforms, among the changes Eliminating the ‘other’ was the tone of the was added a reinforcement of the rights of indig- colonial period” (Vera, 2013, p.146). However, enous and Afro-Ecuadorian peoples. Article 68 according to the author, in the first stage of the (chapter 4, section eight) states that “the national 20th century, the modern nation-state project education system will include education pro- that became an assimilationist trend, that is, in grams that conform to the diversity of the coun- the standardization and cultural homogeniza- try. It will incorporate administrative, financial tion, and under this view, the first indigenous and pedagogical decentralization and de-con- bilingual educational institutions were built. centration strategies into its management”. Meanwhile, in the field of social develop- This article allows to take into account sev- ment in America, prior to the 1950s, due to the eral things. First, that the education system must influences of Occidentalism and current capital- include, by right, specific programs structured ism, development was sought as a fundamental according to each culture. Second, these programs goal, that is, as a point of arrival. However, at that must be managed and executed by people from time it was tried to be from the initiative of non- the communities corresponding to each culture, hegemonic groups where countries like Ecuador since they are the ones who know their context needed to “grow out” through exports to find and needs, which is why Article 68 obliges the ways of economic and social prosperity. This education system to develop decentralization and

de-concentration strategies. Third, this article In 1988, the “National Direction of obliges indirectly that educational programs are Intercultural Bilingual Education” (DINEIB) was developed in the language of each community, created. This constituted legitimacy from the since this is an essential cultural axis. institutionalization, however in addition to the According to Bastidas, quoting Ferrão, problems mentioned above, it takes into account from the 70s to the 80s, EIB began to be talk- the excessive bureaucracy and uninational and ed about in Latin America and specifically in vertical view from the State and cultural assimi- Ecuador it is linked to issues of the State, so that lation (CONAIE, 1994, p.44, Guerra, 2003). from a verticality one wants to define the ethnic, In 1990, the indigenous movement and subjecting it to be inalienable to the Ecuadorian in particular the “Confederation of Indigenous and not only as a matter that only affects the Nationalities of Ecuador” (CONAIE) demanded indigenous (Bastidas, 2015). that the Ecuadorian State take into account their In fact, during the first stage of indigenous rights and interests in the education of indig- education, in the context of the struggles of social enous children (Abram, 2013; Moya, S.f). It is movements are Dolores Cacuango (1881-1971), then that they begin to work for a system of their Nela Martinez (1912-2004), Maria Luisa Gomez own IBE, although not conclusive or propitiating de la Torre (1887-1976), Transito Amaguaña interculturality. This multiculturalist education (1909-2009). Also, due to the “Ecuadorian tried to revitalize the culture itself, however, Federation of Indians” (FEI) and through other many times teachers, students and parents dis- groups sponsored by the “Ecuatorian Women’s agreed with the type of education (Abram, 2013, Alliance”, Kichwa-Spanish schools are created in pp. 2-3). Cayambe. Being an initiative that displeased the One could review how the IBE from its landowners, the education of the children took beginnings to the nineties of the twentieth cen- place at night and in secret. tury sought the development of public policies Subsequently, educational programs were entrenched in multiculturalism, by strengthen- created with the support of the Judeo-Christian ing its own culture, especially from linguistics. church, such as that of the “Lauritas” mission- It was part of the public agenda, due to the aries of 1940 who were in charge of religious pressure of the indigenous movements, as well women from Colombia who lived in Ecuador. as the religious participation of foreign private And so, in the following years, the religious organizations and the State. takes initiative in conjunction with the Ministry Despite the great efforts of the Government of Education. Later in 1963 with the “Summer of Ecuador to highlight and empower the indig- Linguistic Institute” (SIL), the indigenous lan- enous community through the Constitution guages were promoted in exchange for spread- with emphasis on intercultural bilingual educa- ing the Protestant religion to the Kichwa, Shuar, tion, the last census of 2010 showed that 20.4% Secoyas, Siona, Huao, Chachis and Tsachis indig- of the indigenous population self identifies as enous groups (Yánez, sf). illiterate. Although during said year it was shown In the year 1979 during the Government that there was an increase in the education level of former President Jaime Roldós Aguilera, of basic education and high school of men and intercultural bilingual education was institution- women, the indigenous population remained alized with economic and human difficulties, marginalized (INEC, 2010). where the struggle of the indigenous movements For this reason, in 2011 the Ministry of of Ecuador began to stand out (Vélez, 2008; Education officiated the “Project for the strength- Moya, 1998). ening of intercultural bilingual education” with a duration of four years. This project was aimed at

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fourteen nationalities in twenty-two provinces its part, objective 4 of Good Living 2013-2017 of Ecuador and aimed to improve the quality of is focused on strengthening the capacities and the Intercultural Bilingual Education program potentials of citizens, which seeks to guarantee (Ministry of Education, 2010). However, the all citizens their right to education, under the Ministry indicated that the main problem related precept of equity and sustainability. All the goals to the project was “the low quality of the educa- of this objective revolve around education. tional services of the peoples and nationalities Following these objectives, 46,588 students that guarantees the permanence of languages have registered in the Bilingual Intercultural and cultures” (2010). Due to this, the Ministry of Education System and 4406 teachers have been Education trained teachers in pedagogical tech- trained in 2012 (Buen Vivir, 2013). According to niques, didactic material for students who have data from the National Secretariat for Planning not acquired kichwa as their mother tongue and and Development, the Development Plan has validation by incorporating the needs of each had a positive impact during the first year, indigenous nationality in the curricula. since in the higher basic education there was The National Plan for Good Living (2009- an increase of three percentage points between 2013) was created during the government of 2012 and 2013, as well as that of high school the former president, economist Rafael Correa which went up in two points within the same Delgado, and derived from the ancestral prin- period. Another positive indicator shows that ciple of Sumak Kawsay, which conceptualizes illiteracy in the indigenous population (15 to 49 and promises for Ecuador in terms of develop- years old) increased from 11% in 2012 to 7.6% ment, improvements in the political, economic, in 2013. However, in secondary school, there was social, cultural and ecological. An instrument a dropout rate of 8.7%. One of the main reasons to combine public policies with government for dropping out of school at this stage shows administration and public investment. that 41% acquire economic responsibilities from In the National Plan for Good Living a very young age, therefore they must work at an (2013-2017) of the twelve objectives, 2 and 4 early age, 18% for lack of economic resources, supported the Bilingual Intercultural Education 13% for attending the household chores, and System. Objective 2 guarantees equality through 11% because he/she was not interested. access to quality health and education services In the current Government of Lenín to individuals and groups that need special Moreno Garcés, it is considered in the last attention due to permanent inequality, exclu- National Development Plan (2017-2023) that sion and discrimination. Among its objectives is the State has three neuralgic obligations that to “strengthen and concentrate the literacy and are decisive for its proper functioning: respect, post-literacy programs for those with unfinished protect and perform. Respect: that the State does schooling, from a point of view in which the gaps not violate the rights and protects to prevent are closed, based on gender, cultural and territo- that from happening (and in case it happens to rial identity.” Goal 2.5 of this objective aims to demand the reparations of the case) and finally, encourage inclusion and social cohesion, peace- realize that the State must be proactive to guar- ful coexistence and a culture of peace, eliminat- antee the rights, with emphasis on groups of ing all forms of discrimination and violence. priority attention. In this sense, the Constitution Specifically, “create communication and edu- of the Republic of Ecuador (2008) in article 57, cational mechanisms that promote respect and no. 14 states that in Higher Education the Model recognition of diversity and affirm intercultural of the Bilingual Intercultural Education System dialogue and the exercise of the collective rights (MOSEIB) should be promoted, made official in of nationalities and indigenous peoples.” For 1993, with the last edition of the document pre-

sented in 2013, and that the main social actors and skills, value systems and all other social, of the IBE System must be from the same people economic and cultural aspirations. (ILO, 1989) and historically oppressed nationalities. Finally, it can be pointed out that this Through this article, Ecuador promises Development Plan, prepared during the once again, autonomy to indigenous communi- Government of the current president of the ties to develop their own educational programs Republic of Ecuador, like the previous two docu- with the support of the state. In literal 2 of the ments, points out the importance of adjusting same article it is established that the authority Intercultural Bilingual Education with: (...) “shall ensure the formation of members of these peoples and their participation in the for- Cultural, linguistic and environmental rele- mulation and execution of education programs, vance that meets the specific educational needs with a view to gradually transferring to these of peoples and nationalities. This implies peoples the responsibility of the realization of revaluing bilingual intercultural education as these programs, when they take place”(ILO, a historical conquest of peoples and nation- 1989). This literal requires the state to prepare alities, and highlighting their intergenerational members of these communities in educational claim by resisting processes of homogeniza- matters so that in the future these communities, tion and assimilation. in total autonomy, develop their own education- Thus, intercultural bilingual education al programs. In addition, article 27 suggests that and ethno-education encapsulate and remain public institutions relate and integrate with com- with the current government, as well as with the munities to learn about social, cultural, linguistic former president of the economist Rafael Correa reality and develop the educational programs Delgado, at least in discursive terms, as perma- concerned (Rabbit Arellano, 2008). nent priorities in the country’s education, from For its part, the “Program for Development early stimulation up to higher education. and Cultural Diversity for Poverty Reduction and International organizations have also Social Inclusion” (PDC) was carried out through influenced government decisions for the devel- the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development opment of the indigenous population. In 1989, Goals, proposed by the United Nations. Of the Ecuador signed the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples seventeen objectives, the fourth seeks to “guaran- Agreement with the World Labor Organization tee inclusive and equitable quality education and (ILO). This agreement has four main axes: the promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” right of indigenous peoples to maintain their (United Nations, 2016). Therefore, it is intended customs, strengthen their cultures, defend their that the entire population have full and decent different ways of life and their right to participate access to work, education and health. actively in the decisions that concern them (ILO, It should be mentioned that according 1989). The aforementioned establishes the bases to the “Human Development Report” of 2016, on which the provisions of the agreement must indigenous peoples represent 5% of the world be interpreted. population, however, 15% are of limited eco- In the fifth part of social security, article nomic resources (United Nations, 2017). Taking 27 establishes that: into account this problem, the PDC was created as a public policy to eradicate racial discrimi- Educational programs and services for the nation and ethnic and cultural exclusion on peoples concerned should be developed and December 28, 2009. Part of this public pol- implemented in cooperation with them in icy sought to develop the initial indigenous order to respond to their particular needs, education in which four dictionaries of the and should cover their history, knowledge

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Secoya, Cofanes, Wao and Shuar nationalities Learning Process (PAI)” (article 2). This, with- were drawn up. In turn, the Ministry of Health out the necessary direction could be assumed programmed a change in the health system to in verticality and the lack articulation of a dia- deliver an adequate service to the needs of the logue that allows the horizontal communica- indigenous population (Ministry of Culture and tion between the peoples and nationalities of Heritage, 2016). Ecuador. However, the logic is the application Entrepreneurship was also an important of models provided by Western systems in the pillar to advance the indigenous population, so a educational field, this despite the fact that the sustainability plan was created in several sectors, agreement between the general provisions of in favor of the recovery of ancestral knowledge the sixth section, states that the State must “hold (Ministry of Culture and Heritage, 2016). Due teachers and authorities of bilingual intercultural to the success of the project the Government educational establishments accountable, of the carried out a second phase of the PDC whose generation of permanent research mechanisms, objective was to help strengthen the intercultural collective construction of educational resources society through reflection spaces, normative and with cultural and linguistic relevance” all this institutional frameworks and the creation of with relevance to the relationships between cul- public policies to enhance culture, intercultural tures (MinEdu, 2017, p.5). dialogue, and decrease spaces of discrimination The field of relations between cultures has towards the peoples and nationalities that live been complex to define, since it is loaded with in Ecuador (Ministry of Culture and Heritage, a series of representations and meanings. The 2016). The results of this project (2013-2015) concept of interculturality is taken into account were positive as 16 of the 28 ventures of the from the reflections of Catherine Walsh (2001, indigenous community have business plans, 2005, 2008), who pointed out that this notion is which has helped them to position their prod- based on the need for the radical transformation ucts in local markets, promoting the economy of the structures, institutions and relationships in distant places, however the indigenous person of society. The author points out that intercultur- is instrumentalized by inserting him into the ality is the central axis of an alternative historical capitalist market. Likewise, the offer of artisanal, project. Walsh will go further and explain that tourist, agricultural and livestock products in the interculturality -understood as a necessary tool local and cantonal markets has been expanded and project for the transcendental transforma- (Ministry of Culture and Heritage, 2016). Finally, tion of the State and society- needs to break with the project allowed to return and strengthen the the uni-national framework, emphasizing the customs, traditions and ancestral knowledge of plura-national not as a division, but as the most indigenous communities, but not necessarily to appropriate structure to unify and integrate. build a hegemony. Therefore, it is stated that the field of On the other hand, it is imperative to relations between cultures has been complex to evidence the Agreement of the Ministry of define. Moreover, the problem lies in translat- Education which establishes that the curricula ing it in terms of a transformative public policy. of “Basic General Education” for the process- It should be borne in mind that the difficulty es of “Family Child Community Education” begins when in a particular society there pre- (EIFC), contemplate a cultural assimilation dominates a class that, under the halo of cultural from the “Insertion into the Semiotics Processes supremacy, has better living conditions in its (IPS), Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor context; such a disjunctive predisposes to the Strengthening (FCAP), Development of Skills recognition and valuation of cultural minorities and Study Techniques (DDTE) and Investigative

that will end up being marginalized under the and “yanka shimi ‘mean” the language that is not manipulations of the implicit hegemonic order. valid (Abram, 2013). This transformation of the That is why it is worth specifying the ancestral language demonstrates the need for differences between multiculturalism and inter- a cultural revitalization, which deserves other culturality. On the one hand, multiculturalism decolonizing efforts, recognizing that intercul- responds to the ‘essence’ of cultures, interculturality is the fundamental motor for develop- turalism emphasizes interaction or dynamics ment and globalization could push us to apply between at least two cultures, without ignoring a functional model to the realities and socio- the scenarios of power disputes, links, negotia- cultural contexts. tions, cooperation and conflict (González, 2005). Therefore, it is proposed to follow the In this sense, it will be useful to take into metaphor of the ecology of the media (Scolari, account the reflections that Virgilio Alvarado has 2015) to make a communication proposal that developed within the framework of intercultur- allows to include the indigenous in a globalized ality and public policies. Said author points out world and thus build other representations of the that the proposal of interculturality aspires to an indigenous. These transformations must happen intercultural society protected by a political proj- in the field of analog and digital communication ect that allows establishing a dialogue between following communication strategies that allow cultures. This dialogue, says the author, should the evolution and socio-cultural transformation start with the acceptance of one’s own identity of racialized beings, and, mainly from the field and self-esteem (Alvarado, 2002). of education, these efforts can be carried out, otherwise and following the metaphor of Scolari 4. Discussion and conclusions (citing McLuhan), ancestral cultures could fall into danger of extinction. Following a limited anthropological review of Within the framework of the following the education of the native peoples of Ecuador proposal, the important thing is to recognize the contrasted with other realities of America, in cultural similarities (to communicate, to bring Bolivia and in the Ecuadorian country itself, the together, to commune) with coexisting realities struggles of the indigenous movements and also of a multicultural country like Ecuador but tak- the support of international organizations stand ing concrete steps to build interculturality. out. In Peru, on the other hand, support was The reality always transcends a monologue possible thanks to the State and certain experi- to a dialogue and horizontal communication, mental projects that happened. Regardless of engages in interculturality understanding this the processes that have been carried out in dif- as public policies for dialogue between cultures ferent countries, at present, it has been opted to and that requires the participation of racialized strengthen relations with the community corre- beings and the white-mestizo population. sponding to each geography, in such a way that it Several authors agree, when they refer to interferes in intercultural projects (Zavala, 2007). interculturality as a project under construction, In Ecuador, multiple cultures converge as it would be assumed that the only intercul- and multiculturalism is a reality, but intercultural of this duality is the indigenous person and turality becomes a project to be built. That is, rarely the mestizo who would enter into attempts having multiculturalism does not mean that to dialogue with the other (socially assumed as cultures live in harmony because the indigenous opposite and different). person is at a disadvantage due to historical cul- Thus, interculturality in Ecuador is not a tural loss of prestige. Such is the case that in the given fact (as the concept of multiculturalism Kichwa culture expressions such as “runa shimi” refers), but since it is a project, it must be carried

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out through long-term planning that demarcates The challenge lies in the equal recognition in a the effects of colonization over five hundred globalized context to enable social integration in years, however, it has not been a priority on the an intercultural key. Government’s agenda in terms of public policies. In short, interculturality cannot - should It would be advisable to give support to the cul- not - be assumed as a category of analysis that tural revitalization of Ecuador, and that means omits the willingness to dialogue with cultural betting on a change in the productive matrix and difference. Therefore, it is particularly impor- a hegemonic change, so that it is later considered tant to consider public policies that define the a governmental priority, however, at the same participation of white-mestizos so that there is a time that Kichwa and Shuar begin to be consid- communication and an integral dialogue, leaving ered among the official languages of the country, aside the activities of cultural folklore and forms according to the Constitution (2008) then, this of monoculturalism of Western heritage. task of teaching these languages in public and private institutions to ensure that, once again, Bibliographical references the only intercultural persons are not racialized beings is expected to begin. There must, there- Abram, M. (2013) La Educacion Bilingue Intercultural fore, coexist other forms of knowledge manage- en las cuatro nacionalidades de la costa del ment, to learn and live in spaces of intercultural- Ecuador. Quito: Prometeo Senescyt. ity fostered by social and cultural miscegenation. Conejo Arellano, A. (2008). Educación Intercultural The arrival of the conquerors in America Bilingüe en el Ecuador. En La propuesta edu- gave rise to a series of conflicts that marked the cativa y su proceso. (https://bit.ly/2Q6bnpP) Bastidas Jiménez, M. (2015). Educación Intercultural dichotomy and segregation of the indigenous Bilingüe en el Ecuador: Un estudio de la groups of the country, so it is difficult to escape demanda social. Alteridad, 10(2), 180-189. from these rationalization traps where the other Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del is seen as underdeveloped or savage. Ecuador –CONAIE (1994). Proyecto político It is considered essential to develop and de la CONAIE. Quito: Consejo de Gobierno promote communication, a political and mili- de la CONAIE. tant agenda for intercultural dialogue, so the Constitución Política de la República del Ecuador media and advertising agencies have a funda- (2008). mental role as producers of social meanings. De Souza Silva, J. (2013). La pedagogía de la felicidad In addition, it would not be a setback to high- en una educación para la vida. El paradigma light the proposal of multiculturalism to further del ‘buen vivir’ / ‘vivir bien’ y la construcción extend the Kichwa language in Ecuador, knowing pedagógica del ‘día después del desarrollo’. En C. Walsh (Ed.), that with this learning one can understand, value Pedagogías decoloniales. Prácticas insurgentes de resistir, (re) existir y and revitalize the culture Others. (re) vivir. Quito: Abya-Yala. It is recommended to look for new forms González, I. (2005). La cooperación educativa ante that, from the communication of social cam- la rebeldía de las culturas (1ra. ed.). España: paigns, people become aware of the social uses of Editorial IEPALA. terms in Kichwa as “runa” whose literal meaning Guerra, F., (2003) VI. Las mutaciones de la identi- is person, identity. In addition, it is convenient dad en la América Hispánica. En Antonio that whites-mestizos embrace their fragmented Annino, François-Xavier Guerra (Coords.), and minimized Ecuadorian culture that has Inventando la nación. Iberoamérica siglo XIX historically suffered discrimination. New epis- (pp.185-220) México: FCE. temological and empirical horizons must be INEC (2010). El Censo informa: Educación. sought for the construction of social identities. (https://bit.ly/1K4kb3v).

Ley Orgánica de Educación Intercultural (LOEI) (2011). Senplades (2013). Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, (https://bit.ly/2W2PyNp) (2018/01/17). Buen Vivir. (https://bit.ly/2nezplJ). Ministerio de Cultura y Patrimonio (2016). Proyecto Senplades (2017) Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, Toda Desarrollo de y Diversidad Cultural para Una Vida. (https://bit.ly/2hrQrcp). la Reducción de la Pobreza e inclusión Vélez, C. (2008). Trayectoria de la Educación social, PDC. Segunda Fase (2013-2016). Intercultural en Ecuador. Revista Educación (https://bit.ly/2VwPJvY) y Pedagogía, 103-112. Buenos Aires. Ministerio de Educación (2013). Modelo del (https://bit.ly/2VKibiU) (2017/01/02). Sistema de Educación Intercultural Bilingüe Vera Candau, M. (2013). Educación Intercultural crí- (MOSEIB). (https://bit.ly/2C6vkWO). tica. Construyendo caminos. En Pedagogías Moya, R. (1998). Reformas educativas e intercul- decoloniales. Prácticas insurgentes de resistir, turalidad en América Latina, s.c., Revista (re) existir y (re) vivir. Quito: Abya-Yala. Iberoamericana de Educación. Número 17. Walsh, C. (2001). La Educación Intercultural en la Educación, Lenguas, Culturas. Educación. Lima: Ministerio de Educación. Naciones Unidas (2016). Informe de los Objetivos de Walsh, C. (2005). Pensamiento crítico y matriz (de) Desarrollo Sostenible. (https://bit.ly/2sPPdvi). colonial. Reflexiones latinoamericanas. Quito: Naciones Unidas (2017). Informe Sobre Desarrollo Editorial Abya-Yala. Humano 2016. (https://bit.ly/2nezplJ). Walsh, C. (2008) Interculturalidad y plurinaciona- Nakata, M. (2014). Disciplinar a los salvajes, violentar lidad: Elementos para el debate constituyente. las disciplinas. Quito: Abya-Yala. Quito: Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar. OIT (1991). Convenio 169 de la Organización Yánez Cossío, C. (s.f.) “Macac”: Teoría y práctica de Internacional del Trabajo. la educación indígena. Estudio de caso en el Rodríguez Caguana, A. (2017) El largo camino del Ecuador. Quito: Macac. Taki unkuy. Los derechos lingüísticos y cul- Zavala, V. (2007). Avances y desafíos de la educación turales de los pueblos indígenas del Ecuador. intercultural bilingüe en Bolivia, Ecuador y Quito: Huaponi Ediciones. Perú. Estudio de casos. Perú: CARE. Scolari, C. (2015). Ecología de los medios. Entornos, evo- luciones e interpretaciones. Barcelona: Gedisa.

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