This page intentionally left blank Language Typology and Syntactic Description Second edition Volume II: Complex Constructions This unique three-volume survey brings together a team of leading scholars to explore the syntactic and morphological structures of the world’s languages. Clearly organized and broad-ranging, it covers topics such as parts of speech, passives, complementation, relative clauses, adverbial clauses, inflec- tional morphology, tense, aspect, mood, and deixis. The contributors look at the major ways that these notions are realized, and provide informative sketches of them at work in a range of languages. Each volume is accessi- bly written and clearly explains each new concept introduced. Although the volumes can be read independently, together they provide an indispensable reference work for all linguists and field workers interested in cross-linguistic generalizations. Most of the chapters in the second edition are substantially revised or completely new – some on topics not covered by the first edition. Volume ii covers co-ordination, complementation, noun phrase structure, rel- ative clauses, adverbial clauses, discourse structure, and sentences as combi- nations of clauses. Timothy Shopen (1936–2005) was Senior Lecturer in Linguistics at the Australian National University. He had over forty years’ experience of teach- ing and researching a variety of the world’s languages, and also held posts at Indiana University and the Center for Applied Linguistics in Arlington, Virginia. In addition to Language Typology, he was editor of Standards and Dialects in English (1980), Standards and Variables in English (1981), Languages and their Speakers (1987), and Languages and their Status (1987). Language Typology and Syntactic Description Second edition Volume II: Complex Constructions Edited by Timothy Shopen† CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521581578 © Cambridge University Press 2007 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2007 ISBN-13 978-0-511-36672-7 eBook (EBL) ISBN-10 0-511-36672-8 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-58157-8 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-58157-5 hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-58856-0 paperback ISBN-10 0-521-58856-1 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents List of figures page xii List of tables xiii List of contributors xiv Acknowledgements xv List of abbreviations and symbols xvii 1 Coordination1 martin haspelmath 0 Introduction1 1 Types and positions of coordinators6 1.1 Asyndetic coordination7 1.2 Monosyndetic coordination8 1.3 Bisyndetic coordination 10 1.4 Multiple coordinands 11 1.5 The scope of coordinators 14 2 Emphatic coordination 15 2.1 Conjunction and disjunction 15 2.2 Emphatic negative coordination 17 3 Types of coordinands 19 4 Semantic subtypes of coordination 22 4.1 Semantic subtypes of conjunction 23 4.2 Semantic subtypes of disjunction 25 4.3 Semantic subtypes of adversative coordination 28 5 Some special strategies of conjunction 28 5.1 Comitative conjunction 29 5.2 Inclusory conjunction 33 5.3 Summary conjunction 36 6 Ellipsis in coordination 37 7 Delimiting coordination 45 7.1 Coordination versus dependency/subordination 46 7.2 Degrees of grammaticalization 48 7.3 Is coordination universal? 49 8 Appendix: terminological issues 50 9 Suggestions for further reading 51 v vi Contents 2 Complementation 52 michael noonan 0 Introduction 52 1 The morphology of complements 53 1.1 Complement types 53 1.2 Complementizers 55 1.3 The morphology of complement types 59 1.3.1 Sentence-like complement types 59 1.3.2 Indicative versus subjunctive sentence-like complements 61 1.3.3 Paratactic complements and verb serialization in complementation 65 1.3.4 Infinitive complements 67 1.3.5 Nominalized complements 70 1.3.6 Participial complements 72 1.3.7 Summary 74 2 The syntax of complementation 74 2.1 Equi-deletion 75 2.2 Raised arguments 79 2.3 Incorporation of reduced complements into the matrix 83 2.4 Parataxis and serialization 87 2.5 Distribution of complements within sentences 92 2.6 Sequence of tense / mood restrictions 98 2.7 Negative raising 100 3 The semantics of complementation 101 3.1 The semantics of complement types 102 3.1.1 Mood distinctions 102 3.1.2 Degree of reduction 111 3.1.3 Complementizers 114 3.1.4 Manner of syntactic relation to the matrix 116 3.1.5 Grammatical status of the complement predicate 118 3.2 The classes of complement-taking predicates 120 3.2.1 Utterance predicates 121 3.2.2 Propositional attitude predicates 124 3.2.3 Pretence predicates 126 3.2.4 Commentative predicates (factives) 127 3.2.5 Predicates of knowledge and acquisition of knowledge 129 3.2.6 Predicates of fearing 130 3.2.7 Desiderative predicates 132 3.2.8 Manipulative predicates 136 3.2.9 Modal predicates 137 3.2.10 Achievement predicates 139 3.2.11 Phasal predicates (aspectuals) 139 3.2.12 Immediate perception predicates 142 3.2.13 Negative predicates 144 3.2.14 Conjunctive predicates 144 4 Complement systems 145 5 A note on noun complementation 147 6 Obtaining information about complement systems 149 7 Suggestions for further reading 150 Contents vii 3 Noun phrase structure 151 matthew s. dryer 0 Introduction 151 1 Simple noun phrases 151 1.1 Articles 152 1.2 The notion of ‘determiner’ 161 1.3 Demonstratives 162 1.4 Numerals 164 1.5 Plural words 166 1.6 Adjectives 168 1.7 Nouns used as modifiers 174 1.8 Locative adverbs 175 1.9 Interrogative modifiers 175 1.10 Miscellaneous noun modifiers 177 2 Complex noun phrases 177 2.1 Genitive or possessive constructions 177 2.1.1 Genitive constructions with nominal possessors 177 2.1.2 Pronominal possessors 182 2.1.3 Multiple genitive constructions 184 2.1.4 Alienable and inalienable possession 185 2.1.5 Nonreferential genitives 190 2.2 Adpositional phrases 191 2.3 Relative clauses 191 2.4 Conjoined noun phrases 193 3 Noun phrases without nouns 193 3.1 Noun phrases with only ‘modifying’ words 194 3.2 Headless relative clauses 197 3.3 Noun clauses 203 4 Conclusion 204 5 Suggestions for further reading 205 4 Relative clauses 206 avery d. andrews 0 Introduction 206 1 Relationships between npmat and srel 208 1.1 Embedded rcs 208 1.1.1 External rcs 208 1.1.2 Internal rcs 212 1.1.3 Free rcs 213 1.2 Adjoined rcs 214 2 The Treatment of nprel 217 2.1 Marking 217 2.2 Pronominalization 219 2.3 Movement 220 2.4 Omission 222 2.5 Other possibilities 223 3 Constraints on the function of nprel 223 3.1 Island constraints 224 3.2 The Accessibility Hierarchy 226 viii Contents 3.2.1 Subjects 226 3.2.2 Objects, indirect objects, and obliques 229 4 The treatment of srel 231 4.1 Reduction and nominalization 232 4.2 Marking the function of nprel 233 5 Suggestions for further reading 235 5 Adverbial clauses 237 sandra a. thompson, robert e. longacre, and shin ja j. hwang part i a typology of adverbial clauses 237 0 Introduction 237 1 Characterization of adverbial clauses 237 2 The types of adverbial subordinate clauses 243 2.1 Clauses that can be substituted by a single word 243 2.1.1 Time clauses 245 2.1.1.1 Temporal sequence clauses 245 2.1.1.2 Time/cause 247 2.1.1.3 ‘Before’ clauses 247 2.1.2 Locative clauses 249 2.1.3 Manner clauses 249 2.1.4 Summary 250 2.2 Clauses that cannot be substituted by a single word 250 2.2.1 Purpose and reason clauses 250 2.2.1.1 Datives, benefactives, or allatives 251 2.2.1.2 Same and different subjects 252 2.2.1.3 Negative purpose clauses 253 2.2.2 Circumstantial clauses 253 2.2.3 Simultaneous clauses 254 2.2.4 Conditional clauses 255 2.2.4.1 The semantics of conditionals 255 2.2.4.2 The syntax of conditionals 256 2.2.4.3 Conditionals and time clauses 257 2.2.4.4 Predictive clauses: ‘real’ or ‘unreal’? 258 2.2.4.5 Imaginative conditionals: hypothetical and counterfactual 259 2.2.4.6 Negative conditionals 260 2.2.4.7 Concessive conditionals 261 2.2.5 Concessive clauses 262 2.2.6 Substitutive clauses 263 2.2.7 Additive clauses 264 2.2.8 Absolutive clauses 264 2.3 Summary 266 3 ‘Speech act’ adverbial clauses 267 4 Borrowed subordinators 267 5 Summary and conclusions 269 part ii adverbial clauses beyond the sentence 269 0 Introduction 269 Contents ix 1 Adverbial clauses and discourse movement 271 2 Cohesion between successive paragraphs 272 3 Cohesion within the paragraph 275 3.1 Linkage via adverbial clauses in sentence margins 276 3.1.1 Adverbial clauses in prior-time margins 276 3.1.2 Adverbial clauses in concurrent-time margins 279 3.1.3 Adverbial clauses in reason margins 280 3.1.4 Adverbial clauses in conditional margins 283 3.1.5 Adverbial clauses in purpose margins 285 3.1.6 Adverbial clauses in concessive margins 286 3.2 Balanced or parallel clauses in successive sentences 288 3.3 Adverbial clauses for local background 288 3.4 Lexical overlap as conjunctival element with generic verb 290 3.5 Lexical overlap as conjunction (particle) 290 3.6 Adverbial clauses as topics 291 4 Preposed versus postposed adverbial