The Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics Edited by H

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-40618-5 — The Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics Edited by H. Ekkehard Wolff Index More Information

Index

Note: Pages numbers in italics refer to figures and tables

Khung. See Xuun adjective, 170, 171, 194, 195, 217, 219, 221, 223, Kora. See Ora(-Xin) 268, 279, 298, 308, 312, 316, 321, 322, ǃXóõ. See Xoonǃ 398, 400, 402, 404–407, 409, 411–415, ǃXun, 176,ǃ 187 453, 459, 517, 526 ǃOra-Xiri†,ǃ 108, 385, 400 Adlam, 569 ǃUi, 168, 184, 385, 387, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 407, Adona, 249 ǃ 412, 413 Afade, 271 ǃXoon, 113, 114, 385, 392, 401, 402, 403, 406, Afar, 73, 74, 249, 259, 299, 302, 306, 308, 578, 407, 412 590 ǃXuun, 110, 176, 187, 385 affricate, 198, 273, 301, 347, 390, 391 ’Auni, 385 Afghanistan, 558 ǃ’Nǀoha, 385 Afitti, 359, 361, 365, 378 ǀHaasi, 385 Afrasian. See Afroasiatic ǀXaise, 385 Africa (geographic, regional), 3–15, 17–29, 33, ǀXam, 110, 385, 403, 405 37, 39, 40, 43–45, 47–49, 51–53, 55, 56, /xam-ka- e. See ǀXam 59, 67, 68, 70, 73, 86, 87, 90, 94, 96, 98, ǁAni, 385, 400 101, 106, 109, 110, 117, 119, 121, 124, ǁXo, 385 ǃ 125, 128, 130–132, 135, 149, 152, 160, ǁXom, 385 161, 165–172, 174, 176, 179–181, 183, ǂ’Amkoe, 385, 386, 388, 395, 405, 406, 407, 414 184, 187–190, 212, 213, 215, 243–248, ǂAakhoe, 385, 386, 401, 410 250–252, 254, 262, 265, 299, 385, 419– ǂHoan, 385, 405, 407, 414, 415 423, 426, 428, 429, 431–436, 439–447, ǂKx’aoǁ’ae, 385, 415 450, 455, 457, 458, 463–472, 478, 482– 484, 487, 488, 491, 492, 503, 512–515, Aari, 298, 304, 307 518, 523–525, 531–533, 535, 536, 538, Aasax, 20, 249 541, 545, 554–559, 570, 577–583, 586, abjad, 19, 250, 262, 265 589–596, 598, 599, 601, 603, 606, 607, ablative, 188, 368 609, 614, 616, 619–625, 630, 634, 636, Aboriginal language, 5 638, 641, 644 absolutive, 319, 320, 343 Central, 19, 51, 59, 68, 70, 82, 94, 150, 196, Abua, 202 204, 208, 269, 455, 542, 578, 580 abugida, 19, 250 East, 19, 20, 22, 38, 45, 73, 82, 84, 85, 140, Accra language, 53 180, 182, 190, 341, 342, 361, 382, 384, accusative, 170, 279, 319, 320, 343, 368, 369, 385, 423, 425, 435, 437, 444–447, 450, 408, 461 451, 463–465, 567, 578, 580, 590, 591, Acholi, 130, 376, 542, 553 617, 618, 628, 636 active (alignment), 367, 372 Horn of, 41, 42, 183, 259, 269, 297, 570, 578, active (voice), 373 581, 589 Adamawa, 42, 143, 194, 198, 204, 205, 207, 208, North, 19, 21, 48, 53, 59–64, 66, 129, 182, 184, 214, 231, 242, 254, 347 248, 253, 262, 269, 423, 424, 426, 430, additive (verb extension), 293 444, 445, 578, 581, 583, 589, 590 Adele, 243 North-central, 178, 179, 246, 248 Adinkra, 577

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Index 783

Northeast, 19, 53, 73, 175, 180, 183, 184, 246, colonial, 12, 14, 33 248, 269, 577 comparative, 177, 179 Southern, 7, 19, 20, 22, 73, 98, 108, 109, 114, critical, 9, 10 129, 156, 168, 175, 176, 180, 182, 184, definition, 3–7, 12, 26 185, 190, 215, 382–384, 388, 425, 435, historical, 9, 10 444, 446, 447, 450, 452, 464, 471, 472, African scholar(s), 70, 87, 89, 95–97, 580, 584 578, 585, 606, 611, 628 African scholarship, 579, 580, 598 Southwestern, 180, 460 African studies, 3, 11, 24–26, 45–53, 57, 70, Sub-Saharan, 125, 127, 182, 247, 251, 361, 98–102, 112, 119, 128, 129, 131, 133 445, 635, 644 Africanism, 27, 167, 169, 172, 244 West, 52, 59, 68, 73, 87–97, 116, 150, 168, Africanist, 25, 26, 36, 38, 40, 43, 46, 47, 68, 69, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 183, 184, 189, 109, 117, 119, 120, 123, 134, 135, 160, 196, 201, 235, 237, 243, 248, 250, 269, 174, 179, 185, 202, 210, 244, 248, 326, 424–427, 435, 443–446, 450, 451, 453, 469, 471, 488, 491, 492, 498, 499, 508, 455, 464, 483, 515, 516, 542, 546, 578, 513, 532, 540, 566 581, 583, 590, 591, 631 Africanistics, 34–47, African American, 93, 121, 466, 564 Afrikaans, 6–9, 21–23, 109, 112, 166, 431, 435, African cultures, 5, 25, 35, 36, 70, 72, 99, 538, 633 444, 445, 449, 458–465, 502, 503, 556, African language(s), 5–9, 12–15, 18, 21, 22, 559, 560, 570, 585, 588, 616, 617, 621, 26–28, 33–39, 41, 43, 46–48, 52–55, 57, 626, 628, 631, 636, 637, 640 67, 68, 71, 80, 81, 85, 86, 89, 91, 95, 96, Afrikanistik, 3, 12, 25, 26, 33, 34, 40, 121 101, 106–111, 114–141, 144, 145, 150, Afroasiatic, Afro-Asiatic, 5, 8, 17, 18–20, 27, 37, 160, 164, 166–178, 182, 188, 192, 204, 42, 51–53, 78, 80, 134, 140, 142, 153, 154, 212, 214, 215, 216, 220, 224, 243, 244, 159, 166, 168, 169, 173–179, 182, 185, 246–249, 252, 254, 268, 419, 426, 431, 186, 189, 205, 244, 246–252, 254, 257, 433–435, 439, 440, 442, 444, 449, 450, 259, 261, 262–270, 278, 282, 284, 285, 452, 454–456, 463, 465–467, 469, 472– 290, 292, 319, 357, 360, 361, 365–367, 476, 483, 487–490, 513, 529, 535–540, 375. See also Proto-Afroasiatic 546, 548, 554–561, 565–567, 570, 573, Agaw, 259, 299, 300, 301, 307, 320, 321 581–589, 594, 595, 601, 605, 607–610, agency, 164, 496–498, 531, 547, 550, 578, 599 612, 614–644 agent, 195, 268, 282, 286, 305, 308, 370–375, classification, 17, 20, 37, 43, 85, 90, 122, 141, 405 142, 173–176, 181, 182, 251, 326 agentive, 266, 276 definition, 5–9, 12, 21, 166 agentivity, 165, 370 dictionaries, 614, 615, 622, 626 Aghem, 201, 236, 240, 241 documentation, 46, 123, 533 Aizi, 203 harmonization, 612, 613 Aja, 125 intellectualization, 601, 603, 606, 609–622 ajami, ajäm, 52, 250, 426, 581 knowledge of, 13, 25 Akan, 86, 91, 95, 130, 201, 210, 239, 466, linguistics of, 14 494–496, 520, 521, 558, 561, 562, 564, literature in, 25, 40, 45, 608, 610 569, 577, 626 major, 14, 40, 85, 128, 423, 487, 620, 621, 628, Akie, 54 629, 631, 632, 639, 640 Akkadian, 249, 250, 268 medium of instruction, 429, 430 Akuapem, 561 number of, 15, 419 Alaaba, 313 phonetics of, 25, 121 Alagwa, 186 policy, 44, 135, 617 Ale, 130 professor of, 12, 35, 54, 55, 119 Algeria, 60, 62, 64–66, 253, 327, 328, 420, 423, publishing in, 13, 109, 612 430, 439, 570 speakers of, 13, 585 alienable, 222, 280, 410, 413–415 speaking, 6, 422, 585 alignment, 26, 269, 332, 367, 368, 372, 373, standardization, 44 408, 409 study, 5, 6, 9, 12, 14, 25, 28, 33–35, 37, 45, 48, Alladian, 207 49, 51, 53–57, 68, 69, 88, 105–107, 116, alphabet, 13, 74, 95, 100, 249, 250, 253, 426, 118–122, 124, 128, 129, 133, 134 562, 610, 611 teaching, 12, 35, 42, 48, 51, 54, 57, 120, 128, alternation, 55, 57, 146, 149, 154, 155, 157, 199, 131–133, 608, 614, 629, 630 200, 211, 277, 290, 354, 360, 361, 362, 378, technology, 619, 622, 623, 634 379, 399, 402, 502, 504, 511, 562, 597 translation, 34, 67, 95, 118, 132, 626, 628, Alur, 359 630, 638, 639 Amazigh, 59, 60, 64, 65, 253, 270, 426, 439. See African linguistics, 3, 5–10, 12–18, 25–29, 33, also Berber; Tamazight 34, 36, 38–40, 48, 49, 51, 52, 55, 57, 59, Amdang, 327, 356, 357, 362, 373, 375, 378, 379 67, 68, 70–73, 81, 82, 90, 94, 95, 98, 101, American Indian language, 10 102, 105, 109, 113–120, 123, 124, 128, Amharic, 39, 48, 51, 52, 55, 77, 78, 129, 131, 131–135, 165, 174, 181, 246–248, 253, 134, 135, 188, 247, 249, 250, 268, 298, 279, 466, 468, 514, 540 299, 304, 311, 314–324, 425, 426, 430, academic discipline, 3, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 25, 439, 513, 519, 520, 581, 587, 589, 590, 33, 52 628, 629, 631, 636 applied, 6, 13, 22, 24, 28 Amo, 203

Index 784

Anago, 125 Atlantic, 19, 41, 116, 125, 143, 151, 180, 192, analogical levelling, 149, 152, 155 194, 200, 205, 208, 210–212, 215, 218– ancestral code, 11, 29, 473, 474, 475 220, 218, 219, 220, 225, 226, 235, 236 Andaandi, 363 Atot, 358 andative, 170 ATR, 26, 42, 150, 151, 155, 170, 185, 203–206, Anfillo, 298, 300, 314, 318 210, 271, 300, 344–349, 354, 357, 358, Angas, 257, 278 359, 562 Anglistics, 45 Atuot, 362 anglophone, 73, 91–96, 420–422, 427, 428, 432, augmentative, 218, 219, 317 444–446, 454, 456, 457, 607 Australia, 5, 11, 14, 115, 128, 134, 135, 172, 173, Angola, 20, 98, 99–101, 110, 125, 126, 177, 385, 447, 448, 462, 469, 471, 472, 525 421, 457, 458, 537 Austria, 33, 34, 41, 46 animacy, 368, 370, 405 Austronesian, 7, 8, 21, 131 animate, 312–314, 338, 355, 366 autobenefactive, 289, 293, 310 anthropology, 29, 37, 38, 40, 43, 48, 103, 133, Autosegmental Theory, 121 388, 488, 498, 505, 531–534, 643 Auye, 170 anti-language, 514, 528, 533, 554 Auyo, 257 Anywa, 57, 338, 363, 364, 371 avoidance language, 528, 530, 532 apartheid, 7, 106, 430, 431, 449, 586, 588, 592, Avokaya, 345 609, 610, 612, 616, 617 A-V-P, 350 anti-, 565, 612 Awadhi, 8 post-, 106, 430, 445, 447, 449, 458, 603, 610 Awdjilah, 253, 296 pre-, 431 Awngi, 259, 302, 322 quasi-, 437 applicative, 157, 186, 194, 195, 206, 207, 224– B’aga, 327, 330, 332, 333, 334, 335, 337, 338, 227, 286, 375, 377, 401, 413, 415 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 357, 363, 367, 378 Applied African Sociolinguistics, 22 B’ele, 257 applied linguistics, 24–26, 29, 69, 78, 114 Baale, 155, 160 A-P-V, 343 Babanki, 69, 192, 193, 227 Arab, 53, 60, 63, 73, 82, 317, 568, 571, 578, 591, Babole, 206, 207 622 Bacama, Bachama, 150, 258, 271 Arab League, 66 Bade, 257 Arabia, 463 Bafut, 69, 521, 522 Arabian, 252, 262, 264 Baga Mboteni, 219 Arabic, 6–8, 20–22, 28, 51, 53, 55, 59–67, 73, 74, Bagirmi, 20, 208, 343, 344, 346, 348–350 77, 79–82, 129, 140, 146, 148, 149, 157, Bahasa Iban, 597 161, 166, 182, 212, 247–250, 253, 262, Bahasa Malaysia, 597 264, 266, 269, 271, 277, 295, 376, 419, Bahasa Sarawak, 597 420, 423–425, 430, 435, 439, 445, 452, Baïnounk, Bainunk, 219, 472, 474, 482 464, 520, 550, 556, 558, 560, 565, 569, Baka, 346, 354, 578 570–572, 581–584, 589, 594, 607, 617, Balanta, 125 620, 621, 624, 631 Bambara, 56, 125, 222, 233, 328, 456, 519 Arabization, 424, 430 Bamileke, 193 arabophone, 421–423, 434 Bamileke-Dschang, 228, 229 Aramaic, 247, 250 Bana, 258 Arbore, 322 Banda-Ndele, 208 areal feature, 170, 205, 212, 300, 358, 359 Bangi-me, 20 areal linguistics, 190 Bantoid, 55, 143, 148, 192, 193, 195, 201, 203– areal relationship, 166, 168, 169, 181, 190 205, 207, 214, 217, 219, 223, 226–228, Argobba, 299, 315 231, 236, 238 Aringa, 345, 348 Bantu, 5, 19, 36–39, 42, 44, 45, 52–58, 68, 70, Aroid, 261, 300, 319, 323 85–87, 100, 101, 105, 107–112, 118, 122, 125, Asante, 466 126, 129–131, 141, 142, 145–153, 156–159, Asanti Twi, 561 167, 168, 180, 182, 186, 191–197, 200–226, Asia, 8, 14, 15, 19, 22, 115, 124, 128, 134, 142, 230, 231, 236, 237, 241, 243, 249, 345, 389, 165, 169, 170, 187, 237, 246, 248, 262, 436, 449, 458, 521, 532, 539, 553, 610, 628, 421, 437, 442, 450, 463–465, 555, 558, 638, 643. See also Proto-Bantu 591–595 Bantu Expansion, 19, 385, 388 aspect, 55, 121, 153, 157, 212, 213, 216, Bantu Lexical Reconstructions (BLR), 38 226–230, 234, 238, 242, 267, 268, 277, Bantuistic, 6, 34, 36, 38 281, 282, 286, 287, 289–294, 297, 304, Barain, 259 307–309, 330, 339, 350, 352, 362, 374, Barawa, 258 376, 377, 400–402, 406, 410, 453, 459, Barea, 184 463, 466 Bari, 80, 150, 372 assimilation, 275, 330, 358 Bariba, 327 associative, 213, 222, 332, 339, 341, 342, 363, Basaa, 198 459, 462 Baskeet, 135, 307 Ateso, 560 Bassa, 577

Index 785

Bassa Vah, 569 borrowing, 66, 86, 125, 139, 140, 141, 146, 148, Bata, 258 156–161, 164, 178, 261, 328, 331, 376, Baule, 523 389, 446, 503, 517, 519, 520, 523, 524, Bayot, 20 527, 532, 546, 548 Bayso, 298 Botswana, 105, 110, 113, 114, 129, 180, 199, 585 Beḍauye, Bedawi, 80, 419 Bourmataguil, 258 Beja, 19, 63, 74, 80, 251, 259, 266, 269, 299, 302, Brazil, 15, 100, 102, 104, 124–128, 457, 458, 466, 306, 310 520, 550 Belgium, 33, 34, 37, 67, 422, 436, 547 breathy, 202, 205, 359, 393–396 Bemba, 81, 83, 85, 86, 151, 229, 503, 516, 517, Britain, 79, 87, 90, 424, 427, 433, 445, 451, 546 456, 462, 621. See also England; United Bench, 261, 300, 301, 302, 304, 307, 320, 322, Kingdom 324 British, 22, 43, 64, 79–94, 101, 140, 421, 426, Bench-She-Mer, 261 427, 431, 432, 436, 440, 445, 447, 449, Bende, 129, 550, 551 450, 458, 464, 553, 582, 607–609, 617, benefactive, 56, 194, 225, 227, 237, 286, 288, 631 289, 298, 312, 319, 339, 363, 373, 375 broken plural, 278, 316 Bengali, 459, 464 Bubbure, 258 Benin, 19, 68, 70, 92, 127, 144, 234, 327, 328, Bube, 105 425, 558, 624, 631, 637 Buduma, 258 Benue-Congo, 19, 42, 88, 91, 125, 143, 148, 162, Buem, 180 192, 198, 205, 208, 210, 218, 220, 224, Buga, 385, 400 236, 237, 254, 278, 284 Buganese, 459, 464 Berber, 19, 42, 56, 58, 59, 61–67, 129, 132, 140, Bullom, 219 142, 161, 182, 184, 189, 212, 246–254, Bum, 193 264–296, 327, 328. See also Amazigh; Bura, 130, 258 Tamazight Bure, 257 Berberology, 6, 39 Burji, 309 Berberophone, 249 Burkina Faso, 215, 233, 235, 253, 277, 328, 425, Berbice, 466 558, 574, 584, 589 Beria, 358–360, 362, 367, 372, 373, 376, 377, 380 Burundi, 158, 436, 547, 548, 553, 558, 596 Berlin (Congo) Conference, 35, 426, 443, 582, Burunge, 186 583 Buso, 258 Berom, Birom, 93, 208 Buwal, 258 Berta, 20, 57, 326, 327, 341, 356, 360, 363, 371, 380 C. A. R., CAR. See Central African Republic Bete, 523 C’Lela, 208 Bhojpuri, 8, 464, 465 Cabo Verde, 98, 103, 104 Biali, 210 Calunga, 127 Bible, 48, 53, 84, 435 Cameroon, 15, 19, 20, 23, 42, 51, 55, 67–71, 91, translation, 13, 53, 67, 80, 83, 88, 107, 116, 93, 94, 189, 192, 195, 201, 203, 207, 210, 426, 435, 583 215, 217, 221, 223, 227, 228, 236, 238, Bidayuh, 597 240, 242, 254, 420, 421, 425, 444, 451, Bidiya, 258, 289 452, 454–456, 472, 477, 516–518, 521, Bihari, 8 538, 554, 561, 568, 584, 586, 589, 591, bilabial trill, 348 592, 599, 624, 631 Bilin, 75, 302, 304, 306, 315 Camfranglais, 22, 436, 454, 455, 554 bilingual, 23, 57, 60–62, 74, 95, 103, 249, 254, Camtho, 22 430, 440, 454, 578, 580, 592, 597, 617, Canada, 116, 123, 124, 423, 449, 599 627 Canary Islands, 253 bilingualism, 23, 69, 161, 449, 487, 502. See also Cangin, 219 official bilingualism Cape Dutch, 9, 21, 444, 458, 459 biliteralism, 304 Cape Verde, 22, 457, 465, 558. See also Cabo Birale. See Ongota Verde Birgit, 258 Cape Verde Creole, 22 Birom, See Berom Cara, 385 Bisa, 203 Caribbean, 9, 124, 125, 445, 452–454, 464, 466, Bitam Fang, 210 558 Biu-Mandara, 257 case, 14, 15, 111, 140, 152, 170, 231, 244, 277, black languages, 4 279, 298, 303, 311, 314, 315, 318, 319, black linguistics, 4, 7 321, 323, 339, 343, 357, 362, 363, 367– Bobangi, 147, 436 373, 375, 379, 413 Bodoe, 198, 517 ablative, 368 Boghom, 258 absolutive, 320, 342, 375 Bole, 257 accusative, 279, 319, 357, 368, 370, 371 Bolia, 152 copulative, 368 Bongo, 20, 208, 343–350, 354 core, 319 Boni, 300 dative, 319, 368

Index 786

case(cont.) clitic, 155, 158, 170, 171, 186, 243, 286, 287, ergative, 165, 368, 370, 371 290, 293–295, 300, 309, 311, 321, 323, genitive, 320, 363, 367–372 350, 352, 357, 363, 367, 368, 370, 377– instrumental, 319, 368, 371 380, 397, 398, 400, 402, 408, 410, 413 locative, 363, 369 clusivity, 288, 336 nominative, 170, 279, 320, 368, 371, 372, coda, 192, 193, 196, 264, 302, 304, 389, 393 375, 400 code choice, 499, 504 oblique, 368, 372, 400 code-mixing, 546, 590, 595 Case Grammar, 113 code-switching, 29, 44, 55, 428, 429, 446, 492, case relator, 298, 300 498–504, 512, 524, 546, 562, 590, 593, Castilian, 105 595–598 causative, 56, 157, 161, 170, 198, 224–226, 268, cognitive linguistics, 43, 52 285, 286, 294, 297, 302, 309, 331, 354, Cokwe, 101, 125 373, 375, 379, 402, 406, 407, 414 collective, 280, 315, 317, 355, 367 Central African Republic, 20, 22, 54, 207, 208, Colombia, 124, 125, 127 343, 425, 455, 516, 517 colonial, 13, 14, 21, 24, 28, 33, 35–38, 41–43, 46, Central Sudanic, 20, 143, 150, 158, 167, 169, 65, 83, 99, 103, 104, 106, 433, 442, 452, 184, 214, 254, 326, 327, 343–367, 373, 456, 457, 460, 461, 469, 471–474, 476, 374, 378–380 484, 486, 487, 490, 518, 536–539, 544, Chad, 61, 249, 254, 343, 365, 423, 425, 581 547, 548, 553–555, 573, 579, 580, 598, Chadic, 5, 19, 39, 41, 52, 56, 88, 91, 129, 130, 599, 613, 617, 620. See also postcolonial; 134, 140, 142, 150, 159, 169, 178, 179, precolonial 184, 188, 189, 198, 200, 201, 208, 214, colonial administration, 80, 449, 537, 539, 582, 246, 248–250, 254, 257–259, 264–297, 583, 622 327. See also Proto-Central-Chadic; colonial administrator, 109, 432, 436, 610, 614, Proto-Chadic 622 Chadistic, 6 colonial education, 582, 608 Chado-Berber, 270 colonial era, 94, 472 Chadohamitic, 257 colonial expansion, 471, 617 Chaga, 129 colonial exploitation, 22 Chaha, 302, 303 colonial government, 84, 426, 427, 608, 617 Chaouia, 253 colonial history, 116, 444, 608, 609 Chari-Nile, 143, 326, 356 colonial language, 13, 14, 23, 36, 40, 79, 164, Chewa, 81, 83–86, 194, 230, 427, 487, 548, 549, 420, 421, 422, 424, 425, 428, 429, 431, 584, 626 432, 433, 434, 439, 440, 446, 452, 457, Chibak, 258 458, 471, 472, 473, 483, 486, 554, 555, Chibende, 550. See also Bende 561, 566, 573, 574, 578, 582, 583, 591, Chichewa. See Chewa 603, 607, 608, 613, 617, 620, 621 Chiga, 524 colonial master, 13, 14, 28, 620 ChiHarare. See Harare colonial period, 12, 34, 35, 65, 83, 105, 430, 435, Chimwiini, 212 437, 457, 469, 537, 553, 579, 591 China, 128, 131–133, 467, 591, 607, 621 colonial policy, 47, 453, 542, 590 Chinese, 132, 465, 591, 606, 607, 622, 624, 626 colonial power, 13, 33, 35, 43, 47, 426, 578, 582 Chinyanja. See Nyanja colonial rule, 13, 22, 94, 426, 447, 465, 584, 608 Chip, 257 colonial science, 12 Chokwe. See Cokwe colonial settlers, 22, 98, 422, 447, 472, 606, 607, Chopi, 542 610, 614 Christian, 13, 24, 34, 48, 67, 80, 82, 83, 116, 247, colonial times, 22, 29, 37, 39, 99, 102, 446, 608 426, 435, 440, 457, 464, 528, 532, 578, colonialism, 12, 25, 46, 48, 103, 124, 139, 436, 581, 582, 590, 622 437, 441, 539, 548, 554, 591, 607, 608, Chuvok, 258 622 Cicipu, 212 colonization, 59, 62, 65, 73, 103, 116, 124, 442, Cineni, 258 443, 453, 455, 476, 481, 489, 583 circumstantial, 225, 294, 298 Coman. See Koman Cishingini, 207 comitative, 237, 363, 375, 402, 412 civilisation, 10, 36, 82, 606 commerce, 429, 458, 604 Ciyao. See Yao community/ies of practice, 22, 23, 24, 482, 485, cladistic, 139, 162 486, 512, 523, 531, 537, 545, 546, 549, classification, 8, 10, 17, 18, 36–38, 47, 79, 108, 551 110, 113, 142–144, 148, 164, 173–175, Comorian, 132 177, 179, 181, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, Comoros, 21, 423 217, 249, 251, 253, 257, 260–263, 326, comparative linguistics, 51, 53, 56, 140, 158, 327, 357, 384, 385–388, 416, 437, 452, 173, 179, 181, 190, 327 484, 539 comparative method, 18, 37, 44, 139, 142–144, clause-type marker, 299, 300, 309 153, 164, 165, 174, 178–180, 384 click, 51, 114, 149, 156, 157, 167–169, 178, 186, complex predicate, 298, 321 190, 198, 202, 302, 382–384, 388–393, compounding, 152, 239, 276 396, 403, 414, 526, 527, 531, 532 computational linguistics, 77, 114, 627, 633

Index 787

concept formation, 28, 45, 46, 606 Dahalo, 168, 302 Congo, 127, 197, 206, 359, 422, 423, 425, 436, Daju, 143, 362, 372 438, 446, 518, 543, 544, 553 Damara, 385, 386, 397, 400, 401, 408, 410, 411 Congo. See Democratic Republic of Congo Dan, 201, 203, 212, 213, 216 Congo, Republic of, 125 Dana, 332 Congo-Kordofanian, 8, 173 Dangaléat. See Dangla consonant inventories, 264, 271, 301, 332, 334, Dangla, 258, 271, 274, 289, 295 347, 348 Dangme, 561 consonant mutation, 200, 201, 211, 302, 307, Danisi, 385 315 Darfur, 55, 80 consonant system, 199, 200, 271–273, 327, 330, Darija, 60 359 Dass, 258 constituent order, 161, 350, 357, 372, 377, 407, dative, 286, 318–320, 363, 368, 375, 403, 412, 412. See also word order 413 contact language, 157, 161, 560 Datooga, 130, 186, 202, 483, 524–528, 530, 532 contact zone, 18, 19, 249. See also convergence daughter language, 16, 220, 265, 334, 336 area; linguistic area; sprachbund Day, 198 contemporative, 375 Daza, 257 converb, 152, 299, 357, 363, 367, 376, 377, 381 Dazaga, 358–360, 362, 369, 370, 380 convergence, 153, 161, 162 Dciriku, 168. See also Gciriku convergence area, 181, 184, 186, 269, 278. Ddra, 346 See also contact zone; linguistic area; decoloniality, 580 sprachbund decolonization, 468, 601, 608 Conversation Analysis, 492, 505–512 Defaka, 20, 143 Coptic, 60, 61, 63, 142, 248, 249, 419, 578 definiteness, 113, 289, 318, 368, 408, 410 Coptic Church, 60, 66, 252 Defoid, 125, 196, 205, 214, 243 copula, 153, 154, 300, 314, 415, 463 Degema, 201, 203, 205, 237, 239 coreference, 172, 353, 354 deictic, 285, 294, 331, 339, 355, 358, 374, 375, corpus linguistics, 78, 114, 488, 632 463 Côte d’Ivoire, 20, 67, 70, 91, 135, 454, 523, 533, deixis, 295, 324, 354 546. See also Ivory Coast Delta Cross, 202 coverb, 238, 321, 357, 363, 367, 375, 376, 378 Democratic Republic of the Congo, 49, 67, 70, cradle of humankind, 22 125, 129, 146, 152, 157, 158, 192, 203, creaky, 202, 205, 359 226, 227, 343, 422, 455, 498, 502, 538, creativity, 437, 451, 468, 489, 521, 537, 538, 545, 542–544, 552, 553, 578, 628 549, 556, 557, 570, 574 demonstrative, 154, 171, 220, 221, 223, 266, creole, 7, 8, 20–22, 102, 103, 105, 121, 125–127, 295, 314, 318, 324, 325, 353, 354, 367, 132, 160, 166, 168, 249, 425, 435, 436, 397, 398, 400, 405, 409, 411, 412, 414, 442, 444–446, 451–454, 457, 459, 463, 463, 517 464, 466, 545, 556, 560, 572, 631 Demotic, 249, 424, 580 creolization, 21, 38, 126, 160, 164, 457, 459 Dendi, 327, 328 Crioulo, 103, 104 Deno, 257 Cross River, 89, 162, 198 dependency, 236, 293 cross-border language, 17, 426–428, 612, 634 dependent verb, 299, 376 cross-linguistic, 147, 149, 153, 154, 208, 210, depressor, 265, 270, 349, 361 216, 371, 374, 391, 395, 488, 509, 533 derivation, 151, 152, 155, 170, 175, 176, Cross-River, 148, 192, 196, 197, 222, 228, 231, 194, 195, 200, 224, 266–268, 236, 238 276, 277, 281, 283, 285, 293, 305, Cuba, 124–127, 466, 520 309, 310, 318, 321, 345, 354, 355, 361, cultural linguistics, 28, 29 362, 373, 379, 400, 401, 405, 413, 522, cultural science, 103 527 cuneiform, 19, 249 descriptive linguistics, 134, 478 Cupópia, 127 determiner, 221, 223, 240, 279, 280, 287, 294, Cushitic, 18–20, 34, 37, 39, 41–44, 51, 73, 295, 298, 315, 466 130, 131, 140, 142, 153, 154, 168, 183, Deti, 385, 399 185, 186, 188, 246, 248–252, 259–261, development discourse, 46, 47 264–270, 284, 297–324, 342, 525. See also devoiced, 301, 302, 360, 361 Proto-Cushitic devoicing, 302, 359 Cushitistic, 6 Dghwede, 258 Czech Republic, 48, 52 Dhaasanac, 131, 306 Czechoslovakia, 48, 52 dialect, 11, 15–17, 44, 55–58, 62, 68, 74, 79, 83–85, 95, 103, 104, 113, 127, 129–132, Daatsʼíin, 332, 334–343 156–158, 169, 175, 179, 186, 187, 200, Daba, 258 202, 228, 253, 327, 350, 385, 386, 397, Dafing, 233 400, 401, 403, 412, 419, 426, 427, 436, Dagaare, 95 444, 447–449, 452, 453, 460, 464, 476, Dagaare-Wali, 561 477, 479, 539, 543, 545, 572, 594, 611, 612 Dagbani, 136, 203, 219, 561 dialect continuum, 16, 159, 253

Index 788

dialectology, 65, 139, 536, 540, 542 Edo, 93, 206 diaspora, 9, 104, 124, 254, 423, 452, 458, 465, Edoid, 196, 201, 202, 205, 210, 212, 214, 237 467, 474, 556, 558, 568 education, 6, 16, 23, 28, 36, 43, 44, 54, 60, 62, diathesis, 161, 401 64, 66, 71, 74, 79, 80, 84–86, 92, 93, 95, Didinga, 155 96, 98–101, 103, 132, 253, 420, 421, differential argument marking, 368–370 424–426, 429–432, 439, 446, 449, differential object marking, 320, 368, 381, 408 453–455, 469, 485, 487, 488, 497, 528, differential subject marking, 368, 381 533, 537, 557–562, 574, 577–629 Digital Humanities, 623, 634, 641–644 bilingual, 579, 584–588, 592, 593, 597, 599 digital inequality, 558 formal, 24, 443, 445, 455, 571, 577, 579, 584, digital media, 29, 471, 489, 556, 557, 564, 567, 569 593 digitalization, 29 higher, 11, 14, 23, 62, 99, 101, 102, 104, 106, diglossia, 17, 23, 499 567, 618 Dii, 198, 242 informal, 593 Dime, 307, 308, 314–320 mother tongue, 78, 85, 100–102, 104, diminutive, 27, 167, 218, 219, 266, 276, 277, 612 316, 317, 355, 366, 405, 459 multilingual, 446, 483, 577–582, 585–589, Dinka, 57, 80, 358, 359, 362, 372, 380 592, 593, 595, 597, 598 Diola, Joola, 189, 203 non-formal, 586, 590, 593 Dioula, 454. See also Dyula, Jula primary, 54, 95, 430, 432, 583, 584, 586 diphthong, 169, 274, 346, 359, 447 secondary, 585 directional, 57, 237, 285, 289, 339, 363, 374 tertiary, 430, 449 Diri, 257 Efik, 89, 90, 93, 96, 127, 148, 199, 203, 241, 466 discourse analysis, 113, 491 Ega, 201 discourse particles, 350 Egypt, 21, 60–67, 129, 247, 253, 419, 420, distributive, 170, 282, 316, 355, 366, 405 423, 429, 430, 445, 556, 558, 560, 565, ditransitive, 226, 311, 400, 401 569–574, 580 divergence, 16, 121, 139, 162, 268, 480 Egyptian (Ancient), 19, 53, 140, 142, 246–250, Dizi, 302, 304, 309, 319, 322 252, 264–269, 577, 580 Dizoid, 261, 301, 304, 319, 323 Egyptology, 6, 40, 41, 53, 252, 381 Dja, 346, 353 Eini, 385 Djenné Chiini, 328 Ejagham, 148, 518 Djerba, 60, 253 ejective, 186, 264, 300–302, 332, 334, 360, 390, Djibouti, 73, 74, 79, 182, 185, 259, 297, 423, 425, 391 558, 590 Ekegusii, 638. See also Gusii Dobbi, 318 Ekoid, 90, 148 Dogon, 19, 20, 143, 191, 201, 206–208, 212, 215, Eleme, 228, 229 482, 518 Emghedesie, 328 Domari, 61, 419 Emirates, 423 Dominican Republic, 124 emphatic, 264, 271 Dompo, 20, 144 empiricism, 37, 47, 474, 507 Dongolawi, 380 enclitic. See clitic downdrift, 361 endangered language, 27, 46, 47, 54, 55, 86, 96, downstep, 89, 213, 215, 334, 361 117, 123, 473, 488, 489 DRC, DR Congo. See Democratic Republic of Endegagn, 300, 302, 303 Congo England, 35, 36, 38, 110, 423, 445, 447, 449. dual, 224, 266, 278, 286, 287, 322, 339, 397–399, See also Britain; United Kingdom 401, 402, 406 English, 3, 6, 8, 10, 21, 23, 25, 26, 52, 53, 57, 63, dual medium (education), 597 71, 74, 79, 85–87, 91–96, 105, 109, 121, Dugwor, 258 123, 130, 134, 149, 152, 156, 158, 159, Dullay, 310 187, 237, 254, 288, 399, 420, 422–424, durative, 267, 290, 291, 293 428–466, 472, 500, 502, 504, 505, 508, Duru, 198 523, 524, 546–549, 552, 553, 556, Dutch, 7, 8, 21, 103, 112, 140, 149, 442, 458, 560–562, 565–572, 581, 583–597, 606, 459, 460, 464, 466, 472, 556, 571. See also 608, 609, 614–620, 624, 626–628, 631, Cape Dutch 636–640 Duwai, 257 Englishes, 9, 21, 447, 449–451, 458 Dyula, 125, 328, 425. See also Dioula, Jula Engsh, 437, 438 enregisterment, 514, 531–533 East Sudanic. See Eastern Sudanic epenthetic, 264, 271, 273–275, 304 Eastern Sudanic, 20, 143, 160, 162, 163, 326, 327, Equatorial Guinea, 98, 99, 104, 105, 452, 457, 354, 356–363, 365, 368–376, 378, 380, 381 458, 558, 631 Ebrié, 201, 202 ergative, 269, 343, 369, 370, 372 ecology of language. See language ecology ergativity, 152, 381 economic development, 45, 601, 619, 620 Eritrea, 42, 182, 185, 250, 259, 297, 298, 358, economics, 15, 29, 429, 612, 619 423, 425, 586, 631 economy, 21, 24, 444, 457, 537, 602, 605, 611, Erythraic, 251 620 Erythrean, 251

Index 789

Esan, 210, 237 Finland, 53 essive, 375 first language, 585 Ethiopia, 15, 20, 21, 41, 42, 48, 49, 55, 74–80, First Nations language, 123 130, 131, 144, 148, 149, 153–155, Flaaitaal, 22, 436 160–162, 172, 182, 183, 185, 186, 188, flagging, 367, 408, 409 248–250, 252, 259, 261, 297, 332, 335, Flemish, 458, 539 361, 375, 425, 426, 430, 439, 519, 520, Flickr, 556 525, 549, 550, 551, 558, 574, 577, 581, fluidity, 44, 496, 503, 538, 546 585–590, 593, 631 focus, 27, 55, 79, 113, 153, 154, 172, 236, 239– Ethiopian Language Area, 185 243, 287, 290, 292, 296, 298, 300, 320, Ethiopian Linguistic Area, 248, 297 368, 370, 408 Ethiopian studies, 38, 40, 78 Fon, 125–127, 136, 234, 235, 236, 467, 637 Ethiopic, 19, 76, 250, 581. See also Geez Fongbe. See Fon Ethiosemitic, 19–21, 43, 246–249, 252, 262–265, foot, 197 269, 297–324. See also Proto-Ethiosemitic foreign language, 24, 118, 440, 441, 460, 587, ethnic language, 422, 423, 435, 439, 440 593, 597 ethnicity, 70, 497, 498, 500, 524, 548, 595 fortis/lenis, 201, 202, 271 ethnography, 3, 25, 48, 509, 511 Français Populaire, 6, 454, 523 ethnography of communication, 29, 491–493, France, 33–35, 37, 39, 42, 64, 67, 74, 79, 104, 541 422, 427, 451, 453, 454, 456 ethnohistory, 643 francophone, 59, 67, 68, 91, 94–96, 421, 422, ethnolinguistic(s), 25, 28, 29, 36, 52, 69, 73, 117, 423, 427, 428, 432, 440, 444, 445, 454, 383, 471, 472, 476, 480–485, 493–495 456, 583, 607, 608 ethnology, 45, 130, 131 Franco-Provençal, 156 Etkywan, 204 Franglais, 454, 455 Eton, 198 Franlof, 22, 436 Etsako, 202 French, 6, 8, 21, 23, 25, 37, 40, 52, 56, 62–64, 66, Eurocentric, 9, 10, 15, 44, 433, 482 67, 71, 73, 74, 79, 98, 122, 124, 125, 140, Europe, 3, 8, 9, 13, 15, 22, 33, 42, 46–48, 52, 70, 155, 156, 174, 254, 288, 420–422, 425– 71, 78, 96, 97, 102, 106, 109, 115, 116, 433, 436, 438–446, 453–456, 458, 464, 119, 124, 126, 135, 139, 140, 156, 248, 467, 502, 503, 533, 539, 546, 547, 560, 250, 421, 458, 463, 579, 580–582, 584, 565, 566, 583–585, 589, 592–597, 606, 589, 592, 594, 596, 597, 599, 606, 614, 614, 619, 620, 624, 626, 627, 629, 631 637, 644 Frenglish, 454 European, 5, 12, 14, 21, 33–36, 40, 44–48, 59, frequency of usage, 149, 150 63, 66, 73, 86, 95, 98, 106, 107, 109–112, frequentative, 281, 282, 291 116, 123, 126, 133, 139, 140, 167, 168, Ful, 39, 55, 92, 93, 125, 130, 131, 140, 189, 200, 250, 421, 422, 426, 428, 434–444, 453, 211, 212, 219, 225, 425, 456, 582 457, 459, 460, 462, 463, 466, 472, 480, Fula(h), Fulani, Fulbe, Fulfulde. See Ful 482, 487, 537–544, 578–584, 589–591, functional approach, 112, 113 594, 598, 606, 610, 613–615, 633 Fungom, 472 European languages, 13, 22, 63, 65, 70, 105, 107, Fur, 20, 144, 180, 184, 326, 327, 356–379 125, 134, 265, 288, 421, 422, 428, 434, Fush’a, 63, 66 442–444, 449, 464, 534, 589, 610, 621, Fyer, 257 624, 625 Ewe, 36, 51, 90, 91, 125–127, 135, 203, 466, 561 Gǃora, 401 exclusive, 223, 286, 288, 336, 399, 400, 402, 403, Gǀui, 385, 388, 389, 395 405, 406 Gǁana, 385, 388, 409, 410 ex-colonial language. See colonial language Ga, 91, 203, 561, 564 exoglossic, 13, 619–621 Ga’anda, 258 experiencer, 195, 312, 375 Gaahmg, 356, 360, 361, 371 explorer, 34, 80, 86, 109, 606, 607, 610, 614 Gabon, 144, 207, 421, 425, 624, 627, 630, 631 extinct language, 252, 253, 332, 385, 630 Gabri, 258 Ezha, 302, 303, 318 Gadang, 258 Gafat, 249, 263, 309 Fa d’Ambô, 105 Galambu, 257 Facebook, 553, 556, 573, 630, 631 Gambia, 93, 94, 425, 452 Fanagalo, Fanakalo, 22, 425, 435, 436, 442, 452, Gamo, 153, 249, 303, 307 462, 463, 465, 546 Gamu, 323 Fang, 105 Ganagana, 200 Fante, 90, 562 Ganda, 81, 82, 83, 85, 192, 195, 221, 223, 225, Farsi, 146 242, 425, 435, 552, 626 Fer, 20 Ganguela, 101 field research, 109, 134 Ganza, 261, 323 fieldwork, 40, 56, 79, 116–118, 128–130, 132, Gban, 216 414, 461, 499, 544 Gbaya, 198, 206–210, 344, 515, 516, 517. See also Figuig, 253, 276, 279, 280, 290, 294–296 Proto-Gbaya Fiji, 464 Gbe, 125, 196, 201, 205, 520

Index 790

Gbeya, 118, 203 Gorwaa, 186 Gciriku, 168. See also Dciriku grammatical agreement, 398 Ge’ez, Gecez, G z. See Geez grammaticalization, 45, 56, 133, 153, 154, 181, Geez, 19, 48, 51, 76, 77, 247, 248, 250, 267, 298, 185–189, 238, 244, 285, 288, 289, 292, 299, 301,ǝǝ 304, 306, 308, 312–324, 426, 297, 320, 332, 341 569, 581 Grassfields, 42, 192, 193, 196, 204, 205, 213, Geji, 258 227, 240, 521 gemination, 202, 267, 271, 277, 282, 283, 292, Grebo, 90, 200, 232 302–305, 310, 317 Greek, 21, 61, 88, 140, 156, 160, 249, 580 Gen, 125 Greenbergian system of reference, 8, 17, 21, 27 gender, 16, 70, 142, 168, 250, 251, 257, 265, 266, greeting, 494, 505 268, 269, 277–280, 282, 286, 287, 295, Guanche, 253 303, 306, 308, 312–318, 322–324, 337, Guang, 201 338, 386, 397–407, 412, 413, 453, 459, Gude, 258 462, 493, 497, 498, 513, 520, 524, 528, Gudu, 258 531, 533, 581, 635 Guduf, 258 genealogical (classification), 10, 38, 44, 217, 270, Guebie, 216, 232, 233 382, 384–388, 397, 401, 403, 415, 416, Guinea, 53, 87, 125, 144, 192, 208, 235, 518, 525. See also genetic (classification) 558, 585 general linguistics, 6, 10–15, 26, 28, 29, 52, 54, Guinea-Bissau, 22, 98, 99, 103, 457, 558 97, 247 Guinea-Bissau Creole, 22 generative grammar, 78, 113, 122 Gujarati, 8, 450, 464, 465 generativist, 10, 122, 123 Gule, 332 genetic (classification), 8, 12, 17–21, 27, 28, 37, Gulf of Guinea Creole, 102 80, 139, 141–149, 160–169, 173–183, Gumuz, 20, 143, 144, 176, 331–343, 364 185, 187, 190, 191, 213, 248, 251, 253, Gunnän Gurage, 263, 301, 302, 303, 309, 312, 257, 259–264, 292, 326, 327, 344, 350, 313, 316, 318–320, 324, 325 356–358, 367, 374, 380, 381, 615. See also Gur, 19, 37, 39, 42, 143, 153, 179, 183, 192, 194, genealogical (classification) 198, 201, 205, 208, 210, 214, 215, 219, genitive, 55, 222, 232, 233, 280, 298, 318–320, 220, 224, 225, 236, 327, 561 330, 363, 368, 369, 371, 410, 413, 462 Gurage, 298, 299, 312, 314, 316–319. See also Gera, 257 Gunnän Gurage Gerka, 257 Guruntum, 258 German, 3, 4, 8, 13, 14, 21, 25, 26, 41, 46, 47, Gusii, 638 58, 82, 84, 99, 100, 122, 149, 150, 152, Guyana, 466 156, 174, 254, 288, 428, 442, 444, 458, Gvoko, 258 460–462, 472, 547, 571, 606, 608, 614, Gwama, 332, 334–342, 363, 364 624, 626, 627, 631 Gwandara, 257 Germanic, 5, 8, 9, 149, 152, 166, 253, 459 Gwari, 200, 201, 234, 235, 242 Germany, 3, 4, 12, 14, 15, 22, 33–41, 46, 48, 56, Gyeta, 302 67, 69, 87, 456, 460, 628 Geruma, 257 Ha, 58 Ghadames, 62, 253, 274, 286, 287, 295, 296 habitual, 228, 229, 233, 234, 281, 282, 290–292, Ghana, 20, 46, 53, 56, 86, 87, 89, 91–96, 119, 453 130, 135, 144, 180, 195, 210, 215, 236, Hadiyya, 249, 259, 309, 310, 313, 525 239, 242, 243, 421, 425, 430, 432, 444, Hadza, 20, 143, 144, 184, 186, 382, 384, 385, 452, 467, 504, 509, 520, 521, 556, 558, 388, 396 560, 561, 563–565, 568, 574, 606, 627, Haiǁom, 385, 386, 401 631 Haiti, 124, 466 Gidar, 258, 289 Haitian Creole, 121, 122, 125, 467 Gikuyu, 632. See also Kikuyu Hamar, 249, 299, 317 Gimira, 261 Hamitic, 12, 142, 250, 251 Gimojan, 323 Hamito-Semitic, 246, 247, 250, 251 Girirra, 249 Harare, 548, 549 Giryama, 169 Harari, 250, 298, 304, 319 Gisiga, Giziga, 258, 284 harmonization, 24, 253, 605, 612, 613. See also Gizey, 259 African language: harmonization Glavda, 258 Haro, 307, 318, 323, 324 globalization, 34, 46, 123, 444–446, 473, 498, hashtag, 565–569 505, 536–538, 553, 589, 591 Hassaniyya, 60 Godié, 204 Hausa, 6, 38, 39, 43, 48, 51, 52, 55, 56, 61, 88, Goemai, 135, 198, 257 89, 92, 93, 95, 118, 129, 130, 131, 133, Gogo, 83 134, 159, 188, 189, 249, 250, 254, 257, Gokana, 198, 228 266–297, 327, 424–427, 435, 439, 561, Gomba, 20, 144 570, 578, 582, 601, 607, 610, 617, 620– Gonga, 261, 301, 319 622, 626, 628, 629, 631, 636, 639 Gonja, 561 Haya, 81, 192, 241 Gor, 347 Hdi, 258, 289

Index 791

head Ik, 356, 361, 368, 380 -final, 220, 231, 232, 235, 350, 409 Ikoma, 58 -initial, 232, 350, 367, 409 Ikwerre, 428 -marking, 237, 342 imbrication, 151 Hebrew, 129, 140, 247, 250, 266 Imeraguen, 20 hegemonic language, 269, 423, 424 imperative, 206, 238, 241, 242, 268, 281, 287, Heiban, 175 289, 293, 297, 305–307, 339, 510 height harmony, 206, 211 imperfective, 216, 228, 232, 242, 267, 277, 281, Hema, 345 282, 286, 290–293, 303–309, 312, 350, Herero, 125, 130, 217, 461 352, 377, 406 heritage, 74, 469, 473–476, 487, 544, 553, 606, impersonal, 288, 312, 322, 372, 373 644 implosive, 170, 193, 201, 202, 264, 301, 302, heritage language, 11, 23, 630 332, 334, 347, 348, 359 heteroglossia, 429, 524, 546 inalienable, 222, 280, 353, 410, 412, 414, 415 heterosemy, 154 inanimate, 313, 317, 366 Hieratic, 249 inchoative, 293, 310, 401 hieroglyphic, 19, 247, 577, 580, 581 inclusive, 223, 286, 288, 399, 400, 402, 403, Highland East Cushitic, 298, 299, 302, 307, 309, 405, 406 311, 312, 321, 322 inclusive/exclusive reference, 322, 336. See also Higi, 258 clusivity, inclusive, exclusive Hindi, 464, 607 incorporation, 286, 330, 332, 339, 340, 341, 381 Hindustani, 8 indexical, 498, 499, 504, 531, 553 hispanophone, 98, 444, 583 India, 8, 22, 128, 262, 447, 450, 462–464, 595, historical linguistics, 10, 36, 43, 45, 86, 133 596, 607 history (science), 15, 29, 38, 48, 424, 498, 643, Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), 580, 617 644 indigenous language, 23, 35, 62, 100, 101, 103, hlonipha, 149, 513, 517, 525, 526, 528, 531, 532 105, 124, 419–421, 431, 442, 456, 458, Hmong-Khmer, 187 460, 471, 472, 486, 487, 597, 616, 617, Holland, 35 624, 625 home language, 430, 446, 457, 464, 584, 585, individual multilingualism, 24, 428 587, 588, 593, 594, 596 Indo-Aryan, 153 homonymic clash, 156, 157 Indo-European, 5, 7–10, 12, 18, 21, 61, 144, 146, homoplasy, 152, 165 156, 162, 166, 251, 380, 508 Hona, 258 Indo-Germanic. See Indo-European honorificity, 317 Indonesia, 464 Hottentot, 108, 109 Indoubil, 22, 438, 439, 552–554 human language, 4, 5, 7, 12, 21, 26–28, 37, 144, inflection, 39, 57, 152, 155, 170, 192, 194, 212, 165, 384 227, 228, 230, 231, 238, 239, 241, 267, human language technology, 605, 618, 627, 268, 277, 286, 293, 298, 302, 305, 307, 632–634, 637, 643, 644 315, 320, 321, 345, 361, 362, 365, 368, humanities, 9, 12, 29, 48, 134, 429, 430, 498, 376, 396, 397, 399, 400, 402, 403 543, 634, 640, 644 information structure, 54, 172, 192, 217, 239, Humburi Senni, 328 243, 297, 408, 411 Hunde, 129 information technology, 29, 634 Hungary, 48, 53 inheritance, 139, 141, 158, 181 Hya, 258 initiation, 435, 513–519, 529, 531, 533 innovation, 45, 146, 148, 156, 158, 162, 165, Iberian-Romanic, 125 198, 268, 307, 367–370, 379, 444, 451, Ibibio, 93, 96, 127, 196–199 454, 455, 460, 461, 480, 536, 538, 542, Icen, 204 543, 549, 550, 553, 567 Iceve-Maci, 207 Inor, 300, 302, 309 ideology, 6, 29, 35, 44, 70, 116, 433, 460, 471, institutional multilingualism, 23, 420 476, 477, 482, 483, 528, 532, 533, 548, instrumental, 165, 225, 237, 266, 276, 305, 312, 551, 563, 589, 607, 609. See also language 319, 363, 368, 373, 375 ideology intellectualization, 28, 601–622. See also African ideophone, 121, 170, 171, 243, 295, 321, 322, language: intellectualization 348, 376, 509 intensifier, 188 idiolect, 16, 156 intensive, 200, 225, 322 Idoma, 39, 93 inter-ethnic, 423, 426, 436, 437, 440, 544 Idomoid, 206, 214 inter-ethnic communication, 21, 422, 425, 440 Igala, 93 interference, 11, 159, 160 Igbo, 88, 93, 95, 140, 192, 196, 199, 202, 204, interlanguage, 444, 461, 465 213, 222, 223, 229, 230, 239, 425, 428, internal reconstruction, 139, 156, 379 494, 626, 628, 629, 631, 639, 640 international language, 449, 579, 584, 589, 592, Igboid, 199, 205, 214 593 Ijo, 93, 143, 184, 231, 466 Internet, 69, 536, 553, 555, 557–561, 568, 569, Ijoid, 19, 20, 191, 201, 205, 207, 208, 212, 214, 623–626, 628, 630, 631, 636 220, 236 intonation, 217, 519, 637

Index 792

intransitive, 223, 267, 282, 308, 330, 336, 355, Kalabari, 93, 201, 203, 207, 220 367, 369, 370, 372, 374, 375, 379, 402, Kalahari Basin, 186, 387, 388, 415 406, 407 Kalahari Khoe, 385, 386, 389, 392, 393, 397–401, Iraq, 248, 591 407–411 Iraqw, 186, 527 Kalenjin, 159, 375, 627 Isanzu, 186 Kaliko, 353 Isenye, 58 Kamba, 544, 552 isiXhosa. See Xhosa Kambaata, 310, 311, 313, 315, 317, 321, 324, isiZulu. See Zulu 325, 525–528 Islam, 8, 21, 24, 59–62, 70, 82, 189, 247, 262, Kami, 55 423, 424, 429, 435, 440, 464, 496, 497, Kana, 200, 222, 229, 230, 235 511, 578, 581–583, 590, 609 Kanakuru, 257 isogloss, 156, 157, 184, 186, 477, 540 Kanembu, 358–360 Isoko, 203 Kanuri, 89, 92, 93, 96, 155, 159, 254, 358–362, isolates, 17, 18, 20, 143–145, 175–177, 331, 384, 370, 373, 376, 377, 380 388, 396 Kaonde, 83 Isu, 236 Kapsiki, 258 Italian, 8, 21, 42, 43, 64, 79, 103, 153, 428, 430, Kara, 20, 198, 516 571, 606, 614 Karanga, 83, 84 Italy, 33–37, 66, 79 Karekare, 257 iterative, 226, 268, 281–283, 290–293 Kariya, 257 itive, 170, 225, 286, 339, 374 Karko, 358, 374, 375 Ivory Coast, 144, 195, 201, 203, 207, 210, 216, Kasem, 561 232, 235, 238, 425, 518. See also Côte Katla, 135, 150, 169, 175 d’Ivoire Kefoid, 261 Iwellemeden, 281, 285 Kegboid, 228 Izon, 201, 236 Kele, 517 Keliko, 345, 348 Jafaican, 552 Kenya, 82, 84, 86, 131, 144, 158, 159, 182, 185, Jalaa, 20, 144 191, 249, 259, 420, 422, 423, 426–428, Jamaica, 445, 452, 466, 532, 573 430, 432, 437, 438, 446, 447, 450, 451, Jamaican Creole, 573 496, 497, 499, 500, 510, 523, 546, 553, Japan, 15, 69, 70, 78, 128–133, 555, 621, 624 556, 558, 560, 567, 568, 574, 607, 609, Jara, 258 615, 618, 624, 628, 632, 634, 637, 639 Javanese, 464 Kenyah, 597 Jebel, 356, 371 Kera, 258 Jeje, 125, 126 Kerewe, 130 Jewish, 64, 247 Khoe, 20, 21, 105, 177, 179, 180, 184, 199, 244, Jilbe, 258 386, 396–401, 449 Jimbin, 257 Khoekhoe, 113, 140, 383–388, 395, 397–401, Jimi, 258 407, 408, 410, 411, 459 Joola, 218 Khoekhoegowab, 6, 113, 385, 462 Jorto, 257 Khoe-Kwadi, 382–389, 392, 396, 398–401, 407, Ju, 258, 386, 388, 391, 405–407, 415 408, 410, 411, 415 Juǀ’hoan, Ju/’hoansi, Zuǀ’hõasi, 110, 114, 385, Khoe-Kwadi-Sandawe, 178, 179 407, 416 Khoesan, 113, 383, 459. See also Khoisan Juba Arabic, 22, 130, 249 Khoi, 110, 532. See also Khoe Judaism, 247 Khoikhoi, 461. See also Khoekhoe Jukunoid, 192, 200, 204, 205, 214 Khoisan, 6, 8, 17, 18, 20, 27, 37, 51, 57, 105, 107, Jula, 523. See also Dyula, Dioula 110, 113, 114, 129, 134, 142–144, 149, Julud, 150 156, 160, 168, 169, 173, 175–177, 179, Jumjum, 57, 150, 151 182, 184–186, 199, 202, 244, 382–396, Jur Modo, 348 400, 402, 407, 413, 415, 416 jussive, 287, 288, 304–309, 312 Khwe, 178, 385, 386, 388, 392, 399, 408–410 Kiezdeutsch, 552 K’abeena, 313 Kikongo. See Kongo Kaado, 328 Kikuyu, 129, 626. See also Gikuyu Kabalai, 258 Kilba, 258 Kabba, 354, 363, 364 Kim, 198 Kabiye, 201 Kimatuumbi, 212 Kabyle, 58, 64, 253, 268, 271, 272, 279, 280, Kimbu, 186 282, 570 Kimbundu, 100, 101, 125, 126 Kadallu, 332, 334–338 Kimre, 258 Kadu, 20, 143, 161, 176, 326 Kindoubil. See Indoubil Kafa, 55, 301 kinship term, 222, 278, 280, 316, 407, 414 Kaguru, 55 Kinyarwanda, 81, 83, 132, 134, 146, 147, 200, Kainji, 192, 204, 205, 207, 208, 212, 226, 236 498, 502, 626, 631, 640 Kajakse, 258 Kir, 258

Index 793

Kirfi, 257 Laal, 20, 144, 198 Kirundi. See Rundi labial-dental, 169 Kisi, 119, 212, 219 labial-dental flap, 167, 185. See also labiodental Kistane, 309, 316, 318, 322 flap Kiswahili. See Swahili labialization, 150, 199, 201, 271, 272, 301, 303, Klao, 199 327, 334, 360 Koalib, 225 labial-velar, 118, 150, 167, 169, 185, 200, 201, Kobiana, 219 271, 348. See also labiovelar Koenoem, 257 labiodental, 169, 348 Kofyar, 257 labiodental flap, 348. See also labial-dental flap Kokumono, 203 labiovelar, 150, 167, 193, 244, 327. See also Kom, 195 labial-velar Koman, 20, 143, 176, 177, 326, 330–343, 357, Lake Chad, 183, 215, 254, 270 360, 363, 367, 378 Lamang, 258, 267, 270–297 Komo, 332, 334–342, 363, 364 Lango, 135 Kongo, 100, 101, 125–127, 167, 455, 466, 520, language, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15–17, 24, 26, 28, 539, 626, 629 29, 36, 41, 107, 113, 118, 119, 128, Konni, 212 262, 419, 429, 435, 440, 444, 473–481, Konso, 310, 324 487, 489, 490, 497, 498, 503, 512–514, Konsoid, 310 532, 533, 537, 538, 540, 541, 544, Koorete, 55, 307, 325 594, 601–603, 606–608, 614, 619, 620, Korandjé, 328 623. See Aboriginal language; African Kordofan, 184 language; American Indian language; Kordofan Nubian, 359 black language; colonial language; Kordofanian, 19, 20, 42, 141, 143, 145, 175–177, creole (language); cross-border language; 194, 205, 208, 225, 226, 236, 326 daughter language; ethnic language; Korekore, 83, 84 European language; extinct language; Koromfé, 212 foreign language; hegemonic language; Koti, 158 heritage language; human language; Kotoko, 258 indigenous language; international Koyra Chiini, 189, 212, 328, 331 language; living language; local language; Koyraboro, 189, 328, 330 modern language; named language; Kpelle, 192, 199, 200, 203, 222, 569 national language; natural language; Kreish, 344 non-standard language; official language; Kresh, 20, 169 Oriental language; proto-language; Kresh-Aja, 20 residual African language; standard Krio, 22, 445, 452 language; sub-standard language; tone Krongo, 184 language; urban language; vehicular Kru, 19, 116, 118, 121, 179, 192, 194, 204–206, language; vernacular language 208, 210, 214–216, 219, 232–234, 237, definitions of, 16, 17 241 language acquisition, 446, 458, 470, 485, 607 Kua, 385 language activism, 6, 28, 556, 572 Kujarge, 144, 258 language and development, 619, 620 Kukuya, 197, 198 language as resource, 24, 28, 47 Kulango, 195, 212 language attitude, 6, 22, 23, 86, 420, 548 Kulere, 257 language attrition, 11, 27, 459, 475, 584 Kuliak, 20, 143, 160, 184, 327, 356, 361–364, language boundary, 16 368, 373, 376, 380 language chain, 595 Kumam, 130 language change, 16, 156, 162, 164, 190, 468, Kunama, 20, 144, 180, 184, 298, 326, 327, 356, 475, 480, 529, 530, 533, 540, 549, 643 357, 363, 365, 368, 369, 375, 378, 379 language choice, 29, 429, 499, 502, 560 Kupsabinyi, 131 language cluster, 183 Kupto, 257 language contact, 10, 18, 38, 39, 41, 44, 52, 66, Kurmuk, 57 69, 124, 126, 128, 133, 150, 158–160, Kushi, 257 181, 184, 186, 190, 248, 254, 271, 284, Kutu, 55 320, 384, 387, 388, 415, 434, 435, 436, Kw’adza, 249 442, 449, 472, 478, 524, 536, 538, 545, Kwa, 19, 37, 42, 86, 91, 125, 143, 172, 176, 179, 546, 570 183, 189, 192, 194, 201, 202, 205, 207, language continuum, 464. See also dialect 208, 210, 214, 215, 234–239, 243, 509, continuum 561 language death, 27, 43, 468, 470, 475 Kwadi, 20, 143, 176, 177, 179, 385, 386, 396, 401 language development, 85, 92, 95–97, 117, 468, Kwami, 189, 257 486, 487, 489, 588, 603, 609 Kwang, 258 language disempowerment, 6 Kwanyama, 57, 58, 101, 125 language documentation, 81, 86, 95, 96, 124, Kwere, 55 384, 475, 614 Kx’a, 20, 168, 176, 180, 184, 187, 199, 244, 382, language ecology, 6, 37, 162, 469, 477, 480, 384–388, 393, 397, 405–408, 414, 415 484–486, 538

Index 794

language empowerment, 6, 28, 488, 562, 619, lingua franca, 21, 28, 74, 77, 83, 103, 133, 158, 620, 621 249, 254, 420, 423–429, 435, 439, 440, language endangerment, 11, 43, 468, 469, 536 444, 449, 451, 455, 460, 462, 464, 483, language family, 5, 17, 18, 20, 110 523, 555, 561, 566, 584, 593, 595, 597, language history, 9, 10, 18 599, 615, 618, 624 language ideology, 22, 159, 161, 477, 480, 481, linguistic area, 19, 168, 169, 181, 184–187, 483, 487, 514, 531–535, 548, 571, 574 248, 297, 384. See also convergence area; language loss, 160 sprachbund language loyalty, 11 linguistic choice, 571, 578 language maintenance, 11, 466, 499 linguistic diversity, 27, 44, 47, 80, 100, 125, 419, language mixing, 160, 505, 595–598 420, 468, 470–473, 481–483, 489, 490, language modernization, 85, 602, 604, 605 509, 555, 561, 569, 582, 594, 595, 597 language philosophy, 13 linguistic exclusion, 433, 434, 468, 486 language phylum, 8, 17, 18, 19 linguistic manipulation, 523, 529 language planning, 22, 24, 36, 44, 65, 69, 70, 78, linguistic repertoire, 23, 472, 485, 532, 541, 547, 102, 103, 491, 591, 592, 599, 602–604, 556, 574 610, 617 linguistic theory, 26, 90, 118, 122, 534 language policy, 13, 22–24, 35, 55, 58, 80, 85, linguistic universal, 27, 466 103, 121, 132, 135, 421, 424, 427, 449, linguistics, 26, 29, 68, 78, 85, 87, 91–97, 103, 455, 469, 470, 491, 536, 587, 591, 592, 104, 106, 107, 109, 112, 113, 115, 116, 601, 602, 609, 610, 613, 616, 617 123, 129, 134, 168, 487, 505, 534, 570, language prototype, 480 571, 610, 611. See also applied linguistics; language repertoire, 536, 538 cognitive linguistics; general linguistics; language resources, 431, 503, 632–635, 641, historical linguistics; theoretical 643, 644 linguistics language revitalization, 11 Lisramic, 251 language shift, 11, 160, 472, 474, 485, 487, 499 literacy, 13, 17, 44, 45, 70, 71, 74, 82, 86, 117, language status, 17, 21, 602 426, 457, 469, 488, 489, 564, 565, 579, language technology, 56, 57, 618, 619, 622, 623, 581–589, 608, 610, 612 631–636, 639, 641, 644 literary science, 15, 29 language type, 5, 108, 263 literary studies, 642, 644 language use, 22, 29, 86, 190, 429, 469, 471, literature, 4, 13, 17, 25, 34, 37–40, 45, 52, 55, 474, 475, 477–480, 482, 484, 485, 489, 64, 71, 74, 77, 84, 88, 103, 104, 108, 133, 491–493, 496, 498, 499, 502, 503, 509, 427, 430, 577, 581, 583, 606, 608, 609, 512, 513, 521, 523, 524, 529, 531–534, 619, 642 538, 539, 549, 560, 614 living language, 12, 20, 249, 332 language variety, 15, 16, 22, 23, 29, 57, 254, 383, local language, 53, 63, 65, 71, 82, 83, 97, 99, 445, 449, 498, 536, 541, 602 103, 119, 161, 420, 429, 432, 435, 437– language vitality, 468, 469, 475 439, 446, 455, 457, 483, 504, 561, 566, Lao, 187 581, 583, 585, 586, 589, 592–595, 617, Lari, 130 632, 638, 644 lateral fricative, 186, 273, 301 locative, 108, 217, 218, 225, 266, 276, 285, 289, Latin, 21, 33, 54, 62, 74, 79, 88, 107, 156, 250, 292, 296, 312, 463 426, 433, 569, 582, 583, 606, 613, 614 Logo, 345, 347, 352, 353 Latin America, 72, 102, 115, 124–127, 466 Logone, 258 law, 23, 36, 38, 420, 421, 429, 432–434, 455, 497, logophoric, 26, 172, 185, 223, 289, 324, 604, 636 353, 354 Leggbo, 202, 236 Lokaa, 204 Lele, 189, 258, 280 Lokai, 345 Lendu, 20, 158, 345–349, 352, 353, 355, 356, 361 Loma, 569 Lendu-Ngiti, 344, 349, 350 Lombi, 348 Lesotho, 105, 560, 608 Lomwe, 85 lexicography, 28, 52, 54, 56, 70, 74, 79, 605, 610, longue durée, 579, 599 614–618, 627 Lopid, 367 lexicon, 27, 28, 54, 61, 65, 69, 85, 103, 105, 125, Lotuxo, 163, 377, 378 126, 128, 144, 158, 178, 249, 261, 269, Lower Nossob, 387, 403 302, 313, 348, 356, 438, 460, 514, 515, Lozi, 83 520, 521, 524, 627 Lua, 198 lexicostatistics, 85, 163 Luba, 114, 125, 146, 147, 167, 544, 626, 627 lexifier, 442, 452, 463, 466 Lucazi, 58 Liberia, 93, 94, 116, 117, 121, 141, 144, 199, 200, Lucumi, 125, 127 222, 235, 423, 445, 518, 558 Luganda. See Ganda Libido, 309, 313 Lugbara, 184, 345, 348, 349 Libya, 60–62, 64, 66, 253, 419, 420, 423, 430 Luguru, 55 Libyco-Berber, 19, 250, 253 Lunda, 83, 125 Libyco-Chadic, 270 Lunyoro. See Nyoro Lingala, 70, 118, 130, 131, 436, 455, 498, 502, Luo, 81, 85, 86, 159, 361 539, 552, 553, 556, 626 Luri, 258

Index 795

Lusoflo, 553 Manjaco, 125 Lusoga, 218, 230, 553 Manyika, 83, 84 lusophone, 98, 101, 421, 422, 423, 440, 444, 456, Mao, 261, 323, 338 458, 583, 607 Mara, 58 Luvale, 83 Marakwet, 375 Luyaaye, Luyáyé, 552, 553 Mararit, 365 Luyia, 500 Marathi, 8, 464 Lwidakho, 500, 501 Marba, 259 Lwoo, 365, 372 Margi, 169, 189, 258, 286 marginalization, 468, 487, 560, 584, 602, 603 Ma’a, 130, 249 Marka Dafing, 233 Ma’di, 184, 344, 345, 349, 352, 354, 363, 378 marked nominative, 26, 170, 279, 320, 343, 368, Maale, 154, 307, 313, 320 371, 372 Maasai, 129, 145, 162, 163, 373 Markedness Model, 499 Maba, 20, 143, 180, 184, 326, 327, 356, 357, 361, Masa, 259 363, 365, 366, 368, 373–379 Masmaje, 258 Mabaan, 359 mass comparison, 18, 160, 174, 175 Mabas, 258 Matakam, 258 Mabo, 169 Matengo, 130 machine translation, 57, 619, 632, 633, 635, Mauritania, 253, 423, 425, 581 638–640, 644 Mauritian Creole, 22 Macro Sudan Belt, 223 Mauritius, 464, 465 macro-area, 164, 184, 201, 205, 210, 248, 387, Mawa, 259 415 Mayak, 57, 150, 151 macro-family, 140, 326 Mazagway, 258 macro-language, 15 Mbala, 152 Macro-Sudan belt, 18, 185, 215, 223, 231, 235, Mbara, 258 248, 254, 272, 278, 282, 286, 289, 296 Mbedam, 258 Macrosudanic, 326 Mbembe, 203 Mada, 258 Mbodomo, 210 Madagascar, 7, 21, 49, 464, 465, 558 Mbre, 20 Madi. See Ma’di Mbugu, 249 Mafa, 258 Mbugwe, 186 Maghreb, Maghrib, Magreb, 65, 66, 249, 270, Mbuko, 258 578, 581 Mbulungish, 219 Mahou, 216 Mburku, 257 Majang, 369, 380 Mbuun, 157 Majera, 258 Me’en, 354 Maji, 261 media, 23, 45, 79, 421, 424–433, 438, 449, 451, Maka, 257 455, 460, 469, 498, 556, 604, 631, 641, Makhwa, 158 644 Makonde, 100, 241 media science, 43 Makua, 125 mediative, 375 Malagasy, 6, 7, 8, 21, 131, 432, 464, 628 medio-passive, 285, 310, 331 Malawi, 56, 58, 83–86, 97, 212, 427, 430, 435, Medumba, 223, 224 558, 584, 585, 591, 628 Mefele, 258 Malay, 459, 464, 624 Mel, 180 malefactive, 225, 311, 312, 375 Melanau, 597 Malgwa, 258 Melanesia, 473 Mali, 20, 56, 161, 207, 221, 235, 253, 327, 328, Mende, 122, 577 425, 456, 518, 524, 577, 578, 581, 584, Merey, 258 585, 589, 610, 622 Meroitic, 19, 20, 79, 81, 251, 357, 577 Malta, 248, 262 Mesme, 259 Mamara, 202 Mesmes, 249 Mambay, 198 Mesopotamia, 19 Mambila, 203 Mesqan, 130, 318 Mandara, 258 metatypy, 160 Mandara Mountains, 472 method of resemblances, 174, 175, 177 Mande, 18, 19, 20, 39–41, 116, 125, 143, 176– methodology, 5, 10, 11, 15, 45, 117, 174, 175, 179, 183, 191, 192, 198–237, 245, 328, 177, 179, 488, 590, 596 330, 331, 518, 519. See also Proto-Mande metrolingualism, 503, 535, 536, 546–548, 554, Manding, 125, 222, 233 563 Mangas, 258 Mfumte, 193 Mangbetu, 167, 169, 343, 344, 348–350 middle (voice), 285, 302, 309, 310, 354, 373 Mangbetu-Asua, Mangbetu-Aswa, 344, 348, 350 Midob, 358, 359 Mangbutu, 348 Migama, 258 Mangbutu-Efe, 20, 344, 349, 350 migration, 16, 19, 37, 44, 247, 465, 484, 485, 537 Maninka, 125, 192, 328 Miltu, 258

Index 796

Mina, 189, 258 Multilingualism is the medium of instruction, minority language, 49, 84, 86, 92, 102, 419, 423, 597, 599 455, 487, 541, 560, 570, 602, 625 multilinguality, 593, 595 Mire, 258 multi-monolingualism, 23 mission, 13, 21, 29, 34, 35, 38, 46, 49, 52, 53, Mundang, 198, 231 64, 65, 67, 80, 82, 83, 87–89, 96, 99, 100, Mundat, 257 103–109, 114, 116–118, 130, 250, 335, Mungbam, 238 426, 432, 435, 436, 457, 460, 462, 582, Mupun, 257, 278, 279, 280 583, 585, 594, 595, 606–617, 622 Musey, 259 Miya, 257, 274 Musgu, 258 Moba, 517 Mushere, 257 modality, 153, 154, 376, 377, 453, 463, 466 Muskum, 258 modern language, 14, 605, 614 mutual intelligibility, 15, 16, 570, 594, 611, modernization, 537, 601 612 Modo-Baka, 20 Muyang, 258 Mofu, 258 Mwani, 100 Mogum, 258 Mzab, 253 Mokilko, 259 Moloko, 258 Nǃaqriaxe, 385, 388, 389, 392, 393 Mongo, 167 N’ko, 569 monogenesis hypothesis, 21 Nǀuǁ’en, 385 monolingualism, 24, 422, 483, 487, 589 Nǁng, 385, 387, 388, 401–407, 412, 413 Montol, 257 Naga, 249 mood, 55, 111, 121, 154, 212, 227, 228, 242, 267, Nagô-Ketu, 125, 126 289, 290, 292, 293, 304, 307, 330, 401, Nama, 108, 113, 385, 386, 397, 400, 401, 408, 402, 406, 410 410, 411, 449 Moore, 201, 224, 225 Nambya, 84 mora, 197, 230, 231, 412 name avoidance, 524–526, 528, 532 Moro, 194, 226 name taboo, 515, 525 Morocco, 15, 19, 60, 62, 64–67, 140, 248, 253, named language, 469, 476, 477, 481–483, 486 420, 423, 558, 584 Namibia, 53, 105, 110, 113, 178, 180, 217, 383, morphology, 27, 28, 61, 65, 66, 69, 79, 114, 121, 386, 411, 425, 447, 460, 461, 585, 589, 158, 160, 161, 170, 194, 196, 206, 212, 628 230, 237–239, 263, 275, 277, 281, 285, Namibian Khoekhoe, 386, 397, 398, 400, 401, 293, 304, 312, 317, 332, 344–346, 355, 408, 410, 411 361, 362, 367, 375, 382, 384, 396, 397, Nancere, 258 399–407, 460, 509, 520, 521, 523 Nande, 203, 226, 227 morphophonology, 57 Nandi, 365 morphosyntax, 57, 58, 295 Nara, 184, 298, 358–362, 365, 369–371, 373, 381 Moru, 184, 352, 353 Naro, 114, 126, 385, 388, 393 Moru-Ma’di, 20, 345, 349, 350, 353 narrative, 45, 69, 293, 376, 571 Moru-Mangbetu, 343 nasal harmony, 191, 204, 208, 211 mother tongue, 7, 23, 74, 101, 103, 104, 107, nasality, 197, 198, 200, 209, 211, 222, 391 436, 450, 480, 500, 585, 586, 588, 593, nasalization, 199, 210, 211, 347, 391, 519 619, 621, 638. See also education: mother Nata, 58 tongue national language, 13, 17, 56, 60, 71, 73, 74, 81, Mozambique, 41, 49, 53, 98–100, 125, 158, 201, 83, 85, 101, 156, 423, 456, 552, 567, 578, 212, 421–423, 426, 427, 435, 446, 457, 592, 602, 606, 613, 615, 616, 618 458, 558, 585 nationalism, 60, 63, 424, 430, 431, 439, 457, Mpiemo, 54 498, 614 Mpondo, 612 Native American language, 123 Mpre, 20 natural language, 6, 74, 618, 640, 642–644 Mubi, 258 Nawuri, 520 Muher, 301, 303, 304, 306, 311–325 Nayi, 315 Muktele, 258 Ndam, 198, 258 Mukulu, 259 Ndau, 84, 612 multicultural, 6, 71, 552 Ndebele, 81, 83, 84, 111, 431, 524, 548, 559, multiethnic, 6, 537, 543, 544, 545 611–615, 640 multilateral comparison, 18, 141 Ndogo-Sere, 169 multilingualism, 10, 22–24, 37, 39, 44, 55, 70, Ndonga, 53 86, 121, 130, 132, 150, 161, 190, 420, 429, Ndrulo, 346, 353 432, 451, 468, 470–473, 477, 478, 483–489, Ndut, 225 491, 511, 536–546, 554, 556, 560, 563, Near East, 19, 247 577–580, 590–599, 605, 612, 616. Nefusi, 253 See also education: multilingual negation, 185, 212, 217, 227, 230, 231, 236, 276, individual, 24 289, 292, 293, 296, 297, 300, 309, 330, sociocultural, 24 376, 400, 401, 405–407, 459, 463, 564 Multilingualism is the lingua franca of Africa, NeighbourNet graph, 162, 163 483, 597, 599 Nembe, 93

Index 797

neo-colonial, 580, 584, 598 Nubian, 20, 44, 61, 63, 80, 81, 143, 180, 184, Neogrammarian, 10, 36, 146, 162 298, 358–360, 363, 367, 370, 374, 375, Netherlands, 33, 34, 41, 42, 67, 509 377, 380. See also Kordofan Nubian New Zealand, 447, 448 Nuer, 80, 358, 362, 380 Ngamo, 257 numeracy, 589 Ngbaka, 169 numeral, 62, 152, 170, 171, 213, 220–223, 279, Ngbandi, 425 295, 318, 367, 405, 411, 414, 415, 459 Ngiti, 158, 184, 345, 347, 348, 350, 352–355, Numidian, 253 361, 363 Nupe, 88, 93, 196, 200, 242 Ngizim, 257 Nupoid, 196, 200, 201, 205, 214, 234, 242 Ngoni, 55 Nyakyusa, 212, 525, 528 Nguni, 112, 149, 202, 525, 526, 531, 573, 606, Nyala, 55 611, 612 Nyam, 257 Ngwaba, 258 Nyamwezi, 147, 206 Ngwe, 169 Nyang, 68 Niger, 56, 253, 254, 327, 328, 425, 427, 524, 558, Nyangiya, 327, 356 574, 584, 589, 596 Nyanja, 81, 83–85, 427, 546, 628 Niger River, 88, 172, 327 Nyaturu, 186, 202 Niger-Congo, 8, 17–20, 27, 36, 37, 42, 80, 125, Nyilamba, 186 141, 143, 145, 146, 150, 152, 155, 161, Nyimang, 359, 360, 361, 365, 376 168–265, 561 Nyoro, 129, 542 Nigeria, 6, 9, 19, 20, 24, 46, 49, 88, 89, 91–96, Nzadi, 192, 227, 237 117, 119, 127, 129, 131, 144, 150, 162, Nzanyi, 258 192, 194, 196, 199–201, 204, 207, 208, Nzebi, 630 210, 215, 220, 222, 226, 234–243, 248, Nzema, 561 249, 254, 327, 328, 419, 421, 425, 427, 428, 430, 436, 439, 444, 446, 451, 452, oblique, 323, 323, 403, 408, 409, 412–415 466, 472, 487, 518, 553, 558, 561, 577, Oblo, 20 578, 581, 582, 584, 586, 591, 592, 599, Obolo, 96 617, 627, 629, 631, 633 official bilingualism, 23 Nigerian Pidgin, 435, 436, 452, 453, 561 official language, 21, 23, 60, 71, 73, 79, 98, 102, Niger-Kordofanian, 8, 37, 142, 143, 148, 173, 326 104, 124, 132, 157, 420–423, 425, 431, Nilo-Saharan, 8, 17, 18, 20, 27, 37, 41, 52, 61, 80, 439, 445, 455–458, 460, 471, 472, 483, 81, 134, 142, 143, 144, 150, 155, 159–162, 487, 536, 541, 558, 567, 592, 602, 604, 169, 170, 173, 175–177, 179, 180, 183–189, 612, 615, 616, 624, 628, 630, 631, 634, 201, 205, 244, 248, 265, 297, 298, 304, 640, 643 326–331, 341, 344, 354, 356, 361–363, Ogbia, 203 365, 366, 368, 374, 375, 378–381 Ogbronuagum, 238 Nilotic, 20, 38, 54, 56, 118, 130, 143, 150, 151, Ogoni, 228 159, 160, 162, 163, 180, 184, 186, 337, Okollo, 345, 349 342, 354, 356, 358–367, 371–377, 380, Okpamheri, 202 524 Old Libyan, 253 Niokolo, 192 Old Nubian, 80, 81 Nizaa, 55 Old Persian, 21 Nobiin, 419 Oman, 423 nominative, 26, 279, 319, 320, 343, 368, Ometo, 261, 298, 307, 320, 321, 324 370–372, 375, 408 Omi, 345 Noni, 201, 203, 217, 223 Omo-Tana, 306 non-standard language, 17 Omotic, 18–20, 34, 39, 41, 42, 130, 140, 142, 151, Noon, 225, 235 153, 154, 183, 185, 188, 246, 249–252, 261, North America, 3, 9, 10, 15, 96, 97, 115–124, 264, 265, 268–270, 297–338, 357, 360 133, 445, 471, 472, 538, 579, 580, 591, Ongota, 19, 20, 144, 249, 251 594, 598 online deficit, 555, 557, 565, 573, 574 Northeast African Linguistic Area, 297–300 online surplus, 557, 574 Northeastern Nilo-Saharan, 327, 354–380 Opuo, 332 Northeastern Saharan, 357, 365, 371 oral literature, 25, 34, 40, 45, 56, 91 Norway, 53, 55, 56, 621 orality, 40, 564, 565, 607 Nostratic, 251 Oriental language, 12 Nouchi, 22, 436, 454, 455, 523, 532, 533, 546, 550 Oriental studies, 7, 25, 34, 47, 48, 51, 52, 247 noun class, 42, 121, 141, 146, 152, 159, 168, 175, Orientalist, 7, 25, 34–42, 63, 247, 248 176, 192, 194–196, 217–220, 224, 244, Orientalistik, 3, 12, 25 245, 277, 316, 509 Oromo, 39, 77, 153, 249, 250, 259, 299, 301, 302, Nova Scotia, 445 305, 310, 311, 314–324, 631 Nsibidi, 577 orthography, 14, 53, 69, 81, 84, 85, 95, 96, Ntandu, 539 100–106, 487, 488, 560, 562, 566, 569, Nuba Mountains, 80, 140, 141, 150, 155, 161, 573, 574, 585, 605, 606, 610–617, 622, 358, 365 624 Nubi, 22, 249 Oshiwambo, 461

Index 798

Osmania, 79, 569 Polish, 51, 52, 146, 626 OSV, 408 politeness, 429, 494 Otjiherero. See Herero political science, 15, 29, 43, 498 Ouargla, 253, 294 politics, 24, 43, 48, 117, 424, 446, 449, 458, 537, Ouldémé, 258 540, 544, 557, 565, 602, 609, 617 OV, 234, 235, 236 polyglossia, 17, 23, 24, 420, 470 polysemy, 27, 45, 154, 167, 172, 173, 186 Pa’a, 257 Portugal, 33–35, 43, 99–104, 443, 451, 458 Päkoot, 377 Portuguese, 6, 8, 21, 43, 82, 86, 98–105, palatalization, 272, 303, 305, 455 124–128, 420, 422, 433, 439–446, Palenquero, 125, 127 457, 458, 464, 585, 589, 592–597, Palor, 219 619, 620, 624 Papiamento, 125 possessive, 155, 213, 220–223, 243, 279, 280, paralexification, 515 286, 289, 299, 314, 318, 323, 323, 324, parent language, 16 335–337, 353, 367, 399, 403, 407, Päri, 57, 371 409–414, 462, 463 participation framework, 495, 496, 510 postcolonial, 6, 13, 14, 24, 29, 34, 37, 44, 46, 47, passive, 153, 161, 170, 194, 206, 207, 225, 268, 60, 106, 109, 111, 112, 114, 253, 420, 421, 285, 309, 373, 375, 400, 401, 406 424, 437, 439, 445, 446, 451, 455, 456, patient, 195, 282, 373, 375, 412, 414 458, 484, 491, 497, 533, 554, 579, 580, patois, 15, 17 589, 591, 594, 599 P-A-V, 343 post-literacy, 13, 14 pedagogy, 15, 74, 594, 599, 608 postposition, 171, 232, 233, 330, 331, 350, 363, Pedi, 110, 431, 612, 637, 640 370, 408, 409, 410, 414 perfective, 151, 152, 157, 211, 216, 228, 232, Potou-Akan, 180 239, 242, 267, 268, 286, 290–293, 299, pragmatics, 27–29, 45, 58, 491, 499 300, 305–309, 312, 350, 352, 377, 405, precolonial, 24, 34, 471, 472, 484, 498, 537, 538, 459 540, 554, 577, 578, 582, 590 Pero, 189, 257 precolonial history, 25, 62 Persia, 463 precolonial period, 14, 59, 67 Persian, 146, 171, 607, 631 predicate, 85, 268, 286, 295, 339, 376 Peru, 124 predicate focus, 244 pharyngeal, 202, 205, 264, 271, 272, 302, predication focus, 242, 244, 292, 293 393–396 preglottalized, 348, 390 philology, 15, 29, 37, 43, 77, 246, 247 prenasalized, 170, 199, 200, 211, 273, 347, 348, Phoenician, 250 392 phonetics, 25, 27, 28, 69, 77, 90–92, 113, 263, Principense, 102 331, 447. See also African language: proclitic. See clitic phonetics Proto-Afroasiatic, 252, 264, 265, 269, 270, 275, phonology, 27, 28, 42, 52, 55, 57, 58, 61, 65, 276, 280, 282, 284, 300, 309, 316 66, 69, 110, 113, 114, 146, 181, 182, 259, Proto-B’aga, 334 263, 331, 382, 384, 389, 395, 396, 520, Proto-Bantu, 9, 36, 42, 141, 146–149, 152, 157, 521, 526 175, 176, 192, 198, 203, 206, 211, 212, phonotactics, 388, 389 217, 224, 225, 237, 244 Pi, 346 Proto-Central Chadic, 259 Pichi, 452 Proto-Chadic, 259, 266, 268, 271, 275, 284, 287, pidgin, 7, 22, 121, 158, 166, 168, 249, 425, 435, 291, 297 436, 442, 444–454, 459–463, 545, 561, Proto-Cushitic, 301, 307, 320, 323 562, 564, 631. See also Pidgin English Proto-Edoid, 202 Pidgin English, 428, 444, 445, 451, 453, 454, 456 Proto-Ethiosemitic, 301 Pidgin French, 454 Proto-Gbaya, 208, 210 pidginization, 38, 160, 457 Proto-Human, 21 Pinterest, 556 Proto-Khoe, 178, 397 pitch accent, 151, 265, 270, 291, 303, 304, 362 Proto-Khoe-Kwadi, 177, 386, 397 Piya, 257 Proto-Koman, 334, 336, 337 Plateau, 37, 192, 198 Proto-Kru, 215 Platoid, 204, 205, 208 Proto-Kwa, 210 pluractional, 195, 227, 244, 266–268, 274, 275, proto-language, 17, 18, 68, 202, 218, 225, 248, 281–284, 291, 293, 309, 310, 355, 366, 267–269, 273, 384, 386, 387 373–375 Proto-Mande, 210, 215, 235, 327 plural agreement (verb), 282, 284, 285, 318 Proto-Niger-Congo, 191, 212, 220, 224, 225, 235 Podoko, 258 Proto-Omotic, 301, 307, 309 poetry, 25, 29, 36, 39, 82, 84, 103, 105, 495, Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu, 210 571, 642 Proto-Semitic, 305, 319, 322 Poland, 48 Proto-Songhay, 327, 328, 330, 331 polar tone, 270 Proto-Volta-Bantu, 202 polarity, 227, 242, 266, 290, 299, 317, 402 Proto-Western Nilotic, 359 Polchi, 258 punctual, 267, 310

Index 799

Punic, 19. See also Phoenician root, 111, 141, 146–152, 155, 159, 194, 195, Punu, 207, 630 205–208, 212, 218, 228, 259, 264–266, P-V-A, 343 268, 270, 275, 280, 281–283, 284, 287, Pyapun, 257 290, 293, 302, 304, 305, 310, 322, 336, 344–346, 352, 354, 355, 358, 360, 362, quantifier, 221, 317, 318, 411, 415 373, 378–380, 389–393, 396 quotation, 298, 510 root-and-pattern, 265, 268, 275, 280, 281, 304 quotative, 172, 295 Rrkpa, 346 Qur’an, 67, 581 Rub, 327, 356 Rundi, 132, 200, 241, 547, 548, 626, 631 racist, 7, 10, 142 Runyoro, 542. See also Nyoro Rajasthani, 8 Russia, 47, 48, 49, 140, 170, 251, 624, 626 Randuk, 549, 550 RuTooro. See Tooro Rangi, 186 Ruvu, 55 Rashad, 175 Rwanda, 46, 83, 146, 158, 423, 436, 544, 547, recipient, 225, 227, 311, 409, 413 553, 628 reciprocal, 170, 225, 268, 285, 289, 309, 310, 324, 373, 401 Saba, 259 reduplication, 86, 170, 243, 268, 278, 281–284, Sabaic, 250 293, 309, 310, 316, 317, 338, 401, 407, Saharan, 20, 41, 143, 159, 184, 254, 326, 327, 459, 464 331, 356–362, 369–380 reflexive, 170, 187, 188, 189, 268, 289, 309, 310, Saho, 74, 259, 299, 302, 306, 308, 309, 325 324, 353, 354, 401 Samba-Leko, 207 register, 477, 478, 514, 515, 516, 518, 520, 523, San, 105, 110, 383, 384, 449, 578 528, 529, 531, 532, 541, 544, 546, 605, Sandawe, 20, 143, 176–179, 186, 382, 384, 385, 617 388, 396 avoidance, 513–515, 524–528, 533 Sango, 22, 54, 118, 203, 210, 425, 455 honorific, 521 Sanskrit, 156 initiation, 514, 515, 518, 529, 533 Santome, 102 legislative, 433 São Tomé, 457 lexical, 513–515, 519, 524, 532, 533 São Tomé e Príncipe, 98 religious, 435, 466 Sara, 20, 208, 344, 346–350, 358 ritual, 519, 532 Saramaccan, 466 ritual and spirit, 435, 514 Sarawak, 597. See also Bahasa Sarawak royal, 514, 521, 522, 529, 533 Sarwa, 258 secret, 519 Sasi, 385 special, 466, 513–516, 518, 520, 523, 529, S-Aux-OV, 232–236, 244 530–534 S-Aux-OV(X), 231, 234, 235 tonal, 151, 349, 361 S-Aux-OVX, 191, 231, 233, 234, 236 urban, 535 S-Aux-VO, 234, 236, 330, 331 urban youth, 513–515, 523, 524, 527, S-Aux-VOX, 236 531–533 Saya, 258 Relational Grammar, 113 script, 19, 76, 77, 79, 82, 247, 249, 250, 262, 301, relational noun, 223, 321 426, 464, 569, 570, 574, 577, 580–583, relative clause, 55, 233, 279, 299, 356, 402, 404, 610, 613 406, 411–415 Sechellois, 22 relexification, 122, 466, 513, 515 secret language, 127, 515–519 religion, 24, 36, 60, 61, 66, 127, 247, 424, 435, secret societies, 435, 513, 514, 516, 518, 519, 521 440, 453, 466, 520, 609 semantic case, 321 Rendille, 284, 300, 306, 322 semantic change, 45, 152, 153, 549 repetitive, 291, 293, 310, 405 semantics, 27, 28, 45, 69, 244, 304, 314, 315 replication, 158, 186, 267, 268, 283, 327 Semitic, 19, 20, 21, 51–53, 129, 130, 140, 142, Rer Bare, 144, 249 148, 149, 153, 166, 183, 185, 188, 246–250, ‘residual’ African language, 12 252, 262–271, 284, 292, 298, 299, 301, retention, 371, 459 304, 305, 341, 425, 581 Reunion, 465 Sena, 85, 99, 100, 212 Rharhabe, 611, 612 Senadi, 203 rhizotic model, 139, 162 Senegal, 20, 67, 70, 91, 94, 189, 191, 210, 226, 421, Rhodesia, 83, 84, 612 425, 432, 455–457, 472, 490, 508, 542, Riffian, 253, 283. See also Tarifiyt 546, 556, 560, 565–567, 574, 578, 596 Rift Valley, 182, 184, 248, 580, 581 Senni, 328 Ring, 193 Senufo, 135, 201, 202, 208, 234 ritual language, 519, 520 Sepedi, 611. See Pedi Roman (script). See Latin Sephuthi, 560 Romance, 5, 35, 45, 47, 153, 156, 253 Sepitori, 22 Romanian, 153 sequence, 170, 195, 196, 199, 207, 208, 210, 213, Ron, 257 230, 264, 265, 274, 275, 280, 281, 293, Ronga, 99 302, 304, 360, 377, 505, 526

Index 800

Sereer, Seereer, 201, 212, 225, 226 Soo, 363 serial verb construction, 236–238 Sotho, 57, 108, 110–112, 113, 132, 202, 431, 449, serial verbs, 192, 227, 235–237, 244, 415, 463, 466 525, 528, 558, 559, 611, 612, 626–628, Sesotho. See Sotho 631, 632, 636, 640, 642 Setswana. See Tswana South Africa, 7, 19–23, 49, 105, 106, 108–110, Sezo, 298, 310, 317, 320, 325 112, 168, 177, 184, 191, 203, 383, 386, Sha, 257 420, 425, 430, 431, 435, 445–449, 458, Shabo, 20, 144, 249 460, 462–465, 496, 516, 523, 546, 553, Shangaan, 457 556, 558–560, 565, 566, 574, 581, 585– Shangaci, 153 593, 596, 597, 601–603, 608–613, 616, Sharwa, 258 617, 619, 621, 626–643 She, 261 South Korea, 128, 134, 621 Shekgalagari, 198, 199, 202 South Sudan, 22, 78, 80, 249, 332, 343–345, 424, Sheko, 154, 300, 314, 315, 317, 318, 325 558, 578 Sheng, 22, 437, 438, 523, 540, 544, 546, 550– southern epistemologies, 580, 599 553, 560, 568, 569, 627 Southern Theory, 579, 580 Shilha, 58. See also Tashelhiyt SOV, 182, 233, 269, 298, 320, 408, 410 Shilluk, 80, 358, 521 Soviet Union, 48. See also Russia Shinasha, 307 SOVX, 27, 171, 185 Shona, 81, 83–86, 129, 132, 169, 200, 548, 549, Spain, 33, 34, 35, 43, 99 611, 612, 614, 615, 626, 628, 629 Spanish, 8, 21, 65, 98, 105, 124–128, 140, 458, Shua, 57, 385, 386, 399, 408, 409 593, 594, 596, 597, 614, 624, 626 Shuwa Arabic, 249 speaker communities, 16, 24, 27 sibilant harmony, 301 specificity, 286, 318 Sibine, 258 speech community, 11, 152, 156, 162, 447, 452, Sidaama, 130, 249, 259, 309, 311, 525, 527 476, 480, 482, 483, 484, 493, 494, 495, Sidaamu, 55 497, 498, 643 Sidama Afoo, 55 speech event, 495, 496, 504, 507, 512 Sierra Leone, 87, 88, 93, 94, 141, 144, 180, 235, spirantisation, 271 445, 452, 518 spirit possession, 513, 519, 520 sign language, 7, 12, 77, 78, 131, 166 sprachbund, 5, 19, 27, 161, 181, 184–187, 269. Silt’e, 299, 300, 309 See also contact zone; convergence area; similative, 412 linguistic area singulative, 266, 277, 365, 366, 374, 375, 381 standard language, 17, 386, 487, 604, 611–613 Sinitic, 187 standardization, 24, 37, 38, 44, 77–79, 84, 100, Sinyar, 144, 344 102, 253, 487, 548, 572, 605, 611, 614, Siri, 257 618 SiSwati. See Swati stative, 170, 225, 229, 268, 279, 286, 287, 308, Siwi, 253, 419 310, 375, 402, 451, 452, 466 Siwu, 509, 511 stem, 151, 152, 193–199, 208, 240, 268, 286, slave trade, 124, 125, 141, 443, 471 297, 302, 305, 309, 310, 312, 316, 317, slavery, 34, 124, 126, 443 354, 359, 362, 366, 389, 402, 409 SMS, 556 aspect, 277, 281, 282, 291 social media, 492, 536, 553, 565–568, 605, 622 doubled, 305 social practice, 482, 514, 531, 533, 541 lengthened, 305 social science, 38, 429, 430, 640, 644 nominal, 307 sociocultural multilingualism, 23 noun, 152 sociolect, 16 pluractional, 284 sociolinguistics, 11, 15, 16, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29, plural agreement, 282, 284, 285 36, 38, 39, 44, 54, 55, 61, 67, 69, 72, 77, 79, prosodic, 191, 196–198 81, 91, 104, 113, 121, 129, 130, 164, 165, suppletive, 284 386, 420, 469–471, 477, 482, 485, 486, verb, 157, 194, 211, 231, 267, 268, 282, 284, 491, 492, 494, 497, 513, 514, 524, 529, 285, 290–294, 338, 531–536, 540–543, 546, 551, 553, 554, 339, 374, 378, 379, 380, 400 574, 615 verbal, 373, 380 sociology, 15, 29, 37, 43, 498, 505, 644 stress, 151, 158, 265, 270, 303, 637 Sokoro, 259 structural approach, 112 Somali, 39, 54, 73, 74, 79, 129, 131, 249, 250, structuralism, 47, 112 259, 300, 302, 303, 306–310, 313, 314, Suba, 86, 131 316–323, 325, 430, 570, 584, 628, 629, Subiya, 55 631, 639 sub-standard language, 17 Somalia, 42, 74, 79, 182, 185, 259, 297, 419, 420, substrate, 121, 168, 450, 452, 453, 456, 462–464, 423, 426, 430, 446, 584 466 Somaliland, 74 Sudan, 20, 38, 55, 56, 78, 79, 80, 81, 140, 141, Somrai, 258 144, 150, 161, 185, 194, 226, 259, 261, Songhai, Songhay, 20, 22, 44, 52, 143, 161, 176, 326, 328, 332, 335, 358, 359, 365, 423, 177, 183, 189, 212, 214, 215, 234, 248, 424, 425, 429, 430, 520, 549, 570, 577, 284, 326, 327, 328, 331, 367, 456 581, 584

Index 801

Sudanic, 18, 34, 36, 179, 185 Tanzania, 20, 41, 49, 54, 55, 57, 58, 82–86, 114, Sudanic Belt, 182, 185, 201, 205, 210 129, 130, 144, 157, 158, 177, 182, 186, Sukuma, 494 212, 241, 248, 259, 423, 424, 426, 427, Sukur, 258 429, 439, 450, 496, 497, 501, 502, 504, Sumerian, 249 511, 524, 525, 547, 556, 558, 567, 578, Sungor, 358 584, 589, 591, 608, 609, 615, 618, 628 superdiversity, 11, 23, 29, 484, 536, 543–545, Taqbaylit, 58 554 Tarifiyt, 253, 278, 296 superstrate, 442, 449, 453, 459, 460, 463, 466 Tarok, 203, 553 suppletion, 161, 404–407, 414 Tasawaq, 328 Supyire, 153 Tashelhit, Tashelhiyt, 58, 62, 253, 267, 274, 276, Sura, 257, 278 286, 287, 296 Surinam, 466, 520 teaching and learning, 3, 587, 589, 590, 629 Surma, 184 teaching materials, 53, 59, 100, 102, 105, Surmic, 143, 155, 160, 359, 360, 363, 369, 371, 131–133, 588 374, 380 Tebu, 61 SVO, 58, 182, 183, 231–234, 269, 287, 293, 298, technauriture, 619 350, 352, 408, 412–415, 462 Teda, Tedaga, 61, 358 SVOV, 235 Tegali, 141 Swahili, 6, 34, 38, 43, 45, 48, 51, 52, 54–58, Teke, 210, 539 81–86, 114, 118, 119, 128–131, 133, 140, Telugu, 8, 464 141, 146, 147, 152, 157–160, 170, 212, 222, Temainian, 327 420–439, 450, 451, 465, 494, 498, 500, Tembo, 129 502, 504, 506, 508–511, 523, 541–543, Temein, 381 547, 548, 552, 556, 558, 560, 567, 568, Temeinian, 372, 381 578, 584, 589, 595, 601, 607–610, Temne, 88, 218 615–640 template, 158, 159, 188, 230, 265, 280, 304–309, Swati, 431, 559, 612, 626, 640. See also Swazi 331, 362, 375, 389, 393, 396, 461, 462, Swazi, 111 582 Swaziland, 15, 105, 585 Tennet, 371 Sweden, 54 tense, 55, 111, 121, 153, 154, 159, 171, 186, Swedish, 54 212, 213, 216, 217, 226–233, 238–241, switch-reference, 299 267, 287, 289, 292, 308, 339, 352, 362, Syenara, 456 374, 400–402, 406, 410, 453, 458, 459, syllable, 58, 191, 192, 197, 211, 237, 244, 264, 463, 466 265, 270–275, 304, 347, 349, 360, 450, Tera, 258 455, 456, 523, 526, 528, 532 terminology, 71, 74, 111, 382, 519, 562, 593, syllable structure, 192, 271, 455 605, 612, 614–618, 628 syncretic language, 161, 164 terminology development, 610, 617 syncretism, 157, 161, 319 territorial multilingualism, 23 syntactic agreement, 312, 313 Tese, 381 syntax, 27, 28, 52, 61, 65, 69, 79, 86, 112, 121, Teshena, 257 126, 128, 171, 183, 184, 217, 231, 263, Teso-Turkana, 163, 356, 361 269, 295, 367, 375, 378, 382, 384, 397, Tete, 99 408, 415, 446, 454, 460, 462, 466, 521, Teuso, 356 595, 642 Thai, 187 theoretical linguistics, 10, 12, 26–28, 67, 77, 96, T’apo, 332, 334, 335, 336–339, 340, 341, 342 97. See African linguistics Taa, 168, 184, 387, 388, 393, 395, 401–403, 407, Tibet, 522 412, 413 Tiene, 197, 198, 199 Taa-Lower Nossob, 387, 402, 405, 407, 412, 413 tifinagh, 19, 253, 426, 569, 577 Tachelhiyt. See Tashelhiyt Tigre, 129, 132, 298, 303, 315, 318, 319, Tadaksahak, 161, 328 581 Tagdal, 328 Tigrinya, 77, 249, 298, 299, 303, 304, 316, 318, Tagle, 358, 367 319, 581, 631 Taglennaa, 377 Tima, 150, 155, 474 Tal, 257 Timbuktu Manuscripts, 610 Talodi, 175 Tiv, 39, 93 Tama, 143, 180, 358–360, 365, 376, 381 Tobanga, 258 Tamachek, 456 Togo, 49, 70, 180, 215, 242, 243, 425, 517, 558, Tamazight, 7, 19, 189, 253. See also Amazigh; 624, 631 Berber Tommo So, 207, 221, 222 Tambas, 257 tonal feature, 213, 215 Tamil, 8, 464, 607 tonal inflection, 170, 371 Tamki, 259 tonal melodies, 197, 637 Tampulma, 203 tonal pattern, 199, 243, 455 Tangale, 257, 271 tonality, 265 Tanganyika, 427, 436, 608, 609 Tondi Songway Kiini, 328

Index 802

tone, 58, 212–217, 220, 231, 237, 239, 244, 265, Turkana, 354 267, 270, 271, 273, 278, 281, 289–291, Turkey, 160 295, 303, 304, 313, 317, 320, 334, 336, Turkish, 63, 155 349, 350, 361, 362, 383, 466 Turku, 249 tone copy, 270 turn-taking, 497, 505, 508, 511 tone language, 169, 265, 270, 328 Tuu, 20, 199, 244, 382, 384, 386–388, 397, tone reversal, 270 401–408, 412, 415 tone system, 26, 58, 212, 265, 270, 349 Twa, 578 tone-bearing unit, 212, 361 Tʼwampa, 332 toneless, 231, 270 Twi, 89, 466, 504, 520, 558, 561, 562, 626 Tonga, 83, 85 Twitter, 556, 564–568 Tongwe, 129 typology, 11, 28, 37, 40, 43, 56, 58, 133, 142, tonogenesis, 265, 270 165, 182, 237, 243, 246, 388 tonology, 34, 42, 47, 113, 114 Tooro, 129, 345, 542 Ubangi, 19, 20, 143, 167, 176, 177, 194, 204, 205, topic, 286, 320, 368, 380 207, 208, 212, 231, 242, 344, 350, 351 topicalization, 296 Ubi, 259 Toram, 258 Uduk, 58, 332–343 Totela, 228, 229 Uganda, 22, 82–84, 129, 131, 144, 158, 160, Toura, 216 195, 230, 249, 343, 346, 349, 421–425, tourism, 428 427, 430, 431, 465, 499, 524, 542, 544, Town Bemba. See Bemba 552, 553, 558, 574, 578, 586, 592, 595, trade, 22, 82, 124, 254, 443, 463, 465, 547, 590, 618, 628 591, 606, 610, 622, 624 UK. See United Kingdom trade language, 150, 425 Ukhwejo, 55 trader, 82, 436, 462, 464, 547, 578, 606, 607, 610 Umbundu, 101, 125, 126, 210 transcription, 205, 293, 487, 491, 583 umlaut, 275 transition, 71, 111, 112, 114, 151, 156, 165, 210, Uncu, 370 435, 505, 516, 533, 584, 586, 587 underdevelopment, 28, 46 transitive, 206, 223, 235, 237, 267, 311, 330, unidirectional, 153, 154, 164 336, 369, 370, 372, 374, 375, 400–402, United Kingdom, 33, 34, 37, 449, 558, 565 406, 407, 412, 413 United States, United States of America, 5, 42, transitivity, 217, 415 67, 70, 71, 78, 90, 93, 96, 104, 115, 116, translanguaging, 29, 478, 503, 535, 538, 563, 118, 124, 445, 531, 558, 565, 569, 591, 564, 593, 597, 598 599, 621 translation, 34, 63, 67, 74, 85, 117, 132, 427, universals, 133, 452, 453, 509 466, 519, 551, 566, 592–594, 605, 608, upstep, 361 615, 618, 619, 622, 627, 628, 633, 638, urban language, 164, 523, 535–549, 554, 596, 598 639, 640, 642, 644. See also African urbanity, 537, 545, 546, 552 language: translation; Bible: translation; urbanization, 29, 425, 436–438, 528, 535–542, machine translation 548, 554 transnumeral, 312–315, 318, 366 Urdu, 464 traveller, 48, 52, 80, 250 Urheimat, 8, 19, 252 trilingual, 422, 449, 585–587 Uruguay, 124 triliteralism, 265 Urundi, 547 Trinidad, 466, 520 US, USA. See United States of America Ts’ao, 385 Ts’ixa, 385, 386, 388, 389, 392, 397–400, Vai, 569, 577 408–410 valency, 238, 331, 373, 375, 377, 401, 415 Tsagu, 257 Vame, 258 Tshivenda. See Venda Vandalic, 21 Tshwa, 385, 408 V-A-P, 343 Tsi’xa, 400 vehicular language, 35, 40, 44, 47, 426, 595 Tsonga, 431, 457, 559, 616, 626, 640 Vemgo, 258 Tsotsitaal, 22, 503, 523, 531, 546, 550, 552–554 Venda, 431, 519, 559, 640, 642 Tsua, 385 Venezuela, 124, 127 Tsuvan, 258 venitive, 170, 186 Tswana, 114, 132, 186, 202, 399, 431, 559, 611, ventive, 170, 225, 286, 339, 374 612, 632, 640, 642 verb extension, 85, 121, 152, 192, 194, 224–227, Tuareg, 19, 56, 161, 248, 250, 253, 254, 266, 270, 238, 244, 286 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 279, 281, 284, verbal art, 40, 45, 573 285, 295, 328, 515, 524 vernacular, 13, 15, 17, 74, 78, 83, 84, 110, 121, Tumak, 258, 274 128, 131, 132, 431, 436, 437, 449, 487, Tumale, Tumali, 141, 145 503, 540, 545, 548, 557, 560, 570– 572, Tumbuka, 81, 84, 85, 212 574, 593, 606, 608, 613, 614, 626 Tumtum, 326 Vidunda, 54 Tunen, 231 Vietnamese, 187 Tunisia, 60, 62, 64, 66, 67, 253, 423, 430, 558 vocalogenesis, 264

Index 803

vocoid, 264, 273, 303 Xitsonga. See Tsonga voicing, 192, 193, 199, 201, 202, 211, 222, 283, Yabacrâne, 552 302, 349, 360, 390, 391 Yaka, 211 Volta-Congo, 19 Yanké, 552, 553 Voltaic, 183 Yao, 56, 85, 201, 211 VO-NEG, 185 Yarada K’wank’wa, 549, 550 vowel harmony, 26, 42, 57, 118, 150, 170, 185, Yaso, 332, 334 191, 204–207, 271, 344, 345, 347, 357, Yemba, 193, 228, 229 455 Yemsa, 261, 319, 323, 325, 521 vowel inventories, 182, 191, 199, 203, 264, 334, 344 Yeyi, 168 vowel length, 203, 274, 300, 320, 328, 358, 445, Yoruba, 39, 88, 93, 95, 125–127, 130, 131, 189, 450 196, 201, 203, 206, 243, 425, 435, 466, vowel system, 146, 147, 170, 186, 203, 206, 208, 487, 494, 520, 558, 584, 586, 620, 626, 259, 264, 274, 328, 334, 344–346, 358, 628, 629, 631, 637, 639, 640 359, 389, 450 youth language, 166, 436–438, 454, 455, 457, vowelless, 264, 265, 349 523, 524, 533, 535, 536, 540, 545–554 V-S, 343 YouTube, 556 VSO, 58, 182, 184, 269, 287, 293, 296, 298 Yulu, 349, 350

Wabuti, 577 Zaire, 49. See also Democratic Republic of the Wandala, 258, 274, 287 Congo Wapan, 521 Zambia, 49, 83, 86, 228, 421, 425, 427, 436, 447, Warji, 257 464, 497, 538, 546, 585 weak radical, 264, 271 Zande, 167, 207, 212, 350, 518 Wes Cos, 22 Zanzibar, 82, 84, 130, 157, 427, 622 West African Pidgin, 442, 444, 451, 453, 454, Zaramo, 55 556, 560, 561 Zargulla, 313, 316, 322 West Indies, 457 Zari, 258 Western Sahara, 581 Zarma, 328 Western Sahel belt, 189 Zay, 299, 300, 303, 310, 315 WhatsApp, 553, 556, 561, 564 Zayse, 304, 313, 316, 322 Widala, 257 Zeem, 258 Wikipedia, 5, 556, 559, 571–573, 626 Zenaga, 253, 276 Wolaitta, 130, 249, 304, 307, 310, 313–315, 318, Zenata, 253 320–322 Zezuru, 83, 612 Wolane, 299, 304, 309, 315, 316, 318 Zimbabwe, 83, 84, 421, 425, 427, 430, 435, 436, Wolof, 118, 125, 132, 202, 212, 219, 225, 425, 447, 524, 538, 548–552, 584, 585, 595, 432, 455, 456, 475, 487, 494–496, 502, 602, 606, 611–616, 628 503, 508, 511, 546, 548, 560, 566, 570, Zimdancehall, 552 595, 626, 636, 640 Zime, 259 word order, 27, 58, 171, 181–185, 191, 192, 220, Zina, 258 221, 231–240, 287, 296, 298, 320, 332, Zirenkel, 258 343, 352, 408, 409, 410, 413, 415. See also Zizilivakan, 258 constitutent order Zulgo, 258 working language, 424, 425, 602, 604, 631 Zulu, 43, 107, 110–113, 130, 131, 133, 149, 157, 168, 203, 425, 431, 435, 442, 449, 452, Xhosa, 55, 108, 110, 113, 168, 431, 462, 465, 462, 463, 465, 503, 525–528, 558, 559, 503, 514, 516, 517, 525–528, 556, 558, 611, 612, 617, 620, 626–628, 629, 632, 559, 560, 572, 573, 606, 610–617, 626, 636, 637, 640, 642 628, 629, 636, 637, 640, 642 Zumaya, 259