A A

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL

Fig. A1 A is for aardvark (Orycteropus afer ).

Dictionary of Biology and Management: A guide to terminology used in zoo biology, animal welfare, and livestock production, First Edition. Paul A. Rees. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

1 2 A

A See ADENINE (A) Causes loss of appetite, poor growth and, in extreme A aardvark ( Orycteropus afer ) Traditionally the animal cases, death from bleeding. that represents the letter A in the alphabet. It is the abomasum In RUMINANTS , the fourth (and last) only extant member of the mammalian family stomach. It is a ‘ secretory stomach’ the lining of Orycteropodidae. Adults are the size of a small pig, which produces hydrochloric acid and PROTEO- with little body hair (Fig. A1 ). The aardvark is NOC- LYTIC ENZYMES , and is therefore equivalent to the TURNAL and lives in underground burrows. It pos- stomach of other mammals. sesses large ears, a long snout and a long thin tongue aboral Located on the side of the body opposite which it uses for collecting insects. Its limbs are the mouth, especially in relation to ECHINODERM specialised for digging (see also FOSSORIAL ). Aard- anatomy. Compare ORAL varks occur in Africa south of the Sahara. abortion, miscarriage The natural or intentional ter- AAZK See AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF Z OO K EEP- mination of a pregnancy by the removal or expul- ERS (AAZK) . See also KEEPER ASSOCIATION sion of the EMBRYO or FOETUS . Spontaneous AAZPA American Association of Zoological Parks abortion (miscarriage) may result from a problem and Aquariums, now the ASSOCIATION OF that arises during the development of the embryo AND A QUARIUMS (AZA) . See also ZOO or foetus (e.g. infection, UMBILICAL CORD ORGANISATION TORSION , congenital defects) or abortion may be Abandonment of Act 1960 An Act in Britain induced by a veterinary surgeon, e.g. to preserve the that made it a criminal offence to abandon an health of the pregnant female. animal, or permit it to be abandoned, in circum- abrasion stances likely to cause the animal any unnecessary 1. A scraped area of the skin or a MUCOUS MEM- SUFFERING . The Act was repealed and effectively BRANE which has been caused by an injury or replaced in England and Wales by the ANIMAL irritation. WELFARE ACT 2006 and in Scotland by the Animal 2. Pathological wearing away of the teeth by Health and Welfare (Scotland) Act 2006. grinding. ABC species The species that visitors expect to see in abscess A swollen, infl amed area of the body contain- a traditional zoo that are often used to illustrate ing a collection of PUS formed by the disintegration letters of the alphabet, e.g. AARDVARK , bear, of tissue. May be caused by the presence of disease camel, deer, elephant, ZEBRA etc. See also AMBAS- (e.g. bacteria, parasites) or a foreign object (e.g. a SADOR SPECIES bullet wound, wood splinter). Depending upon the abdomen cause and condition, may be treated with antibiotics 1. The part of the body between the thorax and the and may need to be surgically drained. pelvis in vertebrates, bounded by the diaphragm absorption in mammals but not other classes. It contains the 1. The uptake by cells of water by (OSMOSIS ) and/or viscera (e.g. most of the organs of the digestive solutes (e.g. by DIFFUSION or ACTIVE TRANSPORT ). system, kidneys etc.). 2. In the digestive system, the passage of water and 2. The part of the trunk of the body which is pos- solutes through the gut wall into the blood system. terior to the thorax in arthropods. ABWAK See A SSOCIATION OF BRITISH AND abdominal skinfold A method of measuring OBESITY IRISH WILD ANIMAL KEEPERS (ABWAK). See by assessing the amount of excess fat under the also KEEPER ASSOCIATION skin around the ABDOMEN (1) . The method has abyssal Relating to the depths of the oceans. The been used in chimpanzees. See also BODY CONDI- abyssal zone is located between approximately 2000 TION SCORE, BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) and 6000 m below the surface of the sea, and is in abductor muscle A muscle that moves a limb or other perpetual darkness, cold and nutrient poor. structure away from the centre line (midline) of the academic journal A periodical publication in which body . Compare ADDUCTOR MUSCLE (1) original scientifi c and other academic work is pub- abiotic Without life. lished after a process of PEER REVIEW (Table A1 ). abiotic environment See PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT See also ACADEMIC PAPER abiotic stress Stress caused by non- biological factors academic paper A paper (article) published in an in the environment, e.g. heat and cold. ACADEMIC JOURNAL , which describes the results abnormal behaviour A general term for behaviour of an original scientifi c study, discusses a scientifi c which is not part of the usual (normal) repertoire of problem, reviews research published on a particular a species, especially that which is exhibited in the subject, or is an account of some other academic wild. May occur as a result of a pathological condi- endeavour. tion, including ANXIETY and STRESS , and is some- acariasis A skin condition caused by mites and ticks. times observed in captive animals. See also APATHY , acaricide, acaridicide A substance which kills mites STEREOTYPIC BEHAVIOUR and ticks. abomasal ulcer An ulcer in the ABOMASUM . A accelerometer An electronic device that detects common disease in cattle, especially milk- fed calves. movements by measuring acceleration. A tri - axial Table A1 Selected academic journals which publish original scientifi c studies of interest in zoo biology and animal management.

Acta Primatologica Journal of Environmental Education Acta Zoologica Journal of Equine Veterinary Science A African Journal of Ecology Journal of Experimental Psychology American Journal of Primatology Journal of Experimental American Naturalist Journal of Field Ornithology Animal Journal of Herpetology Animal Behaviour Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy Animal Conservation Journal of Mammalogy Animal Genetics Journal of Medical Primatology Animal Production Science Journal of Parasitology Animal Welfare Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Anthrozoö s Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society Applied Animal Behaviour Science Journal of Theoretical Biology Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems Journal of Tourism Studies Auk Journal of Veterinary Behavior Avian Diseases Journal of Veterinary Epidemiology Behaviour Journal of Veterinary Science and Conservation Journal of Wildlife Diseases Biological Conservation Journal of Wildlife Management BioScience Journal of Wildlife Rehabilitation Bird Study Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research British Poultry Science Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine Canadian Journal of Animal Science Journal of Zoology Canadian Journal of Zoology Laboratory Animal Science Companion Animal Laboratory Primate Newsletter Consciousness and Cognition Leisure Studies Conservation Mammal Review Molecular Ecology Conservation Genetics Museum Studies Conservation Letters Nature Copeia Oryx – The International Journal of Conservation Current Trends in Audience Research Parks and Recreation Ecology and Evolution PLOS Biology Environment and Behavior Primate Report Equine Veterinary Journal Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology Ethology Restoration Ecology Fisheries Research Science Folia Primatologica Scientifi c American Folia Zoologica Sexuality, Reproduction and Menopause Frontiers in Zoology Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Herpetological Journal Society and Animals Journal Human Dimensions of Wildlife South African Journal of Wildlife Research Ibis The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature Insect Conservation and Diversity The Veterinary Journal International Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture Trends in Ecology and Evolution International Journal of Livestock Production Trends in Neurosciences International Journal of Primatology Tropical Animal Health and Production International Journal of Zoonoses Veterinary Ophthalmology International Zoo Educators Journal Veterinary Pathology International Zoo Yearbook Veterinary Quarterly Journal of Agricultural Science Veterinary Record Journal of Animal Ecology Visitor Behavior Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition Visitor Studies Journal of Animal Production Wildlife Society Bulletin Journal of Animal Science Zoo Biology Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science Zoologica Journal of Aquatic Animal Health Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society Journal of Biological Macromolecules Zoonoses and Public Health Journal of Comparative Psychology Zoos ’ Print Journal Journal of Dairy Science 4 acceptable daily intake

accelerometer can detect movement in three dimen- acoustic tag A small electronic device that emits radio A sions. May be used to detect movements of animals signals whose presence is detected by listening sta- and sometimes built into a collar incorporating a tions. These tags may be attached to aquatic animals DATA LOGGER or wireless transmitter. Accelerom- (e.g. manta rays, sharks) and used to record their eters have been used to study swimming behaviour movements. in sharks, walking in zoo elephants, ‘ fl ying ’ behav- acoustic - lateralis system, lateral line system A iour in colugos (D ERMOPTERA : fl ying lemurs), system for sensing the external environment in fi sh and movements of cattle on farms. and some amphibians which consists of the INNER acceptable daily intake The daily amount of a sub- EAR region (which responds to sound and gravity) stance (e.g. a nutrient, vitamin, food additive or and lateral line organs in the skin (which respond pollutant) that an animal may safely consume to changes in water pressure and displacement). throughout its life. acrosome A LYSOSOME in a sperm that contains accidental An animal which occurs in a particular enzymes capable of digesting a path through location by accident. Often applied to birds blown the covering of an egg during the process of off course so that they appear in an area which is FERTILISATION . outside their normal range. Act of Congress A statute enacted by the Congress of acclimation See ACCLIMATISATION the United States of America (or other legislature acclimatisation, acclimation A reversible adjustment called a congress), e.g. ASIAN ELEPHANT C ON- made by an organism to the local environmental SERVATION A CT OF 1997 (USA) , W ILD B IRD conditions. Usually occurs in nature in response CONSERVATION A CT OF 1992 (USA) . to seasonal climate changes. Also occurs in fi sh Act of Parliament Primary legislation of the UK and when introduced to a new tank. See also NEW TANK some other jurisdictions with a legislature called a SYNDROME parliament (especially countries within the Com- accredited herd In the UK, a herd of animals that has monwealth). Many Acts are concerned with the been registered as being free from certain diseases, e.g. welfare or conservation of animals, e.g. the A NIMAL BRUCELLOSIS , Johne’ s disease, LEPTOSPIROSIS . WELFARE ACT 2006 (England and Wales), Z OO accredited vet See APPROVED VET LICENSING A CT 1981 (Great Britain), H EALTH accredited zoo A ZOO which is accredited by a zoo OF A NIMALS A CT 1990 (C ANADA ) . organisation, e.g. AZA- accredited zoo. Accreditation ACTH See ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE is conditional upon the zoo conforming to a number (ACTH) of standards in relation to, for example, ANIMAL actin See MUSCLE WELFARE , ENCLOSURE DESIGN , provision of actinomycosis This disease occurs mainly in cattle ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT etc. and is one of several conditions known as ‘ LUMPY acetylcholine (ACh) A NEUROTRANSMITTER which JAW ’ . It is caused by an anaerobic bacterium, Actino- creates an ACTION POTENTIAL across the mem- myces bovis , which probably only becomes patho- brane of a neurone, thereby propagating a nerve genic by invading tissues through a wound. It impulse. commonly occurs when the permanent cheek acid A chemical which produces hydrogen ions teeth are erupting. Typically, lesions occur on the when dissolved in water. Acid solutions have a pH cheeks, pharynx and the jaws. Swelling in bone and below 7.0. other tissue may cause interference with mastica- acidity The relative concentration of hydrogen ions in tion, swallowing or breathing depending on the a solution. Acid solutions have a high concentration location of the lesion. Antibiotics are rarely an effec- of hydrogen ions and a pH of less than 7.0. tive treatment. Other Actinomyces species can cause acidosis A condition in which there is a high propor- infections in dogs, pigs, sheep, horses, reptiles and tion of acid waste such as urea in the blood. This humans. may be the result of a number of conditions, for A subclass of bony fi shes: ray- fi nned example DIABETES MELLITUS , kidney disease, fi shes. respiratory acidosis (caused by HYPOVENTILA- action potential The condition in which the inside of TION ), or lactic acidosis (when oxygen levels in the an AXON is positively charged and the outside is blood fall). negatively charged which occurs when the nerve Acipenseriformes An order of fi shes: sturgeons and membrane is depolarised. This is the reverse of the their allies. situation when the axon is exhibiting the RESTING acoelomate Possessing no body cavity. Compare POTENTIAL (i.e. the electrical polarity is reversed). COELOMATE A nerve impulse is the result of the movement of acoustic signalling The use of sound as a method of this depolarised area along the axon. A similar communication in animals. Sound allows animals to process occurs in muscle cells when excited. produce a great variety of signals by varying fre- activated charcoal A highly porous form of carbon quency, pitch, loudness and temporal pattern. See which has been processed to produce a very large also ALARM CALL surface area. Formed by heating wood and other adenine 5

materials in the absence of oxygen. The large surface ad lib feeder An animal feeder designed in such a area makes the material suitable for the removal of way that the animal may obtain food whenever A unwanted chemicals by adsorption. Used in some desired. fi lters in aquariums. ad lib sampling, opportunistic sampling In the active site The region of an ENZYME that binds to context of studying behaviour, ad libitum sampling the substrate when it catalyses a chemical reaction refers to opportunistic observations which are made and gives the enzyme its specifi city. at the convenience of the recorder or when the active sleep The part of the sleep cycle in mammals opportunity arises. This is especially important for and birds during which RAPID EYE MOVEMENTS some relatively rare behaviours (e.g. mating) which (REM) or ear movements occur and during which might be missed during other types of sampling, a characteristic ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH such as instantaneous SCAN SAMPLING . Compare (EEG) is produced along with signs of DREAMING . ONE - ZERO SAMPLING Thermoregulatory mechanisms in animals do not ad libitum, ad lib Latin for ‘ at one ’s pleasure ’ . respond to thermal stress during active sleep. This Adamson, George (1906– 1989) and Joy (1910– may be problematic for small mammals as their 1980) A game warden and his artist wife who lived body temperature is infl uenced by ambient tem- in Kenya and became famous as a result of their perature much more than is the case in large successful rehabilitation of an orphaned lion cub mammals. ( Elsa ) who was returned to the wild, mated with a active transport The movement of molecules or ions wild lion, and produced her own cubs. Joy Adamson across a biological membrane, against a chemical or wrote a book about Elsa entitled B ORN FREE which electrochemical gradient, with the use of energy. became a bestseller and was made into a fi lm of the The process uses ‘ pumps ’ made of PROTEINS which same name. Bill Travers and Virginia McKenna cross the CELL MEMBRANE . played the Adamsons in the fi lm and as a result of activity budget, behaviour budget A description of their experiences working with lions established the the amount of time an individual animal spends on B ORN FREE F OUNDATION and Z OO C HECK . various activities during the day (e.g. feeding, sleep- adaptation ing, resting, walking, etc.) as defi ned by an ETHO- 1. A benefi cial character possessed by an organism GRAM . Usually expressed as a percentage (or as a result of EVOLUTION , e.g. the ability to survive proportion) of the total amount of time the animal for long periods without water. is observed (Table A2 ). Data is often collected by 2. An adjustment made by a SENSE ORGAN to instantaneous SCAN SAMPLING . changes in the strength of stimulation; a reduction acupressure A treatment similar to ACUPUNCTURE in the sensitivity of a sensory receptor due to use. but which involves the gentle massage of acupunc- 3. A behavioural change caused by LEARNING ture points and channels. which allows the animal to adjust to a variety of acupuncture An ancient Chinese treatment that environmental changes. involves placing needles into special locations on the 4. A physiological change which allows the animal body to treat the pain associated with a wide variety to adjust to a change in climate, food quality etc. See of illnesses including ARTHRITIS , HIP DYSPLASIA also ACCLIMATISATION and SPONDYLOSIS . adaptive heterothermy A physiological adaptation to acute condition A disease or disorder which appears heat stress found in some mammals that inhabit arid rapidly, lasts a short time, has distinct signs, and areas, e.g. camels, A RABIAN ORYX ( ORYX LEUCO- which may require short- term treatment and care. RYX) . These animals allow their core body tempera- It may or may not be severe. Compare CHRONIC ture to increase during the heat of the day, reducing CONDITION evaporative losses by storing body heat. This excess ad lib See AD LIBITUM heat is then lost to the environment at night. adaptive radiation The evolutionary process which causes diversifi cation from a single ancestral type Table A2 Activity budget: mean proportion of time active which results in descendant POPULATIONS coyotes (Canis latrans ) kept in outdoor pens spent occupying increasing numbers of ECOLOGICAL exhibiting different behaviours (based on Shivik et al ., NICHES . 2009 ). adductor muscle Behaviour Proportion of time 1. A muscle that moves a limb or other structure towards the centre line of the body. Compare ABDUC- Resting 0.58 TOR MUSCLE Locomotion 0.21 2. A muscle that closes the valves in a bivalve Standing 0.16 mollusc. Foraging 0.03 adenine (A) A NUCLEOTIDE base which pairs with Social 0.02 T (thymine) in DNA and is also found in ADENO- Eating 0.01 SINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) . 6 adenohypophysis

adenohypophysis See ANTERIOR PITUITARY CORTISOL . These stimulate the conversion of A adenosine diphosphate (ADP ) See ADENOSINE amino acids into glucose to provide energy. TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) advertisement A visual, oral or chemical display used adenosine triphosphate (ATP ) The energy ‘ currency’ by an individual to indicate the possession of a ter- of the cell; a chemical which moves energy around ritory by a male, the fertility state of a female, or for the cell by releasing an inorganic phosphate ion (as some other reason. See also ADVERTISEMENT CALL a result of hydrolysis) and becoming adenosine advertisement call A VOCALISATION used by diphosphate (ADP). ADP may combine with an inor- animals, especially male frogs, during rivalry and

ganic phosphate ion (Pi ), using energy, to form ATP. COURTSHIP . aerial census See AERIAL SURVEY ATP↔++ ADP P energy()34 kJ/mol i aerial gunning The use of aircraft to pursue and shoot adipose Relating to cells or tissue where fat is depos- animals. See also AIRBORNE H UNTING ACT OF ited. See also ADIPOSE TISSUE 1971 (USA) adipose fi n A fatty, fi n - like lobe located behind the aerial photography The process of producing a fi lm DORSAL fi n of some male SALMONID fi shes. or digital image of the ground taken from an aircraft. adipose tissue A type of CONNECTIVE TISSUE May be used to count and record the location of wild which contains fat. animals (especially colonial birds or large grassland 1. Brown adipose tissue (brown fat) appears to be mammals), and to map vegetation types. See also concerned with the release of heat in neonate REMOTE SENSING , SATELLITE IMAGE mammals and occurs around the neck and between aerial survey, aerial census A survey undertaken the scapulae in these and hibernating mammals. from the air, usually from a light aircraft. Often 2. White adipose tissue occurs widely in animal involves fl ying along invisible TRANSECT lines bodies. and counting animals within a strip of land of adoption scheme A method of fund - raising which known length and width, sometimes utilising involves visitors paying an annual subscription for AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY . Often used to count the right to ‘ adopt ’ an animal kept in a zoo. The large mammals in SAVANNA habitats. See also adopter may receive an adoption certifi cate, a pho- E LTRINGHAM tograph and updates on the animal’ s activities at aerobic regular intervals. The adopter ’s name is often dis- 1. Of a chemical process which requires free oxygen, played in a prominent place near the animal’ s e.g. AEROBIC RESPIRATION . enclosure. Similar schemes are used by wildlife 2. Of an organism which requires oxygen to survive. conservation NON- GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISA- aerobic respiration The biochemical process by TIONS (NGOS ) and animal SANCTUARIES to raise which cells extract the energy from sugars using funds for conservation or animal welfare. oxygen. This begins with the splitting of glucose into ADP See ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) two three- carbon sugars in the process of GLYCOLY- adrenal cortex The outer region of the adrenal gland SIS , thereby producing ADENOSINE TRIPHOS- which produces a number of hormones including PHATE (ATP) . Each of these sugars enters the CORTISOL and other glucocorticoids, aldosterone K REBS CYCLE and produces additional molecules (which promotes water retention by the kidneys) of ATP. The NAD (an electron carrier) produced and some sex (mainly male) hormones. during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle generates adrenal gland A hormone- secreting gland located further ATP via an ELECTRON TRANSPORT near each kidney in most vertebrates. Consists SYSTEM within the MITOCHONDRIA . The entire of an inner ADRENAL MEDULLA and an outer process produces 36 – 38 molecules of ATP from a ADRENAL CORTEX . single molecule of glucose, along with carbon adrenal medulla The central region of the ADRENAL dioxide and water. GLAND which secretes ADRENALINE (epine- +→ + + C6126 H O66 O 2 CO 2 6 H 2 O energy phrine) in response to STRESS . It also secretes a little NORADRENALINE (norepinephrine). Compare ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION , FERMENTATION adrenaline, adrenalin, epinephrine A hormone aerosol delivery system See METERED DOSE secreted by the ADRENAL MEDULLA and to some INHALER (MDI) , NEBULISER extent by sympathetic nerve endings. It is secreted aestivation, estivation A dormant condition exhib- in response to fear, excitement and anger. Adrena- ited by some animals (e.g. lungfi sh) which allows line increases heart rate and blood pressure, and them to avoid excessive heat during the summer or diverts blood from the intestines and towards the a dry period. Commonly occurs in desert species. See muscles, preparing the body for ‘ fl ight or fright’ . also HIBERNATION adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH ) A hormone aetiology, etiology The study of the cause or origin secreted by the PITUITARY GLAND which stimu- of a phenomenon, especially a disease or an ABNOR- lates the release of a number of glucocorticoid hor- MAL BEHAVIOUR , e.g. the aetiology of STEREO- mones from the ADRENAL CORTEX , especially TYPIC BEHAVIOUR in a particular animal. Agreement on the Conservation of Bats 7

AEWA See A GREEMENT ON THE CONSERVATION that are 2 years old and allocate them to the next OF AFRICAN – E URASIAN MIGRATORY WATER- class. Alternatively we could group together animals A BIRDS 1995 (AEWA) aged 0 to less than 4 years into one class, and then affective states Emotional states, e.g. happy, sad, those between 4 and up to 8 years in the next class excited, calm, aroused, alert. and so on. A population of animals must be sepa- afferent Conduction towards. For example, an affer- rated into age classes in order to construct a LIFE ent blood vessel carries blood towards the heart, an TABLE or AGE PYRAMID . afferent nerve conducts impulses from the SENSORY age pyramid A diagrammatic representation of the RECEPTORS towards the CENTRAL NERVOUS AGE STRUCTURE of a population that uses hori- SYSTEM (CNS) . Compare EFFERENT zontal bars to represent the number of males and affi liative behaviour A form of social behaviour which females in each AGE CLASS . Useful for comparing involves an animal’ s tendency to approach, interact the age structures of different populations and for with and remain near a CONSPECIFIC . Behaviour predicting future changes in the size and structure between animals which promotes group cohesion, of a population . e.g. GROOMING , touching, positive gestures. age structure The relative numbers of animals of dif- affi liative exhibit An exhibit which encourages ferent ages present in a population . See also AGE AFFILIATIVE BEHAVIOUR among and between PYRAMID , LIFE TABLE people and other animals in the arrangement of age -specifi c mortality rate The death rate of a spe- activities, space and features of the design, in col- cifi c age class within a population ( e.g. individuals laboration with management practices. For example, that are 1 year old) , especially in the context of a food, shelter, shade, water and ENVIRONMENTAL LIFE TABLE (Table L1 ) . ENRICHMENT features are provided throughout agglutination The process of sticking together, espe- the exhibit to reduce confrontation and competition cially in bacteria and blood cells. See BLOOD GROUP between individuals; focal points are provided for aggregation A group of animals which has formed as collaborative activities, e.g. an artifi cial termite a result of each being individually attracted to the mound for apes, located near public viewing areas; same place, e.g. birds attracted to a food source, visual access is provided between holding and isola- woodlice attracted to a location with high humidity. tion areas so social contact can be maintained See also GREGARIOUSNESS between animals. aggression See AGONISTIC BEHAVIOUR afforestation The process or practice of planting trees aggressive mimicry The resemblance of a predator (or tree seeds), to create new forest from open land, (the mimic) to a harmless animal or object (the often to replace that which has been removed by model) that is attractive to a third organism (the DEFORESTATION . dupe) on which the mimic preys, e.g. the angel fi sh Afi Farm Management software used for dairy farming possesses a dorsal spine that mimics a small organ- and herd management which analyses information ism which acts as a lure for its prey. Compare AUTO- from individual cows using pedometers and milk MIMICRY , B ATESIAN MIMICRY , M ÜLLERIAN meters. MIMICRY Africa USA The fi rst drive- through in Agnatha A superclass of vertebrates which are fi sh - the USA, which opened in Florida in 1953 and like but jawless and possess sucker- like mouths: closed in 1961. Visitors travelled around the artifi - lampreys, hagfi shes and allies. cially created African landscape in a ‘ Jungle Train ’ . agonistic behaviour The complex of agonistic behav- See also LAND TRAIN iours which may occur when two individuals of the African Elephant Conservation Act of 1989 (USA ) A same species encounter one another: Aggression, US law whose purpose is to assist in the conserva- competition, threat, APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOUR , tion and protection of the African elephant by fi nan- RECONCILIATION , avoidance, retreat/fl ight, offen- cially supporting the conservation programmes of sive attacks, defensive fi ghting. This often includes African countries and the CITES Secretariat, and to species- specifi c DISPLAYS . See also REDIRECTED restrict trade in ivory. BEHAVIOUR . Afrotropical region See FAUNAL REGIONS Agreement on the Conservation of African– Eurasian aftershaft A second feather growing from the main Migratory Waterbirds 1995 (AEWA) An interna- shaft at the base of the vane. Important in insulation tional agreement requiring parties to engage in a in some taxa, e.g. grouse and quail. wide range of conservation actions for waterbirds agar plate A Petri dish containing agar as a growth including species and habitat conservation, manage- medium for microbes. Used to culture microbes and ment of human activities, research and monitoring, to test for the presence of infection. education and the provision of information. Also age class A category into which individual animals in known as the African – Eurasian Waterbird Agree- a population are grouped based on their age. For ment (AEWA). example, we could count all animals that are 1 year Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe old and place them in a single class, and all animals 1991 (EUROBATS ) A regional agreement on the 8 Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans

protection of bats concluded under the auspices of ble for agriculture and food (formerly the Depart- A the CONVENTION ON THE C ONSERVATION OF ment of Agriculture). It provides information, M IGRATORY S PECIES OF W ILD A NIMALS 1979 research, policies and programmes to achieve envi- (CMS) . ronmentally sustainable and competitive agricul- Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of tural products. the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous agri - environment scheme A payment system which Atlantic Area 1996 ( ACCOBAMS) A regional agree- rewards farmers for environmentally sensitive land ment on the protection of CETACEANS concluded management. under the auspices of the CONVENTION ON THE agronomy The scientifi c study of the use of plants for CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY S PECIES OF food, fuel, fi bre and other purposes; the study of soil WILD A NIMALS 1979 (CMS) . It covers all Odon- science and crop production. toceti and Mysticeti. Its purpose is to prohibit and, AI See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI) where possible, eliminate any deliberate taking of air bladder See SWIM BLADDER cetaceans and to create and maintain a network of air fl ow The movement or exchange of air. Adequate specially protected areas to conserve cetaceans, and air fl ow is important in regulating the environment to promote education, research and the manage- by providing VENTILATION (3) within a cage, ment of human– cetacean interactions. , animal house, cow shed or other space or Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears building containing animals. It prevents the build- 1973 An agreement between Canada, Denmark up of noxious gases and helps to control tempera- (for Greenland), Norway, the Union of Soviet Social- ture and humidity. Air fl ow may be achieved ist Republics (now Russia) and the USA which pro- naturally as a result of the design of an enclosed hibits the taking of polar bears, except for scientifi c space or ‘ forced ’ using fans. Ventilation is important or conservation purposes, to protect other living in preventing the spread of airborne diseases. Air resources, or by indigenous peoples according to fl ow should be proportionate to the density of their traditional rights. It requires the parties to animals, i.e. the higher the density the more air protect polar bear habitat (especially denning exchanges necessary per unit time. See also VENTI- and feeding sites, and migratory routes), conduct LATION SHUTDOWN research and cooperate in the management and air sac One of several air- fi lled sacs which form part conservation of migrating populations. of the respiratory system of birds and assist in creat- Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans ing a one - way air fl ow resulting in VENTILATION of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North (1) of the lungs. Seas 1991 ( ASCOBANS) A regional agreement on air stone A block of porous material which produces the protection of small CETACEANS concluded a column or curtain of fi ne air bubbles that aerate under the auspices of the CONVENTION ON THE aquarium water when it is connected to a pump via CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY S PECIES OF a plastic tube (Fig. A3 ). WILD ANIMALS 1979 (CMS) . Originally called the Airborne Hunting Act of 1971 ( USA ) An Act in the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans USA which bans the shooting, harassing, capturing of the Baltic and North Seas but extended and or killing of any bird, fi sh or other animal from renamed in 2008. It covers all toothed whales aircraft, except for legitimate wildlife management (Odontoceti), except the sperm whale ( Physeter mac- purposes. rocephalus ) and requires parties to prohibit the taking airplane wing See ANGEL WING and killing of small cetaceans, control marine pollu- air - stripper See PROTEIN SKIMMER tion, conduct research, take measures to reduce and airway The route through which oxygen reaches collect data on bycatches, and educate the public. the LUNGS , i.e. via the nose or mouth and Agricultural Revolution A series of changes that took TRACHEA (1) . place in the agricultural practices used in England AKAA Animal Keepers’ Association of Africa. See also and later across Western Europe between 1700 and KEEPER ASSOCIATION 1850 (and possibly earlier), including the intensifi - alarm A device for generating a sound during an cation of land use, the enclosure of land and the emergency. Some zoos use alarms with different development of scientifi c animal breeding. sounds for emergencies in different sections of the agricultural show An event at which farmers exhibit zoo. This ensures that staff respond appropriately. their animals to the public and compete for prizes See also ALARM CALL , ALARM PHEROMONE , awarded in recognition of the quality of their live- ALARM RESPONSE , DETECTOR BEAM ACTI- stock. May also include exhibitions of pet animals, VATED SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM agricultural machinery, countryside skills (e.g. alarm call A VOCALISATION made by an animal SHEEP DOG TRIALS ) etc. In the UK often organ- (particularly a social animal, especially birds and ised as a county show, e.g. Cheshire Show, Great mam mals) to indicate the presence of danger to Yorkshire Show (Fig. A2 ). others of the same species (particularly the same Agriculture and Agri- Food Canada (AAFC) The social group). In some species, for example prairie department of the Canadian government responsi- dogs ( Cynomys spp.) and some primates, distinctive Alex the African grey parrot 9

A

Fig. A2 Agricultural show. Two Prizewinning British Blue cattle at the Cheshire Show in the UK.

ISM occurs when the animal giving the warning is closely related to those it is trying to warn. See also ALARM PHEROMONE albinism A condition in which the pigment MELANIN fails to develop in the hair, skin and iris. Individuals have pale skin, white hair and pink pupils. Albinism in mammals is inherited via an autosomal recessive gene. Albinos are homozygous for the gene. Compare LEUCISM , MELANISM albino An animal that exhibits ALBINISM . Fig. A3 Air stone. Albuliformes An order of fi shes: bonefi shes and their allies. albumen Egg white. The fl uid contained in an AMNI- calls are used to indicate different types of predator, OTIC EGG that contains large quantities of e.g. snake, bird of prey. See ALARM RESPONSE , ALBUMIN . SENTRY albumin One of a group of soluble proteins found in alarm pheromone A short- lived chemical signal blood, ALBUMEN and many other tissues. released by an animal to indicate the presence of aldosterone See ADRENAL CORTEX danger to conspecifi cs, e.g. by ants, bees and other alertness A state of readiness, in an animal, to insects. detect environmental changes. See also VIGILANCE alarm response A response made to a sign of danger BEHAVIOUR by an individual animal to warn others. It may be alevin A newly hatched fi sh, especially a salmon or visual, olfactory or auditory. An animal may draw trout. the attention of a predator to itself when giving an Alex the African grey parrot An African grey parrot ALARM CALL to assist others. This type of ALTRU- (Psittacus erithacus ) who was the subject of a 30- year 10 alfalfa

study by Irene Pepperberg. She taught him to rec- parts of its geographical distribution. The rule is A ognise words, colours, objects and some numbers named after Joel Asaph Allen who proposed it in and could communicate with him using words. 1877. Long, thin appendages (e.g. ears or legs) have alfalfa See LUCERNE a high SURFACE AREA:VOLUME RATIO , resulting algal bloom An increase in the number of algae in a in high heat loss. Animals that live in cold climates body of water. May be seasonal or caused by need to conserve heat so should evolve short EUTROPHICATION as a result of pollution, espe- appendages. The reverse is true in warm climates. cially fertilisers. See also BLUE - GREEN ALGAE The red fox (Vulpes vulpes ) of temperate latitudes has alien species relatively small ears, whereas the fennec ( Fennecus 1. A species which occurs in a location which is not zerda) and bat- eared fox ( Otocyon magalotis), that part of its normal geographical range. Often estab- both inhabit areas of Africa with a warmer climate, lished as a result of accidental or intentional intro- both have very large ears (Fig. A4 ). See also B ERG- duction by humans, e.g. FERAL CATS , goats, rats. MANN ’ S RULE 2. In the US, Executive Order 13112 of February 3, allergen Any foreign substance (usually a protein) 1999 defi nes alien species as ‘ . . . with respect to a which induces an ALLERGIC REACTION in the particular ecosystem, any species, including its seeds, eggs, body of an animal who is hypersensitive to it. spores, or other biological material capable of propagating allergic reaction An IMMUNE REACTION with no that species, that is not native to that ecosystem ’ . purpose which occurs when the body responds to a alimentary canal The gut. non - threatening foreign substance (usually a pro- alkalage A fodder produced by preserving whole - tein). Results in the release of HISTAMINE which crop (grain, stem and leaves) using a process of causes allergic signs including INFLAMMATION . ammoniation, which involves spreading an addi- See also ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK, ANTIHISTAMINE tive pellet containing urea and urease. This is a allergy An immune response to an ANTIGEN means of storing cereal crops as forage which helps which is otherwise harmless. See also ALLERGIC to retain the nutrient qualities of the fodder. See also REACTION SILAGE alligator farm A facility where alligators are bred alkali A hydroxide of any of a number of metallic commercially for their meat, skins and other prod- elements, e.g. sodium hydroxide, that dissolves in ucts. Some are open to the public as visitor attrac- water to produce an alkaline solution: a solution tions, particularly in the southern United States. with a pH above 7.0 as a result of an excess of allocarer See ALLOPARENT hydroxyl ions, which neutralises acids to form salts. allogrooming Social GROOMING . The grooming of alkaline Possessing the properties of an ALKALI . one individual by another within a social group. allantois A cavity, formed by a membrane, which May have hygienic and SIGNALLING functions, stores metabolic wastes and assists with gaseous e.g. appeasement. Occurs widely in primate societies exchange through the egg shell in birds and reptiles. (Fig. A5 ). See also ALLOPREENING , APPEASE- Also forms part of the PLACENTA in mammals. MENT BEHAVIOUR allele, allelomorph Any of a number of different allometry The study of biological scaling: the differen- forms of a gene that may exist at a specifi c LOCUS tial effect of changing the linear, area and volume on a chromosome, each of which produces a differ- dimensions of organisms, and the impact this has on ent variety of the same trait. In diploid organisms, their evolution and ecology. Allometric relationships each individual normally possesses two alleles (one may be studied during the growth of a single organ- from each parent), for each gene in each SOMATIC ism; between different organisms within a single CELL . See also DOMINANT ALLELE , RECESSIVE species; or between individuals which belong to dif- ALLELE ferent species. For example, the allometric relation- allele fi xation See FIXATION ship between brain size and body size is such that allele frequency See GENE FREQUENCY animals with bigger bodies tend to have bigger brains. allele retention The expected proportion of founder allomother See ALLOPARENT X ’s alleles that have survived to generation t . This is alloparent, allocarer A ‘ false ’ or ‘ other ’ parent or a measure of the extent to which a population has mother (allomother). An animal who assists in pro- been able to retain the alleles originally present in viding PARENTAL CARE to an individual who is the founder individuals. Conservation management not its offspring and may not even be related, e.g. should attempt to maximise allele retention. cow elephants (allomothers) may take care of allelomorph See ALLELE the offspring of others. See also ALTRUISM , SUR- Allen ’ s rule A rule in biology which states that endo- ROGATE (1) therms that have evolved in warmer climates have allopatric Having non- overlapping distributions. Two longer appendages or extremities than related forms species are said to be allopatric if their distributions that have evolved in colder climates. The rule may do not overlap in time and space. Often refers to a apply to different, related species or to individuals mode of evolution caused by the geographical sepa- of the same species that originate from different ration of members of a population which then alpha status 11

A

Fig. A4 Allen ’s rule. Bat - eared fox (Otocyon megalotis ), left; red fox (Vulpes vulpes ), right.

major dispersal barriers such as mountains or oceans separate populations. Compare PARAPATRIC SPE- CIATION , SYMPATRIC SPECIATION allopreening Mutual PREENING that occurs between birds. May have a hygienic function in removing ECTOPARASITES and also a social function in helping to maintain social bonds. It may also replace aggressive behaviour in some species. See also ALLOGROOMING all -terrain vehicle ( ATV ) See QUAD BIKE alpaca farming The rearing of alpacas ( Vicugna pacos ) for their fl eeces, most of which are processed into yarn for knitting or weaving. Alpacas are CAMELIDS used as pack animals in South America and also bred in North America, Australia, New Zealand, Fig. A5 Allogrooming. Hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas ). South Africa, China, the UK and throughout Europe. Some alpaca farm owners also offer ‘ alpaca walking’ and ‘ alpaca trekking ’ experiences. See also BRITISH A LPACA S OCIETY (BAS) alpha (α ) diversity The biological diversity within a diverge into separate species. Compare PARAPAT- particular area or ECOSYSTEM (usually expressed RIC , SYMPATRIC as the number of species in that ecosystem, i.e. allopatric speciation The formation of new species as species richness). See also BETA ( β) DIVERSITY , a result of the geographical separation of popula- BIODIVERSITY , GAMMA ( γ) DIVERSITY tions of the ancestral species such that each evolves alpha male See ALPHA STATUS independently, adapting to local conditions and alpha predator See APEX PREDATOR eventually becoming genetically isolated from other alpha status The status afforded to the most domi- populations and unable to interbreed. This may nant or important individual in a group of animals, occur when habitats become fragmented or when to which all other individuals are subordinate. The 12 alpha-tocopherol

alpha male is the most dominant male animal in a amensalism An ecological relationship between two A DOMINANCE HIERARCHY . See also BETA STATUS organisms of different species in which one is alpha - tocopherol See VITAMIN E adversely affected and the other is unaffected. alternating tripod gait A walking pattern found in American Anti- vivisection Society (AAVS ) The fi rst insects in which three alternating legs support the non - profi t animal advocacy and educational organi- body at any one time. sation in the USA (founded in 1883) dedicated to

alternative hypothesis (H1 ) See NULL HYPOTHESIS ending experimentation on animals in research,

(H0 ) testing and education. It also opposes other forms of altricial Referring to a species (especially a mammal . See also VIVISECTION or bird) in which very young animals are helpless American Association of Zoo Keepers ( AAZK ) A and incapable of caring for themselves at birth or professional organisation for zoo keepers and when they hatch, e.g. canids, rodents. In relation to aquarists, which supports keeper education and birds, a young bird which is incapable of moving education of the public in conservation. around on its own soon after hatching. Altricial American Association of Zoo Veterinarians ( AAZV ) chicks possess little or no down, hatch with their An association of veterinary surgeons whose aim is eyes closed and are incapable of leaving the nest. to advance programmes for preventive medicine, They are fed by their parents. All PASSERINES husbandry and scientifi c research in the fi eld of vet- produce altricial chicks. Compare PRECOCIAL erinary medicine dealing with captive and free- altruism The act of unselfi shly helping or showing ranging wild animals. It disseminates research by concern for another. An animal may suffer some publishing the Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine . detriment as a result of engaging in an altruistic act. American Association of Zoos and Aquariums See See also ALARM CALL , INCLUSIVE FITNESS , ASSOCIATION OF Z OOS AND A QUARIUMS (AZA) INDIRECT FITNESS , PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR , American Birding Association (ABA ) An organisa- RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM tion which represents the North American BIRDING altruistic behaviour See ALTRUISM community. It supports birders through publica- alula (alulae pl .) The fi rst digit on a bird’ s wing. tions, conferences, workshops, tours, partnerships alveolus (alveoli pl . ) and networks. 1. A minute air sac in the lungs over which American Farm Bureau An NGO in the USA that GASEOUS EXCHANGE occurs. These sacs have the promotes the wellbeing of farm and ranch commu- effect of increasing the total surface area of the nities and acts on behalf of these communities in LUNGS substantially. dealings with the government and others at local, 2. A milk reservoir in a MAMMARY GLAND . county, state, national and international levels. ambassador species A species kept by a zoo which Each state has its own State Farm Bureau. See may have little conservation value, e.g. common also WYOMING F ARM B UREAU FEDERATION V. zebra (Equus burchelli ). Visitors may expect to see BABBITT (1997) such species and they may help to generate interest American Horse Council An organisation that repre- in conservation in general. See also ABC SPECIES , sents all aspects of the horse industry in the United EDUCATION OUTREACH ANIMAL States . ambient temperature The surrounding air American Humane Association An organisation that temperature. exists to protect children, pets and farm animals ambivalent behaviour A behaviour which is typical from abuse and neglect in the United States. It was of confl ict situations and in which an animal appears founded in 1877. to be trying to perform two incompatible activities American Kennel Club An organisation, founded in at the same time, e.g. pecking at food while moving 1884, which registers dog breeds and whose aim is away from it. This is the result of motivational con- to advance the study, breeding, exhibiting, running fl ict and the behaviour may have evolved into a and maintenance of purebred dogs. See also AMERI- stereotypical display as a result of RITUALISATION . CAN RARE BREED ASSOCIATION (ARBA), See also STEREOTYPICAL BEHAVIOUR KENNEL C LUB ambush behaviour A form of hunting whereby a American Livestock Breeds Conservancy ( ALBC ) A predator lurks (often camoufl aged) in a place which non - profi t membership organisation, founded in prey are likely to frequent, rather than actively 1977, which works to protect over 150 breeds of hunting. livestock and poultry from , including ambush predator See AMBUSH BEHAVIOUR asses, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, pigs, rabbits, amebiasis See AMOEBIASIS chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys. See also R ARE amenorrhoea The absence or suppression of MEN- BREEDS CONSERVATION SOCIETY OF NEW STRUATION ( OVULATION ). Lactational amenor- ZEALAND , R ARE B REEDS S URVIVAL T RUST rhoea is the suppression of menstruation when the (RBST) mother is producing milk and prevents her from American Museum of Natural History A major becoming pregnant while nursing a young infant. natural history museum in New York which was See also MENSTRUAL CYCLE founded in 1869. amputation 13

American Rare Breed Association (ARBA ) An organ- into tadpoles, but some are VIVIPAROUS . Fertilisa- isation which provides a registration system and tion is internal or external but there is no INTRO- A show venues across the USA for ‘ rare breeds ’ of dogs MITTANT ORGAN . The skin is soft, naked and which are not recognised by the AMERICAN glandular (being rich in MUCUS glands) and used K ENNEL CLUB . for gaseous exchange. Some species possess poison American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to glands in the skin. Animals ( ASPCA ) The fi rst humane organisation in amphibian Member of the class AMPHIBIA . the Western Hemisphere. It was founded by Henry Amphibian Ark (AA rk) An organisation which was Bergh in 1866. Its aim is to prevent cruelty to established as a joint effort between the WORLD animals and it works to rescue animals from abuse, ASSOCIATION OF ZOOS AND AQUARIUMS and pass humane laws. It operates animal shelters (WAZA) , the IUCN/SSC CONSERVATION B REED- and animal adoption schemes. ING SPECIALIST GROUP (CBSG) and the IUCN/ American Society of Animal Science An organisation SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (ASG), and other which fosters the discovery, sharing and application partners around the world, aimed at ensuring of scientifi c knowledge regarding the responsible the global survival of amphibians. Since 2006, AArk use of animals to enhance human life and well - has been assisting the ex - situ conservation commu- being. It publishes the Journal of Animal Science . nity to address the captive components of the American Stud Book The registry maintained by Amphibian Conservation Action Plan of the I NTER- the J OCKEY CLUB (USA) for all THOROUGH- NATIONAL U NION FOR THE CONSERVATION BREDS foaled in the United States, Puerto Rico and OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES Canada and for all thoroughbreds imported into the (IUCN) . This involves taking species at immediate United States, Puerto Rico and Canada from coun- risk of extinction into in order to establish tries that have a studbook approved by the Jockey captive- survival assurance colonies. The survival Club and the I NTERNATIONAL STUD BOOK of many amphibian species is threatened by C OMMITTEE . CHYTRIDIOMYCOSIS . American Veterinary Medical Association A non - amplexus The mating embrace in frogs in which the profi t organisation founded in 1863 to represent the male grasps the female from behind and both sexes interests of veterinary surgeons in the United States. release gametes (Fig. A6 ). It works to advance veterinary medicine, including ampulla (ampullae pl .) its relationship to public health, biological science 1. A bulge at the end of each semi- circular canal in and agriculture. the INNER EAR containing hair cells that detect the Amiiformes An order of fi shes: bowfi n. acceleration of the head. amino acid A subunit of a protein which contains an 2. A reservoir in the water vascular system of amine group and an acidic carboxyl group, along ECHINODERMS . with a side chain that varies between different 3. A low - frequency electroreceptor found in some amino acids. There are 22 different types of standard fi shes. amino acid. amputation The removal of a limb, usually as part of amnion A fl uid - fi lled cavity formed by a membrane a surgical procedure. which encloses the embryo of birds, reptiles and mammals. amniote 1. Possessing an AMNION . 2. A vertebrate (mammal, bird or reptile) in which the embryo possesses an AMNION . amniotic egg The egg of an AMNIOTE (2) . amniotic fl uid Fluid contained within the amnion formed in reptiles, birds and some mammals. Pro- vides a buffer against mechanical damage and helps to stabilise temperature, especially in placental mammals. Amoeba A genus of sarcodine PROTOZOANS , members of which consist of a single irregular- shaped cell which moves and feeds using pseudopo- dia (cytoplasmic extensions). Some cause disease. See also AMOEBIASIS amoebiasis, amebiasis An infection caused by the AMOEBA Entamoeba histolytica . Amphibia A class of ; POIKILOTHERMIC , mostly terrestrial TETRAPOD vertebrates. Most species return to water to lay eggs which develop Fig. A6 Amplexus in glass frogs (Centrolenidae). 14 amylase

amylase An enzyme found in saliva in some taxa, A which breaks starch down into simple sugars. It is also released into the small intestine from the pancreas. anabolic 1. Relating to ANABOLISM . 2. Describing a substance which promotes the growth of body tissue, e.g. ANABOLIC STEROID . anabolic steroid A drug that simulates the effect of male sex hormones and increases tissue growth, especially in SKELETAL MUSCLES . Sometimes used to enhance performance in racehorses and greyhounds. anabolism METABOLISM in which complex organic molecules are synthesised from simpler ones, storing energy, e.g. carbohydrate anabolism involves the conversion of glucose to glycogen; protein anabo- lism involves the creation of complex proteins from amino acids. Compare CATABOLISM . anachoresis The avoidance of predators by living in a crevice, hole or other retreat. Species which exhibit this behaviour are called anachoretes. Some live entirely in a burrow (e.g. some polychaete worms), while others emerge at night (e.g. rabbits, badgers). anadromous Migrating from the oceans to freshwater for SPAWNING . Anadromous fi shes are those that are born in freshwater, spend most of their lives at sea, and then return to freshwater streams and Fig. A7 Anaesthetic machine. rivers to spawn, e.g. salmon, trout, lampreys. Compare CATADROMOUS , DIADROMOUS anaemia, anemia An abnormal reduction in the anaesthesiologist See ANAESTHETIST amount of HAEMOGLOBIN in red blood cells anaesthesiology See ANAESTHETICS resulting in reduced oxygen - carrying capacity. This anaesthetic, anesthetic causes fatigue and breathlessness. It may be caused 1. A drug that causes a temporary loss of sensation by blood loss, iron defi ciency, red cell destruction or ( ANAESTHESIA ). See also ANALGESIC (1) an inability to produce a suffi cient quantity of red 2. Relating to or inducing a loss of sensation. cells (as in pernicious anaemia caused by vitamin anaesthetic machine A device used to support the

B 12 defi ciency). administration of anaesthesia (Fig. A7 ). It generally anaerobic Relating to conditions in which no oxygen consists of a ventilator, a gas delivery system (for is present, e.g. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION . See oxygen, air and anaesthetic), including a vaporiser, also ANOXIC fl ow meters and monitors to measure and record the anaerobic respiration The cellular process by which patient ’s vital signs, e.g. BLOOD PRESSURE (BP), energy is released from food molecules (e.g. HEART RATE , OXYGEN SATURATION etc. GLUCOSE ) in the absence of oxygen. A DENOSINE anaesthetics, anaesthesiology The study and appli- TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) is generated from an cation of anaesthetics. See also ANAESTHETIC (1) ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM . See also anaesthetist, anaesthesiologist Someone who is LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION expert in the use of anaesthetics. See also ANAES- anaesthesia, anesthesia A loss of sensation which THETIC (1) may affect the whole body, and involve a loss of anal glands Paired sacs located either side of the anus consciousness (general anaesthesia), or a localised in many mammals including most carnivores. Their area (local anaesthesia). See also ANALGESIA secretions contain chemicals which allow individual anaesthesia induction chamber A container used for animals to identify other particular CONSPECIFICS . anaesthetising small animals which usually consists See also SCENT GLAND of a sealed transparent plastic box with a gas inlet analgesia Pain relief without loss of consciousness. and a waste gas outlet. See also ANAESTHESIA anaesthesia vaporiser A device attached to an analgesic ANAESTHETIC MACHINE which delivers a specifi c 1. A drug that provides pain relief. See also ANAES- concentration of a volatile anaesthetic agent, which THETIC (1) is liquid at room temperature but vaporises easily. 2. Having the effect of providing pain relief. animal 15 analogous anestrus See ANOESTRUS 1. An anatomical structure in one type of animal is angel wing, airplane wing A deformity of the scapu- A said to be analogous with a structure in another type lae in which they bow outward as a result of of animal when both have the same function and the pull of the scapular muscles (see PECTORAL when they are not HOMOLOGOUS (1) , i.e. they GIRDLE ). Caused by a condition called osteodys- have a different evolutionary origin such as the trophia fi brosa. Occurs particularly in kittens. wings of insects and those of birds. See also CON- Anguilliformes An order of fi shes: eels. VERGENT EVOLUTION animal 2. The term may be used to describe structures with 1. An organism which belongs to the animal a similar function whether or not these structures kingdom (Animalia) and is characterised by being are HOMOLOGOUS (1) . MOTILE (in some stage of its life cycle), multicel- analysis of variance See ANOVA lular, made of EUKARYOTIC cells which are almost anaphylactic shock A fall in BLOOD PRESSURE always DIPLOID , and usually arranged into TIS- (BP) caused by an extreme IMMUNE REACTION . SUES , HETEROTROPHIC , possessing cells without anapsid A vertebrate, especially a reptile, which does cell walls, usually reproducing sexually, and with an not posses a temporal opening in its skull. embryo which has a BLASTULA stage. In law, anatomical terms of location Standard terms of ana- animals are divided into DOMESTIC ANIMALS , tomical location used within ZOOLOGY (Fig. A8 ). CAPTIVE ANIMALS and WILD ANIMALS . In ancient forest See PRIMARY FOREST addition, the general term ‘ animal ’ may have a spe- ancient woodland See PRIMARY FOREST cifi c meaning within a particular piece of legislation androgen A STEROID hormone which has mascu- which is different from the zoological meaning. linising effects, e.g. TESTOSTERONE . 2. In English law, in the PERFORMING A NIMALS anemia See ANAEMIA (REGULATION ) ACT 1925 , the P ET ANIMALS anesthetic See ANAESTHETIC A CT 1951 and the A NIMAL W ELFARE A CT 2006 , anestrous See ANOESTROUS ‘ animal ’ means a VERTEBRATE .

Dorsal

Anterior

Cranial Posterior

Caudal

Proximal

Ventral

Distal

Fig. A8 Anatomical terms of location. Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia ). 16 animal £

3. In the Z OO LICENSING ACT 1981 , s21(1), carrying out wildlife damage management activities. A ‘ “ animals” means animals of the classes M AMMALIA , It administers the A NIMAL W ELFARE A CT OF AVES , R EPTILIA , AMPHIBIA , P ISCES and INSECTA 1966 (USA) and inspects zoos. and any other multi cellular organism that is not a plant animal ark See ARK (2), POULTRY ARK or a fungus . . . , ’ (i.e. the legal defi ni tion is essen- Animal Behavior Society (ABS ) A society whose tially the same as the zoological defi nition). purpose is to promote and encourage the biological 4. In the P ROTECTION OF ANIMALS ACT 1911 study of animal behaviour, including studies at all the expression ‘ animal ’ means any DOMESTIC levels of organisation using both descriptive and ANIMAL (2) or CAPTIVE ANIMAL (2) . experimental methods under natural and controlled 5. Under the Animal Boarding Establishments Act conditions. It encourages research studies and the 1963 (s.5(2)), ‘ “ animal ” means any dog or cat ’ . dissemination of knowledge about animal behav- 6. In the USA, the ANIMAL W ELFARE A CT OF iour through publications, educational programmes 1966 (USA) , (USC § 2132 (g)), ‘ The term “ animal ” and activities. See also ANIMAL B EHAVIOUR means any live or dead dog, cat, monkey (nonhuman Animal Behaviour An academic journal which pub- primate mammal), guinea pig, hamster, rabbit, or such lishes original work on animal behaviour. Published other warm- blooded animal, as the Secretary may deter- by the ASSOCIATION FOR THE S TUDY OF mine is being used, or is intended for use, for research, ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR (ASAB) in collaboration testing, experimentation, or exhibition purposes, or as a with the ANIMAL B EHAVIOR S OCIETY (ABS) . pet; but such term excludes (1) birds, rats of the genus Animal Boarding Establishments Act 1963 An Act Rattus, and mice of the genus Mus, bred for use in research, which regulates animal boarding establishments (2) horses not used for research purposes, and (3) other (for dogs or cats) in Great Britain by a system of farm animals, such as, but not limited to livestock or licensing and inspections. poultry, used or intended for use as food or fi ber, or live- Animal By- Products (Enforcement) (England) Regu- stock or poultry used or intended for use for improving lations 2011 A statutory instrument which regu- animal nutrition, breeding, management, or production lates the collection, transportation, storage, handling, effi ciency, or for improving the quality of food or fi ber. With processing and disposal of animal by- products in respect to a dog, the term means all dogs including those England, in compliance with EU law. used for hunting, security, or breeding purposes; ’ animal carer Alternative name for an animal 7. In New York State, under the Agriculture and KEEPER (1) . Markets Law § 350 (1) “ Animal, ” . . . includes ‘ every animal cognition The study of the mental life of living creature except a human being . ’ animals. See COGNITION animal £ The amount of money the public is prepared Animal Conservation A scientifi c journal which pub- to donate to (spend on) charities which support lishes research on the conservation of species and animals. Much of this is given to organisations con- their habitats, published by the ZOOLOGICAL cerned with animal cruelty, animal SANCTUARIES S OCIETY OF L ONDON (ZSL) . etc ., rather than those that support wildlife animal cruelty Treating an animal in such a way CONSERVATION . as to cause pain or suffering either intentionally animal actors Animals which are used in the enter- or by NEGLECT . Apart from CRUELTY caused tainment industry. They are usually taken from their by neglect many instances of gratuitous cruelty parents at an early age and trained to perform in towards animals have been recorded: a kitten killed fi lms, television programmes and advertisements. In by being heated in a microwave oven, a dog dragged many cases social animals, such as apes, are forced behind a car, a deer killed by dogs, a hamster to live alone. When they become too large and dif- attached to a fi rework rocket, a cat boil- washed in fi cult to handle many in the USA live out the rest a washing machine, a puppy kicked to death. See also of their lives in ROADSIDE ZOOS . See also ANIMALS ANIMAL CRUELTY LAWS , ROYAL S OCIETY FOR IN FILM , C HEETAH , F LIPPER , L ASSIE , S KIPPY THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS THE B USH KANGAROO (RSPCA) animal advocate A person who acts for or speaks on animal cruelty and violence towards humans In the behalf of animals, usually in relation to animal USA the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has welfare issues. See also LEGAL PERSONALITY , recognised animal cruelty as an indicator of violence LOCUS STANDI against people since the 1970s, including children, Animal Aid An animal rights group founded in the partners and elders. In a study of serial killers the UK in 1977. It campaigns peacefully against animal FBI found that most had killed or tortured animals abuse and promotes a cruelty- free lifestyle. as children. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS ) animal cruelty as a component of domestic vio- The Agency of the U NITED STATES DEPART- lence There is a strong association between domes- MENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA) responsible for tic violence between people and cruelty to animals. protecting and promoting agricultural health, the In America the H UMANE SOCIETY OF THE regulation of genetically engineered organisms, and UNITED STATES (HSUS) estimates that nearly 1 animal hospital 17

million animals a year are abused or killed in con- animal experimentation See ANIMAL TESTING . See nection with domestic violence. Ascione (1998) also VIVISECTION A found that 71% of battered women who had pets animal feed cake Any of a number of animal foods reported that their partner had either threatened or pressed into a solid mass, especially for agricultural had actually hurt or killed one of their pets, and use, e.g. cotton seed cake, coconut copra cake, actual pet abuse was reported by 57% of the women. palm kernel cake, rapeseed cake. See also FIBRE animal cruelty laws Legislation aimed at the preven- NUGGETS tion of CRUELTY to animals developed fi rst in Animal Finder ’s Guide A magazine and website for the UK in the early 19th century ( see MARTIN ’s owners of exotic wild animals. Based in Indiana, A CT ). Most countries have laws which protect USA. Contains information about animal care, COMPANION ANIMALS , animals used in experi- legislation and animal auctions. See also GAME ments, FARM ANIMALS and animals living in zoos. AUCTION In more recent times this has been extended to some Animal Gatherings (England) Order 2006 A statutory wild animals (e.g. W ILD M AMMALS (P ROTEC- instrument in England which regulates the use of TION ) A CT 1996 ). In the USA each state has its premises for animal gatherings for the sale of agri- own animal cruelty laws. See also ANIMAL cultural animals, including licensing, time limits on CRUELTY , A NIMAL W ELFARE ACT 1999 (NZ) , gatherings, movement of animals, disinfection etc. A NIMAL WELFARE ACT 2006 , A NIMAL animal grabber Any of a number of devices for catch- W ELFARE ACT OF 1966 (USA) , C RUELTY TO ing and restraining animals. See also CATCH POLE , A NIMALS ACT 1835 , C RUELTY TO A NIMALS SNAKE HOOK A CT 1876 , PROTECTION OF A NIMALS A CT 1911 animal handling chute See CRUSH animal dealer A person who buys (or captures) and Animal Health An organisation in Great Britain pre- then sells animals. In the past zoos relied on such viously known as the State Veterinary Service (and dealers to provide their animals, e.g. the W ORLD ’s including other agencies), but now part of the Z OOLOGICAL T RADING C OMPANY L TD . See also ANIMAL H EALTH AND VETERINARY LABORA- GAME AUCTION , H AGENBECK TORIES A GENCY (AHVLA) . Animal Defenders International (ADI ) An organisa- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency tion whose aim is to create awareness of, and ( AHVLA) An executive agency which works on campaign against, cruelty to animals, including behalf of the D EPARTMENT FOR E NVIRON- ANIMAL TESTING and circuses. It works to allevi- MENT , F OOD AND R URAL A FFAIRS ( DEFRA ), ate suffering, and conserve and protect animals and the Scottish Government and the Welsh Govern- the environment. ment. The agency was formed in April 2011, follow- animal density See STOCKING DENSITY ing the merger of A NIMAL HEALTH and the animal economics See BEHAVIOURAL ECONOMIC V ETERINARY LABORATORIES AGENCY . The THEORY agency’ s role is to safeguard animal health and animal enclosure welfare, protect public health and enhance food 1. A space which is enclosed in order to contain security by conducting research, surveillance and animals. inspections. The AHVLA also acts as the national, 2. In India, under the R ECOGNITION OF ZOO European and international reference laboratory for R ULES 2009 (I NDIA ) , ‘ “ Enclosure ” means any accom- several exotic and zoonotic NOTIFIABLE DIS- modation provided for zoo animals . ’ EASES , and has a registration and licensing role in See also ANIMAL EXHIBIT , ENCLOSURE DESIGN , relation to CITES listed wildlife species. ENCLOSURE SIZE Animal Health and Welfare Board for England An Animal Equity UK An animal rights organisation organisation created in 2011 which makes direct based in the UK. recommendations to D EPARTMENT FOR ENVI- animal exhibit An ANIMAL ENCLOSURE (including RONMENT , F OOD AND R URAL AFFAIRS a building in a zoo, farm or other facility) containing (DEFRA) Ministers on policies affecting the health one or more species on display to the public, plus the and welfare of kept animals in England including associated INTERPRETATION and, in some cases, farm animals, horses and pets. It is not concerned the visitor paths and landscape surrounding the with the welfare of zoo and circus animals. enclosure. See also AFFILIATIVE EXHIBIT , BIOPARK , Animal Health Trust An organisation in the UK con- ENCLOSURE DESIGN , EXHIBIT STRUCTURE , GREEN cerned with fi ghting disease and injury in animals. EXHIBIT , HUMAN EXHIBIT , IMMERSION EXHIBIT , It aims to develop new technology and knowledge INTERACTIVE SIGN , MULTI - SPECIES EXHIBIT , NATU- for the better diagnosis, prevention and cure of RALISTIC EXHIBIT , ROTATIONAL EXHIBIT DESIGN , animal diseases. It provides a clinical referral service THEMED EXHIBIT , WALK -THROUGH EXHIBIT for veterinary surgeons in practice and promotes animal experience An animal encounter in a zoo or postgraduate education. similar facility, whereby members of the public animal hospital A facility which provides fi rst aid and come into close contact with animals. minor treatment for a wide range of pets and also 18 Animal Liberation

surgical treatment for more serious conditions. In and to count animals. Animals are funnelled towards A England and Wales, the R OYAL S OCIETY FOR the gate by a V - shaped fence and walk in front of a THE P REVENTION OF C RUELTY TO A NIMALS blue screen. The animal’ s shape is recorded by a (RSPCA) provides a low - cost veterinary service video camera and compared to a database of shapes. to the public via its animal hospitals, and facilities Such a system is used by farmers in Australia to for injured and rescued animals collected by protect water resources and can distinguish between RSPCA INSPECTORS . See also ANIMAL WELL- horses, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, kangaroos and NESS CENTRE emus. See also AUTO DRAFTER, RADIO FRE- Animal Liberation A book published by Peter S INGER QUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID) TECHNOLOGY in 1975 supporting the concept of rights for animals. Animal Record Keeping System (ARKS ) Software It examines the fate of animals in factory farms, used for keeping animal records within an individual science laboratories and other situations where they institution. It is a PC - based application and is multi- are exploited for the benefi t of humans. It does not lingual. The software allows a zoo to produce a specifi cally discuss zoos, but was extremely impor- number of different reports based on its own records. tant in bringing the fate of exploited animals to the ARKS4 allows individual institutions to contribute attention of the public and it was instrumental in their data to the pooled I NTERNATIONAL SPECIES establishing ANIMAL RIGHTS as a legitimate INFORMATION S YSTEM (ISIS) database so that it subject of academic study. is then available to others through the ISIS website. Animal Liberation Front (ALF ) A secret loose associa- See also M EDICAL ANIMAL R ECORD K EEPING tion of individuals (with no formal membership) S YSTEM (M ED ARKS) , ZOOLOGICAL INFORMA- who carry out illegal actions against industries TION M ANAGEMENT S YSTEM (ZIMS) which profi t from animal exploitation, including the animal records See ANIMAL R ECORD K EEPING liberation of live animals from fur farms, slaughter- S YSTEM (ARKS), PEDIGREE REGISTER , RECORD houses and other places, and economic sabotage in KEEPING , STUDBOOK the form of property destruction. animal research See ANIMAL TESTING animal loading See STOCKING DENSITY Animal Research Act 1995 ( NSW ) A law introduced Animal Machines A book published in 1964 by Ruth in New South Wales, Australia, to protect animal H ARRISON which exposed the cruel practices of welfare by ensuring that the use of animals in the INTENSIVE FARMING industry. research is always humane, considerate, responsible Animal Magic A popular children’ s television pro- and justifi ed. gramme about animals produced by the BBC and animal ride A ride given by a tame animal (e.g. horse, broadcast between 1962 and 1983. The original pre- donkey, elephant, camel) in a zoo, on a farm or at senter, Johnny Morris, made regular visits to Bristol some other facility, for entertainment. Zoo, playing the part of a keeper who could talk to animal rights The concept in moral philosophy that the animals. animals (or at least some animals) should have rights. animal needs index (ANI ) See ANIMAL WELFARE See also A NIMAL L IBERATION , A RISTOTLE , BASIC INDEX NEEDS TEST , BENTHAM , COBBE , DECLARA- animal noise monitor collar A device designed by TION OF RIGHTS FOR CETACEANS : W HALES the US Air Force and used to record and study the AND DOLPHINS , D ESCARTES , ETHICS , G REAT effect of noise – particularly aircraft noise – on APE P ROJECT , K ANT , R YDER , SINGER , SPECIE- animals. It records location (using the G LOBAL SISM , U NIVERSAL D ECLARATION ON ANIMAL POSITIONING S YSTEM (GPS) ), movements, WELFARE (UDAW), UTILITARIANISM , WHO acoustic noise level and heart rate. Initially tested animal rights legal cases A number of attempts have on free- ranging bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis ) in been made to achieve rights for animals using the Idaho to monitor their reactions to low - level mili- courts. In 2012 the P EOPLE FOR THE E THICAL tary aircraft in 1997. TREATMENT OF A NIMALS (PETA) FOUNDA- animal personality Animals may be considered to TION brought a lawsuit in the US District Court for possess a personality when individuals differ from the Southern District of California against SeaWorld one another in either single behaviours or suites of on behalf of fi ve wild - caught orcas, claiming that related behaviours in a way that is consistent over they were held in violation of Section One of the time. It is usually assumed that such consistent indi- Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the vidual differences in behaviour are driven by varia- United States, which prohibits slavery and involun- tion in how individuals respond to information tary servitude. In November 2011 the Free Morgan about their environment, rather than by differences Support Group failed in its attempt to use a Dutch in external factors such as variation in MICROHAB- court to prevent a killer whale from being trans- ITAT (Briffa and Greenaway, 2011 ). ferred from the in Harderwijk that animal recognition technology An animal manage- rescued her from shallow waters in Waddenzee to ment system that uses a video camera and computer Loro Parque in Tenerife. The group argued that the software to distinguish between animal types. This transfer would breach EU wildlife trade laws and information can then be used to open or close a gate that she should be returned to the wild. In 1988 Animal Welfare Act 2006 19

approximately 15 000 seals washed up on the (e.g. the use of cell cultures). Some scientists claim beaches of the Adriatic and North Seas. A group of that it is not possible to study complex biological A German environmental lawyers brought a case in systems by experimenting on cultures of cells. For the German courts naming North Sea Seals as the example, it is not possible to determine how a drug principal plaintiffs, with the lawyers appearing as may affect behaviour unless a whole live animal is

guardians against the West German Government as used. See also D RAIZE TEST , LD50 TEST , T HREE they were responsible for issuing permits which R S , VIVISECTION resulted in the sea being polluted by heavy metals. animal theme park A visitor attraction which consists The courts did not recognise the seals ’ standing of a zoo and an amusement park, usually operated ( LOCUS STANDI ) as they were not PERSONS and on a commercial basis primarily for entertainment would not allow the lawyers to stand on their behalf purposes, e.g. Disney ’ s Animal Kingdom, Busch as no specifi c legislation authorised this. See also Gardens (Tampa). ASSOCIATION OF L AWYERS FOR A NIMAL animal therapy W ELFARE , DECLARATION OF RIGHTS FOR 1. May refer to animal -assisted activities. See ANIMAL - C ETACEANS : W HALES AND D OLPHINS ASSISTED THERAPY animal rotation exhibit See ROTATIONAL EXHIBIT 2. The treatment of illness or injury in an animal DESIGN using complementary medicine instead of medica- animal sentinels Animals used to detect the presence tion or surgery. See also HOLISTIC VETERINARY of a toxic substance, disease or other hazard, e.g. MEDICINE canaries used to detect carbon monoxide and animal traffi cking The illegal international trade in methane in coal mines. Murray Valley encephalitis animals, especially rare species, for the pet trade, use (MVE) is a mosquito- borne viral disease of chickens in TRADITIONAL MEDICINE etc. See also CITES , which occurs in New South Wales, Australia. Wild TRADE RECORDS ANALYSIS OF FLORA AND birds act as a natural reservoir of the disease and it FAUNA IN COMMERCE (TRAFFIC) may be fatal if contracted by humans. During the Animal Transaction Policy A document published by mosquito breeding season the NSW government the B RITISH AND IRISH ASSOCIATION OF regularly tests sentinel fl ocks of chickens located ZOOS AND AQUARIUMS (BIAZA) which sets out near known bird breeding sites for MVE. See also its policy in relation to animal acquisitions, disposal SENTRY , WORKING ANIMALS of surplus animals, culling and euthanasia, use of animal shelter A place where unwanted animals are animal dealers, and the transfer of animals between cared for either on a temporary or permanent basis. institutions. See also SANCTUARY (2) Animal Welfare An academic journal which pub- animal show An entertainment event which fea- lishes SCIENTIFIC PAPERS concerned with the tures the use of animals. Sometimes included in welfare of animals including those living in zoos. attractions within a zoo. In the past some zoos Published by the U NIVERSITIES FEDERATION arranged inappropriate shows such as CHIMPAN- FOR A NIMAL W ELFARE (UFAW) . ZEES ’ TEA PARTIES . Nowadays, some modern animal welfare zoos use shows to inform visitors about the natural 1. The physical and psychological wellbeing of abilities of animals (e.g. climbing or fl ying) or to animals, including a consideration of the effects of educate the public about conservation issues. At their housing, transportation, handling, feeding, W HIPSNADE Z OO Asian elephants ‘ demolish ’ huts breeding etc. The welfare of an individual is defi ned and ‘ trees ’ to illustrate human – elephant confl icts in by BROOM (1986) as ‘ its state as regards its attempts to Asia. cope with its environment . ’ animal stars A number of animals have become 2. ‘ Welfare is a characteristic of an animal, not something stars in long- running television series and popular given to it, and can be measured using an array of indica- fi lms, beginning with the Tarzan fi lms in the 1930s tors ’ Broom (1991) . ( see also CHEETAH , T ARZAN OF THE A PES ) and 3. An academic discipline, taught in colleges and culminating in a number of popular TV series in universities, concerned particularly with the welfare the 1950s and 1960s (see also D AKTARI , F LIPPER , of companion animals and animals living on farms L ASSIE , S KIPPY THE B USH KANGAROO ) and in zoos. animal testing, animal experimentation, animal Animal Welfare Act 1999 ( NZ ) A wide - ranging research The process of testing chemicals or proce- animal welfare law in New Zealand which regulates dures on animals, generally using them as models and makes provision for the care of and conduct of how these chemicals or processes may affect towards animals, the use of traps, animal exports, humans. For example testing the effi cacy of drugs, the use of animals in research, testing and teaching, the toxicity of chemicals or the effectiveness of sur- the disposal of animals, hunting, fi shing, pest control gical procedures such as organ transplants. Some and surgical procedures on animals. See also A NIMAL animal welfare organisations claim that all animal W ELFARE (ZOOS ) CODE OF WELFARE 2004 (NZ) testing is immoral, scientifi cally fl awed and unnec- Animal Welfare Act 2006 A law in England and essary because other study methods are available Wales which makes provisions relating to the 20 Animal Welfare Act of 1966

welfare of domestic animals under human control A (including pet owners). It aims to prevent unneces- sary SUFFERING (e.g. by banning the docking of dogs’ tails (TAIL DOCKING) except for medical treatment, mutilation, poisoning, and animal fi ght- ing) and promote welfare (by imposing a duty on persons responsible for animals to ensure welfare, banning the sale of animals to persons aged under 16 years and by licensing certain activities). The Act provides for the inspection of premises and the seizure of animals and equipment. See also HUNTING ACT 2004 , W ILD MAMMALS (PROTECTION ) ACT 1996 Animal Welfare Act of 1966 ( USA ) The only Federal law in the United States that regulates the treatment of animals in research, exhibition, transport, and by dealers. It requires minimum standards of care and treatment for certain animals which are bred for commercial sale, used in research, transported com- mercially or exhibited to the public. It makes provi- sion for the licensing of dealers, marking of animals and record keeping, and bans animal fi ghting. animal welfare domains See FIVE F REEDOMS animal welfare index A method of assessing welfare which is based on a list of parameters for which the presence/absence/degree is given a numerical value or weighting. The calculated value may be compared Fig. A9 Animals and religion: the elephant god Ganesh is an with minimum, target or threshold totals. Exam- important deity in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. ples include the ANIMAL NEEDS INDEX (ANI) or Tiegerechtheitsindex (TGI). See also BODY CONDI- TION SCORE animal welfare needs See FIVE F REEDOMS (Fig. A9 ). The Asian elephant is revered and kept at Animal Welfare (Zoos) Code of Welfare 2004 ( NZ ) temples and used in religious ceremonies in Asia. See A code of welfare for zoo animals in New Zealand also B UDDHISM AND ANIMALS , H INDUISM issued under section 75 of the ANIMAL W ELFARE AND ANIMALS , I SLAM AND ANIMALS , J AINISM ACT 1999 (NZ) . AND ANIMALS , J UDAISM AND ANIMALS , animal wellness centre A facility which provides vet- RELIGIOUS SLAUGHTER erinary care for animals, often including holistic vet- Animals and Society Institute An independent think erinary treatments. See also ANIMAL HOSPITAL tank which operates as a non- profi t, independent animal- assisted therapy The use of an animal to research organisation whose aim is to advance the improve the health of a human, e.g. to treat depres- status of animals in public policy, and which pro- sion due to loneliness, to provide mental and physi- motes the study of animal – human relationships. cal stimulation, reduce blood pressure, and improve The institute is based in the USA and produces edu- verbal skills, social skills and attention span. May cational resources, hold events and publishes aca- involve the use of pet animals such as cats or dogs, demic journals ( S OCIETY AND A NIMALS J OURNAL or contact with horses or farm animals. See also and the J OURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL W ELFARE DOLPHIN THERAPY S CIENCE ( JAAWS) ). Animalia The animal kingdom. See also ANIMAL (1) animals in fi lm The depiction of animals in fi lm and Animals Act 1971 In England and Wales, an Act television affects attitudes towards animals. Films which makes provision for the civil liability for such as K ING K ONG and J AWS engendered negative damage done by animals in general, dangerous attitudes towards gorillas and sharks respectively. animals, dogs and straying livestock. It allows for the However, other fi lms and TV series have promoted killing of any dog for the protection of livestock and positive attitudes towards animals and the natural the detention and sale of trespassing livestock. See environment in general, e.g. D AKTARI , F LIPPER , also KEEPER (2) L ASSIE , S KIPPY THE B USH KANGAROO and the TV animals and religion Some animal species are pro- series of David A TTENBOROUGH . tected by virtue of their status in a particular reli- Animals (Scientifi c Procedures) Act 1986 A law in gion. For example the elephant god Ganesh is an the UK which requires a Home Offi ce licence important deity in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism for animal experiments (‘ regulated procedures’ ) antelope 21

involving any ‘ protected animal ’ : a living vertebrate annual plant A plant that germinates, fl owers and other than man or a specimen of the octopus Octopus dies within a single growing season or year . See also A vulgaris once it becomes capable of independent PERENNIAL PLANT feeding. It replaced provisions within the CRUELTY annual stock list See STOCK LIST TO ANIMALS A CT 1876 and transposed into UK anoestrous, anestrous Relating to a female who is law Council Directive 86/609/EEC, which makes not experiencing an OESTROUS CYCLE and is not provision for the protection of animals used for sexually receptive. experimental or other scientifi c purposes. anoestrus, anestrus A period of sexual inactivity in Animals ’ VC See DICKIN M EDAL female mammals between two periods of OESTRUS . anion A negatively charged ion, e.g. chloride (Cl − ). anogenital Relating to the area around the anus and Compare CATION genitals. ankus, bullhook A tool used by some elephant ANOVA Analysis of variance. A statistical method keepers and mahouts in the training and control of which compares the means of samples from several elephants. Usually consists of a short wooden pole populations. It analyses the total variation shown by tipped with a metal spike and a metal hook. Known the data, splits this into the variation within the as a bullhook in the USA. samples and the variation between the samples, and Annelida A phylum of animals. Most annelids are then compares these two components. free - living segmented worms found in soil and anovulatory The state of not ovulating. See also aquatic environments, e.g. earthworms, ragworms. OVULATION Some forms are parasitic (leeches). Their bodies are anoxic Relating to the absence of oxygen; a pathologi- segmented, and constructed of muscular rings sepa- cal defi ciency of oxygen, e.g. anoxic water; anoxic rated by thin partitions called septa. SEGMENTA- seizure. See also ANAEROBIC TION has allowed the development of advanced Anseriformes An order of birds: geese, swans, ducks, systems of co- ordinated LOCOMOTION with some screamers. terrestrial species using SETAE (‘ hairs ’ ) to grip the antagonistic Functioning in an opposite manner or soil and marine species using a system of paddles having opposite effects, e.g. the biceps and triceps (parapodia) attached to each segment. The are antagonistic muscles because they have opposite NERVOUS SYSTEM is relatively advanced with a effects on the movement of the forelimb; INSULIN simple ‘ brain ’ at the head end. The DIGESTIVE and GLUCAGON are antagonistic hormones because SYSTEM consists of a tube which runs the length of they have opposite effects on glucose. the body. Annelids have an excretory system made Antarctic Relating to Antarctica: the continent which up of individual excretory units (nephridia) in each lies chiefl y within the Antarctic Circle and is centred segment. on the South Pole. Annex A species In relation to Council Regulation Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978 ( USA ) A US law (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protec- which provides for the conservation and protection tion of species of wild fauna and fl ora by regulating of Antarctic fl ora and fauna. It makes it unlawful for trade therein, all CITES A PPENDIX I species, plus anyone in the US to possess, sell, offer for sale, certain others (including some non - CITES species) deliver, receive, carry, transport, import into or that are considered to need a similar level of export from the US any native mammal or bird protection. taken in Antarctica. Annex B species In relation to Council Regulation Antarctic region See FAUNAL REGIONS (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protec- Antarctic Treaty 1959 An international agreement to tion of species of wild fauna and fl ora by regulating use A NTARCTICA exclusively for peaceful pur- trade therein, all CITES A PPENDIX II species, plus poses. The treaty requires parties to consider meas- certain others (including some non - CITES species) ures that should be taken regarding the preservation that are considered to need a similar level of and conservation of living resources in Antarctica. protection. See also CONVENTION FOR THE C ONSERVATION Annex C species In relation to Council Regulation OF ANTARCTIC SEALS 1972 , C ONVENTION ON (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protec- THE C ONSERVATION OF ANTARCTIC MARINE tion of species of wild fauna and fl ora by regulating L IVING R ESOURCES 1980 (CCAMLR) trade therein, all CITES APPENDIX III species, antelope A member of the mammalian family apart from those which EU countries have entered Bovidae which is not a bison, buffalo, goat, sheep or a reservation for and are included in Annex D. cattle. It is not a recognised taxon. The term refers Annex D species In relation to Council Regulation to many species of EVEN -TOED UNGULATES , most (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protec- of which occur in Africa, although some species are tion of species of wild fauna and fl ora by regulating found in Asia. They possess horns which are directed trade therein, certain non- CITES species that have upward and backward which they do not shed, and been imported into the EU in high enough numbers have a graceful appearance, with long legs. See also to need monitoring. DEER 22 antennal gland

antennal gland, green gland An excretory organ in which encompasses ZOOLOGY , PSYCHOLOGY , A the head of some which excretes excess sociology, and veterinary science. See also A NTHRO- sulphate and magnesium and conserves calcium and ZOÖ S , I NTERNATIONAL S OCIETY FOR A NTHRO- potassium. ZOOLOGY (ISAZ) anterior At or near the head or front of the Anthrozo ö s An academic journal which reports body, or front of a structure (Fig. A8 ). Compare studies on the interactions between people and POSTERIOR animals from a range of disciplines including anterior pituitary The anterior lobe of the pituitary ANTHROPOLOGY , archaeozoology, art and liter- gland located at the base of the brain. It consists ature, education, ETHOLOGY , history, human partly of the adenohypophysis which secretes medicine, PSYCHOLOGY , sociology and VET- several hormones (e.g. FOLLICLE - STIMULATING ERINARY MEDICINE . It is the offi cial journal of HORMONE (FSH) and LUTEINISING HORMONE the I NTERNATIONAL S OCIETY FOR A NTHRO- (LH) ) in response to stimulation from other hor- ZOOLOGY (ISAZ) . mones secreted by the HYPOTHALAMUS (e.g. antiaphrodisiac A PHEROMONE that discourages GONADOTROPHIN- RELEASING HORMONE (G N RH) ). mating, usually produced after a female has mated. It also secretes PROLACTIN , thyrotrophic hormone In some reptiles (e.g. garter snakes ( Thamnophis )), and ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH) . after copulation part of the ejaculate forms a SPERM anthelmintic An agent which kills or expels parasitic PLUG in the CLOACA (1) that emits a substance worms from the gut. Also called a vermicide if it kills that deters males. the worm or a vermifuge if it expels it. antibiotics A group of organic compounds produced anthrax A disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus by spore - forming organisms (fungi and bacteria). anthracis . It is found in mammals, especially herbi- They interfere with protein synthesis in pathogens vores, and is usually fatal. The bacterium may form and are used to treat a variety of bacterial infections highly resistant spores which may live in the soil for and as antitumour agents, antiparasite agents, rumi- 10 years or more and still be capable of infection. nant growth promoters, insecticides and for other Spores have been found in bone- meal, wool, hides, purposes. Sir Alexander Fleming fi rst observed that feeds and blood fertilisers, and they may be carried a strain of Penicillium prevented growth in the bac- to the soil surface by earthworms. Infection may terium Staphylococcus . See also BROAD - SPECTRUM be spread by ingesting spores in food or water, ANTIBIOTIC through a cut or by inhalation. Three forms of antibody, immunoglobulin A protein from plasma anthrax are recognised. In peracute cases animals cells (formed from a B -LYMPHOCYTE ) that binds may be found dead without having shown any to a specifi c foreign molecule (ANTIGEN ) as part of signs. Acute cases exhibit a raised temperature, the body’ s IMMUNE REACTION . rapid pulse, ‘ blood - shot ’ eyes, cold feet and ears, anticoagulant A drug or other substance that pre- followed by prostration, unconsciousness and death. vents or slows down BLOOD CLOTTING . See also In subacute cases the animal may linger for up to WARFARIN 48 hours with a very high temperature and laboured anticodon The triplet sequence of TRANSFER RNA respirations. Swellings may occur in the neck and (T RNA) nucleotides which is capable of base - lower chest. A ‘ carbuncle’ may form at the site of pairing with the CODON triplet of a MESSENGER infection if infected through the skin. Early admin- RNA (M RNA) molecule by virtue of their comple- istration of antibiotics may be effective. mentary nature. Anthropocene An informal term for the period antidiuretic A hormone which reduces urine output. during which human activity has had a signifi cant Compare DIURETIC effect on the Earth’ s ecosystems, from the beginning antidote A drug, or other agent, that prevents or of farming approximately 8000 years ago until the counteracts the action of a poison. present. See also HOMOGOCENE anti - emetic A drug which prevents vomiting. anthropoid ape A member of the primate suborder antifreeze A chemical in some animals that lowers Anthropoidea (monkeys, apes and humans). the freezing point by changing the arrangement of anthropology The study of humanity, including water molecules in body fl uids, thereby allow ing human EVOLUTION and our relationship with them to survive in subzero temperatures. Glycerol other PRIMATES (physical anthropology), social is an important antifreeze in many in sects and and cultural organisation (including relationships some frog species. Some Antarctic fi shes produce with non- human animals) and the development of antifreeze peptides and antifreeze glycopeptides. LANGUAGE . antifungal Having the action of preventing the anthropomorphism The attribution of human traits growth of, or destroying, fungi. to other animals. See MR . E D antigen A molecule, usually foreign to the body, anthrozoology The scientifi c study of the interactions which stimulates the production of ANTIBODIES . and relationships between animals and people. antihistamine A drug used to give relief from allergic This is a relatively new multi- disciplinary subject conditions by blocking the action of HISTAMINE . appendicular skeleton 23

Used, for example, to treat allergic skin diseases in tion. Signs may include trembling, rapid pulse, cats and dogs. sweating, dry mouth. See also STRESS A anti - infl ammatory Having the effect of reducing aorta INFLAMMATION . 1. Largest artery in vertebrates, which carries oxy- antioxidant A substance (e.g. VITAMIN C , VITAMIN genated blood from the heart (left ventricle) to the E ) which prevents or slows down the oxidation of body tissues. stored foods etc. by molecular oxygen. It neutralises 2. Anterior part of the arthropod heart. free radicals which may cause cell damage and cell apathy A lack of emotion, feeling or interest; impas- death, so protects against some diseases. sive, indifferent, listless. A lack of response to envi- anti - predator behaviour Defensive behaviour which ronmental stimuli. Compare RESPONSIVENESS protects against predators. See also ALARM CALL , ape A general term for hominoid primates belonging CAMOUFLAGE , ESCAPE BEHAVIOUR , MIMICRY to the families Pongidae ( GREAT APES ) and Hylo- antisepsis The containment or destruction of disease - batidae (gibbons and siamangs, the LESSER APES ). causing organisms. See also ANTISEPTIC apex predator, alpha predator, super carnivore, antiseptic super predator, top carnivore, top predator A 1. Any substance that kills or inhibits the growth of PREDATOR which, when adult, has no natural bacteria and other microbes. It is not toxic to the predators within its natural environment. An animal skin so may be used to clean wounds. Alcohol and occupying the last TROPHIC LEVEL in many FOOD iodine function as antiseptics. CHAINS or FOOD WEBS . 2. Relating to any such substance. APHIS See A NIMAL AND P LANT H EALTH I NSPEC- antiseptic mat A mat containing ANTISEPTIC which TION S ERVICE (APHIS) may be located at the entrance to a zoo enclosure, apiary, bee yard A place where the hives of honey a QUARANTINE area, a farm or similar place to bees are kept for their honey (Fig. A10 ). A collection prevent the spread of INFECTIOUS disease on of hives. Known as a bee yard in the USA. footwear. apnoea, apnea The cessation of breathing for an antiserum S ERUM that contains ANTIBODIES to a uncertain period. TOXIN or other ANTIGEN . apocrine sweat gland Gland located in the armpit or antivenene See ANTIVENIN groin of a mammal which produces odiferous sweat antivenin, antivenene An antidote or ANTISERUM used in social communication. to a VENOM , especially that of a snake. See also Apodiformes An order of birds: swifts, hummingbirds. MILKING (2) aposematism The advertisement by an animal of its anti - zoo group An organisation that opposes the dangerous or unpleasant properties to others, often existence of zoos and campaigns for the closure of because it is venomous or unpalatable. This often zoos and the transfer of their animals to SANCTU- takes the form of warning (aposematic) coloration, ARIES . See also BORN FREE FOUNDATION , Z OO e.g. the black and yellow markings on the abdomen C HECK of stinging wasps and bees and the striped coloration antler A bony growth on the head of antelopes, deer of venomous coral snakes. and some other EVEN - TOED UNGULATES . Con- apparent dry matter digestibility (ADMD ) See sists of dermal bone initially covered by furry skin GROSS ASSIMILIATION EFFICIENCY (GAE) called velvet. Shed and re - grown annually. May be appeasement behaviour A BEHAVIOUR which is used to age individuals in some species. Antlers only performed to inhibit or reduce the aggression shown occur in mature males, except in reindeer ( Rangifer by another individual of the same species, especially tarandus ). Compare HORN where escape is impossible. Generally exhibited by Anura An order of amphibians: frogs and toads. SUBORDINATE INDIVIDUALS in the presence of anus The opening at the end of the ALIMENTARY DOMINANT INDIVIDUALS and may involve the CANAL through which faeces are expelled. hiding or turning away of weapons such as claws anvil behaviour The use by an animal of a rock or and bills and the exposure of vulnerable parts of the other hard structure to break open a food object or body, such as the abdomen. In mammals appease- to break food into smaller pieces. Birds such as ment behaviour often involves lowering the head thrushes (Turdidae) break snail shells open on rocks. and body or rolling onto the back to expose the These anvils can be identifi ed by the presence of underbelly. Sometimes appeasement involves the shell debris. Wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidino- RITUALISATION of juvenile behaviour, e.g. food sus ) use stones as tools to smash open nuts on stone begging. See also AGONISTIC BEHAVIOUR anvils. The sixbar ( hardwicke ) has appendicitis Infl ammation of the APPENDIX (1) been observed in aquarium conditions using a rock caused by obstruction of the lumen by faeces, infec- as an anvil to break hard food pellets into pieces tion, CANCER etc. small enough to swallow. See TOOL USE appendicular skeleton The part of the skeleton of anxiety A strong feeling of fear or distress. Occurs as vertebrates which consists of the PECTORAL GIRDLE , a normal response to a stressful or dangerous situa- the PELVIC GIRDLE and paired limbs or fi ns. 24 appendix

A

Fig. A10 Apiary. Inset: bees entering and leaving.

appendix tered with the R OYAL C OLLEGE OF V ETERINARY 1. In anatomy, a small diverticulum of the CAECUM S URGEONS (RCVS) . in humans, many other primates and rodents, aquaciser See UNDERWATER TREADMILL which contains LYMPHOID TISSUE . See also aquaculture The cultivation of aquatic animals (espe- APPENDICITIS cially fi sh, molluscs and crustaceans) or plants for 2. In law, additional material added at the end food. of a legal instrument which contains details of, aquaponics A food production system in which fi sh for example, protected species, e.g. CITES A PPEN- (and other aquatic organisms such as prawns and DIX I. crayfi sh) are reared in tanks and the effl uent from appetite A desire for food and incentive to eat; a these tanks is used as fertiliser for plants grown combination of hunger and the perceived quality of hydroponically. See also FISH FARM available foods. A hungry animal has no appetite in aquarist A person who works with and cares for fi sh the absence of food or indicators of its presence, e.g. in a captive environment, e.g. an AQUARIUM (1) . other animals feeding. Appetite is an important aquarium determinant of food selection and experiments have 1. Place where fi sh and other aquatic species are shown that, given the opportunity, animals will kept for research or exhibition. Derived from the select foods that meet nutritional defi ciencies and terms ‘ aquatic’ and ‘ VIVARIUM ’ . See also B LUE avoid POISONS . Control centres for feeding and P LANET , F ISH HOUSE , M ARINELAND , SHEDD satiety are located in the HYPOTHALAMUS . See also A QUARIUM . Compare CAFETERIA EXPERIMENT 2. A single tank used for keeping fi sh. appetitive behaviour Goal - seeking, EXPLORATORY Aquarium for Wildlife Conservation The name of BEHAVIOUR , e.g. actively searching for prey. When the New York Aquarium since 1993. See also W ILD- the GOAL is reached appetitive behaviour normally LIFE C ONSERVATION SOCIETY (WCS) ceases. See also CONSUMMATORY BEHAVIOUR aquascape A scenic view artifi cially created in an approved vet, accredited vet A veterinary surgeon aquarium or other body of water, by arranging who has undergone an approved programme of aquatic plants, stones, rocks, drift wood, trees, roots training and is accredited by or registered with an and other features in an aesthetically pleasing and appropriate government body or professional veteri- usually naturalistic way. Aquascaping is used by nary organisation, e.g. in the UK, one who is regis- large aquariums and hobbyists to create naturalistic arthropod 25

environments for fi sh and other aquatic organisms. Argentiniformes An order of fi shes: herring smelts, A number of different styles exist, e.g. Dutch Nature barreleyes and their allies. A Aquarium , Jungle , and contests are held between Aristotle (384– 322 BC ) A Greek philosopher and members of specialist clubs. teacher who wrote widely on scientifi c subjects. The aquatred See UNDERWATER TREADMILL fi rst person to classify animals into groups. His major Arab A horse breed, originating from the Arabian works include H ISTORY OF A NIMALS , On the Parts Peninsula, which is famous for its intelligence, speed of Animals , On the Progression of Animals and On the and grace. Generation of Animals . Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx ) A rare species of large Arizona– Sonora Desert Museum A private, non- antelope native to the Middle East. During the fi rst profi t organisation dedicated to the conservation of half of the twentieth century the Arabian oryx pop- the Sonoran Desert in Arizona. It is a world - ulation declined rapidly as a result of hunting. By renowned zoo, natural history museum and botani- the 1960s only a handful of oryx remained in Oman. cal garden whose exhibits recreate the natural The last one was shot here in 1972. In 1961 the landscape of the Sonoran Desert Region. It contains Fauna Preservation Society (now F AUNA AND more than 300 animal species and 1200 kinds of F LORA I NTERNATIONAL (FFI) ) launched ‘ Opera- plants. It was founded in 1952 by William Carr and tion Oryx’ . They captured three wild oryx and Arthur Pack. obtained others from zoos and private collections in ark the Middle East. Eventually, a captive population 1. A term used to refer to the role of zoos in main- was established at Phoenix Zoo in Arizona and Los taining INSURANCE POPULATIONS of species in Angeles Zoo in California. By 1964 there were 13 captivity, drawing parallels with the biblical story of oryx in captivity in the USA. The Arabian oryx was Noah taking pairs of animals onto his ark to escape fi rst returned to the New Shaumari Reserve in from a fl ood. The Holy Bible (King James Version), Jordan in 1978. Later oryx were released in the Genesis Chapter 7 (v 1– 3): ‘ And the Lord said unto Jiddat al- Harasis plateau in Oman. The fi rst fi ve Noah, Come thou and all thy house into the ark; for thee animals arrived in 1980 and by 1996 there were have I seen righteous before me in this generation. Of every 450 free- ranging animals. Around 50 zoos currently clean beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens, the male and hold some 900 oryx in captivity. his female: and of beasts that are not clean by two, the Arachnida A class of arthropods: spiders, mites and male and his female . Of fowls also of the air by sevens, the scorpions. male and the female; to keep seed alive upon the face of all arachnoid membrane The membrane that covers the the earth . ’ brain. It contains VILLI through which CEREBRO- See also A MPHIBIAN A RK (AARK ) SPINAL FLUID (CSF) drains into the blood. 2. Animal ark; a small house for keeping animals arachnophobia Fear of spiders. Some zoos (e.g. such as poultry or pet rabbits. See also POULTRY L ONDON ZOO and DUDLEY ZOO ) run special ARK programmes or workshops to help people overcome ARKive See W ILDSCREEN their fear of spiders. ARKS number An identifi cation number assigned to ARAZPA See ZOO AND AQUARIUM A SSOCIATION (ZAA) an individual animal within the A NIMAL R ECORD arboreal Relating to trees, living in trees and adapted KEEPING S YSTEM (ARKS) used by many zoos to to life in trees, e.g. a spider money is an arboreal keep track of family relationships and animal move- animal. Compare CURSORIAL ments between institutions etc. archipelago A chain or cluster of islands, e.g. G ALA- ARKS4 See ANIMAL R ECORD K EEPING S YSTEM PAGOS I SLANDS . (ARKS) architecture See ZOO ARCHITECTURE arrhythmia A change from the normal rhythm of the archive A collection of material, often of historical HEARTBEAT . interest. Zoos often keep archives of their own pub- art in zoos See ZOO ART lications, old photographs etc., usually in the zoo ’s arteriole The smallest diameter artery which carries library. Such materials may be useful to researchers. blood from a larger ARTERY into a CAPILLARY . Arctic artery A blood vessel that carries blood from the 1. The area around the north pole. heart to the body tissues. The blood is usually oxy- 2. Relating to this area. genated but not always. Vertebrate arteries have Used as the theme of some zoo exhibits, e.g. the thick elastic walls made of smooth muscle and con- A RCTIC R ING OF L IFE at Detroit Zoo. nective tissue, with an inner lining of endothelium Arctic Ring of Life The world’ s largest polar bear and a narrow LUMEN . Arteries branch to form exhibit. A major exhibit at Detroit Zoo which con- smaller ARTERIOLES . tains polar bears, arctic foxes and seals. Contains an arthritis Infl ammation of the joints associated with underwater acrylic tunnel from which swimming swelling, pain, local heat and restricted movement polar bears and seals can be observed, and simulated of the affected parts. See also OSTEOARTHRITIS ice and tundra landscapes (Fig. B1 ). arthropod A member of the phylum A RTHROPODA . 26 Arthropoda

Arthropoda A PHYLUM of animals. The arthropods UTERUS consisting of a series of tanks, tubes and A are segmented animals possessing a hard outer skel- fl uid - exchange systems equipped with monitoring eton ( EXOSKELETON ) – made of the polysaccha- equipment has been constructed at Port Stephens ride chitin – with paired, jointed limbs, e.g. insects, Fisheries Institute in New South Wales, Australia, crabs, woodlice, spiders. They are advanced animals, and successfully used for the rare dwarf ornate wob- many of which have developed impressive swim- begong shark (Orectolobus ornatus ). ming, running or fl ying abilities. In many groups the artifi cial vagina (AV ) A device which uses thermal exoskeleton is toughened with mineral salts, e.g. and mechanical stimulation to induce ejaculation calcium carbonate. The muscular system is highly and collect semen from many species, especially specialised and the legs are hinged, allowing the cattle and horses, but also sheep, goats, rabbits and exoskeleton to move. The exoskeleton provided this even cats. group with the necessary structural support to artiodactyl A member of the order A RTIODACTYLA . evolve systems for walking on land. Artiodactyla An order of mammals. Even -toed un- arthroscope A fi bre - optic ENDOSCOPE used in the gulates: pigs, peccaries, hippopotamus, camels, examination of joints. llamas, okapi, giraffe, chevrotains, deer, musk deer, Article 10 certifi cate A certifi cate which authorises pronghorn, antelopes, cattle, bison, buffalo, goats, the sale and movement of CITES ANNEX A sheep (Fig. V2 ). SPECIES within the EU. See also A RTICLE 60 CER- Arusha Conference An international conference of TIFICATE , CITES conservationists which considered the future of the Article 60 certifi cate A certifi cate which allows a zoo fauna and fl ora of Africa, held in Arusha, Tanzania, to display specimens of CITES A NNEX A SPECIES in 1961. The speech given by the Tanzanian Presi- to the public and trade specimens with other Article dent Mwalimu Julius Nyerere became known as the 60 holders in the E UROPEAN U NION (EU) without Arusha Manifesto and made a commitment to con- the need to apply for individual A RTICLE 10 CER- serve the wildlife of Africa. TIFICATES . Formerly known as an Article 30 certifi - ascites An accumulation of fl uid in the PERITONEAL cate. See also CITES CAVITY . In BROILER chickens It is associated with artifi cial embryo twinning A relatively low - tech type poor VENTILATION (3) , and inadequate oxygen of CLONING . The process is essentially the same as supply (especially at high altitude). Some strains are that which produces identical twins in nature. It is predisposed to the condition. See also SLOWER- accomplished in the laboratory by manually separat- GROWING BROILER BREEDS ing a very early EMBRYO into individual cells. Each ascorbic acid See VITAMIN C cell is then allowed to divide and develop on its asexual reproduction Reproduction which does not own. Each embryo that results is then implanted in involve the fertilisation of a female gamete by a a SURROGATE (2) mother. male gamete, e.g. fi ssion, budding. See also PARTHE- artifi cial insemination ( AI ) The introduction of NOGENESIS . Compare SEXUAL REPRODUCTION semen which has been collected from a male animal Asian Elephant Conservation Act of 1997 (USA ) A into the reproductive tract of a female animal for the US law designed to assist in the conservation of purpose of creating a pregnancy without the need Asian elephants (Elephas maximus ) by supporting for the animals to mate. Techniques are well estab- and providing fi nancial resources for the conserva- lished for many farm animals and have more tion programmes of range states and projects of recently been developed for the purpose of captive persons with demonstrated expertise in the conser- breeding . The method has the vation of Asian elephants, but not advantage of allowing breeders to determine which unless for release into the wild. animals breed and removes the need to transport ASPCA See AMERICAN S OCIETY FOR THE P RE- males to females. It also allows semen to be collected VENTION OF C RUELTY TO A NIMALS (ASPCA) from wild individuals to increase the GENE POOLS aspect ratio (AR) The ratio of the length to the width of captive populations in zoos. See also ARTIFICIAL of a bird ’s wing. VAGINA (AV) , B ALAI DIRECTIVE 1992, CATH- ETER , ELECTRO- EJACULATOR , INDUCED OVU- wing length LATOR , SEX- SORTED SEMEN AR = wing width artifi cial litter See LITTER (1) artifi cial milk See MILK SUBSTITUTE artifi cial selection Selection for particular hereditary A high aspect ratio indicates long wings such as traits during breeding controlled by humans. Impor- those found in gliding and soaring birds, e.g. many tant in increasing egg production in poultry, milk large soaring BIRDS OF PREY such as condors and yield in cattle, speed in racehorses, and in producing SEABIRDS such as albatrosses. A low aspect ratio the characteristic features of the various breeds of indicates short, wide wings such as those seen in domestic pets. Compare NATURAL SELECTION small PASSERINES , GAME BIRDS and small artifi cial uterus A life support system for embryos hawks. Such wings are designed for rapid take - off maintained outside the mother’ s body. An artifi cial and manoeuvrable fl ight. Examples of aspect ratios: association index 27

pheasant = 6.8; gull = 13.8; albatross = 20. See also (b) accredited by an organisation pre- WING LOADING (WL) scribed by the regulations for the purposes of this para- A aspergillosis A severe respiratory disease of birds graph; or caused by the fungus Aspergillus . Infections can (c) trained: occur in the ear canal, eyes, nose, sinus cavities and (i) to assist a person with a disability to alleviate lungs and may even affect the brain. Aspergillosis the effect of the disability; and takes the form of an acute rapidly fatal PNEUMO- (ii) to meet standards of hygiene and behaviour NIA in young chickens and turkeys. that are appropriate for an animal in a public asphyxia Suffocation by any cause that interferes place. ’ with breathing (e.g. choking, drowning, inhalation See also ASSISTANCE DOG , GUIDE DOG , HEARING of toxic gas) causing a loss of consciousness or death DOG , HELPER MONKEY due to insuffi cient oxygen in the body (HYPOXIA ) assistance dog A dog trained to help a human with and increased levels of carbon dioxide in the BLOOD a disability. See also GUIDE DOG , HEARING DOG and TISSUES . assisted reproductive technology (ART ) The collec- Aspinall, John (1926– 2000) A British zoo owner who tive term for a number of methods used to improve made his fortune as a bookmaker and owner of a the reproductive performance of animals including gambling club. He founded Howletts and Port ARTIFICIAL EMBRYO TWINNING , ARTIFICIAL Lympne Wild Animal Parks in Kent, UK. Aspinall INSEMINATION (AI) , CLONING , EMBRYO TRANS- became notorious because of his willingness to asso- FER (ET), IN - VITRO FERTILISATION , NUCLEAR ciate freely with dangerous animals such as gorillas TRANSFER . ART is particularly important in the and tigers in their cages and to allow his family and conservation of some very rare species. See also staff to do so. Over a 20- year period fi ve keepers were killed: three by tigers at Howletts and two by association elephants at Port Lympne Wild Animal Park. In spite 1. In studies of learning, the pairing of a neutral of initially being treated as an outcast by the zoo stimulus with a stimulus which normally elicits a community, Aspinall achieved considerable breed- response such that eventually the NEUTRAL STIM- ing success, notably with gorillas. ULUS (e.g. a sound) may elicit the response in the aspiration See PULMONARY ASPIRATION absence of the original stimulus through the process aspiration pneumonia See INHALATION PNEUMONIA of conditioning. aspirator See SUCTION DEVICE 2. In social behaviour, a relationship between two ass See DONKEY individuals inferred by virtue of their being observed assay The determination of the amount of a particular in close proximity. See also ASSOCIATION INDEX , constituent of a mixture, or of the potency of a drug, MAINTENANCE OF PROXIMITY INDEX (MPI) e.g. the amount of a particular hormone in the 3. A group of people or organisations that have a urine. See also BIOASSAY common interest, e.g. A SSOCIATION OF ZOOS assimilated energy The portion of energy ingested as AND A QUARIUMS (AZA) . See also KEEPER ASSO- food that is available to the organism for growth, CIATION , ZOO ORGANISATIONS reproduction and storage . See also GROSS ASSIMI- Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour LATION EFFICIENCY (GAE) ( ASAB ) An organisation, founded in 1936, to assimilation Within an organism, the process of ab- promote the study of animal behaviour. The major- sorbing small molecules and converting them into ity of its 2000 members are drawn from Britain and the more complex molecules that make up that or- Europe. Publishes the journal A NIMAL BEHAVIOUR ganism. See also GROSS ASSIMILATION EFFICIENCY in collaboration with the A NIMAL B EHAVIOR (GAE) S OCIETY (ABS) . assimilation effi ciency See GROSS ASSIMILATION association index A measure of the extent to which EFFICIENCY (GAE) an individual animal has spent time associating with assist hatch, manual pipping Artifi cially assisting a another individual. The index is calculated for each bird or reptile to hatch from its egg by breaking the DYAD in the group. In a group of three, A, B and egg surface. An important aid to conservation in C, the dyads are A- B, A- C and B- C. In its simplest species which have diffi culty hatching, e.g. kiwis. form, the association index for A - B may be calcu- assistance animal lated as: 1. An animal trained to help a human with a dis- 2J ability perform everyday tasks. I = AB + 2. In Australia, under the Disability Discrimination NNAB Act 1992 s9(2), an assistance animal is defi ned as ‘ a dog or other animal: where J is the number of times A and B were seen

(a) accredited under a law of a State or Territory that together (including in a group with others), N A is provides for the accreditation of animals trained to the total number of times A was seen (alone or as

assist a person with a disability to alleviate the effect of part of a group) and NB is the total number of times the disability; or B was seen (alone or as part of a group). If the value 28 Association of British and Irish Wild Animal Keepers

is zero the two animals have never been recorded asymptomatic carrier An animal that is a carrier of a A together; if it is one, they are always recorded disease, exhibits no SIGNS (1) , but may transmit it together. A number of other formulae are available to another animal. Strictly speaking the term for calculating an association index. See also INDI- symptom does not apply to animals. VIDUAL DISTANCE , MAINTENANCE OF PROX- Ateleopodiformes An order of fi shes: jellynose IMITY INDEX (MPI) fi shes. Association of British and Irish Wild Animal Keepers Atheriniformes An order of fi shes: silversides, rain- ( ABWAK ) A KEEPER ASSOCIATION founded in bowfi shes and their allies. 1974. Its members are interested in the keeping and atlas conservation of wild animals and it seeks to achieve 1. The fi rst cervical vertebra which is located at the the highest possible standards in animal welfare. anterior end of the vertebral column and articulates ABWAK is involved in the training, education and with and supports the skull. Allows nodding move- development of keepers and publishes a journal ment of the head. See also AXIS (2) called Ratel . 2. A bound collection of maps showing, for instance, Association of Lawyers for Animal Welfare A UK the distribution of a particular taxon of animals, e.g. charity which brings together lawyers interested an atlas of the breeding birds of Britain, an atlas of in animal protection law with the purpose of shar- the mammals of North America. Often based on ing experience, securing more effective animal presence or absence in 10 km squares. protection laws and better enforcement of existing 3. A book of photographs of anatomical or histo- laws. logical structures, e.g. an atlas of histology, A Colour Association of Veterinarians for Animal Rights An Atlas of Veterinary Dentistry and Oral Surgery . association which works toward the acquisition of atopic Relating to ATOPY . rights for all non - human animals by educating the atopy A genetic predisposition toward the develop- public and the veterinary profession about non- ment of hypersensitivity to substances (ANTIGENS ) human animal use. in the environment, e.g. ASTHMA , DERMATITIS . Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA ) A non- ATP See ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) profi t organisation, founded in the United States atrioventricular (AV ) node A small area of specialised in 1924, dedicated to the advancement of zoos tissue which is located between the atria and ven- and aquariums in the areas of conservation, educa- tricles of the heart. It receives a wave of excitation tion, science and recreation. It was formerly the which passes from the SINOATRIAL (SA) NODE American Association of Zoos and Aquariums. It and conducts it to the ventricles causing them to established the S PECIES SURVIVAL PLAN ® (SSP) contract after a short delay, which ensures that the PROGRAMS in 1981 to manage and conserve ventricles have been fi lled with blood by the con- selected threatened or endangered species. The AZA tracting atria before they contract themselves. is based in Silver Spring, Maryland. atrium (atria pl .) assurance population See INSURANCE POPULATION 1. A chamber within the HEART . In mammals asthma A chronic infl ammatory disorder which there are two: the right atrium receives deoxygen- results in obstruction of the airways when the ated blood from the body and pumps it to the right bronchi fi ll with mucus and go into spasm as a result ventricle which then pumps it to the lungs; the left of an ALLERGIC REACTION causing wheezing, atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs coughing and breathing diffi culties. An asthma and pumps it to the left ventricle from where it is attack may be caused by irritants such as smoke or pumped around the body. See also AURICLE (1) allergens such as animal hair, feathers, mould, 2. A general anatomical term for a chamber. pollen, dust and some foods and drugs. Asthma can 3. In architecture, a large open space inside a be a problem for people who work with animals, building. food and bedding materials. It also occurs in some 4. Central chamber (spongocoel) of a sponge. animals, e.g. cats, dogs, horses. See also ATOPY atrophy A reduction in the size of a structure, usually Astley, Philip (1742– 1814) An English ex- cavalryman involving the destruction of cells. May be under who established a riding school and later the fi rst genetic or hormonal control. circus in England at Astley’ s Royal Amphitheatre Attenborough, David (1926– ) Sir David Attenbor- which opened in London in 1795 after the original ough is an English naturalist, author and broad- building had burnt down. caster whose name is synonymous with the asymmetry A form which is incapable of being production of high - quality wildlife documentaries. bisected into two identical halves. See also BILAT- His highly acclaimed BBC series include The Life of ERAL SYMMETRY , PENTAMEROUS ( RADIAL ) Mammals , The Life of Birds , Life in the Undergrowth , The SYMMETRY , RADIAL SYMMETRY Blue Planet , Life in the Freezer , Life in Cold Blood , Planet asymptomatic Exhibiting no SIGNS (1) of a disease. Earth and Africa. Attenborough’ s work has undoubt- Strictly speaking the term symptom does not apply edly been extremely important in increasing aware- to animals. ness of conservation issues worldwide. autonomous recording unit 29 attendance See VISITOR ATTENDANCE WEIGHING SYSTEM . See also ANIMAL RECOGNI- attenuated vaccine A vaccine which has been pre- TION TECHNOLOGY A pared from live microbes whose disease - producing autoclave, steriliser A device that sterilises laboratory ability has been weakened but which still retain and veterinary equipment etc. (e.g. test tubes, their immunological properties. AGAR PLATES ) using steam under high pressure. attracting power In visitor studies, a measure of the autoimmune disease An IMMUNE REACTION number and kinds of visitors attracted to an ANIMAL exhibited by an animal against its own molecules. EXHIBIT . Often measured as the number of visitors automata, animals as A view held by D ESCARTES who stop at the exhibit expressed as a percentage of that animals are not conscious beings but simply the total number who pass by. See also HOLDING self- operating machines that respond to simple POWER instructions (like robots). This attitude to animals ATV See QUAD BIKE does not require us to care about ANIMAL auditory Relating to hearing or the organs associated WELFARE or how we treat them. with hearing. automated cat fl ap A small door which allows a par- auditory enrichment A SENSORY ENRICHMENT ticular domestic cat access to a house or other place technique that uses sound, e.g. music, to improve after it has been identifi ed using RADIO FRE- the environment of a captive animal. Music is QUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID) TECHNOL- played to shy, nervous animals, e.g. okapi (Okapia OGY . See also SMART DOOR johnstoni ); some cows on farms are played music automated feeding system A method of controlling to keep them calm thereby increasing milk the amount of feed individual animals receive in a production. livestock rearing system, often by only delivering auditory ossicles See EAR OSSICLES food when a sensor linked to a computer detects auditory signals See ACOUSTIC SIGNALLING the presence of a TRANSPONDER (1) attached to Audubon See N ATIONAL A UDUBON S OCIETY the animal. See also RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTI- Audubon, John James (1785– 1851) An American FICATION (RFID) TECHNOLOGY , WET FEEDING ornithologist, collector, artist and writer. He is com- automatic egg turner A device that turns eggs during memorated in the name of Audubon’ s oriole ( Icterus incubation in an incubator to ensure an even graduacauda ). See also N ATIONAL AUDUBON warming, simulating the action of parent birds. S OCIETY automatic food dispenser A programmable device Aulopiformes An order of fi shes: lizardfi shes and designed to provide food for an animal at predeter- their allies. mined intervals. Many designs are available for auricle feeding a variety of pets, from cats and dogs to 1. An alternative, out- dated, name for an ATRIUM lizards and fi shes. (1) of the heart. automatic water drinker A wall- mounted drinking 2. A PINNA (1) (external ear) or any structure of water bowl fi tted with a valve which causes it to fi ll similar shape. automatically when the water level falls after use. Australasian region See FAUNAL REGIONS Used for horses, bovids and other livestock. See also Australasian Species Management Program (ASMP ) NOSE FILL DRINKER A captive breeding programme operated in Aus- automimicry Protection conferred on the harmless tralasia by the ZOO AND A QUARIUM A SSOCIA- (or non- toxic) members of a species by virtue of TION (ZAA) . Under the ASMP there are 14 T AXON their resemblance to harmful (or toxic) members of A DVISORY G ROUP s (TAGs) and more than 100 the same species. For example, female bees possess programmes. stingers while males of the same species do not; Australian Animal Health Laboratory A national some butterfl y larvae absorb toxins from poisonous facility for animal health in Australia whose purpose plants while other individuals of the same species is to protect the country against the threat of exotic feed on non- poisonous plants. Compare AGGRES- and emerging animal diseases. It provides diagnostic SIVE MIMICRY, BATESIAN MIMICRY, MÜLLE- services and surveillance capabilities. RIAN MIMICRY autecology The ECOLOGY of individual species; the autonomic nervous system (ANS ), involuntary study of the relationship between a single SPECIES nervous system The part of the vertebrate visceral and the ENVIRONMENT . Compare SYNECOLOGY nervous system (PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM auto drafter A device which automatically sorts live- (PNS) ) which supplies the SMOOTH MUSCLES and stock, e.g. sheep. Animals are briefl y held in a RACE glands (the visceral motor system) and involuntarily where they are identifi ed using RADIO FRE- controls organs. Divided into the SYMPATHETIC QUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID) TECHNOL- NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) and PARASYMPA- OGY (e.g. by tags). An automatically operated gate THETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) . system then sorts individuals into different pens autonomous recording unit ( ARU ) A sound record- based on specifi ed criteria, e.g. sex, weight etc. This ing unit designed to record at preset intervals and equipment may be combined with a WALK - OVER durations, and save the sounds to a built- in hard 30 autopsy

drive. Used to detect the presence of species, e.g. movement. The bird may tuck its head under a wing A birds and bats, especially in inaccessible places such while squatting on its breast. Oedema of the head as caves and roof spaces. and neck is common. Vaccines are available but their autopsy See POST - MORTEM (2) use depends upon government policy. See also H5N1 auto - reset pest traps Rat and squirrel traps which VIRUS kill individuals without poison by crushing them avian tuberculosis Avian tuberculosis is usually with a powerful air- ram (operated by compressed caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium avium . In air), remove the dead animals, and then reset captivity, turkeys, pheasants, quail, cranes, and themselves. certain birds of prey are commonly affected. autosome Any CHROMOSOME that is not a SEX A place where birds are kept for display or CHROMOSOME . Autosomes occur in the same breeding. number in males and females. See also CHROMO- aviary hack The process of releasing a bird of prey by SOME NUMBER keeping it in an aviary (hack aviary) at the release autotomy The voluntary self - amputation of a body site prior to release. The aviary should have a good part (usually a limb or TAIL (1) ) often as a result of view of the surrounding area and one side should attack and to escape capture. Occurs in the claws of be solid. The carer approaches the aviary from this some CRUSTACEANS and the tails of some lizards. side and provides food via a hatch or pipe. Suitable autotroph, primary producer An organism capable for old birds, scavengers (e.g. kites and buzzards), of obtaining its energy from inorganic sources owls and kestrels. by PHOTOSYNTHESIS or chemosynthesis. See also aviculture CHEMOAUTOTROPH Compare HETEROTROPH 1. The keeping and breeding of birds in captivity. autotrophic Relating to an AUTOTROPH . 2. Under s.27(1) of the W ILDLIFE AND COUN- aversion TRYSIDE ACT 1981 , ‘ “ aviculture ” means the breeding 1. A strong dislike of something. and rearing of birds in captivity . ’ 2. Dislike of particular foods. Many species have an avifauna Bird FAUNA , e.g. the avifauna of Morocco. INNATE aversion to poisonous organisms. Others avoidance A behavioural defence against harmful cir- are capable of aversion learning (by conditioning) as cumstances which may be innate or learnt as a a result of exposure to the sight, smell or taste of a result of association (avoidance learning), e.g. the food which has caused illness. avoidance of places where predators occur or poi- aversion learning See AVERSION (2) sonous foods. See also AVERSION (2) aversion test A test which examines whether or not avoidance learning See AVOIDANCE an animal is prepared to experience an aversive axial Located along the axis of an organism. stimulus, e.g. an electric shock, in order to achieve axial skeleton That part of the VERTEBRATE skele- a particular goal (e.g. access to food). ton which consists of the CRANIUM , VERTEBRAE , Aves A class of vertebrates containing the birds. There RIBS , STERNUM , hyoid and associated cartilages. are around 10 000 species. They are BIPEDAL , axis HOMEOTHERMIC , winged animals covered in 1. A plane of symmetry in animals: antero- posterior, FEATHERS . They reproduce by laying CLEIDOIC dorso - ventral, medio - lateral. Important in the early EGGS . They possess a cornifi ed bill (beak) with no development of the embryo. teeth. Their forelimbs are developed as wings and 2. Second vertebra, which has been modifi ed to most are capable of fl ight. All birds possess a reversed support the head. Allows rotation of the head. See fi rst toe and fewer than 26 tail VERTEBRAE . also ATLAS (1) avian cholera A contagious disease of birds resulting axon A long thin process which extends away from from infection by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida . the cell body of some nerve cells ( NEURONES ) avian diphtheria, fowl pox A mild- to - severe, slow towards a target structure (e.g. another neurone). developing disease of birds caused by a virus belong- The axon carries nerve impulses which are caused ing to the avipoxvirus group which is a subgroup of by a wave of depolarisation of its membrane. Myeli- poxviruses. nated axons are covered with a MYELIN SHEATH avian infl uenza, bird fl u, fowl plague This is a which increases the rate of conduction of NERVE NOTIFIABLE DISEASE caused by infl uenza A IMPULSES . See also ACTION POTENTIAL virus. It mainly affects domesticated fowl but also AZA See ASSOCIATION OF Z OOS AND AQUARI- occurs in ducks, geese, turkeys and most common UMS (AZA) wild birds. Affected birds may die suddenly. Signs AZK Australasian Zoo Keeping Association (AZK). See include an elevated temperature, drooping wings also KEEPER ASSOCIATION and tail, fast and laboured respiration and lack of Aztec zoo See M ONTEZUMA II