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Emergence and Development of Spiritual-Religious Groups in the People’S Republic of China After 1978

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Emergence and Development of Spiritual-Religious Groups in the People’S Republic of China After 1978 RUHR-UNIVERSITÄT BOCHUM Fakultät für Ostasienwissenschaften Emergence and Development of Spiritual-Religious Groups in the People’s Republic of China after 1978 Dissertation zur Erlangung des akamdemischen Grades eines Dr. phil. vorgelegt von Kristin Kupfer, M.A. aus Essen Referent: Prof. Dr. Xuewu Gu Koreferent: Prof. Dr. Karl-Heinz Pohl Bochum 2009 Preface In the course of the working process, dissertations and their related aspirations change. This might be due to growing insight into the research topic, to suggestions and encouragement from advisers, colleagues, and friends, as well as to pressures related to time and other tasks needing to be fulfilled. Nevertheless, this dissertation aspires to make a pioneering contribution to the study field of spiritual-religious groups in China after 1978. A systematic, theoretically grounded analysis of this multifarious and colorful topic has remained absent. Hence, this dissertation attempts to fill this gap and address the question of how the two dominant spiritual-religious movements after 1978 have emerged and developed, also with regard to other actors in the spiritual-eligious field. It is my hope that this study will prove helpful in inspiring further research in this area. I wouldn’t have been able to complete this project without the dedicated support of many people. First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my adviser, Prof. Dr. Xuewu Gu, for his never-ceasing encouragement and very helpful guidance throughout my work on this dissertation. Also, I would like to thank my second adviser, Prof. Dr. Karl-Heinz Pohl, for his great responsiveness and support. This dissertation was inspired through work on my Master’s thesis, and I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Sebastian Heilmann for having shared his great insight and inspiring enthusiasm with me. I have strongly profited from exchanges with scholars and colleagues. Of particular importance to me are the talks I had with Father Roman Malek, Dr. Kim-Kwong Chan, and Prof. Dr. Lauren Pfister at various stages of this project. I am particularly indebted to various Chinese scholars, especially Prof. Dr. Xi Wuyi, Dr. Zeng Zhaogui, and Mr. He Zuoxiu, all of whom shared information and evaluations with me and deserve my heartfelt thanks. In a similar vein, I am grateful to Nadine Leonhardt and Maximilian Mayer for their insightful comments ii and encouragement. Not only for her editing, but also for her patience and support, I would like to thank Ms. Dawn d’Atri very much. In times of trouble and resignation, I have been encouraged and strengthened by the loving care and support of my friends, especially Heike, Sabine, Susanne, Ralf, Shao Hua, Wang Xinyan and Zhang Qiang, which I will always keep in my heart. Finally, my thanks go to my parents and my brother for their ongoing support which cannot be expressed in words. To them I dedicate my dissertation. Above all, none of this would have been possible without the strength and wisdom I have received from our Lord God to whom my praise and thanks eternally belong. Kristin Kupfer Hattingen and Beijing, January 2008 iii Technical Notes All Latin transcriptions of Chinese terms follow the Hanyu Pinyin rules. Names of organizations are written in one word, like “Zhonghuarenmingongheguo.” Only if they become too long and too complicated to understand are words divided into meaningful subunits. A glossary of key terms with the Chinese characters can be found as an appendix to this study. All Biblical references are based on the New International Version Bible, available online at http://bibleresources.bible.com/passagesearch.php. As Chinese websites are often quickly erased by the authorities, the Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org) proved very helpful in tracing previous versions of websites. In cases where this has been used, a reference was added to the website link address. iv List of Charts and Tables Chart 1: Theoretical Framework for Analysis of Emergence and Development of Spiritual-religious Groups in the PRC after 1978 47 Chart 2: Party-State Organizational Resources Concerning Religious/Protestant Field 72 Chart 3: Party-State Organizational Resources Concerning the Qigong Field 76 Chart 4: Societal Actors’ Organizational Resources Concerning the Field of Religion/Protestantism 100 Chart 5: Societal Actors’ Organizational Resources Concerning the Qigong Field 104 Chart 6: Organizational Structure of the “Anointed King” 142 Chart 7: Yuanji Symbol 152 Chart 8: Patterns of Interactions within the Field of Religion/Protestantism 171 Chart 9: Patterns of Interaction within the Qigong Network of Party-State and Societal Actors 179 Chart 10: Organizational Resources of the Party-State within the Field of Qigong 183 Chart 11: Relationships Between Selected Groups 247 Chart 12: Organizational Structure of the “Teachings of the Supreme God” 248 Chart 13: Organizational Structure of the “Administrative Deacon Station of Mainland China” 250 Chart 14: Organizational Structure of the “Church of the Almighty God” 251 Chart 15: Organizational Structure of FLG 255 Chart 16: Enterprise Structure of Zhonggong 260 v Chart 17: Structure of Zhinengong 261 Chart 18: Important Official Documents Referring to “Heretical Teachings” after July 1999 371 Chart 19: Selected FLG Agencies 429 Table 1: Qigong Research Societies Established During the 1980s 105 Table 2: Qigong Magazines Founded During the 1980s 109 Table 3: “Goddesses” of the “Established King” 142 Table 4: Possibilities of Criminalization of Spiritual/Religious Groups Based on Criminal Code 195 Table 5: Selected Course Fees of Various Qigong Styles from Advertisements in Qigong Magazines 271 Table 6: Salvation Plan of the “Church of the Almighty God” 285 Table 7: Timetable of Training Class of the “Teachings of the Supreme God” in 1997 300 Table 8: Distribution of Mission Work within the “Teachings of the Supreme God” 306 Table 9: Groups Declared Illegal by the Chinese Party-State during the 1990s 322 Table 10: Characteristics of “socially harmful” or “illegal” Qigong groups according to official stipulations 358 vi List of Abbreviations AP = Associated Press BRA = Bureau of Religious Affairs BYD = Beijing Youth Daily CAS = Chinese Academy of Science CASS = Chinese Academy of Social Science CCBC = China Catholic Bishop’s Conference CC = Central Committee CCC = China Christian Council CCP = Chinese Communist Party CCPA = China Catholic Patriotic Association CCTV = China Central Television CI = Collective Identity CONSTAND = Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defence CPPCC = Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference GMD = Guomingdang GMRB = Guangming Ribao (Guangming Daily) GRRB = Gongren Ribao (Workers’ Daily) FLG = Falungong MPS = Ministry of Public Security NRM = New Religious Movement NSM = New Social Movement NAST = National Association for Science and Technology PRC = People’s Republic of China SMO = Social Movement Organization RMRB = Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily) SJZJYJ = Shijiezongjiaoyanjiu (Research on World Religions) TCM = Traditional Chinese Medicine TSPM = Three Self Protestant Patriotic Movement Association UFWD = United Front Department WOIPFG = World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falungong ZGQG = Zhongguo Qigong (Qigong in China), magazine ZGZJ = Zhongguozongjiao (Religion in China), magazine ZGQGKX = Zhongguo Qigong Kexue (China Qigong Science), magazine ZJ = Zhongjiao (Religion), magazine vii Table of Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Spiritual-Religious Groups as a Remunerative Topic of Research 1 1.2 Useful and Used Definitions 4 1.3 Motivation and Focus of Research 9 1.4 Methodical-Theoretical Considerations and Guiding Questions of Research 11 1.5 Review of Resources 13 1.6 Structure of Analysis 18 2 Analytical Framework 20 2.1 Spiritual-Religious Groups as Religious Social Movements 20 2.1.1 Social and/or Religious, Old and/versus New? 21 2.1.2 Classifications 27 2.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Movements 29 2.2.1 Individual Deprivation and Collective Behavior 30 2.2.2 Political Processes 31 2.2.3 Resource Mobilization 36 2.2.4 Framing 39 2.2.5 Collective Identity and New Social Movements 41 2.2.6 State of the Field: Two Schools and Two Tendencies: Tendency for Small-Scale Models and New Quest for Synthesis 43 2.3 Conceptualizing a New Dynamic Model of Multilevel Analysis 46 2.3.1 Relevant Actors of the Field and Their Resources 49 2.3.1.1 Leadership 52 2.3.1.2 Organizational Resources 57 2.3.1.3 Ideational Resources 60 2.3.1.4 Action Resources 61 2.3.2 Patterns of Interaction 64 2.3.3 State of the Field: New Impulses Mark the Beginning of New Phase 67 3 Analysis of Emergence and Development of Spiritual-Religious Movements 69 3.1 Phase One (1978-1989): Formation of the Field 69 3.1.1 Party-State 71 viii 3.1.1.1 Organizational Resources 71 3.1.1.2 Ideational Resources 80 3.1.1.3 Action Resources 91 3.1.2 Societal Actors 99 3.1.2.1 Organizational Resources 100 3.1.2.2 Ideational Resources 110 3.1.2.3 Action Resources 121 3.1.3 Spiritual-Religious Movements 124 3.1.3.1 Leadership Resources 124 3.1.3.1.1 Biographical Resources 125 3.1.3.1.2 Spiritual Resource s 131 3.1.3.2 Organizational Resources 137 3.1.3.2.1 Followers 137 3.1.3.2.2 Structure 140 3.1.3.2.3 Internal Communication 146 3.1.3.2.4 Finance 148 3.1.3.3 Ideational Resources 150 3.1.3.3.1 Naming, Myths, and Symbols 150 3.1.3.3.2 Teachings 152 3.1.3.4 Action Resources 162 3.1.3.4.1 Inward-Orientated Resources: Practice 162 3.1.3.4.2 Outward-Orientated Resources: Recruitment/ Public Relations
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