The Islamic World East Africa

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The Islamic World

Andrew Rippin

East Africa

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 Valerie J. Hoffman Published online on: 07 Aug 2008

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 Gulf, inaseriesofwaves over severalcenturies.Fordecadestherehasbeenmuch chroniclers andArabgeographers suggestthatthefirstsettlerscamefromPersian on theeastcoastwerefounded intheninthandtenthcenturies.Tradition, coastal Islamization oftheSwahili coast,butotherssaythattheearliestSwahilisettlements of PersianandHindiorigin aswell.SomesaythatSwahiliculturepre-dates the language, some30percent of itsvocabularyisArabicinorigin,andtherearewords riage ofArabandPersianmerchantswithlocalwomen; althoughSwahiliisaBantu ture probablydevelopedintownsonthesouthernSomali coastfromtheintermar- Africa, Arabia,Persia,IndiaandSoutheastAsiaforuntold generations.Swahilicul- Abyssinia (c.615).Trade acrosstheIndianOceanfosteredexchangesbetweenEast and whentheMuslimswerepersecutedinMecca,they foundasyluminChristian when Abraha,rulerofthekingdomAxuminpresent-day Ethiopia,attackedMecca; before Islam:Muh There wereinteractionsbetweenArabiaandtheBanadir coastofsouthernSomalia Ethiopia’s historicalidentificationwithChristianity. state ofEthiopia,whereMuslimsconstituteabouthalfthepopulation,despite with byfarthelargestnumberofMuslims(over38million)isentirelylandlocked with Tanganyika toformthenationofTanzania in1964).Nonetheless,thecountry Gulf ofAden,andfortheComoros,Mayotte,Zanzibar(thelastwhichjoined nearly thecaseforDjibouti,asmallcountryatintersectionofRedSeaand dering boththeGulfofAdenandIndianOcean,isentirelyMuslim,this population diminishingasonegoesinland.Somalia,whichhasalongcoastlinebor- the coast,fromEritreatonorthernMozambique,withproportionofMuslim Yemen, particularlyintheHornofAfrica,soMuslimsaremostconcentratedalong countries. IslamenteredEastAfricamainlyviaseafaringmerchantsfromsouthern today approximately92million,orabout26percentoftheentirepopulationthese porting equallydiverselifestyles.TheMuslimpopulationofthisregionnumbers Mayotte, isavastregionencompassingtremendouslydiversetopographyandsup- and Malawi),theislandstatesofComoros,Madagascar, Mauritiusand Mozambique, theDemocraticRepublicofCongo,Rwanda,Burundi,Zambia, Djibouti), theSwahilicoastandGreatLakesregion(Uganda,Kenya,Tanzania, East Africa,whichincludestheHornofAfrica(Ethiopia,Somalia,Eritreaand . ammad issaidtohavebeenbornin570,the“yearofelephant, ” Islamization ofEastAfrica EAST AFRICA Valerie J.Hoffman 39 3 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 or discussion amongscholarsandtheSwahilithemselvesconcerning“African” ruled byafamilyclaiming Arab descent.TheEthiopiancityofHararwastheonly southward, Lamu,Pate,Mombasa andKilwaallbecamevirtualcity-states,usually trade routes,includingMogadishu, MercaandBrava.AsSwahilicivilizationextended tied totrade.AseriesofMuslim sultanatesaroseinthetwelfthcenturyalong the For manycenturies,Islamremained alargelycoastalandurbanphenomenonclosely Aden inwhatisnownorthern Somalia,servedascentersforthediffusionofIslam. tectors ofMuslimsinEthiopia;tradingtownslikeZeila, onthecoastofGulf tenth centuryastheFatimidscametopowerinEgypt andassumedtheroleofpro- education. IslamizationintensifiedintheRedSearegionwhentraderevivedlate Arab ancestryformingareligiousaristocracy,monopolizing religiousfunctionsand Shı¯ tanate. TheEastAfricancoastsometimesservedasa refugeforsectariangroupsof coast endedin805whenMogadishusucceededestablishing anindependentsul- Mogadishu andKilwa,butUmayyadthenAbbasid dominanceoftheBanadir Umayyad caliph put thebeginningsofEastAfrica’sIslamizationveryearly.Arabsourcesstatethat delegation tovariousEastAfricansettlementsthathadacceptedIslam.Thiswould vocabulary. particularly inBrava,wherethedialect,Chimbalazi,hasincorporatedsomeSomali and Merka;Swahilihassurvivedonlyinthesouthernmostpartofcoast, century, graduallyerodedtheSwahililanguageincitiesofWarsheikh, Mogadishu Somalia, Somali-speakingnomads,whoappearedinthatregionaroundthethirteenth not religion.AlthoughSwahilicivilizationoriginatedinthecoastaltownsofsouthern language inKenyaandTanzania, however, Swahiliidentityisnowlinkedtolanguage, a SwahilimeantthatonewasMuslim.With theadoptionofSwahiliasanational study. the spirituallinkagesthatledmanySwahilischolarstogoHadramawtfor importance inSwahilisocietyofsharı¯ f-ian descent–fromtheProphet,and in familynames,thepreponderanceofSha region ofsoutheastYemen; H tige inEastAfrica.ManyfamiliesclaimArabdescent,especiallyfromtheHadramawt and early1960s,Arabsoftenenjoyedpoliticalpowerreligiousculturalpres- (Mukhtar 1995:5).UntilthedevelopmentofAfricannationalismsinlate1950s bana that oneoftheancientquartersMogadishubearsaPersianname;indeed,word Mogadishu namingitsbuilderasKhusrowibnMuh a Persianpresenceisindicatedbyaninscriptioninthirteenth-centurymosque of ShirazinsouthernIranwhosettledEastAfricathetenthcentury.Evidence Swahili speakerscallthemselves“Shirazi,”basedonputativedescentfromprinces Swahili civilizationandofIslaminEastAfrica.Nonetheless,amajorsub-group of IslamontheSwahilicoast.Recentworkstendtoemphasize“Africanness” Arab andPersianroleinthedevelopmentofSwahilicultureaswellspread scholars feelthatracialprejudiceledearlierWestern writerstoover-emphasizethe Tradition hasitthatthesecondcaliph, Until the1960s,SwahiliidentitywasstronglylinkedtoIslamic–be “Asiatic” originofSwahilicultureandthenatureidentity.Many  ¯ a andIba dir, whichisappliedtotheentiresoutherncoastofSomalia,Persianorigin ¯ d . ı¯s, butSunnismwasthedominantformofIslam,withcertain familiesof Abd al-MalikibnMarwa ––– . ad VALERIE J.HOFFMAN . ramı¯ influenceEastAfricaispalpable,recognizable 40 ¯ Umar ibnal-Khat n (r. 685–705)sentanarmytoconquer ¯fi  ı¯ schoolofSunn ı¯ Islam,theextreme . ammad al-Shı¯ra ––– . . t a ¯ b (r. 634–44),senta ¯ zı¯, andbythefact Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 restored itspre-jiha A Portuguesearmydefeatedhimin1543,andby 1555 theEthiopianstatehad wreaking massivedevastation,forcingconversions,anddestroyingcitieschurches. support oftheOttomans,whohadconqueredEgyptin1517andYemen in1525, increased throughIma nineteenth andtwentiethcenturies. comparable spreadamongruralpopulationsincountriessouthofSomaliauntilthe Christianity Africa hadembracedIslam,includingthe was introducedtotheBanadircoastfromYemen. Malindi, andothers.ThiswasalsotheperiodthatfirstS appeared duringthisperiodalongtheSwahilicoast,includingLamu,Gedo,Mombasa, ually expandedthroughtrade,particularlyfromnorthtosouth.Manystonetowns (Pouwels 1978a:211).Fromthefourteenththroughsixteenthcenturies,Islamgrad- groups ofMuslimsontheSwahilicoastsouthSomaliawerescarcebefore1300 where twomosquesbearthirteenth-centurydates.Scholarsconcludethatactual centuries. Theonlyotherpre-fourteenth-centurystonemosqueisinMogadishu, Muslim-style tombsandstonemosquesfirstappearedinthetwelfththirteenth Zanzibar, bearingadateof500hijrı¯ (1107–8).AtKilwa,ontheTanganyikan coast, The earliestknownmosquesouthoftheBanadirisinKizimkazi,oneastcoast the ChristiankingsofAbyssinia,whodidnotallowthemcompletefreedomreligion. century, Muslimsinthenortherntradingcenterslivedunderruleofpagansand development ofMuslimgenealogiesbasedonanArabancestor. Untilthethirteenth 33), whomarriedAfricanwomenandhadMuslimchildren,leadingtothegradual “relatively smallgroupsoftraders,adventurers,andrefugees”(Trimingham 1952: major Islamiccenterthatwasinland.MuslimimmigrantstonortheastAfricawere al-Gha Ah Muslim principalitiesandtheChristiankingdomofAxum.Between15291543, Much ofthehistoryIslaminEthiopiaismarkedbystruggleandwarfarebetween Ocean tradefortheirsurvival. ThedeclineofShirazicivilizationwashastened by to thedeclineofShirazicivilization, asthecoastaltownsdependedonIndian naval powerintheregionthroughout thesixteenthcentury,anddirectlycontributed built fortsandgarrisons,including FortJesusatMombasa.Theywerethestrongest seize smallterritoriesthroughout theIndianOceanandPersianGulfwherethey eastern coastofAfrica,the Portuguesedidnotacquirelargecolonies,butthey did With theexceptionofGoaonwestcoastIndiaandMozambiquesouth- captured anddestroyedbothKilwaMombasa, the twogreatestShirazicities. had used,oreatmeattheyslaughtered. quarters oftheirown.ChristianscouldnoteatwithMuslims, drinkfromcupsthey Yohannes IorderedMuslimstoliveseparatelyfromChristiansinvillagesandtown migrations ofpastoralOromo(Galla)people.Inthelate seventeenthcentury,Emperor . By thethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,manynomadicpeoplesofHorn Vasco daGamavisitedKilwain1498,andwithinafewyearsthePortuguesehad mad ibnIbra ¯ zı¯ ( ‘the Conqueror”),conqueredmostofEthiopiawithmoralandmilitary “isolated inaseaofIslam”(Trimingham 1952:xv).Islamdidnotenjoya Development ofIslamiccivilizationinEastAfrica ¯ hı¯ m ofHarar, whotookthereligioustitleIma ¯ d boundaries.ThenumberofMuslimsintheEthiopian highlands ¯ m Ah . mad’s ––– EAST AFRICA jiha ¯ d, buttheregionwasalsolaidopentomass 41 Afar, SomaliandBeja,leavingAbyssinian ––– . u ¯ f ı¯ order, theQa ¯ m andisnicknamed ¯ diriyya, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 and inthe1830s1840s consulsarrivedfromtheUSA,GreatBritain,France, embraced Islaminthesecond halfofthenineteenthcentury. the easternsideofLakeMalawi inthePortuguesecolonyofMozambique,who they danceontheLakes.”Themostimportantconversions wereamongtheYao of prestige wassuchthat,according toapopularsaying,“WhenonepipesinZanzibar, and theappointmentofOmanigovernorsoftenambivalent loyalties,Zanzibar’s rule intheinteriorwasdefinedmainlybypaymentoftributeAfricanchieftains which Islamgraduallyspreadintotheinterior. AlthoughtheexactextentofOmani and slavesforexport.Towns begantoappearalongtheseinlandtraderoutes,from backing ofIndianmerchants,weretakingcaravansinto theinteriortoobtainivory the earlynineteenthcentury,Muslimtradersfromcoast, usuallywiththe in SomaliatotwelvemilessouthoftheRovumaRiver innorthernMozambique.By the capitalofavastempirethatincludedOmanand SwahilicoastfromMogadishu Omani empirefromOmantoZanzibarin1832.From 1832to1856,Zanzibarwas series ofbattlesovermanyyears.ItwasSayyidSa were definitivelysubduedonlyin1837byOmanirulerSayyidSa eign. Therebellionwasweakenedbyrivalrybetweenthetwofamilies.Mazru and claimedindependence.OnlyZanzibarremainedloyaltothenewOmanisover- Nabha territory inEastAfricawasMozambique. eenth centuryPortuguesepowerdeclined,andbythenineteenththeironly stand-off, costlyanddetrimentaltobothsides”(Risso1986:13),butintheeight- ongoing warbetweenthePortugueseandOmanisfrom1650toabout1730was The PortugueseharassedOmanimerchantsandclosedtheirIndianportstothem. The PortugueserecapturedMombasain1727,buttheOmanistookitback1729. (Mazrui) familyinMombasaandPemba,theNabha towns inthehandsofimportantOmanifamiliesthatlivedthem:Mazru and Kilwaaswell,returnedtoOman,leavingthegovernorshipsofmajor he wasabletocaptureFortJesus.HeproceededexpelthePortuguesefromPemba 1711), laidsiegetoMombasaagainin1696,butitwasnotuntilDecember1698that African groupsmovingintotheirhinterland. population movementsinEastAfrica;Shirazitownswerefrequentlyattackedby Mombasa andseverelypunisheditsinhabitants.Hisson,SayfibnSult capture Mombasaafteralongsiege.Onceheleft,however, thePortugueserecaptured the Portuguesewereabletocrushrevolts,butin1660sSult leading toageneralrevoltagainstthePortugueseinallcoastaltowns.Fortime and burnedPortuguesepositionsinMombasa,Pate,ZanzibarMozambique, Mombasa requestedassistanceagainstthePortuguese,sohesentafleetthatattacked Portuguese garrisonsinIndiaandthePersianGulf.Omaniimmigrantsliving of MuscatfromthePortuguesein1651,and1660s1670sheattacked in theIndianOcean.Ima In theseventeenthcenturyanewdynastyinOmanchallengedPortuguesesupremacy Sayyid Sa In the1740sBu ¯ nı¯s ofMombasa,Lamu,PateandPembarefusedtorecognizethenewdynasty, ı¯d encouragedAmericanand EuropeanmerchantstocomeZanzibar, ¯ Sa ¯ m Sult ––– ı¯dı¯ dynastycametopowerinOman.TheMazru Omani ruleinEastAfrica VALERIE J.HOFFMAN . a ¯ n ibnSayf(r. 1640–80)recapturedtheOmaniportcity 42  ı¯d whotransferredthecapitalof ¯ ––– nı¯ familyinLamuandPate.  ı¯d ibnSult . a ¯ . n wasableto a ¯ n I(r. 1692– . a ¯ financial n aftera ¯  ı¯s and ¯ “a ¯  ı¯s  ı¯ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 quarters ofthemwereH personally andrecruitedfromparticularfamiliesgroups;morethanthree- passing totheruleofonehissons,andEastAfrica another. though notH nineteenth centurywerefromthesouthernSomalitown ofBrava.BothclaimedArab, 20). ItisalsonoteworthythattwoofthemostimportantscholarsZanzibarin probably nomorethan2percentoftheSunnı¯ populationofEastAfrica(Nimtz1980: slaves whowereSha and Hindu,H Sunnı¯ Islam. majority oftheindigenouspopulationSwahilicoastfollowsSha also Sunnı¯ scholarsfromvarioustownsalongtheSwahilicoast.Theoverwhelming scholarship, andforthispurposeheinvitedtoZanzibarnotonlyIba 259). SayyidSa the word“Arab”forOmanis,who,hewrote,didnotknowSwahili(Hoffman2006: served thesultansofZanzibar, thoughclaimingArabancestryforhimself,reserved Swahilized untilthetwentiethcentury.Anineteenth-centuryscholarfromBravawho Omanis, unliketheH of suchunionsweresocialequalstotheoffspringborntheirOmaniwives, indigenous population.AlthoughOmanistookAfricanconcubines,andtheoffspring as not proselytize;accordingtoTrimingham (1964:73),theOmanis regardedIbadism social communitiesthatpracticedendogamyandpreservedtheirnativelanguages. Sunnı¯ s, buttheOmanisdidsolessoften,andIndiansformedseparatereligious Baluchi soldierswhowereH convulsive populationdisplacementsthroughouttheinterior. the paceofslavetradetoincreasedramatically,accompaniedbywarfareand ment ofplantationagricultureontheSwahilicoastinnineteenthcenturycaused cultivation, whichbecameanimportantstapleofZanzibar’seconomy.Thedevelop- Portugal, Italy,Belgium,Germany,andAustria-Hungary.SayyidSa cant. SayyidSa sultan. Fromthatpointon, BritishinterferenceinOmaniaffairswasverysigni fi- Omani–Wahha regarded theIma threw thesultanandreplaced himwithanIma Sa in 1857,weretheEuropeanpowerthatwasclosestand mostinfluentialwiththeBu throughout thenineteenthcentury.TheBritish,whoformally tookIndiaasacolony European encroachmentgraduallywhittledawayBu the localpopulationandbecameintegratedintoSwahilisociety,whowerealsoSha When SayyidSa Swahili societyduringthisperiodconsistedofOmanioverlordswhowereIba The scholarlyclass–the Most OmanisettlersinEastAfricabelongedtotheIba  “a tribalreligion”thatmarkedtheirseparatenessfromandsuperioritytothe ı¯dı¯ sultans.In1868Iba . . ad ad ¯ bı¯–British forcekilledtheIma . . ı¯d’s son,Barghash,opposedthe divisionoftheOmaniempire,was ramı¯ orsharı¯f-ian, descent. ı¯d wasdeterminedtomakeZanzibaranimportantcenterofIslamic ramı¯ scholarsandtraderswhowereSha ¯ m’s governmentasfanaticaland hostiletotheirinterests;amixed ı¯d diedin1856,theBritishbrokeredadivisionofhisempire, Oman ¯fi .  ad ı¯ orfollowedindigenousreligions.H . ramı¯ s, remainedsociallydistinct,anddidnotbecomefully ¯ . d . anafı¯ Sunnı¯s, IndianmerchantswhowereIsma ı¯ religiousscholarsinOmanledarevolutionthatover- ulama . European colonialism ––– ad . ramı¯ background,thoughH ¯ EAST AFRICA

– wasaclose-knitgroupthatkneweachother 43 ¯ m inJanuary1871andreinstated a ¯ m oftheirchoosing.The British ––– ¯ Sa ¯fi ¯ d . .  ı¯ sectofIslam,buttheydid ı¯, andAfricansubjects  ad ı¯dı¯ powerinEastAfrica . ramı¯ s intermarriedwith . ad . ramı¯ s constituted ı¯d fosteredclove ¯ d . ı¯ scholars,but ¯fi ¯   ı¯ ı¯ schoolof lı¯, Bohora ¯ ¯fi d . ı¯,  ¯ ı¯ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 sympathetic toIba Northern Rhodesia)in1964, Mauritiusin1968.Othersdidnotattainindependence Kenya andZanzibarin1963, Malawi(formerlyNyasaland)andZambia and Somaliain1960,Tanganyika in1961,Uganda,RwandaandBurundi1962, the BelgianCongo,laterZaire, andlaterstilltheDemocraticRepublicofCongo) Malagasy Republic(formerly Madagascar),theRepublicofCongo(formerly Most sub-SaharanAfrican nations weregrantedindependenceintheearly1960s: the rapidly duringperiodsofupheavalandcrisis(Nimtz1980: 15). an efforttobringorderachaoticsituation,andthat Islamizationprogressedmost period from1916to1924,wasamilitantresponse the adventofcolonialruleand agrees, arguingthatIslam’smajorexpansioninEastAfrica,particularlyduring the increased security,allowingMuslimtradersgreateraccess totheinterior. Nimtzdis- period becauseEuropeanpowerandthesuppression oftheslavetradebrought jurisdiction ofthesharı¯ administrators hadultimateauthorityoverMuslimmagistratesandrestrictedthe jurisdiction topopulationswithtenuouslinkagesIslam.Nonetheless,secular qa spread ofIslam:theyrecognizedthatIslamrepresentedahighcivilization,appointed and RwandaBurundiwenttoBelgium. War I,GermanylostitsterritoriesinEastAfrica:Tanganyika wenttoGreatBritain, East Africa.In1890theBritishestablishedaprotectorateoverZanzibar. AfterWorld for abriefperiod(1936–41)whenitwasincorporatedintothedomainsofItalian defeating ItalyinthebattleofAdowa1896;Ethiopiaremainedindependent,except Britain andFrance.OnlyEthiopia,underMenelikII,surprisedtheWestern worldby and Mauritius,ItalytookEritrea,SomaliawasdividedbetweenItaly,Great took Uganda,Nyasaland(laterMalawi),RhodesiaZambiaandZimbabwe), took theCongo,FranceMadagascar, theComorosandMayotte,GreatBritain to Italy.Beyondthesultan’sdomains,GermanytookRwandaandBurundi,Belgium of present-dayTanzania) toGermany,KenyaGreatBritain,andsouthernSomalia “scramble forAfrica,”thesultanofZanzibarlostTanganyika (themainlandportion East Africa.Ultimately,however, GreatBritainbetrayedBarghash’strust.Inthe state visittoEnglandin1876,andalsovisitedParisBerlinbeforereturning tury), andpromisedtoupholdBarghash’sinterestsinEastAfrica.madea in 1874(althoughslaveryasaninstitutioncontinuedintotheearlytwentiethcen- economic dependenceontheslavetrade,KirkconvincedBarghashtoputahaltit British Resident,SirJohnKirk,washiscloseallyandconfidant.DespiteZanzibar’s world. AnEnglishman,SirLloydMatthews,commandedBarghash’sarmy,andthe opening oftheSuezCanalbroughtEastAfricaintocloserconnectionwithoutside introduction ofplumbingandelectricity.Duringhisreign,steamship,cable,the Ma to Bombay,whereheunderwentanapparentchangeofheart.Whensucceeded his brother, SayyidMa ¯ Trimingham believedthatIslamizationincreaseddramaticallyduringthecolonial European rulersofEastAfricaadoptedpoliciesthatfavoredMuslimsandthe . d ¯ jid in1870,heconductedanambitiousmodernizationprogram,includingthe ı¯s, judgesofIslamiclaw, overurbanandruralcommunities,extendedtheir ¯ d . ı¯ aspirationsforarighteousImamate,andconspiredtooverthrow ¯ jid, rulerofZanzibarfrom1856to1870.Barghashwasexiled  a tomarriage,divorce,childcustody,andinheritance. Modern regimesinEastAfrica ––– VALERIE J.HOFFMAN 44 ––– Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 and heldastrongsenseof racial superiority.Indiansdidnothavethesamepolitical remained aprivilegedclass. Arabssometimescontinuedtoaddressblacksas“slave, ” dominance; althoughslavery hadendedmorethanahalf-centuryearlier, the Arabs revolution, asitiscalled,was arevoltagainstArabandIndianpoliticaleconomic Christian namedJohnOkello, whostyledhimself“FieldMarshall.”TheZanzibar January 1964thegovernment wasoverthrowninaviolentcoupledbyUgandan a constitutionalmonarchyunderSultanJamshı¯d ibn throughout thecountry.InDecember1963Zanzibar wasgrantedindependenceas the leadershipofJuliusNyerere,whoestablished a systemofsocialistvillages heralded asatriumphofdemocracy. election in2002ofanoppositioncandidatetothepresidency, MwaiKibaki,was no successfulcoupattempts,andthegovernmentisa parliamentary democracy.The politics havebeenauthoritarianandsometimesmarked byviolence,therehavebeen rebellion ofthe1950s.Kenyagainedindependencein December1963.Althoughits sequent displacementoftheindigenouspopulation,leading tothefamousMau of soldierstoAfricanpeacekeepingforcesintheregion. into militaryservice,butitisnonethelessrelativelystableandamajorcontributor subsequent coups,civilwar, andtheabductionofchildrenbymilitiaswhoforcethem He wasfinallyoustedbyaTanzanian forceaidedbyUgandanexiles.Ugandasuffered 300,000 lives,theexpulsionofIndianpopulation,andcollapseeconomy. by IdiAmin,whoserulewasmarkedruthlesskillingsthatclaimedanestimated the constitutionanddeclaredhimselfpresident.Heinturnwasoverthrown1971 Puntland, arevirtuallyautonomous. its powerisextremelylimited.Thenorthernprovinces,knownasSomalilandand 1991. AlthoughtheUnitedNationsrecognizesaTransitional NationalGovernment, especially thecapital,Mogadishu,sinceMohamedSiadBarrewasoverthrownin history hasalsobeenmarkedbymilitarycoups.Violence hasplaguedmuchofSomalia, of Somaliain1960,exceptforOgaden,whichwasmadepartEthiopia.’s seceded fromEthiopia. them intosubmission.In1993,afterathirty-yearwarforindependence,Eritrea thousands ofpeople.Manyciviliansweredeliberatelystarvedbytheregimetoforce the BritishhadgiventoEthiopia,severedrought,anddisplacementofhundreds brought aseriesofmilitarycoups,warwithSomaliaovertheOgadenprovince,which Haile Selassiein1974andestablishedaone-partycommuniststate.Theensuingyears most importantofthesewillbedescribedhere. others aretheresultofgovernmentcorruptionandcommunistrevolutions.Only division ofAfricaintoEuropeanspheresinterestinthenineteenthcentury,while Ethiopia andSomalia.Someoftheseconflictsareadirectlegacythearbitrary coups andwars–bothcivilinterstateliketheOgadenconflictbetween of sporadicwarfare,Djiboutiin1977.MayotteremainsadépartementFrance. until the1970s:ComorosandMozambiquein1975,latteronlyaftertenyears Tanganyika attainedfullindependencefromGreatBritaininDecember1961under Kenya attractedthemostBritishandEuropeansettlementinregion,withcon- Uganda becameanindependentnationin1962.In1966MiltonOboteoverthrew Italian SomalilandandBritishjoinedtoformtheindependentrepublic In Ethiopia,MengistuHaileMariamledamilitarycoupthatdeposedEmperor The post-independencehistoryofthisregionhasbeenmarkedbymanymilitary ––– EAST AFRICA 45 ––– Abd Alla ¯ h A ¯ l Bu ¯ Sa  ı¯dı¯, butin Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 refugees. Africa. Thecivilwarendedin1992,andwasfollowedbyamassiveresettlementof war andattacksbytheneighboringwhite-dominatedregimesofRhodesiaSouth against thePortuguesecolonialregime.Afterindependenceitwasplaguedbycivil Republic ofTanzania, althoughithasitsownpresidentandretainssomeautonomy. what happenedtohim.ZanzibarjoinedwithTanganyika inApril1964toformthe it isspeculatedthatAminorderedhisassassination,thoughnothingknownof from returningtoZanzibar. HewaslastseeninUganda1971withIdiAmin,and the revolutionwasover, Okellowentabroad,andhisco-conspiratorsprohibitedhim Oman’s GrandMuftı¯ , ShaykhAh Sa killed morethan8,000people.ManyArabsfledtoOman,whichremainsunderBu that nobodycouldremainforburial.Okelloallegedlybraggedhepersonally people oflighterskinwereselectedforextermination,ofteninahideousfashion,so although 98percentofZanzibar’spopulationwasMuslim.Homeswereinvaded,and Prophet Muh ization oftheQur recite itonotherimportantoccasions,likeweddings. brated withopen-aircommunalrecitationofthismawlid . Groupsofchildrenalso marked bymiraculousoccurrences.InSwahilitowns the Prophet’sbirthdayiscele- light frompersontountiltheconceptionof Prophet,whosegestationis from thisallotherthingsweremade.Thepoemthen tracesthetransmissionofthis created wasthe“Muh Barzanjı¯ (d.1765).Likeothermawlids,thispoemrelatesthatthe first thingGod included Sunnı¯ andIba In theearlytwentiethcentury theBritishinZanzibarorganizedacommission that new schoolswerebuilt,firstbyEuropeanmissionaries, thenbycolonialgovernments. upon theauthorityof selors andambassadorsfor thesultans.Europeanexpansioninregionencroached mosques, andsome,bothSunn ı¯ andIba school representedinthepopulation.The have beenvandalized.EyewitnessessaythatQur decline forsometime;mostoftheArabicmanuscriptsinZanzibarNationalArchive revolutionaries specificallytargetedZanzibar’sIslamicheritage,whichhadbeenin ians weremurdered.ThousandsofArabsandIndiansfledZanzibaratthistime.The non-blacks; ahorrificmassacreensued,inwhichsometenthousandunarmedcivil- taged ineveryway.TheleadersoftherevolutionencouragedblackAfricanstoattack most ofthelandandbusinesses.TheblackAfricanmajoritywasclearlydisadvan- power orsocialprestige,buttheyhadbecomethewealthiestsegmentofsociety,owning addition todailyattendanceatasecularschool.ThefocusofQur Zanzibar andothertownsmostchildrenattendQur In thecoastaltownsmanyMuslimsassiduouslyobservetheirreligiousobligations. Mozambique attainedindependencein1975aftertenyearsofsporadicwarfare During theOmaniperiod,governmentappointed qa  ı¯dı¯ ruletothisdayandhasalargenumberofSwahili-speakingcitizens;even . ammad Islamic educationandreligiousfunctionaries
a ¯ n, butthechildrenalsomemorizealengthypoemthatpraises ¯ . – thefamousmawlid( d ammadan light,”madefromahandfulofGod’sownand . ı¯  ulama ulama ––– VALERIE J.HOFFMAN ¯ ¯

asthescopeofsharı¯ aswellBritishofficials,toimproveIslamiceducation . mad ibnH ¯ d . 46 ı¯, wereinfluentialatcourt,servingascoun- . maulidi inSwahili)ofJa ulama amad al-Khalı¯ lı¯, isfromZanzibar. Once ¯
alsotaughtintheirhomesor
 a a lawbecamemorerestricted and ¯
a ns wereburnedinthestreets, ¯ n schoolseveralhoursdailyin ––– ¯ . d ı¯s foreachMuslimlegal
a ¯ n schoolismemor- far ibnH . asan al- ¯ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 order forordinaryAfricans;Shaykh during thepublicritualofdhikrplayedanimportantpartinattractionthis disseminated itwidelyinTanganyika aswell.TheQa coast asfarZanzibarinthelaterpartofnineteenthcentury,andhisdisciples ibn Muh in thehighlandsofEthiopiaatbeginningsixteenthcentury.ShaykhUways near Djibouti),andMogadishuinthefifteenthsixteenthcenturies,intoHarar into thecoastaltownsofMasawwa(inpresent-dayEritrea),ZaylanorthernSomalia belonged tothe The lated as“brotherhood,”butreallymeaningwayormethodofmysticalpractice. most importantordersspawned byhisdisciplesaretheSanu Sayyid Ah militancy. Quiteafewofthese werefoundedbydisciplesoftheMoroccan Africa, oftenwithareformist message,missionaryzeal,politicalstrength,andeven many partsofEastAfrica,from UgandatoMozambique. Comorian the thirteenthcentury,Sha less knowledgeable”(Nimtz1980:64).Anothermajorinternationalorder founded in stitute forstrictadherencetotheessentialpillarsofSunn ı¯ Islam,especiallyamongthe about otherS focuses onthedescendantsofProphet(Bang2003: 93–115),andhadreservations Zanzibar RevolutionaryCouncil.DuringtheOmaniperiod, many Qa important disciples, ascended toleadershippositionsintheQa Membership wasopentoanyone,usuallyevenwomen,andAfricansrapidly Muslim society,andmetmaterial,socialspiritualneeds(Nimtz1980:65). 263). TheordersattractednewconvertstoIslam,facilitatedtheirintegrationinto asked tobeallowedconvertonthespot,sohecoulddothisdhikr(Hoffman2006: chieftain whowitnessedhisdhikrduringoneofjourneysonthemainlandin1885 in KenyaandmainlandTanzania. TheIsma Ah which wasformerlywrittenintheArabicscript. and administration.TheyalsointroducedtheuseofLatinlettersforwritingSwahili, into theregionofS Many coastaltownshadalreadybeenMuslimforcenturiesbeforetheintroduction the Sunnı¯ majority,anddidnotaimprimarilytorecruitpeopletheIsma well aspolemicalliteratureattackingtheAh perceived asthreatening,andleddirectlytoSunnı¯ translationsoftextsintoSwahilias therefore theireducationalactivitiesandtranslationoftheQur but Sunnı¯s oftenperceivedtheAh . ¯ In thenineteenthcenturymany newS In thetwentiethcentury,IndianandPakistaniMuslims,especiallyIsma madı¯s, playedamajorroleintheexpansionofeducationEastAfrica,especially diriyya throughZanzibarandthevicinityofDaresSalaam, andlaterservedonthe first S . ammad ofBravaspearheadedthespreadQa . . mad ibnIdrı¯s (1760–1837),whohadacquiredfame inMecca.Amongthe u ¯ shaykh, Muh f . ı¯ orderwastheQa u ¯ f ı¯ orders.“Intheiropinion,brotherhoodmembershipwasoftena sub- Alawiyya, aH Umar al-Qullatayn,playedamajorroleindisseminating the . u ¯ . f ammad Ma ı¯ orders – thet . ad ¯ ¯ ––– . diriyya, introducedfromYemen andtheHadramawt dhiliyya, wasintroducedtotheSwahilicoastbya . ramı¯ S madiyya asnon-MuslimsdisguisedMuslims,and EAST AFRICA S ru . u . ¯ ¯ Abd al- . u f ibnAh ¯ f uruq ( . f ı¯ orders u ¯ ı¯ orderfoundedinthethirteenthcenturythat 47 f ¯ ı¯ orderswerefounded,especially inNorth .  madiyya. ı¯ ¯ lı¯s generallyenjoyedgoodrelationswith diriyya. OneofShaykhUways’smost . t arı¯ qa inthesingular),sometimestrans- Azı¯ z al-Amawı¯ wrotethatanAfrican . mad (1853–1905),andispopularin ––– ¯ diriyya’s useofmusicandecstasy ¯ diriyya furthersouthonthe
¯ a ¯ siyya inLibya,the n intoSwahiliwere ulama ¯
ofZanzibar ¯  ¯ ı¯  lı¯ group, ı¯ shaykh, l ı¯s and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 afflicted. Someofthespiritswhose presenceissoughtinceremoniesliketheza believe thatitisGodwho worksthroughtheseceremoniestohealandhelp the perform healinganddivination thatutilizetechniquesfromtheWestern pointof the worldofspiritsisnotso clear-cut.AllovertheMuslimworld ngoma yapepoareMuslimsaints,sothedistinction betweentheworldofsaintsand in thenineteenthcenturyareTı¯ja against theSudaneseMahdiin1880s.Otherordersthatappearedregion Khatmiyya, ontheotherhand,sidedwithTurko-Egyptian governmentofSudan the dayofjudgment),andwhomBritishnicknamed“MadMullah.”The who claimedtobetheexpectedMahdı¯ (whowouldrestorejusticetotheworldbefore northern Somaliafrom1899to1920,ledbyMuh tion inLibyaandFrenchincursionsChad,whiletheS S Mirghaniyya orKhatmiyyainSudanandEritrea,theDandara elements, suchasuseofQur important inrecentlyIslamizedpartsofEastAfrica(Trimingham 1952:256–7). in regionswhereIslamhasbeenlongestablished,but contactswithspiritsaremore and inotherplacesaswell.Trimingham observesthatsaintvenerationpredominated latrines andcemeteries,accordsperfectlywithagelessbeliefs inspiritsfoundAfrica believed tocausehumanillnessesandinhabitdesolate anddirtyplacesaswell as thenineteenthcentury;standardIslamicbelief injinn,whoarepopularly possession cult,whichoriginatedinEthiopia,wastransmitted intoEgyptasrecently have tendedtoseesuchbeliefsandpracticesaspre-Islamic survivals,buttheza Spirit possessioncultsplayanimportantpartinEast African religiouslife.Scholars Africa thanontheSwahilicoast,butlesssignificantinmainlandTanzania orKenya. of thesaint.Saintvenerationispervasive,anditmoreimportantinHorn an animalinhisorherhonorandsharethefoodwithpoorotherdevotees often makevows,promisingthatifthesaintanswerstheirpetition,theywillsacrifice by virtueofthesaint’s worship, andthatonemaypraytoGodatasaint’stombinorderincurHisfavor ations tosaints’tombsstressthatGodaloneshouldbetheobjectofprayerand their spiritualpowerorblessing.AlthoughMuslimscholarswhoallowsuchvisit- who wishhealingorjustice,justforthesakeofreceivingsometheirbaraka pilgrimage, andtheirhelpissoughtbywomenwhowishtobearchildren,those and areevenmorepowerfulafterdeaththaninlife.Theirtombsbecomeplacesof miracles andarefavoredbyGod–intercedewithonbehalfofordinarybelievers, Throughout theMuslimworlditisbelievedthatsaints–menorwomenwhowork nineteenth century,makingtheorderbasisforanewsocialgroup. the Khalwatiyya.Agriculturalsettlementsassociatedwithat the lateeighteenthcentury,andSamma . a ¯ lih Spirit possessionceremoniesandtraditionalhealingmethods oftenacquireIslamic . iyya inSomalia.TheSanu baraka, inrealitymanypeoplepraydirectlytothesaints.They –––
anic versesorthenamesof God,andtheirpractitioners ¯ VALERIE J.HOFFMAN siyya wereimportantinthefightagainstItalianoccupa- Spirit possessioncults Saint veneration ¯ niyya, foundedinMoroccoandWest Africain 48 ¯ niyya, aneighteenth-centuryoffshootof . ammad ibn . ––– a ¯ lih . iyya foughttheBritishin ¯ wiyya inEgypt,andthe . arı¯qa emergedinthe Abd Alla ulama ¯ ¯
h al-H and ¯ r spirit ima . asan, ¯ r or ¯ ms – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 with fertility,isthoughttoderivefromancientEgyptianfertilityrites. celebration ofthe“newyear”inspring,alsocalledNoru among thenomadicSomalithattheycall“Pharaonicfestival.”Indeed,Egyptian celebration, despitetheuseofname,andappearstobesimilarcelebrations New Year. However, theSwahilicelebrationbears noresemblancetothePersian Iba ation followsoundIslamicmethodsderivedfromtheProphet’sownpractice.The and effectedthroughthemediationofjinn,whereaspropheticmedicinedivin- Swahili seeasevidenceoftheirPersianancestryisthecelebrationNoru retained, withsomeadditionofIslamicelements.Onetraditionalpracticethatmany scholars. Muslim scholarsintheZanzibarNationalArchives,writtenbybothIba knowledge nearly universal.However, the view aremerelymagical;thewearingofprotectiveamuletsbearingQur most influentialstudent, that shouldextendtofemales, andhewrotetextsinSwahiliratherthanArabic. His S to introduceadistinctanti-bid taught manysubsequentreformistscholars(Pouwels 1987: 201–2).Hewasthefirst Africa. HebecameGrandQa S though astudentofthemostfamous altogether. Shaykhal-Amı¯n ibn original motiveandspirit,buttomakeitcompatiblewith themodernage. in ordertoidentifyIslamwithrationalismandreinterpret Islamiclawaccordingtoits the spiritofinnovationandvitalitythatcharacterizedearlyMuslimcommunity, than wantingafundamentalistrevivalofprimitiveIslam, tive relatedtothewordsalaf,piousMuslimsoffirstgeneration.Butrather  first Arabicnewspapertherein1911,withthespecicgoalofsupportingandspreading scholar Muh S East Africancoastinthelate1880sandcriticizedspecificpracticesofQa Scholars ofthe to eradicatewhatwereperceivedashereticalinnovations(bid Nineteenth-century reformmovementsinAfricawereS Kenya in1968,heattacked scholarsassociatedwiththe matters andpaganpractices ” (Farsy1989:122).When Farsy becameChiefQa “created atremendousuproar bypublishingnewspapersandbooksvilifyingforbidden . . . Abduh’s reformismandpan-Islamistideas. u u u ¯ ¯ ¯ Pre-Islamic practicesassociatedwiththeagriculturalcycleandlifeareoften In thetwentiethcentury,IslamicreformersinEastAfrica tendedtoopposeSufism In earlytwentieth-centuryZanzibar, scholarswereawareoftheideasEgyptian  ¯ f f f Abduh’s closestdisciple,Muh d ı¯ practices.Healsostressedtheimportanceofmodern(not onlyIslamic)education ı¯ pointofviewinthe1930sandbecamemajorinspirer ofIslamicreforminEast ı¯ brotherhoodsuchasthe dhikr withdufu(drums)(Loimeier2003:249). . ı¯s ofOmancalldivinationandthewritingIslamictalismans – anditisthesubjectofaverylargeportionmanuscriptswrittenby . ammad Alawiyya orderintroducednewdisciplinesofIslamiclearningonthe  Abduh (d.1905),andtwoIba Abd Alla ¯ d . ––– .  a discourseinEastAfricawhichwasdirectedagainst ulama ammad Rashı¯d Rid ı¯ ofKenya,foundedseveralreformistjournals,and Al Islamic reformism ¯ h S EAST AFRICA ı¯ al-Mazru . Alawı¯ ¯ a ¯ lih
viewmagic(sih . al-Fa 49 shaykhs inZanzibar, adoptedamoreanti- Abduh calledhisreformSalafı¯ , anadjec- ¯ ¯  risı¯ (Farsy,1912–82),saidthatMazrui ı¯ (Mazrui)ofMombasa(1890–1947), ¯ . d a ¯ ––– . (d.1935),wasmorefocused than ı¯ leadersinZanzibarfoundedthe . u . ¯ f r inArabic)assomethingevil ı¯-oriented movementsseeking Alawı¯ andQa Abduh wantedtorecapture ¯ z ( nawru  a) inMuslimpractice. ilm al-sirr ¯ z) andassociated ¯ dirı¯ orders. ¯
anic versesis d . ı¯ andSunn ¯ – secret diriyya ¯ z, the ¯ d . ı¯ of ı¯ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 the 1990sfounditprudenttorefrainfromanti-S Muslims, thoughLoimeierobservedthatsomepoliticallyorientedIslamicgroupsin 254–5). Islamicreformismintroducesnewideologicalcleavagesandtensionsamong society, inwhichallformsofmagicarerejectedassuperstition(Loimeier2003: forms ofspiritualism,favoringaprocessgradualrationalizationreligionand as un-Islamicsuperstition.Loimeierdescribestherecentreformistsrejectingall to reform.TheyalsoattackSufism,saintveneration,andIslamicdivinatorypractices emphases thatareassociatedwithfundamentalistratherthanmodernistapproaches have tendedtoemphasizetheimportanceofh engineering, andeducation,takingthetitleusta and AlQaedaarebothanti-Shı¯ Islamic trendsinEastAfrica,particularlyKenya.WhiletheSaudigovernment interpersonal rivalries(Loimeier2003:259;Oded2000:171). effectiveness ofIslamicpoliticalmovementshasbeenhamperedbyriftscaused and politicaldeprivationincountrieswheretheyareaminority.Nonetheless,the formation ofMuslimpoliticalpartiesismotivatedmainlybyMuslims’economic leading topublicdisturbancesandviolentclasheswithgovernmenttroops.The Zanzibar, Muslimpoliticalpartiesinoppositiontothegovernmenthaveemerged, unity inthefaceofauthoritariansecularregimes(Loimeier2003:255).InKenyaand centuries, whooftentookacautiousapproachtoh shaykh. Unlikethemodernistreformersoflatenineteenthandearlytwentieth have tendednottobetrainedas character. LikeIslamistgroupselsewhere,theleadersofrecentreformmovements radical Salafismnewstrength,asrecentIslamicreformismhastakenonapolitical themselves. characterized byoutsidersasWahha term Salafı¯ hasbeenco-optedbyMuslimsofafarsternerpersuasion,whowouldbe Brotherhood, foundedinEgyptbyhisfriend,H political strengthledhimtoadmiretheWahha his masterontheneedtodefendIslamagainstWestern criticisms.HiszealforIslamic on theKenyanborder. 2007 theUSAbombedICU positions.ThepoweroftheICUislimitedtoafewtowns held outinnorthernSomalia, invitedEthiopiantroopstointervene,andinJanuary style governmentinSomalia. TheUN-recognizedTransitional Government,which ing cinemas,soccer, and the chewingofnaroticleafqa and muchofSomaliawiththe intentionofenforcingthesharı¯ May toJune2006,agroupcalledtheIslamicCourtsUnion (ICU)capturedMogadishu Muslims wereimplicated.Somaliainparticularwasseen asahavenforAlQaeda.In August 1998sentshockwavesthroughouttheregion, especiallywhensomelocal Mazrui, ShaykhAhmadMsallam,andKadaraHarith Swaleh, May2007). 118), andthistrendcontinues(personalcommunication withShaykhHammadKassim been anumberofconversionsSunnı¯ MuslimstoShi Iran forpromotingapoliticallyrelevantandmodern formofIslamism.Therehave own brandofIslamicactivisminEastAfrica.Manyyoung KenyanMuslimsadmire The rivalIslamistgovernmentsofSaudiArabiaandIranhavetriedtoinfluence In recentdecades,thepoliticalaspirationsofMuslimsinEastAfricahavegiven Al Qaeda’sbombingoftheAmericanembassiesinNairobiand DarEsSalaamin ––– VALERIE J.HOFFMAN  ı¯, IranpromotesSunnı¯–Shı¯ ¯ ulama bı¯ orfundamentalist,butwhorejectsuchlabelsfor ¯ 50
, butinsecularprofessionslikemedicine, . adı¯th andoflearningArabicphilology– . . ¯ asan al-Banna ¯ u dh (teacherorprofessor)ratherthan bı¯s ofSaudiArabiaandtheMuslim ¯ f . ı¯ polemicsintheinterestofMuslim adı¯th , inrecentdecadesreformers ¯ t, leadingtofearsofaTaliban- –––  ism inKenya(Oded2000: ¯  ı¯ rapprochementandits , in1928.Graduallythe  a. Theybeganprohibit- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 thing ofthepast. upheaval. Theenormousprestigeonceheldbythe impact ofseculareducation,Islamicreformism,Africannationalism,andpolitical twentieth centurythereligiouslandscapeofregionhaschangedthrough and beliefspertainingtospiritspersisttakeonanIslamicguise.Sincethemid- not untilthenineteenthcenturythatotherordersproliferated.Pre-Islamiccustoms yya, didnotentertheregionuntilfifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,itwas impact onthebroaderSwahiliandAfricanpopulation.ThefirstSu the nineteenthcentury,andinZanzibaruntil1964,theirsect,Ibadism,madeno parts oftheSwahilicoastandsouthernSomaliafromseventeenthcenturythrough attached tothosewhoclaimeddescentfromtheProphet.AlthoughOmanisruled Jamalilyl, A.B.(1999)“PenetrationofIslaminEasternAfrica, ” Hollingsworth, L.W. (1929)AShortHistoryoftheEastCoastAfrica , London:Macmillan. Hoffman, V. J.(2006)“InHis(Arab)Majesty’sService:TheCareerofaSomaliScholarand region, wheretheSha and theHadramawthaveplayedamajorroleindevelopmentofIslam nonetheless proceededoverthecourseofmanycenturiesandisstillongoing.Yemen Islam camefirsttotheHornofAfricaveryearlyinIslamichistory,butIslamization Farsy, A.S.(1989)TheSha Esmail, A.(1975)“Towards aHistoryofIslaminEastAfrica,” Bang, A.K.(2003)SufisandScholarsoftheSea:FamilyNetworksinEastAfrica,1860–1925, Alpers, E.A.(2000)“EastCentralAfrica,”inN.Levtzion,R.L.Pouwels,eds.,TheHistoryof Martin, B.G.(1975)“ArabMigrationstoEastAfrica inMedievalTimes,” Loimeier, R. andSeesemann,R.,eds.(2006)TheGlobalWorlds oftheSwahili:Interfaces Loimeier, R.(2003)“PatternsandPeculiaritiesofIslamicReforminAfrica, ” Lewis, I.M.(1998)SaintsandSomalis:PopularIslaminaClan-BasedSociety , Lawrenceville, Kimyoro, J.L.(2000)“EastAfricanCoastalHistoricalTowns: AsiaticorAfrican? ” http:// Kassim, M.(1995)“IslamandSwahiliCultureontheBanadirCoast, ” Kapteijns, L.(2000)“EthiopiaandtheHornofAfrica,”inN.Levtzion,R.Pouwels,eds., The Africa, Berlin:LITVerlag, 251–72. Worlds oftheSwahili:InterfacesIslam,IdentityandSpacein19th20th-CenturyEast Diplomat inNineteenth-CenturyZanzibar,” inR.Loimeier, R.Seesemann,eds.,TheGlobal University ofWisconsin African StudiesProgram. 147–58. London, NewYork: RoutledgeCurzon. Islam inAfrica,Athens:OhioUniversityPress,303–25. of AfricanHistoricalStudies,7:367 –90. of Islam,IdentityandSpacein 19thand20th-CenturyEastAfrica,Berlin:LITVerlag, Religion inAfrica,33:237–62. NJ andAsmara,Eritrea:TheRedSeaPress. www.urban-research.net/consultants.jkimaryo.2000paper1.html. Studies, 2:21–37. History ofIslaminAfrica,Athens:OhioUniversityPress,227 –50. www.swahilionline.com/features/articles/islam/binsumet1.htm. ¯fi ¯fi  ı¯ schoolpredominatesandgreatimportancewastraditionally  ı¯ References andfurtherreading  ulama ¯ –––
ofEastAfrica,ca.1830–1970,trans.R.L.Pouwels,Madison: EAST AFRICA Conclusion 51 ––– ulama ¯
andtheashra Kenya HistoricalReview,3: SwahiliOnline, http:// ¯ fı¯ order, theQa International Journal Northeast African ¯ f islargelya Journal of ¯ diri- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:50 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203019139, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203019139.ch3 —— Pouwels, R.L.(1978a)“TheMedievalFoundationsofEastAfricanIslam,1,” Oded, A.(2000)IslamandPoliticsinKenya,Boulder, COandLondon:Lynne Rienner. Nimtz, A.H.(1980)IslamandPoliticsinEastAfrica:TheS Mukhtar, M.H.(1995)“IslaminSomaliHistory:FactandFiction,”A.J.Ahmed,ed.,The —— —— Trimingham, J.S.(1952)IslaminEthiopia,London:OxfordUniversityPress. Sperling, D.C.(2000)“TheCoastalHinterlandandInteriorofEastAfrica,”inN.Levtzion, Risso, P. (1986)OmanandMuscat:AnEarlyModernHistory,LondonSydney:Croom —— —— —— national JournalofAfricanHistoricalStudies,11:201–26. University ofMinnesotaPress. Invention ofSomalia,Lawrenceville,NJ:TheRedSeaPress,1–27. versity Press. R. L.Pouwels,eds.,TheHistoryofIslaminAfrica,Athens:OhioUniversityPress,273–302. Helm. Perspective,” The HistoryofIslaminAfrica,Athens:OhioUniversityPress,251–71. Coast, 800–1900,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. of AfricanHistoricalStudies,11:393–409. (1978b) (1976) (1964) (2002) (2000) (1987) “The EastAfricanCoast,c.780to1900C.E.,”inN.Levtzion,R.L.Pouwels,eds., Islam inEastAfrica,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. Muslim BrotherhoodsinNineteenth-CenturyAfrica,Cambridge:CambridgeUni- “Eastern AfricaandtheIndianOceanto1800:ReviewingRelationsinHistorical Horn andCrescent:CulturalChangeTraditional IslamontheEastAfrican “The MedievalFoundationsofEastAfricanIslam,2,” The InternationalJournalofAfricanHistoricalStudies,35:385–425. ––– VALERIE J.HOFFMAN 52 . u ¯ f ı¯ OrderinTanzania, Minneapolis: ––– The InternationalJournal The Inter-