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The Empire of Oman in the Formation of Oman's National History

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The Empire of Oman in the Formation of Oman's National History Research Note／研究ノート The Empire of Oman in the Formation of Oman’s National History An Analysis of School Social Studies Textbooks and Teachers’ Guidelines OKAWA Mayuko Ⅰ . Preface: Nationalism and Historiography Ⅱ . History Education in Oman Ⅲ . How is the Omani Rule of East Africa Taught in School Textbooks? Ⅳ . The Omani Empire as Glorious Ⅴ . Conclusion: The Reproduction of the Image of Omani Empire 国史形成におけるオマーン帝国 オマーンの国定社会科教科書および指導教本の分析から 大川 真由子 本稿では、オマーンの東アフリカ統治（18世紀初頭～1890年）をめぐる歴史を現オマー ン政府がいかに認識し、国史を形成しているのかを、国定社会科教科書および指導教 本における記述の分析から明らかにする。 95 The Empire of Oman in the Formation of Oman’s National History（Okawa） 31-1_中東学会.indb 95 2015/07/17 15:07:13 東アフリカ統治をめぐる歴史叙述に関して社会科教科書に共通してみられる特徴は、 第一にオマーンの領土を最大化したブーサイード朝君主サイードが英雄として描かれ、 その領土が「オマーン帝国」として説明されている点。第二に、アフリカにイスラーム とアラブ文明をもたらし繁栄させたことをアピールすることで、間接的に東アフリカ 統治を正当化している点。第三に現地民との共存共栄が強調されている点。第四にオマー ン人が東アフリカで関与していた奴隷制に関する記述が排除されている点。最後に植 民地主義の不在、つまり東アフリカ統治に対して「植民地（主義）」「征服」「支配」といっ た語彙が慎重に避けられている点が挙げられる。これらの特徴は、教科書に限ったこ とではなく、東アフリカ出身のオマーン人によるザンジバルの歴史書にも共通してみ られる特徴で、典型的な植民地主義正当化論に近い。だが第五点目については、オマー ンに続いてザンジバルを統治したイギリスの植民地主義批判に満ちあふれ、それと対 置する形で平等主義的なオマーン統治が語られている個人による歴史書に対し、教科 書ではイギリスによる統治を植民地主義として捉える姿勢がみられない。こうした公 的な出版物独自の記述特徴は、現政権とイギリスの関係性に由来していると考えられる。 社会科教科書におけるオマーン帝国は、複数の民族や宗教・宗派が平和的に共存し、 インド洋交易の拠点として世界各地とつながり、すでにグローバルな空間が実現され ていた、まさしく理想として語られている。政府は 1970 年に誕生した「オマーン人」 が共通して誇れるようなオマーン帝国という過去の栄光を設定し、それをナショナル・ アイデンティティの源泉のひとつとして教科書を通じて普及させているが、現在でも 新聞やテレビなどのメディアおよびアカデミックな場を通じてその概念を積極的に再 生産しているのである。 I. Preface: Nationalism and Historiography It is a little known fact that the small country of Oman(1) in the Arabian Peninsula was once a maritime state that included the East African coast, as well as present- day Iran and Pakistan in its territory. This is demonstrated now by the fact that we see many mixed-race Arab and African people, and elements of Swahili culture elsewhere in contemporary Oman. This article examines how the present Omani government interprets the historical Omani rule of East Africa (from the early eighteenth century to 1890) and constructs its national history, through analysis of how history is presented in school social studies textbooks and teachers’ guidelines (dalīl al-mu‘allim). I chose to analyze social studies textbooks because as in other Arab Gulf countries, there are AJAMES no.31-1 2015 96 31-1_中東学会.indb 96 2015/07/17 15:07:13 no independent history textbooks in Oman, and history is taught within social studies (al-dirāsāt al-ijtimā‘īya). The importance of the social studies education in nation building has already been pointed out. In particular, the government has positively utilized government- designated textbooks in public education as a means of nation-building. This guarantees for the government a certain level of effect in cohering the nation by presenting a common enemy (=Others). However, we learn from our relationships with neighboring countries that excess nationalism brings about conflicts between nations, and the historiography of “invasion/ rule” becomes a diplomatic issue. Like Japan in the Meiji period, the formation of nationalism by the introduction of a public education system was a phenomenon that could be seen in many developing countries after World War II. For example, Keiko Sakurai, who has analyzed the system and contents of Iranian school textbooks, describes textbooks as “a national media” because they enable systematic and sustainable information propagation, its obligatory use and moral compulsion, while quoting a Japanese educationist Tokuo Kataoka. She illustrates their function in developing loyalty to the nation, awareness as citizens, and the consciousness of mutual solidarity [Sakurai 1999: 9]. The government-designated social studies textbook in Oman has a similar characteristic. As every school in Oman, regardless of whether it is a public or private institution, is required to use the government-designated social studies textbook, it is expected that it should have an impact on the formation of national identity for Omanis since 1970. There have been some previous studies about the development of the educational system in Oman [e.g. Al-Farsi 2005; Issan 2005; Ministry of Education 2007],(2) but there has been no formal analysis of it except by a Japanese historian, Masaki Matsuo. Matsuo, in his recent book on the national history of Oman, points out several things to keep in mind when analyzing the school textbooks, while he recognizes their influence. He underlines the need to consider history education and its acceptance separately, and then introduces a hypothesis called “ceremonious consumption” [Fujimura 1987], which is advocated by educationist Masashi Fujimura. Today’s textbook is only one of the various learning materials that fill the education market, and each school and teacher can exercise some degree of discretion about class content. Therefore, Matsuo insists that the effect of the textbook is not as practical as has been asserted in previous studies of textbook analysis, but is only “ceremonious” or 97 The Empire of Oman in the Formation of Oman’s National History（Okawa） 31-1_中東学会.indb 97 2015/07/17 15:07:13 superficial, and eventually that it is impossible, simply from analyzing the textbook, to know whether the textbook is actually “consumed” and functional [Matsuo 2013: 185- 186]. I agree with his indication that school textbooks should be understood as “media which embodies the typical national history that the government is trying to infiltrate into the citizen, not as media for affirming the content of national history that the citizen holds” [Matsuo 2013: 186]. However, we should be careful about applying Fujimura’s claim, referring to the educational circumstances in Japan, directly to the Omani case.(3) This is because the current educational situation in Oman, and textbook usage in particular, is very different from that in Japan, even though a quarter of century has passed since Fujimura’s study [1987].(4) For example, first, in Oman only the government-designated textbook is allowed to be used in both public and private schools for social studies. Second, unlike in Japan, in Oman it is not common for students to go to so-called modern cram schools (except the traditional Qur’anic schools). This means that there are few opportunities to learn national history outside schools.(5) Third, there are few learning materials such as reference books available apart from school textbooks, and it is not common for students to purchase home-learning materials. Fourth, the class content seldom deviates greatly from teachers’ guidelines, because inspectors from the Ministry of Education at random times audit classes in Oman. According to an inspector in her 30s working in the capital, Muscat, inspectors are in charge of the particular subject that they used to teach. There are 16 points to check, such as how teaching is conducted and the degree of students’ understanding. They more often check on young teachers, and the inspection sometimes comes without any advance notice. Inspectors observe the class at the back of the room and interview the teacher after the class. Censorship is very strict in this sense. An ex-inspector with 12 years’ experiences said that the class contents was strictly based on the guidelines for the teachers, and teachers were afraid of being punished for deviating from them. The above-mentioned points, therefore, show us that school textbooks have a relatively high value in Oman. Considering these respects, I will explore what ideology is observed in the national (or imperial) history that the government-designated textbooks and teachers’ guidelines present and how this reflects the value of the present government. The significance of this article lies in the analysis of Omani history education not only in the historiography of school textbooks but also in the teachers’ guidelines which have been rarely analyzed before. Based on his questionnaire survey to 166 junior high school AJAMES no.31-1 2015 98 31-1_中東学会.indb 98 2015/07/17 15:07:13 teachers in Japan, Mitsutoshi Yanami, a Japanese educationist, noted that 57.2% of teachers used teachers’ guidelines provided by the textbook company when they devised teaching plans [Yanami 1987: 261-262]. In the case of Japan, because the selection of the textbooks is entrusted to each municipality and school, a specific textbook may not necessarily reflect the national ideology, although Japan adopts a system of government authorization of textbooks. In contrast, as mentioned above, in Oman there is only one kind of government-designated textbook. It is expected to reflect national ideology directly. In particular, teachers’ guidelines, which contain the blackboard demonstration, the contents of questions for students, and the instruction method, deserve close inspection because they reflect the political consensus more strongly. Considering that teachers refer to these rigid guidelines to a large extent and teach classes based on them, it is clear that textbook analysis alone is not enough if we wish to understand the national ideology regarding history education in Oman. Thus, I would like to examine both the content of these textbooks and the way that they are taught, and to demonstrate the characteristics of these textbooks.(6) Finally, I will also clarify how the concept of “Omani Empire,” which the Omani government hails through history education, is reproduced in media other than textbooks in contemporary Oman.(7) II. History Education in Oman After briefly explaining the education system and school textbooks in Oman,
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